Introduction To Electromagnetism - Wikipedia

Introduction to
electromagnetis
m
Electromagnetism is one of the

fundamental forces of nature.
Early on, electricity and
magnetism were studied
separately and regarded as
separate phenomena. Hans
Christian Ørsted discovered that
:
the two were related – electric
currents give rise to magnetism.
Michael Faraday discovered the
converse, that magnetism could
induce electric currents, and
James Clerk Maxwell put the
whole thing together in a unified
theory of electromagnetism.
Maxwell's equations further
indicated that electromagnetic
waves existed, and the
experiments of Heinrich Hertz
confirmed this, making radio
possible. Maxwell also postulated,
correctly, that light was a form of
:
electromagnetic wave, thus
making all of optics a branch of
electromagnetism. Radio waves
differ from light only in that the
wavelength of the former is much
longer than the latter. Albert
Einstein showed that the
magnetic field arises through the
relativistic motion of the electric
field and thus magnetism is
merely a side effect of electricity.
The modern theoretical treatment
of electromagnetism is as a
quantum field in quantum
electrodynamics.
:
In many situations of interest to
electrical engineering, it is not
necessary to apply quantum
theory to get correct results.
Classical physics is still an
accurate approximation in most
situations involving macroscopic
objects. With few exceptions,
quantum theory is only necessary
at the atomic scale and a simpler
classical treatment can be
applied. Further simplifications of
treatment are possible in limited
situations. Electrostatics deals
only with stationary electric
:
charges so magnetic fields do not
arise and are not considered.
Permanent magnets can be
described without reference to
electricity or electromagnetism.
Circuit theory deals with electrical
networks where the fields are
largely confined around current
carrying conductors. In such
circuits, even Maxwell's equations
can be dispensed with and
simpler formulations used. On the
other hand, a quantum treatment
of electromagnetism is important
in chemistry. Chemical reactions
:
and chemical bonding are the
result of quantum mechanical
interactions of electrons around
atoms. Quantum considerations
are also necessary to explain the
behaviour of many electronic
devices, for instance the tunnel
diode.
Electric charge
Coulomb's law tells us that like charges repel and

opposite charges attract.
:
Electromagnetism is one of the
fundamental forces of nature
alongside gravity, the strong force
and the weak force. Whereas
gravity acts on all things that have
mass, electromagnetism acts on
all things that have electric
charge. Furthermore, as there is
the conservation of mass
according to which mass cannot
be created or destroyed, there is
also the conservation of charge
which means that the charge in a
closed system (where no charges
are leaving or entering) must
:
remain constant.[1] The
fundamental law that describes
the gravitational force on a
massive object in classical
physics is Newton's law of gravity.
Analogously, Coulomb's law is the
fundamental law that describes
the force that charged objects
exert on one another. It is given by
the formula
where F is the force, ke is the

Coulomb constant, q1 and q2 are
:
the magnitudes of the two
charges, and r2 is the square of
the distance between them. It
describes the fact that like
charges repel one another
whereas opposite charges attract
one another and that the stronger
the charges of the particles, the
stronger the force they exert on
one another. The law is also an
inverse square law which means
that as the distance between two
particles is doubled, the force on
them is reduced by a factor of
four.[2]
:
Electric and magnetic
fields
Electric field lines point from positive

charges to negative charges.
The force exerted on a positive charge by an electric field (left) and a magnetic field (right)
combine to give the Lorentz force.
In physics, fields are entities that

interact with matter and can be
:
described mathematically by
assigning a value to each point in
space and time. Vector fields are
fields which are assigned both a
numerical value and a direction at
each point in space and time.
Electric charges produce a vector
field called the electric field. The
numerical value of the electric
field, also called the electric field
strength, determines the strength
of the electric force that a
charged particle will feel in the
field and the direction of the field
determines which direction the
:
force will be in. By convention, the
direction of the electric field is the
same as the direction of the force
on positive charges and opposite
to the direction of the force on
negative charges.[3][4] Because
positive charges are repelled by
other positive charges and are
attracted to negative charges, this
means the electric fields point
away from positive charges and
towards negative charges. These
properties of the electric field are
encapsulated in the equation for
the electric force on a charge
:
written in terms of the electric
field:
where F is the force on a charge q

