History and Physical Exam

Contents
Medical Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History and Physical Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problem-Oriented Daily Progress Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedure Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discharge Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prescription Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discharge Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cardiovascular Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chest Pain and Myocardial Infarction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dyspnea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Edema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Congestive Heart Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Palpitations and Atrial Fibrillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hypertension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pericarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Syncope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Pulmonary Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hemoptysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wheezing and Asthma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pulmonary Embolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Infectious Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fever and Sepsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cough and Pneumonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia and AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meningitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pyelonephritis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Urinary Tract Infection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Endocarditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Gastrointestinal Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abdominal Pain and the Acute Abdomen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nausea and Vomiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anorexia and Weight Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diarrhea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hematemesis and Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Melena and Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cholecystitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jaundice and Hepatitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cirrhosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pancreatitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gastritis and Peptic Ulcer Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mesenteric Ischemia and Infarction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Intestinal Obstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Gynecologic Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Amenorrhea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abnormal Uterine Bleeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pelvic Pain and Ectopic Pregnancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Neurologic Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Headache . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dizziness and Vertigo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Delirium, Coma and Confusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weakness and Ischemic Stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Renal Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oliguria and Acute Renal Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chronic Renal Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hematuria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nephrolithiasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hyperkalemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hypokalemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hyponatremia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hypernatremia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Endocrinologic Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diabetic Ketoacidosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hypothyroidism and Myxedema Coma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hyperthyroidism and Thyrotoxicosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Hematologic and Rheumatologic Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Deep Venous Thrombosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Connective Tissue Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Psychiatric Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clinical Evaluation of the Psychiatric Patient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mini-mental Status Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Attempted Suicide and Drug Overdose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alcohol Withdrawal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Commonly Used Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Commonly Used Drug Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Commonly Used Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
History and Physical Examination 5
Medical Documentation
History and Physical Examination
History
Identifying Data: Patient's name; age, race, sex. List the patients significant
medical problems. Name of informant (patient, relative).
Chief Compliant: Reason given by patient for seeking medical care and the
duration of the symptom.
History of Present Illness (HPI): Describe the course of the patient's illness,
including when it began, character of the symptoms, location where the
symptoms began; aggravating or alleviating factors; pertinent positives and
negatives. Describe past illnesses or surgeries, and past diagnostic testing.
Past Medical History (PMH): Past diseases, surgeries, hospitalizations;
medical problems; history of diabetes, hypertension, peptic ulcer disease,
asthma, myocardial infarction, cancer. In children include birth history,
prenatal history, immunizations, and type of feedings.
Developmental history (in pediatrics)
Medications:
Allergies: Penicillin, codeine?
Family History: Medical problems in family, including problems similar to
patient's disorder. Asthma, coronary artery disease, heart failure, cancer,

tuberculosis.
Social History: Alcohol, smoking, drug usage. Marital status, employment
situation. Level of education.
Review of Systems (ROS):
General: Weight gain or loss, loss of appetite, fever, chills, fatigue, night
sweats.
Skin: Rashes, skin discolorations.
Head: Headaches, dizziness, masses, seizures.
Eyes: Visual changes, visual field deficits.
Ears: Tinnitus, vertigo, hearing loss.
Nose: Nose bleeds, discharge, sinus diseases.
Mouth and Throat: Dental disease, hoarseness, throat pain.
Respiratory: Cough, shortness of breath, sputum (color).
Cardiovascular: Chest pain, orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea;
dyspnea on exertion, claudication, edema, valvular disease.
Gastrointestinal: Dysphagia, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting,
hematemesis, diarrhea, constipation, melena (black tarry stools),
hematochezia (bright red blood per rectum).
Genitourinary: Dysuria, frequency, hesitancy, hematuria, discharge.
6 History and Physical Examination

Gynecological: Gravida/para, abortions, last menstrual period (frequency,
duration), age of menarche, menopause; dysmenorrhea, contraception,
vaginal bleeding, breast masses.
Endocrine: Polyuria, polydipsia, skin or hair changes, heat intolerance.
Musculoskeletal: Joint pain or swelling, arthritis, myalgias.
Skin and Lymphatics: Easy bruising, lymphadenopathy.
Neuropsychiatric: Weakness, seizures, memory changes, depression.
Physical Examination
General appearance: Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnour
ished.
Vital Signs: Temperature, heart rate, respirations, blood pressure.
Skin: Rashes, scars, moles, capillary refill (in seconds).
Lymph Nodes: Cervical, supraclavicular, axillary, inguinal nodes; size,
tenderness.
Head: Bruising, masses. Check fontanels in pediatric patients.
Eyes: Pupils equal round and react to light and accommodation (PERRLA);
extra ocular movements intact (EOMI), and visual fields. Funduscopy
(papilledema, arteriovenous nicking, hemorrhages, exudates); scleral icterus,
ptosis.
Ears: Acuity, tympanic membranes (dull, shiny, intact, injected, bulging).
Mouth and Throat: Mucus membrane color and moisture; oral lesions,
dentition, pharynx, tonsils.
Neck: Jugular venous distention (JVD) at a 45 degree incline, thyromegaly,
lymphadenopathy, masses, bruits, abdominojugular reflux.
Chest: Equal expansion, tactile fremitus, percussion, auscultation, rhonchi,
crackles, rubs, breath sounds, egophony, whispered pectoriloquy.
Heart: Point of maximal impulse (PMI), thrills (palpable turbulence); regular rate
and rhythm (RRR), first and second heart sounds (S1, S2); gallops (S3, S4),
murmurs (grade 1-6), pulses (graded 0-2+).
Breast: Dimpling, tenderness, lumps, nipple discharge; axillary masses.
Abdomen: Contour (flat, scaphoid, obese, distended); scars, bowel sounds,
bruits, tenderness, masses, liver span by percussion; hepatomegaly,
splenomegaly; guarding, rebound, percussion note (tympanic), costovertebral
angle tenderness (CVAT), suprapubic tenderness.
Genitourinary: Inguinal masses, hernias, scrotum, testicles, varicoceles.
Pelvic Examination: Vaginal mucosa, cervical discharge, uterine size, masses,
adnexal masses, ovaries.
Extremities: Joint swelling, range of motion, edema (grade 1-4+); cyanosis,
clubbing, edema (CCE); pulses (radial, ulnar, femoral, popliteal, posterior
tibial, dorsalis pedis; simultaneous palpation of radial and femoral pulses).
Rectal Examination: Sphincter tone, masses, fissures; test for occult blood,
prostate (nodules, tenderness, size).
Problem-Oriented Daily Progress Note 7

Neurological: Mental status and affect; gait, strength (graded 0-5); touch
sensation, pressure, pain, position and vibration; deep tendon reflexes
(biceps, triceps, patellar, ankle; graded 0-4+); Romberg test (ability to stand
erect with arms outstretched and eyes closed).
Cranial Nerve Examination:
I: Smell
II: Vision and visual fields
III, IV, VI: Pupil responses to light, extraocular eye movements, ptosis
V: Facial sensation, ability to open jaw against resistance, corneal reflex.

VII: Close eyes tightly, smile, show teeth
VIII: Hears watch tic; Weber test (lateralization of sound when tuning fork is
placed on top of head); Rinne test (air conduction last longer than bone
conduction when tuning fork is placed on mastoid process)
IX, X: Palette moves in midline when patient says ah, speech
XI: Shoulder shrug and turns head against resistance
XII: Stick out tongue in midline
Labs: Electrolytes (sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, chloride, BUN, creatinine),
CBC (hemoglobin, hematocrit, WBC count, platelets, differential); x-rays,
ECG, urine analysis (UA), liver function tests (LFTs).
Assessment (Impression): Assign a number to each problem and discuss
separately. Discuss differential diagnosis and give reasons that support the
working diagnosis; give reasons for excluding other diagnoses.
Plan: Describe therapeutic plan for each numbered problem, including testing,
laboratory studies, medications, and antibiotics.
Problem-Oriented Daily Progress Note

Problem List: List each problem separately (heart failure, pneumonia,
hypokalemia). State hospital day number, post-operative day number, and
antibiotic day number.
Subjective: Describe how the patient feels in the patient's own words; and give
observations about the patient.
Objective: Vital signs, physical exam for each system, laboratory data.
Assessment: Evaluate each numbered problem, and discuss the progress of
each problem.
Plan: For each problem, discuss any additional orders, changes in drug
regimen or plans for discharge or transfer.
8 Procedure Note
Procedure Note
A procedure note should be written in the chart when a procedure is performed.
Procedure notes are brief operative notes.
Procedure Note
Date and time:
Procedure:
Indications:
Patient Consent: Document that the indications, risks and alternatives to
the procedure were explained to the patient. Note that the patient was
given the opportunity to ask questions and that the patient consented to
the procedure in writing.
Lab tests: Relevant labs, such as the INR and CBC
Anesthesia: Local with 2% lidocaine
Description of Procedure: Briefly describe the procedure, including
sterile prep, anesthesia method, patient position, devices used, ana
tomic location of procedure, and outcome.
Complications and Estimated Blood Loss (EBL):
Disposition: Describe how the patient tolerated the procedure.
Specimens: Describe any specimens obtained and labs tests which
were ordered.
Discharge Note
The discharge note should be written in the patients chart prior to discharge.
Discharge Note
Date/time:
Diagnoses:
Treatment: Briefly describe therapy provided during hospitalization,
including antibiotic therapy, surgery, and cardiovascular drugs.
Studies Performed: Electrocardiograms, CT scan.
Discharge medications:
Follow-up Arrangements:
Prescription Writing 9
Prescription Writing
Patients name:
Date:
Drug name and preparation (eg, tablets size): Lasix 40 mg
Quantity to dispense: #40
Frequency of administration: Sig: 1 po qAM
Refills: None
Signature
Discharge Summary
Patient's Name and Medical Record Number:
Date of Admission:
Date of Discharge:
Admitting Diagnosis:
Discharge Diagnosis:
Attending or Ward Team Responsible for Patient:
Surgical Procedures, Diagnostic Tests, Invasive Procedures:
Brief History, Pertinent Physical Examination, and Laboratory Data:
Describe the course of the patient's disease up until the time that the patient
came to the hospital, including physical exam and laboratory data.
Hospital Course: Describe the course of the patient's illness while in the
hospital, including evaluation, treatment, medications, and outcome of
treatment.
Discharged Condition: Describe improvement or deterioration in the patient's
condition, and describe present status of the patient.
Disposition: Describe the situation to which the patient will be discharged
(home, nursing home), and indicate who will take care of patient.
Discharged Medications: List medications and instructions for patient on
taking the medications.
Discharged Instructions and Follow-up Care: Date of return for follow-up
care at clinic; diet, exercise.
Problem List: List all active and past problems.
Copies: Send copies to attending, clinic, consultants.
10 Discharge Summary
Chest Pain and Myocardial Infarction 11
Cardiovascular Disorders
Chest Pain and Myocardial Infarction
History of the Present Illness: Duration of chest pain. Location, radiation (to
arm, jaw, back), character (squeezing, sharp, dull), intensity, rate of onset
(gradual or sudden); relationship of pain to activity (at rest, during sleep,
during exercise); relief by nitroglycerine; increase in frequency or severity of
baseline anginal pattern. Improvement or worsening of pain.
Associated Symptoms: Diaphoresis, nausea, vomiting, dyspnea, orthopnea,
edema, palpitations, dysphagia, cough, sputum, paresthesias, syncope.
Aggravating and Relieving Factors: Effect of inspiration on pain; effect of
eating, NSAIDS, alcohol, stress.
Cardiac Testing: Past stress testing, angiograms, nuclear scans, ECGs.
Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease: Family history of coronary artery
disease before age 55, diabetes, hypertension, smoking, hypercholesterol
emia.
PMH: History of diabetes, claudication, stroke. Exercise tolerance; history of
peptic ulcer disease. Prior history of myocardial infarction, coronary bypass
grafting or angioplasty.
Social History: Cocaine usage, elicit drugs, smoking, alcohol.
Medications: Aspirin, beta-blockers, estrogen replacement, nicotine replace
ment therapy.
General: Visible pain, apprehension, distress, pallor. Note whether the patient
looks ill, well, or malnourished.

Vital Signs: Pulse (tachycardia), BP, respirations (tachypnea), temperature.
Skin: Cold extremities (peripheral vascular disease), xanthomas (hypercholes
terolemia).
HEENT: Fundi, silver wire arteries, arteriolar narrowing, A-V nicking,
hypertensive retinopathy; carotid bruits, jugular venous distention.
Chest: Crackles, percussion note.
Heart: Decreased intensity of first heart sound (S1) (LV dysfunction); third heart
sound (S3) (heart failure, dilation), S4 gallop (more audible in the left lateral
position; decreased LV compliance due to ischemia); mitral insufficiency
murmur (papillary muscle dysfunction), cardiac rub (pericarditis).
Abdomen: Epigastric tenderness (peptic ulcer), hepatomegaly, ascites,
pulsatile mass (aortic aneurysm).
Rectal: Occult blood.
Extremities: Edema, femoral bruits, unequal or diminished pulses (aortic
dissection); calf pain, swelling (thrombosis).
12 Dyspnea
Labs:
Electrocardiographic Findings in Acute Myocardial Infarction: ST segment
elevations in two contiguous leads with ST depressions in reciprocal leads,
hyperacute T waves.
Chest x-ray: Cardiomegaly, pulmonary edema (CHF).
LDH, magnesium, CBC, electrolytes. CPK with isoenzymes, troponin I or
troponin T, myoglobin, and LDH. Echocardiography.
Differential Diagnosis of Chest Pain
A. Acute Pericarditis. Characterized by pleuritic-type chest pain and
diffuse ST segment elevation.
B. Aortic Dissection. Tearing chest pain with uncontrolled hyperten
sion, widened mediastinum and increased aortic prominence on chest
x-ray.
C. Esophageal Rupture. Occurs after vomiting; x-ray may reveal air in
mediastinum or a left side hydrothorax.
D. Acute Cholecystitis. Characterized by right subcostal abdominal pain
with anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and fever.
E. Acute Peptic Ulcer Disease. Epigastric pain with melena or
hematemesis, and anemia.
Dyspnea
History of the Present Illness: Rate of onset of shortness of breath (gradual,
sudden), orthopnea (dyspnea when supine), paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea
(PND), chest pain, palpitations. Affect of physical exertion; history of
myocardial infarction, syncope. Past episodes; aggravating or relieving factors
(noncompliance with medications, salt overindulgence). Edema, weight gain,
lightheadedness, cough, sputum, fever, anxiety; leg pain (DVT).
Past Medical History: Emphysema, heart failure, hypertension, occupational
exposures, coronary artery disease, HIV risk factors, asthma.
Medications: Bronchodilators, cardiac medications (noncompliance), drug
allergies.
Past Treatment or Testing: Cardiac testing, x-rays, ECG's, spirometry.
General Appearance: Respiratory distress, dyspnea, pallor, diaphoresis. Note
whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished. Fluid input and output
balance.
Vital Signs: BP (supine and upright), pulse (tachycardia), temperature,
respiratory rate (tachypnea).
HEENT: Jugular venous distention at 45 degrees, tracheal deviation
(pneumothorax).
Edema 13
Chest: Stridor (foreign body), retractions, breath sounds, wheezing, crackles
(rales), rhonchi; dullness to percussion (pleural effusion), barrel chest
(COPD); unilateral hyperresonance (pneumothorax).
Heart: Lateral displacement of point of maximal impulse; irregular, irregular
rhythm (atrial fibrillation); S3 gallop (LV dilation), S4 (myocardial infarction),
holosystolic apex murmur (mitral regurgitation); faint heart sounds (pericardial
effusion).
Abdomen: Abdominojugular reflux (pressing on abdomen increases jugular
vein distention), hepatomegaly, liver tenderness.
Extremities: Edema, pulses, cyanosis, clubbing. Calf tenderness or swelling
(DVT).
Labs: ABG, cardiac enzymes; chest x-ray (cardiomegaly, hyperinflation with
flattened diaphragms, infiltrates, effusions, pulmonary edema), ventila
tion/perfusion scan.
Electrocardiogram
A. ST segment depression or elevation, new left bundle-branch block.
B. ST elevations in two contiguous leads, with ST depressions in recipro
cal leads (MI).
Differential Diagnosis: Heart failure, myocardial infarction, upper airway
obstruction, pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, asthma, pneumothorax, foreign body aspiration, hyperventilation,
malignancy, anemia.
Edema
History of the Present Illness: Duration of edema; localized or generalized;
associated pain, redness. History of heart failure, liver, or renal disease;
weight changes, shortness of breath, malnutrition, chronic diarrhea (protein
losing enteropathy), thyroid disease, prolonged immobility, allergies,
alcoholism. Exacerbation by upright position.
Past Treating and Testing: Cardiac testing, chest x-rays. History of deep vein
thrombosis, venous insufficiency. Recent fluid input and output balance.
Medications: Cardiac drugs, diuretics, calcium channel blockers.
General Appearance: Respiratory distress, dyspnea, pallor, diaphoresis. Note
whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vitals: BP (orthostatic), pulse, temperature, respiratory rate.
HEENT: Jugular venous distention at 45E; carotid pulse amplitude.
Chest: Breath sounds, crackles, wheeze, dullness to percussion.
Heart: Displacement of point of maximal impulse, atrial fibrillation (irregular,
irregular); S3 gallop (LV dilation), friction rubs.
14 Congestive Heart Failure