in an electric field E.[4][5]
As well as producing an electric

field, charged particles will
produce a magnetic field when
they are in a state of motion that
will be felt by other charges that
are in motion (as well as
permanent magnets).[6] The
direction of the force on a moving
:
charge from a magnetic field is
perpendicular to both the
direction of motion and the
direction of the magnetic field
lines and can be found using the
right-hand rule. The strength of
the force is given by the equation
where F is the force on a charge q

with speed v in a magnetic field B
which is pointing in a direction of
angle θ from the direction of
motion of the charge.[7]
:
If there is no charge enclosed by a Because the flow of magnetic field out of
closed surface, then the amount of a closed surface must cancel with the
electric field flowing into it must flow into it, magnets must have both
exactly cancel with the electric field North and South poles which cannot be
flowing out of it. separated into monopoles.
The combination of the electric

and magnetic forces on a charged
particle is called the Lorentz
force.[7][8] Classical
electromagnetism is fully
described by the Lorentz force
alongside a set of equations
called Maxwell's equations. The
:
first of these equations is known
as Gauss's law. It describes the
electric field produced by charged
particles and by charge
distributions. According to
Gauss's law, the flux (or flow) of
electric field through any closed
surface is proportional to the
amount of charge that is enclosed
by that surface.[9][10] This means
that the greater the charge, the
greater the electric field that is
produced. It also has other
important implications. For
example, this law means that if
:
there is no charge enclosed by
the surface, then either there is no
electric field at all or, if there is a
charge near to but outside of the
closed surface, the flow of electric
field into the surface must exactly
cancel with the flow out of the
surface.[11] The second of
Maxwell's equations is known as
Gauss's law for magnetism and,
similarly to the first Gauss's law, it
describes flux, but instead of
electric flux, it describes magnetic
flux. According to Gauss's law for
magnetism, the flow of magnetic
:
field through a closed surface is
always zero. This means that if
there is a magnetic field, the flow
into the closed surface will always
cancel out with the flow out of the
closed surface. This law has also
been called "no magnetic
monopoles" because it means
that any magnetic flux flowing out
of a closed surface must flow
back into it, meaning that positive
and negative magnetic poles
must come together as a
magnetic dipole and can never be
separated into magnetic
:
monopoles.[12] This is in contrast
to electric charges which can
exist as separate positive and
negative charges.
The right-hand grip rule for a straight wire (left) and for a coiled wire (right). Electrical current
passed through a wire coiled around an iron core can produce an electromagnet.
The third of Maxwell's equations

is called the Ampère–Maxwell law.
It states that a magnetic field can
be generated by an electric
:
current.[13] The direction of the
magnetic field is given by
Ampère's right-hand grip rule. If
the wire is straight, then the
magnetic field is curled around it
like the gripped fingers in the
right-hand rule. If the wire is
wrapped into coils, then the
magnetic field inside the coils
points in a straight line like the
outstretched thumb in the right-
hand grip rule.[14] When electric
currents are used to produce a
magnet in this way, it is called an
electromagnet. Electromagnets
:
often use a wire curled up into
solenoid around an iron core
which strengthens the magnetic
field produced because the iron
core becomes magnetised.[15][16]
Maxwell's extension to the law
states that a time-varying electric
field can also generate a magnetic
field.[12] Similarly, Faraday's law of
induction states that a magnetic
field can produce an electric
current. For example, a magnet
pushed in and out of a coil of
wires can produce an electric
current in the coils which is
:
proportional to the strength of the
magnet as well as the number of
coils and the speed at which the
magnet is inserted and extracted
from the coils. This principle is
essential for transformers which
are used to transform currents
from high voltage to low voltage,
and vice versa. They are needed
to convert high voltage mains
electricity into low voltage
electricity which can be safely
used in homes. Maxwell's
formulation of the law is given in
the Maxwell–Faraday equation—
:
the fourth and final of Maxwell's
equations—which states that a
time-varying magnetic field
produces an electric field.
The electromagnetic spectrum
Together, Maxwell's equations