Abdomen: Abdominojugular reflux, ascites, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly,
distention, fluid wave, shifting dullness.
Extremities: Pitting or non-pitting edema (graded 1 to 4+), redness, warmth;
mottled brown discoloration of ankle skin (venous insufficiency); leg
circumference, tenderness, Homan's sign (dorsiflexion elicits pain; thrombo
sis); pulses, cyanosis, clubbing.
Labs: Electrolytes, liver function tests, CBC, chest x-ray, ECG, cardiac
enzymes, Doppler studies of lower extremities.
Differential Diagnosis of Edema
Unilateral Edema: Deep venous thrombosis; lymphatic obstruction
(neoplasm - pelvic, lymphoma).
Generalized Edema: Renal disease (acute glomerulonephritis, nephrotic
syndrome, renal failure), heart failure, cirrhosis, obstruction of hepatic
venous outflow, obstruction of inferior or superior vena cava.
Endocrine: Mineralocorticoid excess, hypoalbuminemia (protein losing
enteropathy, malnutrition).
Miscellaneous: Chronic anemia, angioedema, iatrogenic edema.
Congestive Heart Failure

History of the Present Illness: Duration of dyspnea; note of onset (gradual,
sudden); paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (PND), orthopnea; number of pillows
needed under back when supine to prevent dyspnea; dyspnea on exertion
(DOE); edema of lower extremities. Exercise tolerance (past and present),
weight gain. Severity of dyspnea compared with past episodes.
Associated Symptoms: Fatigue, chest pain, pleuritic pain, cough, fever, chills,
sputum, nausea, diaphoresis, palpitations, nocturia, syncope, viral illness.
Past Medical History: Past episodes of heart failure; hypertension, excess salt
or fluid intake; noncompliance with diuretics, digoxin, antihypertensives;
alcoholism, drug use, diabetes, coronary artery disease, myocardial
infarction, heart murmur, arrhythmias. Thyroid disease, anemia, pulmonary
disease.
Past Testing: Echocardiograms for ejection fraction, cardiac testing, angio
grams, ECGs.
Cardiac Risk Factors: Smoking, diabetes, family history of coronary artery
disease or heart failure, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension.
Precipitating Factors: Infections, noncompliance with low salt diet; excessive
fluid intake; anemia, hyperthyroidism, pulmonary embolism, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, renal insufficiency; adverse drug reactions (beta
blockers, calcium blockers, antiarrhythmics).
Treatment in Emergency Room: IV Lasix given, volume diuresed. Recent fluid
input and output balance.
Congestive Heart Failure 15
General Appearance: Respiratory distress, anxiety, diaphoresis. Dyspnea,
pallor. Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: BP (hypotension or hypertension), pulse (tachycardia), tempera
ture, respiratory rate (tachypnea).
HEENT: Jugular venous distention at 45 degree incline (measure vertical
distance from the sternal angle to top of column of blood); hepatojugular
reflux (pressing on abdomen causes jugular venous distention); carotid pulse,
amplitude, duration, bruits.
Chest: Breath sounds, crackles, rhonchi; dullness to percussion (pleural
effusion).
Heart: Lateral displacement of point of maximal impulse; irregular, irregular
rhythm (atrial fibrillation); S3 gallop (LV dilation).
Abdomen: Ascites, hepatomegaly, liver tenderness.
Extremities: Edema (graded 1 to 4+), pulses, jaundice, muscle wasting.
Labs: Chest x-ray: Cardiomegaly, perihilar congestion; vascular cephalization
(increased density of upper lobe vasculature); Kerley B lines (horizontal
streaks in lower lobes), pleural effusions.
ECG: Left ventricular hypertrophy, ectopic beats, atrial fibrillation.
Electrolytes, BUN, creatinine, sodium; CBC; serial cardiac enzymes, CPK, MB,
troponins, LDH. Echocardiogram.
Conditions That Mimic or Provoke Heart Failure:
A. Coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction
B. Hypertension
C. Aortic or mitral valve disease
D. Cardiomyopathies: Hypertrophic, idiopathic dilated, postpartum, genetic,
toxic, nutritional, metabolic

E. Myocarditis: Infectious, toxic, immune
F. Pericardial constriction
G. Tachyarrhythmias or bradyarrhythmias
H. Pulmonary embolism
I. Pulmonary disease
J. High output states: Anemia, hyperthyroidism, A-V fistulas, Paget's
disease, fibrous dysplasia, multiple myeloma
K. Renal failure, nephrotic syndrome
Factors Associated with Heart Failure
A. Increase Demand: Anemia, fever, infection, excess dietary salt, renal
failure, liver failure, thyrotoxicosis, AV fistula. Arrhythmias, cardiac
ischemia/infarction, pulmonary emboli, alcohol abuse, hypertension.
B. Medications: Antiarrhythmics (disopyramide), beta-blockers, calcium
blockers, NSAID's, noncompliance with diuretics, excessive intravenous
fluids
16 Palpitations and Atrial Fibrillation

New York Heart Association Classification of Heart Failure
Class I: Symptomatic only with strenuous activity.
Class II: Symptomatic with usual level of activity.
Class III: Symptomatic with minimal activity, but asymptomatic at rest.
Class IV: Symptomatic at rest.
Palpitations and Atrial Fibrillation