provide a single uniform theory of
the electric and magnetic fields
and Maxwell's work in creating
this theory has been called "the
:
second great unification in
physics" after the first great
unification of Newton's law of
universal gravitation.[17] The
solution to Maxwell's equations in
free space (where there are no
charges or currents) produces
wave equations corresponding to
electromagnetic waves (with both
electric and magnetic
components) travelling at the
speed of light.[18] The observation
that these wave solutions had a
wave speed exactly equal to the
speed of light led Maxwell to
:
hypothesise that light is a form of
electromagnetic radiation and to
posit that other electromagnetic
radiation could exist with different
wavelengths.[19] The existence of
electromagnetic radiation was
proved by Heinrich Hertz in a
series of experiments ranging
from 1886 to 1889 in which he
discovered the existence of radio
waves. The full electromagnetic
spectrum (in order of increasing
frequency) consists of radio
waves, microwaves, infrared
radiation, visible light, ultraviolet
:
light, X-rays and gamma rays.[20]
The lab frame The electron's rest frame
A further unification of
electromagnetism came with
Einstein's special theory of
relativity. According to special
relativity, observers moving at
different speeds relative to one
another occupy different
observational frames of reference.
If one observer is in motion
:
relative to another observer then
they experience length
contraction where unmoving
objects appear closer together to
the observer in motion than to the
observer at rest. Therefore, if an
electron is moving at the same
speed as the current in a neutral
wire, then they experience the
flowing electrons in the wire as
standing still relative to it and the
positive charges as contracted
together. In the lab frame, the
electron is moving and so feels a
magnetic force from the current in
:
the wire but because the wire is
neutral it feels no electric force.
But in the electron's rest frame,
the positive charges seem closer
together compared to the flowing
electrons and so the wire seems
positively charged. Therefore, in
the electron's rest frame it feels
no magnetic force (because it is
not moving in its own frame) but it
does feel an electric force due to
the positively charged wire. This
result from relativity proves that
magnetic fields are just electric
fields in a different reference
:
frame (and vice versa) and so the
two are different manifestations of
the same underlying
electromagnetic field.[21][22][23]
Conductors, insulators
and circuits
Conductors
The charges in a perfect conductor rearrange so that

the electric field is always zero inside.
A conductor is a material that

:
allows electrons to flow easily.
The most effective conductors are
usually metals because they can
be described fairly accurately by
the free electron model in which
electrons delocalize from the
atomic nuclei, leaving positive
ions surrounded by a cloud of free
electrons.[24] Examples of good
conductors include copper,
aluminum, and silver. Wires in
electronics are often made of
copper.[25]
The main properties of

:
conductors are:[26]
1. The electric field is zero

inside a perfect conductor.
Because charges are free to
move in a conductor, when
they are disturbed by an
external electric field they
rearrange themselves such
that the field that their
configuration produces
exactly cancels the external
electric field inside the
conductor.
2. The electric potential is the
:
same everywhere inside the
conductor and is constant
across the surface of the
conductor. This follows from
the first statement because
the field is zero everywhere
inside the conductor and
therefore the potential is
constant within the
conductor too.
3. The electric field is
perpendicular to the surface
of a conductor. If this were
not the case, the field would
have a nonzero component
:
on the surface of the
conductor, which would
cause the charges in the
conductor to move around
until that component of the
field is zero.
4. The net electric flux through
a surface is proportional to
the charge enclosed by the
surface. This is a
restatement of Gauss' law.
In some materials, the electrons

are bound to the atomic nuclei
and so are not free to move
:
around but the energy required to
set them free is low. In these
materials, called semiconductors,
the conductivity is low at low
temperatures but as the
temperature is increased the
electrons gain more thermal
energy and the conductivity
increases.[27] Silicon is an
example of a semiconductors that
can be used to create solar cells
which become more conductive
the more energy they receive from
photons from the sun.[28]
:
Superconductors are materials
that exhibit little to no resistance
to the flow of electrons when
cooled below a certain critical
temperature. Superconductivity
can only be explained by the
quantum mechanical Pauli
exclusion principle which states
that no two fermions (an electron
is a type of fermion) can occupy
exactly the same quantum state.
In superconductors, below a
certain temperature the electrons
form boson bound pairs which do
not follow this principle and this
:
means that all the electrons can
fall to the same energy level and
move together uniformly in a
current.[29]
Insulators
In a dielectric material, an electric field