History of the Present Illness: Palpitations (rapid or irregular heart beat),
fatigue, dizziness, nausea, dyspnea, edema; duration. Results of previous
ECGs.
Associated Symptoms: Chest pain, pleuritic pain, syncope, weakness, fatigue,
exercise intolerance, diaphoresis, symptoms of hyperthyroidism (tremor,
anxiety).
Cardiac History: Hypertension, coronary disease, rheumatic heart disease,
arrhythmias.
Underlying Conditions: Pneumonia, diabetes, noncompliance with cardiac
medications, pericarditis, hyperthyroidism, electrolyte abnormalities, COPD,
mitral valve stenosis, hypokalemia; diet pills, decongestants, alcohol, caffeine,
cocaine.
Vital Signs: BP (hypotension), pulse (irregular, irregular tachycardia).
HEENT: Retinal hemorrhages, (emboli) jugular venous distention, carotid bruits;
thyromegaly (hyperthyroidism).
Chest: Crackles (rales).
Heart: Irregular, irregular rhythm (atrial fibrillation); dyskinetic apical pulse,
displaced point of maximal impulse (cardiomegaly), S4, mitral regurgitation
murmur (rheumatic fever); pericardial rub (pericarditis).
Extremities: Peripheral pulses with irregular timing and amplitude. Edema,
cyanosis, petechia (emboli). Femoral artery bruits (atherosclerosis).
Neuro: Motor weakness (embolic stroke), CN 2-12, sensory; dysphasia,
dysarthria (stroke); tremor (hyperthyroidism).
Labs: Sodium, potassium, BUN, creatinine; magnesium; drug levels; CBC;
serial cardiac enzymes; CPK, LDH, TSH, free T4. Chest x-ray.
ECG: Irregular R-R intervals with no P waves. Irregular baseline with rapid
fibrillary waves (320 per minute). The ventricular response rate is 130-180 per
minute.
Echocardiogram for atrial chamber size.
Hypertension 17
Differential Diagnosis of Atrial Fibrillation
Lone Atrial Fibrillation: No underlying disease state.
Cardiac Causes: Hypertensive heart disease with left ventricular hypertro
phy, heart failure, mitral valve stenosis or regurgitation, pericarditis,
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, coronary artery disease, myocardial
infarction, aortic stenosis, amyloidosis.
Noncardiac Causes: Hypoglycemia, theophylline intoxication, pneumonia,
asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary embolus, heavy
alcohol intake or alcohol withdrawal, hyperthyroidism, systemic illness,
electrolyte abnormalities. Stimulant abuse, excessive caffeine, over-thecounter cold remedies, illicit drugs.
Hypertension
History of the Present Illness: Degree of blood pressure elevation; patients
baseline BP from records; baseline BUN and creatinine. Age of onset of
hypertension.
Associated Symptoms: Chest or back pain (aortic dissection), dyspnea,
orthopnea, dizziness, blurred vision (hypertensive retinopathy); nausea,
vomiting, headache (pheochromocytoma); lethargy, confusion
(encephalopathy).
Paroxysms of tremor, palpitations, diaphoresis; edema, thyroid disease, angina;
flank pain, dysuria, pyelonephritis. Alcohol withdrawal, noncompliance with
antihypertensives (clonidine or beta-blocker withdrawal), excessive salt,
alcohol.
Medications: Over-the-counter cold remedies, beta agonists, diet pills, ocular
medications (sympathomimetics), bronchodilators, cocaine, amphetamines,
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, oral contraceptives, cortico steroids.
Risk Factors for Coronary Artery Disease: Family history of coronary artery
disease before age 55, diabetes, hypertension, smoking, hypercholesterol
emia.
Past Testing: Urinalysis, ECG, creatinine.
General Appearance: Delirium, confusion, agitation (hypertensive
encephalopathy).
Vital Signs: Supine and upright blood pressure; BP in all extremities; pulse,
temperature, respirations.
HEENT: Hypertensive retinopathy, hemorrhages, exudates, cotton wool spots,
A-V nicking; papilledema; thyromegaly (hyperthyroidism). Jugular venous
distention, carotid bruits.
Chest: Crackles (rales, pulmonary edema), wheeze, intercostal bruits (aortic
18 Hypertension
coarctation).
Heart: Rhythm; laterally displaced, sustained, forceful, apical impulse with
patient in left lateral position (ventricular hypertrophy); narrowly split S2 with
increased aortic component; systolic ejection murmurs.
Abdomen: Renal bruits (bruit just below costal margin, renal artery stenosis);
abdominal aortic enlargement (aortic aneurysm), renal masses, enlarged
kidney (polycystic kidney disease); costovertebral angle tenderness. Truncal
obesity (Cushing's syndrome).
Skin: Striae (Cushing's syndrome), uremic frost (chronic renal failure);
hirsutism (adrenal hyperplasia); plethora (pheochromocytoma).
Extremities: Asymmetric femoral to radial pulses (coarctation of aortic);
femoral bruits, edema (peripheral vascular disease); tremor
(pheochromocytoma, hyperthyroidism).
Neuro: Mental status, rapid return phase of deep tendon reflexes
(hyperthyroidism), localized weakness (stroke), visual acuity.
Labs: Potassium, BUN, creatinine, glucose, uric acid, CBC. UA with micro
scopic analysis (RBC casts, hematuria, proteinuria). 24 hour urine for
metanephrines, plasma catecholamines (pheochromocytoma), plasma renin
activity.
12 lead electrocardiography: Evidence of ischemic heart disease, rhythm and
conduction disturbances, or left ventricular hypertrophy.
Chest x-ray: Cardiomegaly, indentation of aorta (coarctation), rib notching.
Findings Suggesting Secondary Hypertension:
A. Primary Aldosteronism. Initial serum potassium <3.5 mEq/L while not
taking medication.
B. Aortic Coarctation. Femoral pulse delayed later than radial pulse;
posterior systolic bruits below ribs.
C. Pheochromocytoma. Tachycardia, tremor, pallor.
D. Renovascular Stenosis. Paraumbilical abdominal bruits.
E. Polycystic Kidneys. Flank or abdominal mass.
F. Pyelonephritis. Urinary tract infections, costovertebral angle tender
ness.
G. Renal Parenchymal Disease. Increased serum creatinine $1.5 mg/dL,
proteinuria.
Pericarditis 19
Screening Tests for Secondary Hypertension

Renovascular Hyperten
sion
Captopril Test: Plasma renin level before and 1 hr

after captopril 25 mg PO. A greater than 150%
increase in renin is positive
Captopril Renography: Renal scan before and after
captopril 25 mg PO
Intravenous pyelography
MRI angiography
Arteriography (DSA)
Hyperaldosteronism
Serum Potassium
24 hr urine potassium
Plasma renin activity
CT scan of adrenals
Pheochromocytoma
24 hr urine metanephrine
Plasma catecholamine level
CT scan
Nuclear MIBG scan
Cushing's Syndrome
Plasma ACTH
Dexamethasone suppression test
Hyperparathyroidism
Serum calcium
Serum parathyroid hormone
Differential Diagnosis of Hypertension
A. Primary (essential) Hypertension (90%)
B. S e c o n d a r y H y p e r t e n s i o n : R e n o v a s c u l a r h y p e r t e n s i o n ,
pheochromocytoma, cocaine use; withdrawal from alpha2 stimulants,

clonidine or beta blockers, or alcohol; noncompliance with antihypertensive
medications.
Pericarditis
History of the Present Illness: Sharp pleuritic chest pain; onset, intensity,
radiation, duration. Exacerbated by supine position, coughing or deep
inspiration; relieved by leaning forward; referred to trapezius ridge; fever,
chills, palpitations, dyspnea.
Associated Findings: History of recent upper respiratory infection, autoimmune
disease; prior episodes of pain; tuberculosis exposure; myalgias, arthralgias,
rashes, fatigue, anorexia, weight loss, kidney disease.
Medications: Hydralazine, procainamide, isoniazid, penicillin.
20 Syncope
pallor. Note whether the patient looks septic, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: BP, pulse (tachycardia); pulsus paradoxus (drop in systolic BP >10
mmHg with inspiration).
HEENT: Cornea, sclera, iris lesions, oral ulcers (lupus); jugular venous
distention (cardiac tamponade).
Skin: Malar rash (butterfly rash), discoid rash (lupus).
Chest: Crackles (rales), rhonchi.
Heart: Rhythm; friction rub on end-expiration while sitting forward; cardiac rub
with 1-3 components at lower left sternal border; distant heart sounds
(pericardial effusion).
Extremities: Arthralgias, joint tenderness.
Labs: ECG: diffuse, downwardly, concave, ST segment elevation in all 3
standard limb leads and several precordial leads; upright T waves, PR
segment depression, low QRS voltage.
Chest x-ray: large cardiac silhouette; water bottle sign; pericardial
calcifications.
Echocardiogram.
Increased WBC; UA, urine protein, urine RBCs; CPK, MB, LDH, blood culture,
increased ESR.
Differential Diagnosis: Idiopathic pericarditis, infectious pericarditis (viral,
bacterial, mycoplasmal, mycobacterial), Lyme disease, uremia, neoplasm,
connective tissue disease, lupus, rheumatic fever, polymyositis, myxedema,
sarcoidosis, post myocardial infarction pericarditis (Dressler's syndrome),
drugs (penicillin, isoniazid, procainamide, hydralazine).
Syncope
History of the Present Illness: Time of occurrence and description of the
episode. Duration of unconsciousness, rate of onset; activity before and after
event. Body position, arm position (reaching), neck position (turning to side);
mental status before and after event. Precipitants (fear, tension, hunger, pain,
cough, micturition, defecation, exertion, Valsalva, hyperventilation, tight shirt
collar).
Seizure activity (tonic/clonic). Chest pain, palpitations, dyspnea, weakness.
Prodromal Symptoms: Nausea, diaphoresis, pallor, lightheadedness, dimming
vision (vasovagal syncope).
Post-syncopal disorientation, confusion, vertigo, flushing; urinary of fecal
incontinence, tongue biting. Rate of return to alertness (delayed or spontane
ous).
Syncope 21
Past Medical History: History of past episodes of syncope, stroke, transient
ischemic attacks, seizures, cardiac disease, arrhythmias, diabetes, anxiety
attacks.
Past Testing: 24 hour Holter, exercise testing, cardiac testing, ECG, EEG.
Medications Associated with Syncope

Antihypertensives or anti-angina
agents
Adrenergic antagonists
Calcium channel blockers
Diuretics
Nitrates
Vasodilators
Antidepressants
Tricyclic antidepressants
Phenothiazines
Antiarrhythmics
Digoxin
Quinidine
Insulin
Drugs of abuse
Alcohol
Cocaine
Marijuana
General Appearance: Level of alertness, respiratory distress, anxiety,
diaphoresis. Dyspnea, pallor. Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or
malnourished.
Vital Signs: Temperature, respiratory rate, postural vitals (supine and after
standing 2-5 minutes), pulse. Blood pressure in all extremities; asymmetric
radial to femoral artery pulsations (aortic dissection).
HEENT: Cranial bruising (trauma). Pupil size and reactivity, extraocular
movements; tongue or buccal lacerations (seizure); flat jugular veins (volume
depletion); carotid or vertebral bruits.
Skin: Turgor, capillary refill, pallor.
Chest: Crackles, rhonchi (aspiration).
Heart: Irregular rhythm (atrial fibrillation); systolic murmurs (aortic stenosis),
cardiac friction rub.

Abdomen: Bruits, tenderness pulsatile mass.
Genitourinary/Rectal: Occult blood, urinary or fecal incontinence (seizure).
Extremities: Extremity palpation for trauma.
Neuro: Cranial nerves 2-12, strength, gait, sensory, mental status; nystagmus.
Turn patients head side to side, up and down; have patient reach above
head, bend down and pick up object.
Labs: ECG: Arrhythmias, blocks. Chest x-ray, electrolytes, glucose, Mg, BUN,
creatinine, CBC; 24-hour Holter monitor.
22 Syncope
Differential Diagnosis of Syncope

Non-cardiovascular
Cardiovascular
Metabolic
Hyperventilation
Hypoglycemia
Hypoxia
Neurologic
Cerebrovascular insufficiency
Normal pressure hydrocephalus
Seizure
Subclavian steal syndrome
Increased intracranial pressure
Psychiatric
Hysteria
Major depression
Reflex (heart structurally normal)

Vasovagal
Situational
Cough
Defecation
Micturition
Postprandial
Sneeze
Swallow
Carotid sinus syncope
Orthostatic hypotension
Drug-induced
Cardiac
Obstructive
Aortic dissection
Aortic stenosis
Cardiac tamponade
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
Left ventricular dysfunction
Myocardial infarction
Myxoma
Pulmonary embolism
Pulmonary hypertension
Pulmonary stenosis
Arrhythmias
Bradyarrhythmias
Sick sinus syndrome
Pacemaker failure
Supraventricular and ventricular
tachyarrhythmias
Hemoptysis 23
Pulmonary Disorders
Hemoptysis
History of the Present Illness: Quantify the amount of blood, acuteness of
onset, color (bright red, dark), character (coffee grounds, clots); dyspnea,
chest pain (left or right), fever, chills; past bronchoscopies, exposure to
tuberculosis; hematuria, weight loss, anorexia, malaise, hoarseness.
Farm exposure, homelessness, residence in a nursing home, immigration from
a foreign country. Smoking, leg pain or swelling (pulmonary embolism),
bronchitis, COPD, heart failure, anticoagulants, aspirin, NSAIDs, HIV risk
factors (pulmonary Kaposis sarcoma), aspiration of food or foreign body.
Family history of bleeding disorders.
Prior chest X-rays, CT scans, tuberculin testing (PPD).
General Appearance: Dyspnea, respiratory distress. Anxiety, diaphoresis,
Vital Signs: Temperature, respiratory rate (tachypnea), pulse (tachycardia), BP
(hypotension); assess hemodynamic status.
HEENT: Nasal or oropharyngeal lesions, tongue lacerations; telangiectasias on
buccal mucosa (Rendu-Osler-Weber disease); ulcerations of nasal septum
(Wegener's granulomatosis), jugular venous distention, gingival disease
(aspiration).
Lymph Nodes: Cervical, scalene or supraclavicular adenopathy (Virchow's
nodes, intrathoracic malignancy).
Chest: Stridor, tenderness of chest wall; rhonchi, apical crackles (tuberculosis);
localized wheezing (foreign body, malignancy), basilar crackles (pulmonary
edema), pleural friction rub, breast masses (metastasis).
Heart: Mitral stenosis murmur (diastolic rumble), right ventricular gallop;
accentuated, second heart sound (pulmonary embolism).
Abdomen: Masses, liver nodules (metastases), tenderness.
Extremities: Petechiae, ecchymoses (coagulopathy); cyanosis, tenderness, calf
swelling (pulmonary embolism); clubbing (pulmonary disease), edema, bone
pain (metastasis).
Skin: Purple plaques (Kaposi's sarcoma); rashes (paraneoplastic syndromes).
Labs: Sputum Gram stain, cytology, acid fast bacteria stain; CBC, platelets,
ABG; pH of expectorated blood (alkaline=pulmonary; acidic=GI); UA
(hematuria); INR/PTT, bleeding time; creatinine, sputum fungal culture; anti
glomerular basement membrane antibody, antinuclear antibody; PPD,
cryptococcus antigen.
24 Wheezing and Asthma

EKG, chest x-ray, CT scan, bronchoscopy, ventilation/perfusion scan.
Differential Diagnosis
Infection: Bronchitis, pneumonia, lung abscess, tuberculosis, fungal
infection, bronchiectasis, broncholithiasis.
Neoplasms: Bronchogenic carcinoma, metastatic cancer, Kaposis sarcoma.
Vascular: Pulmonary embolism, mitral stenosis, pulmonary edema.
Miscellaneous: Trauma, foreign body, aspiration, coagulopathy, epistaxis,
oropharyngeal bleeding, vasculitis, Goodpasture's syndrome, lupus,
hemosiderosis, Wegener's granulomatosis, pulmonary aneurysm rupture.
Wheezing and Asthma

History of the Present Illness: Onset, duration, and progression of wheezing;
severity of attack compared to previous episodes; dyspnea, cough, fever,
chills, purulent sputum; frequency of exacerbations and hospitalizations;
history of steroid dependency, intubation, home oxygen or nebulizer use;
baseline peak flow rate.
Exposure to allergens (foods, pollen, animals, drugs); seasons that provoke
symptoms; exacerbation by exercise, aspirin, beta- blockers, new medica
tions, recent upper respiratory infection; chest pain, foreign body aspiration.
Treatment given in emergency room and response.
Past Pulmonary History: Previous episodes of asthma, COPD, pneumonia,
smoking. Baseline arterial blood gas results; past pulmonary function testing.
Family History: Family history of asthma, allergies, hay-fever, atopic dermatitis.
General Appearance: Dyspnea, respiratory distress, diaphoresis, somnolence.
Anxiety, diaphoresis, pallor. Note whether the patient looks cachectic, well,
or malnourished.
Vital Signs: Temperature, respiratory rate (tachypnea >28/min), pulse
(tachycardia), BP (widened pulse pressure, hypotension), pulsus paradoxus
(inspiratory drop in systolic blood pressure >10 mmHg = severe attack).
HEENT: Nasal flaring, pharyngeal erythema, cyanosis, jugular venous
distention, grunting.
Chest: Prolonged expiratory wheeze, rhonchi, decreased intensity of breath
sounds (emphysema); sternocleidomastoid muscle contractions, barrel chest,
increased anteroposterior diameter (hyperinflation); intracostal and
supraclavicular retractions.
Heart: Decreased cardiac dullness to percussion (hyperinflation); distant heart
sounds, third heart sound gallop (S3, cor pulmonale); increased intensity of
pulmonic component of second heart sound (pulmonary hypertension).
Abdomen: Retractions, tenderness.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 25