can polarise the material.
Insulators are material which are

highly resistive to the flow of
electrons and so are often used to
cover conducting wires for safety.
:
In insulators, electrons are tightly
bound to atomic nuclei and the
energy to free them is very high
so they are not free to move and
are resistive to induced
movement by an external electric
field.[30] However, some
insulators, called dielectrics, can
be polarised under the influence
of an external electric field so that
the charges are minutely
displaced forming dipoles that
create a positive and negative
side.[31] Dielectrics are used in
capacitors to allow them to store
:
more electric potential energy in
the electric field between the
capacitor plates.[32]
Capacitors
A parallel plate capacitor
A capacitor is an electronic
component that stores electrical
potential energy in an electric field
between two oppositely charged
conducting plates. If one of the
:
conducting plates has a charge
density of +Q/A and the other has
a charge of -Q/A where A is the
area of the plates, then there will
be an electric field between them.
The potential difference between
two parallel plates V can be
derived mathematically as[33]
where d is the plate separation

and is the permittivity of free
space. The ability of the capacitor
to store electrical potential energy
:
is measured by the capacitance
which is defined as
and for a parallel plate capacitor
this is[33]
If a dielectric is placed between

the plates then the permittivity of
free space is multiplied by the
relative permittivity of the
dielectric and the capacitance
increases.[32] The maximum
energy that can be stored by a
capacitor is proportional to the
:
capacitance and the square of the
potential difference between the
plates[33]
Inductors
An inductor is an electronic
component that stores energy in a
magnetic field inside a coil of wire.
A current-carrying coil of wire
induces a magnetic field
according to Ampère's circuital
law. The greater the current I, the
:
greater the energy stored in the
magnetic field and the lower the
inductance which is defined
where is the
magnetic flux produced by the
coil of wire. The inductance is a
measure of the circuit's resistance
to a change in current and so
inductors with high inductances
can also be used to oppose
alternating current.[34]
Other circuit components

:
Schematic
Component Main function
symbol
Resistor Impedes the flow of current
Battery Acts as a power source
Acts as a source of direct current (DC), a

DC voltage
constant current which points in one
source
direction
Acts as a source of alternating current (AC),

AC voltage
a varying current which periodically reverses
source
direction
Allows current to flow easily in one direction

Diode
but not another
Stores energy in electric fields, stores

Capacitor charge, passes low frequency alternating
current
Stores energy in magnetic fields, resists

Inductor
change in current
Circuit laws
:
Kirchoff's junction rule (above):
I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5
Kirchoff's loop rule (below):
V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 0
Circuit theory deals with electrical

networks where the fields are
largely confined around current
carrying conductors. In such
circuits, simple circuit laws can be
:
used instead of deriving all the
behaviour of the circuits directly
from electromagnetic laws. Ohm's
law states the relationship
between the current I and the
voltage V of a circuit by
introducing the quantity known as
resistance R[35]
Ohm's law:
Power is defined as so
Ohm's law can be used to tell us
the power of the circuit in terms of
other quantities[36]
:
Kirchhoff's junction rule states
that the current going into a
junction (or node) must equal the
current that leaves the node. This
comes from charge conservation,
as current is defined as the flow of
charge over time. If a current splits
as it exits a junction, the sum of
the resultant split currents is equal
to the incoming circuit.[37]
Kirchhoff's loop rule states that

the sum of the voltage in a closed
loop around a circuit equals zero.
:
This comes from the fact that the
electric field is conservative
which means that no matter the
path taken, the potential at a point
does not change when you get
back there.[37]
Rules can also tell us how to add

up quantities such as the current
and voltage in series and parallel
circuits.[37]
For series circuits, the current