Extremities: Cyanosis, clubbing, edema.
Skin: Rash, urticaria.
Neuro: Decreased mental status, confusion.
Labs: Chest x-ray: hyperinflation, bullae, flattening of diaphragms; small,
elongated heart.
ABG: Respiratory alkalosis, hypoxia.
Sputum gram stain; CBC, electrolytes, theophylline level.
ECG: Sinus tachycardia, right axis deviation, right ventricular hypertrophy.
Pulmonary function tests, peak flow rate.
Differential Diagnosis: Asthma, bronchitis, COPD, pneumonia, congestive
heart failure, anaphylaxis, upper airway obstruction, endobronchial tumors,
carcinoid.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

History of the Present Illness: Duration of wheezing, dyspnea, cough, fever,
chills; increased sputum production; sputum quantity, consistency, color;
smoking (pack-years); chest trauma, noncompliance with medications.
Severity of attack compared to prior episodes. Baseline blood gases.
Associated Symptoms: Chest pain, pleurisy. Adverse drug reactions (beta
blockers, sedatives), allergic reaction.
Past History: Frequency of exacerbations, home oxygen use, steroid depend
ency, history of intubations, nebulizer use; pneumonia, past pulmonary
function tests. Diabetes, heart failure, family history of emphysema, alcohol
abuse.
Treatment given in emergency room.
General Appearance: Diaphoresis, respiratory distress; speech interrupted by
breaths. Anxiety, dyspnea, pallor. Note whether the patient looks cachectic,
well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: Temperature, respiratory rate (tachypnea), pulse (tachycardia), BP.
HEENT: Pursed-lip breathing, jugular venous distention. Mucous membrane
cyanosis, perioral cyanosis.
Chest: Barrel chest, retractions, sternocleidomastoid muscle contractions,
supraclavicular retractions, intercostal retractions, prolonged expiratory
wheezing, rhonchi. Decreased air movement, hyperinflation.
Heart: Right ventricular heave, distant heart sounds, S3 gallop (cor pulmonale).
Extremities: Cyanosis, clubbing, edema.
Neuro: Decreased mental status, somnolence, confusion.
Labs: Chest x-ray: Diaphragmatic flattening, bullae, hyperaeration.
ABG: Respiratory alkalosis (early), acidosis (late), hypoxia. Sputum gram stain,
26 Pulmonary Embolism
culture, CBC, electrolytes.
ECG: Sinus tachycardia, right axis deviation, right ventricular hypertrophy,
PVCs.
Differential Diagnosis: COPD, chronic bronchitis, asthma, pneumonia, heart
failure, alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, cystic fibrosis.
Pulmonary Embolism
History of the Present Illness: Sudden onset of pleuritic chest pain and
dyspnea. Unilateral leg pain, swelling; fever, cough, hemoptysis, diaphoresis,
syncope. History of deep vein thrombosis.
Virchow's Triad: Immobility, trauma, hypercoagulability; malignancy (pancreas,
lung, genitourinary, stomach, breast, pelvic, bone); estrogens (oral contracep
tives), history of heart failure, surgery, pregnancy.
General Appearance: Dyspnea, apprehension, diaphoresis. Note whether the
patient looks cachectic, well, or malnourished.
Vitals: Temperature (fever), respiratory rate (tachypnea, >16/min), pulse
(tachycardia >100/min), BP (hypotension).
HEENT: Jugular venous distention, prominent jugular A-waves.
Chest: Crackles; tenderness or splinting of chest wall, pleural friction rub;
breast mass (malignancy).
Heart: Right ventricular gallop; accentuated, loud, pulmonic component of
second heart sound (S2); S3 or S4 gallop; murmur.
Extremities: Cyanosis, edema, calf redness or tenderness; Homan's Sign (pain
with dorsiflexion of foot); calf swelling, increased calf circumference (>2 cm
difference), dilated superficial veins.
Genitourinary: Testicular or pelvic masses.
Neuro: Altered mental status.
Pulmonary Embolism 27
Frequency of Symptoms and Signs in Pulmonary Embolism

Symptoms
Signs
Dyspnea
Pleuritic chest pain
Apprehension
Cough
Hemoptysis
Sweating
Non-pleuritic chest pain
Syncope
84
74
59
53
30
27
14
13
Tachypnea (>16/min)
Rales
Accentuated S2
Tachycardia
Fever (>37.8EC)
Diaphoresis
S3 or S4 gallop
Thrombophlebitis
92
58
53
44
43
36
34
32
Labs: ABG: Hypoxemia, hypocapnia, respiratory alkalosis.

Lung Scan: Ventilation/perfusion mismatch. Duplex imaging and impedance
plethysmography of lower extremities.
Pulmonary angiogram: Arterial filling defects.
Chest x-ray: Elevated hemidiaphragm, wedge shaped infiltrate; localized
oligemia; effusion, segmental atelectasis.
ECG: Sinus tachycardia, nonspecific ST-T wave changes, QRS changes (acute
right shift, S1Q3 pattern); right heart strain pattern (P-pulmonale, right bundle
branch block, right axis deviation).
Differential Diagnosis: Heart failure, myocardial infarction, pneumonia,
pulmonary edema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, aspiration
of foreign body or gastric contents, hyperventilation.
28 Pulmonary Embolism
Fever and Sepsis 29
Infectious Diseases
Fever and Sepsis
History of the Present Illness: Degree of fever; time of onset, pattern of fever;
shaking chills (rigors), cough, sputum, sore throat, headache, neck stiffness,
dysuria, frequency, back pain; night sweats; vaginal discharge, myalgias,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, malaise, anorexia.
Chest or abdominal pain; ear, bone or joint pain; recent antipyretic use.
Cirrhosis, diabetes, heart murmur, recent surgery; AIDS risk factors.
Exposure to tuberculosis or hepatitis; travel history, animal exposure; recent
dental GI procedures. Ill contacts; IV or Foley catheter; antibiotic use, alcohol
use, allergies.
General Appearance: Lethargy, toxic appearance, altered level of conscious
ness. Dyspnea, apprehension, diaphoresis. Note whether the patient looks
ill, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: Temperature (fever curve), respiratory rate (tachypnea or
hypoventilation), pulse (tachycardia), BP (hypotension).
HEENT: Papilledema; periodontitis, tympanic membrane inflammation, sinus
tenderness; pharyngeal erythema, lymphadenopathy, neck rigidity.
Breast: Tenderness, masses.
Chest: Rhonchi, crackles, dullness to percussion (pneumonia).
Heart: Murmurs (endocarditis).
Abdomen: Masses, liver tenderness, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly; Murphy's
sign (right upper quadrant tenderness and arrest of respiration secondary to
pain, cholecystitis); shifting dullness, ascites. Costovertebral angle or
suprapubic tenderness.
Extremities: Cellulitis, infected decubitus ulcers or wounds; IV catheter
tenderness (phlebitis), calf tenderness, Homan's sign; joint or bone tender
ness (septic arthritis). Osler's nodes, Janeway's lesions (peripheral lesions
of endocarditis).
Rectal: Prostate tenderness; rectal flocculence, fissures, and anal ulcers.
Pelvic/Genitourinary: Cervical discharge, cervical motion tenderness; adnexal
or uterine tenderness, adnexal masses; genital herpes lesions.
Skin: Pallor, cool extremities, delayed capillary refill; rash, purpura, petechia
(septic emboli, meningococcemia), ecthyma gangrenosum (purpuric necrotic
plaque of Pseudomonas infection). Pustules, cellulitis, furuncles, abscesses,
cysts.
Labs: CBC, blood C&S x 2, glucose, BUN, creatinine, UA, urine Gram stain,
C&S; lumbar puncture; urine, skin lesion cultures, bilirubin, transaminases;
30 Cough and Pneumonia

tuberculin skin test, Gram Strain of buffy coat
Chest x-ray; abdomen X-ray; gallium, indium scans.
Laboratory Tests for Serious Infections

Complete blood count, including leu
kocyte differential and platelet
count
Electrolytes
Arterial blood gases
Blood urea nitrogen and creatinine
Urinalysis
INR, partial thromboplastin time,
fibrinogen
Serum lactate
Cultures with antibiotic sensitivities

Blood
Urine
Wound
Sputum, drains
Chest X-ray
Adjunctive imaging studies (eg, computed
tomography, magnetic resonance im
aging, abdominal X-ray)
Infectious Causes: Abscesses, mycobacterial infections (tuberculosis),
cystitis, pyelonephritis, endocarditis, wound infection, diverticulitis,
cholangitis, osteomyelitis, IV catheter phlebitis, sinusitis, otitis media, upper
respiratory infection, pharyngitis, pelvic infection, cellulitis, hepatitis, infected
decubitus ulcer, furuncle, peritonitis, abdominal abscess, perirectal abscess,
mastitis; viral, parasite infections.
Malignancies: Lymphomas, leukemia, solid tumors, carcinomas.
Connective Tissue Diseases: Lupus, rheumatic fever, rheumatoid arthritis,
temporal arteritis, sarcoidosis, polymyalgia rheumatica.
Other Causes of Fever: Atelectasis, drug fever, pulmonary emboli, pericarditis,
pancreatitis, factitious fever, alcohol withdrawal. Deep vein thrombosis,
myocardial infarction, gout, porphyria, thyroid storm.
Medications Associated with Fever: Barbiturates, isoniazid, nitrofurantoin,
penicillins, phenytoin, procainamide, sulfonamides.
Cough and Pneumonia

History of the Present Illness: Duration of cough, chills, rigors, fever; rate of
onset of symptoms. Sputum color, quantity, consistency, blood; living situation
(nursing home, homelessness). Recent antibiotic use.
Associated Symptoms: Pleuritic chest pain, dyspnea, sore throat, rhinorrhea,
headache, stiff neck, ear pain; nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, myalgias,
arthralgias.
Past Medical History: Previous pneumonia, intravenous drug abuse, AIDS risk
factors. Diabetes, heart failure, COPD, asthma, immunosuppression,
Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia and AIDS 31

alcoholism, steroids; ill contacts, aspiration, smoking, travel history, exposure
to tuberculosis, tuberculin testing. Pneumococcal vaccination.
General Appearance: Respiratory distress, dehydration. Note whether the
patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: Temperature (fever), respiratory rate (tachypnea), pulse (tachycar
dia), BP.
HEENT: Tympanic membranes, pharyngeal erythema, lymphadenopathy, neck
rigidity.
Chest: Dullness to percussion, tactile fremitus (increased sound conduction);
rhonchi; end-inspiratory crackles; bronchial breath sounds with decreased
intensity; whispered pectoriloquy (increased transmission of sound),
egophony (E to A changes).
Extremities: Cyanosis, clubbing.
Neuro: Gag reflex, mental status.
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, BUN, creatinine, glucose; UA, ECG, ABG.
Chest x-ray: segmental consolidation, air bronchograms, atelectasis, effusion.
Sputum Gram stain: >25 WBC per low-power field, bacteria.
Differential Diagnosis: Pneumonia, heart failure, asthma, bronchitis, viral
infection, pulmonary embolism, malignancy.
Etiologic Agents of Community Acquired Pneumonia
Age 5-40 (without underlying lung disease): Viral, mycoplasma
pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Streptococcus pneumoniae,
legionella.
>40 (no underlying lung disease): Streptococcus pneumonia, group A
streptococcus, H. influenza.
>40 (with underlying disease): Klebsiella pneumonia, Enterobacteriaceae,
Legionella, Staphylococcus aureus, Chlamydia pneumoniae.
Aspiration Pneumonia: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Bacteroides sp.,
anaerobes, Klebsiella, Enterobacter.
Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia and AIDS

History of the Present Illness: Progressive exertional dyspnea and inability to
perform usual activities (climbing stairs). Fever, chills, insidious onset; CD4
lymphocyte count and HIV-RNA titer (viral load); duration of HIV positivity;
prior episodes of PCP or opportunistic infection.
Dry nonproductive cough (or productive of white, frothy sputum), night sweats.
Prophylactic trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole treatment; antiviral therapy.
Baseline and admission arterial blood gas.
Associated Symptoms: Headache, stiff neck, lethargy, fatigue, weakness,
32 Meningitis
malaise, weight loss, diarrhea, visual changes. Oral lesions, odynophagia
(painful swallowing), skin lesions.
Past Infectious Disease History: History of herpes simplex, toxoplasmosis,
tuberculosis, hepatitis, mycobacterium avium complex, syphilis. Prior
pneumococcal immunization. Mode of acquisition of HIV infection; sexual,
substance use history (intravenous drugs), blood transfusion.
Medications: Antivirals, prescribed and alternative medications.
General Appearance: Cachexia, respiratory distress, cyanosis. Note whether
the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: Temperature (fever), respiratory rate (tachypnea), pulse (tachycar
dia), BP (hypotension).
HEENT: Herpetic lesions; oropharyngeal thrush, hairy leukoplakia; oral Kaposi's
sarcoma (purple-brown macules); retinitis, hemorrhages, perivascular white
spots, cotton wool spots (CMV retinitis); visual field deficits (toxoplasmosis.)
Neck rigidity, lymphadenopathy.
Chest: Dullness, decreased breath sounds at bases; crackles.
Heart: Murmurs (IV drug users).
Abdomen: Right upper quadrant tenderness, hepatosplenomegaly.
Pelvic/Rectal: Candidiasis, anal herpetic lesions, ulcers, condyloma.
Dermatologic Stigmata of AIDS: Rashes, Kaposi's sarcoma (multiple purple
nodules or plaques), seborrheic dermatitis, zoster, herpes, molluscum
contagiosum; oral thrush.
Lymph Node Examination: Enlarged nodes.
Neuro: Confusion, disorientation (AIDS dementia complex, meningitis), motor,
sensory, cranial nerves.
Labs: Chest x-ray: Diffuse, interstitial infiltrates.
ABG: hypoxia, increased Aa gradient. CBC, sputum gram stain, Pneumocystis
immunofluorescent stain; CD4 count, HIV RNA titer, hepatitis surface antigen
and antibody, electrolytes. Bronchoalveolar lavage, high resolution CT scan.
Differential Diagnosis: Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, bacterial pneumonia,
tuberculosis, Kaposi's sarcoma.
Meningitis
History of the Present Illness: Duration and degree of fever, chills, rigors;
headache, neck stiffness; cough, sputum; lethargy, irritability (high pitched cry
in children), altered consciousness, nausea, vomiting. Skin rashes, dysuria,
ill contacts, travel history.
History of pneumonia, bronchitis, otitis media, sinusitis, endocarditis. Diabetes,
alcoholism, sickle cell disease, splenectomy malignancy,
Meningitis 33
immunosuppression, AIDS, intravenous drug use, tuberculosis; recent upper
respiratory infections, antibiotic use.
General Appearance: Level of consciousness; obtundation, labored respira
tions. Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: Temperature (fever), pulse (tachycardia), respiratory rate
(tachypnea), BP (hypotension).
HEENT: Pupil reactivity, extraocular movements, papilledema. Full fontanelle
in infants. Brudzinski's sign (neck flexion causes hip flexion); Kernig's sign
(flexing hip and extending knee elicits resistance).
Chest: Rhonchi, crackles.
Heart: Murmurs.
Skin: Capillary refill, rashes, nail bed splinter hemorrhages, Janeway's lesions
(Endocarditis), petechia, purpura (meningococcemia).