remains the same for each
component and the voltages and
resistances add up:
:
For parallel circuits, the voltage
remains the same for each
component and the currents and
resistances are related as shown:
See also
List of textbooks on
electromagnetism
References
1. Purcell, Edward M. (21 January
2013). Electricity and
:
magnetism (https://www.worldc
at.org/oclc/805015622)
(Third ed.). Cambridge. pp. 3–
4. ISBN 978-1-107-01402-2.
OCLC 805015622 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/oclc/80501562
2) .
2. Walker, Jearl, 1945- (2011).
Fundamentals of physics (https:
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/43571
0913) . Halliday, David, 1916-
2010., Resnick, Robert, 1923-
2014. (9th ed.). Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley. p. 578. ISBN 978-0-
470-46911-8.
:
3) .
3. Pumplin, Jon (2000). "Electric
field lines" (https://web.pa.msu.
edu/courses/2000fall/phy232/l
ectures/efields/efieldlines.html
) . Michigan State University
Physics. Retrieved 18 October
2018.
4. Nave, R. "Electric Field" (http://
hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
hbase/electric/elefie.html) .
Georgia State University
Hyperphysics. Retrieved
16 October 2018.
:
(Third ed.). Cambridge. p. 7.
ISBN 978-1-107-01402-2.
2) .
6. "The Feynman Lectures on
Physics Vol. II Ch. 1:
Electromagnetism" (https://feyn
manlectures.caltech.edu/II_01.h
tml#Ch1-S2) .
feynmanlectures.caltech.edu.
Retrieved 2018-10-30.
7. "Magnetic forces" (http://hyper
physics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase
/magnetic/magfor.html#c2) .
hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu.
:
ISBN 978-1-107-01402-2.
2) .
9. Grant, I. S. (Ian S.) (1990).
Electromagnetism (https://www
.worldcat.org/oclc/21447877) .
The Manchester Physics
Series. Phillips, W. R. (William
Robert) (2nd ed.). Chichester
[England]: Wiley. pp. 17–22.
:
ISBN 0-471-92711-2.
OCLC 21447877 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/21447877) .
10. "Gauss's Law" (http://hyperphy
sics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/el
ectric/gaulaw.html) .
Electrostatics, S5: The flux of
E" (https://feynmanlectures.calt
ech.edu/II_04.html#Ch4-S5) .
:
ISBN 978-1-107-01402-2.
2) .
13. "Ampere's Law" (http://hyperph
ysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/
magnetic/amplaw.html) .
14. Grant, I. S. (Ian S.) (1990).
:
[England]: Wiley. p. 125.
ISBN 0-471-92711-2.
15. "Magnets and Electromagnets"
(http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.g
su.edu/hbase/magnetic/elemag
.html#c1) . hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved
2020-11-27.
16. "Ferromagnetism" (http://hyper
physics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase
/Solids/ferro.html#c4) .
17. Editors, AccessScience (2014).
:
17. Editors, AccessScience (2014).
"Unification theories and a
theory of everything" (https://w
ww.accessscience.com/content
/unification-theories-and-a-the
ory-of-
everything/BR0814141) .
Access Science.
doi:10.1036/1097-
8542.BR0814141 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1036%2F1097-8542.BR
0814141) . {{cite
journal}}: |last= has
generic name (help)
18. Grant, I. S. (Ian S.) (1990).
:
[England]: Wiley. p. 365.
ISBN 0-471-92711-2.
19. Maxwell, James Clerk (1865).
"A dynamical theory of the
electromagnetic field" (https://u
pload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/c
ommons/1/19/A_Dynamical_Th
eory_of_the_Electromagnetic_F
ield.pdf) (PDF). Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. 155: 459–
512.
Bibcode:1865RSPT..155..459C
:
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/1865RSPT..155..459C) .
doi:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.18
65.0008) . S2CID 186207827
(https://api.semanticscholar.org
/CorpusID:186207827) .
Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20110728140123/http:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi
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Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic
_Field.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 28 July 2011. "Light
and magnetism are affections
of the same substance (p.499)"
20. "Introduction to the
Electromagnetic Spectrum and
:
Electromagnetic Spectrum and
Spectroscopy | Analytical
Chemistry |
PharmaXChange.info" (https://
pharmaxchange.info/2011/08/i
ntroduction-to-the-electromag
netic-spectrum-and-spectrosc
opy/) . pharmaxchange.info.
2011-08-25. Retrieved
2020-11-26.
21. Purcell, Edward M. (2013).
Electricity and magnetism
(Third ed.). Cambridge.
pp. 235–68. ISBN 978-
1107014022.
2) .
:
2) .
Magnetostatics" (https://feynm
anlectures.caltech.edu/II_13.ht
ml#Ch13-S6) .
23. A. French (1968) Special
Relativity, chapter 8 – Relativity
and electricity, pp. 229–65,
W.W. Norton.
24. Hook, J. R., Hall, H. E. (2010).
Solid State Physics (https://ww
3) (2nd ed.). Chichester, West
Sussex, U.K.: John Wiley &
Sons. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-1-
:
Sons. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-1-
118-72347-0.
3) .
25. "What Metals Make Good
Conductors of Electricity?" (htt
ps://sciencing.com/metals-mak
e-good-conductors-electricity-
8115694.html) . Sciencing.
26. Purcell, Edward M. (2013).
Electricity and magnetism
ISBN 978-1107014022.
2) .
:
2) .
Physics Vol. III Ch. 14:
Semiconductors" (https://feyn
manlectures.caltech.edu/III_14.
html) .
28. "How a Solar Cell Works" (https
://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/
education/resources/highschoo
l/chemmatters/past-issues/arch
ive-2013-2014/how-a-solar-ce
ll-works.html) . American
Chemical Society. Retrieved
2020-11-26.
Physics Vol. III Ch. 21: The
:
Physics Vol. III Ch. 21: The
Schrödinger Equation in a
Classical Context: A Seminar on
Superconductivity" (https://fey
nmanlectures.caltech.edu/III_21
.html#Ch21-S5) .
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tp://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.
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) . hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved
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ww.britannica.com/science/diel
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Britannica. Retrieved
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Britannica. Retrieved
2020-11-27.
32. "Dielectrics" (http://hyperphysi
cs.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/elec
tric/dielec.html) .
33. Grant, I. S. (Ian S.) (1990).
ISBN 0-471-92711-2.
:
ISBN 978-1-107-01402-2.
2) .
35. "Ohm's Law" (http://hyperphysi
cs.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/elec
tric/ohmlaw.html#c1) .
36. "Electric Power" (http://hyperp
hysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/
electric/elepow.html) .
:
37. Young, H. D., Freedman, R. A.
(2016). Sears and Zemansky's
University Physics with Modern
Physics (https://www.worldcat.
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(14th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
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321-97361-0.
3) .
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Introduction_to_electromagnetism
:
&oldid=1170321304"
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Introduction To Electromagnetism - Wikipedia

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Introduction To Electromagnetism - Wikipedia

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Introduction to

Electromagnetism is one of the

Coulomb's law tells us that like charges repel and

where F is the force, ke is the

Electric field lines point from positive

In physics, fields are entities that

where F is the force on a charge q

As well as producing an electric

where F is the force on a charge q

The combination of the electric

The third of Maxwell's equations

The electromagnetic spectrum

Together, Maxwell's equations

The lab frame The electron's rest frame

The charges in a perfect conductor rearrange so that

A conductor is a material that

The main properties of

1. The electric field is zero

In some materials, the electrons

In a dielectric material, an electric field

Insulators are material which are

A parallel plate capacitor

where d is the plate separation

If a dielectric is placed between

Other circuit components

Resistor Impedes the flow of current

Battery Acts as a power source

Acts as a source of direct current (DC), a

Acts as a source of alternating current (AC),

Allows current to flow easily in one direction

Stores energy in electric fields, stores

Stores energy in magnetic fields, resists

Kirchoff's loop rule (below):

Circuit theory deals with electrical

Kirchhoff's loop rule states that

Rules can also tell us how to add

For series circuits, the current

This page was last edited on 14 August

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