Neuro: Altered mental status, cranial nerve palsies, weakness, sensory deficits,
Babinski's sign.
CT Scan: Increased intracranial pressure should be excluded.
Labs
CSF Tube 1 - Gram stain, culture and sensitivity, bacterial antigen screen (12 mL).
CSF Tube 2 - Glucose, protein (1-2 mL).
CSF Tube 3 - Cell count and differential (1-2 mL).
CBC, electrolytes, BUN, creatinine.
Differential Diagnosis: Meningitis, encephalitis, brain abscess, viral infection,
tuberculosis, osteomyelitis, subarachnoid hemorrhage.
Etiology of Bacterial Meningitis
15-50 years: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitis, Listeria.
>50 years or debilitated: Same as above plus - Hemophilus influenza,
Pseudomonas, streptococci.
AIDS: Cryptococcus neoformans, Toxoplasma gondii, herpes encephalitis,
coccidioides.
Cerebral Spinal Fluid Analysis

Disease
Color
Protein
Cells
Glucose
Normal CSF Fluid
Clear
<50 mg/100 mL
<5 lymphs/mm3
>40 mg/100 mL, -2/3 of blood glu

cose level drawn at same time
Bacterial meningitis or
tuberculous meningitis
Yellow opal
escent
Elevated 501500
25-10000 WBC
with predominate
polys
low
Tuberculous, fungal, par

tially treated bacterial,
syphilitic meningitis,
meningeal metastases
Clear opales
cent
Elevated usually
<500
10-500 WBC with

predominant
lymphs
20-40, low
Viral meningitis, partially

treated bacterial men
ingitis, encephalitis,
toxoplasmosis
Clear opales
cent
Slightly elevated
or normal
10-500 WBC with

predominant
lymphs
Normal to low
Pyelonephritis and Urinary Tract Infection 35
Pyelonephritis and Urinary Tract Infection

History of the Present Illness: Dysuria, frequency (voiding repeatedly of small
amounts), urgency; suprapubic discomfort or pain, hematuria, fever, chills,
malaise (pyelonephritis); back pain, nausea, vomiting.
History of urinary infections, renal stones or colicky pain. Recent antibiotic use,
prostate enlargement. Diaphragm use.
Risk factors: Diaphragm or spermicide use, sexual intercourse, elderly,
anatomic abnormality, calculi, prostatic obstruction, urinary tract instrumenta
tion. Urinary tract obstruction, catheterization.
General Appearance: Signs of dehydration, septic appearance. Note whether
Vital Signs: Temperature (fever), respiratory rate, pulse, BP.
Abdomen: Suprapubic tenderness, costovertebral angle tenderness, masses.
Pelvic/Genitourinary: Urethral or vaginal discharge, cystocele.
Rectal: Prostatic hypertrophy or tenderness (prostatitis).
Labs: UA with micro. Urine Gram stain, urine C&S. CBC with differential,
SMA7.
Pathogens: E coli, Klebsiella, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Staphylo
coccus saprophyticus, enterococcus, group B streptococcus, Chlamydia
trachomatis.
Differential Diagnosis: Acute cystitis, pyelonephritis, vulvovaginitis, gonococcal
or chlamydia urethritis, herpes, cervicitis, papillary necrosis, renal calculus,
appendicitis, cholecystitis, pelvic inflammatory disease.
Endocarditis
History of the Present Illness: Fever, chills, night sweats, fatigue, malaise,
weight loss; pain in fingers or toes (emboli); pleuritic chest pain; skin lesions;
history of heart murmur, rheumatic heart disease, heart failure, prosthetic
valve.
Recent dental or gastrointestinal procedure; intravenous drug use, recent
intravenous catheterization; urinary tract infection; colonic disease, decubitus
ulcers, wound infection. History of stroke.
36 Endocarditis
General Appearance: Septic appearance. Note whether the patient looks ill,
Vitals: Temperature (fever), pulse (tachycardia), BP (hypotension).
HEENT: Oral mucosal and conjunctival petechiae; Roth's spots (retinal
hemorrhages with pale center, emboli).
Heart: New or worsening cardiac murmur.
Abdomen: Liver tenderness (abscess); splenomegaly, spinal tenderness
(vertebral abscess).
Neuro: Focal neurological deficits (septic emboli).
Extremities: Splinter hemorrhages under nails; Osler's nodes (erythematous
or purple tender nodules on pads of toes or fingers); Janeway lesions
(erythematous, nontender lesions on palms and soles, septic emboli), joint
pain (septic arthritis).
Labs: WBC, UA (hematuria); blood cultures x 3, urine culture.
Echocardiogram: Vegetations, valvular insufficiency.
Chest x-ray: Cardiomegaly, valvular calcifications, multiple focal infiltrates.
Native Valve Pathogens: Streptococcus viridans, streptococcus bovis,
enterococci, staphylococcus aureus, streptococcus pneumonia, pseudomo

nas, group D streptococcus.
Prosthetic Valve Pathogens: Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacter sp.,
staphylococcus epidermidis.
Abdominal Pain and the Acute Abdomen 37
Gastrointestinal Disorders
Abdominal Pain and the Acute Abdomen
History of the Present Illness: Duration of pain, pattern of progression; exact
location at onset and at present; diffuse or localized; location and character
at onset and at present (burning, crampy, sharp, dull); constant or intermittent
(colicky); radiation (to shoulder, back, groin); sudden or gradual onset.
Effect of eating, vomiting, defecation, flatus, urination, inspiration, movement,
position. Timing and characteristics of last bowel movement. Similar
episodes in past; relation to last menstrual period.
Associated Symptoms: Fever, chills, nausea, vomiting (bilious, feculent,
undigested food, blood, coffee grounds); vomiting before or after onset of
pain; jaundice, constipation, change in bowel habits or stool caliber,
obstipation (inability to pass gas); chest pain, diarrhea, hematochezia (rectal
bleeding), melena (black, tarry stools); dysuria, hematuria, anorexia, weight
loss, dysphagia, odynophagia (painful swallowing); early satiety, trauma.
History of abdominal surgery (appendectomy, cholecystectomy, aortic graft),
hernias, gallstones; coronary disease, kidney stones; alcoholism, cirrhosis,
peptic ulcer, dyspepsia.
Past Treatment or Testing: Endoscopies, x-rays, upper GI series.
Aggravating or Relieving Factors: Fatty food intolerance, medications,
aspirin, NSAID's, narcotics, anticholinergics, laxatives, antacids.
General Appearance: Degree of distress, body positioning to relieve pain,
nutritional status. Signs of dehydration, septic appearance. Note whether the
patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vitals: Temperature (fever), pulse (tachycardia), BP (hypotension), respiratory
rate (tachypnea).
HEENT: Pale conjunctiva, scleral icterus, atherosclerotic retinopathy, silver
wire arteries (ischemic colitis); flat neck veins (hypovolemia).
Lymphadenopathy, Virchow node (supraclavicular mass).
Abdomen
Inspection: Scars, ecchymosis, visible peristalsis (small bowel obstruction),
distension. Scaphoid, flat.
Auscultation: Absent bowel sounds (paralytic ileus or late obstruction),
high-pitched rushes (obstruction), bruits (ischemic colitis).
Palpation: Begin palpation in quadrant diagonally opposite to point of
maximal pain with patient's legs flexed and relaxed. Bimanual palpation
of flank (renal disease or retrocecal appendix). Rebound tenderness;
hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, masses; hernias (incisional, inguinal,
38 Acute Abdomen and Abdominal Pain

femoral). Pulsating masses; costovertebral angle tenderness. Bulging
flanks, shifting dullness, fluid wave (ascites).
Specific Signs on Palpation
Murphy's sign: Inspiratory arrest with right upper quadrant palpation,
cholecystitis.
Charcot's sign: Right upper quadrant pain, jaundice, fever; gallstones.
Courvoisier's sign: Palpable, nontender gallbladder with jaundice;
pancreatic malignancy.
McBurney's point tenderness: Located two thirds of the way between
umbilicus and anterior superior iliac spine; appendicitis.
Iliopsoas sign: Elevation of legs against examiner's hand causes pain,
retrocecal appendicitis. Obturator sign: Flexion of right thigh and
external rotation of thigh causes pain in pelvic appendicitis.
Rovsing's sign: Manual pressure and release at left lower quadrant
colon causes referred pain at McBurney's point; appendicitis.
Cullen's sign: Bluish periumbilical discoloration; peritoneal hemorrhage.
Grey Turner's sign: Flank ecchymoses; retroperitoneal hemorrhage.
Percussion: Loss of liver dullness (perforated viscus, free air in peritoneum);
liver and spleen span by percussion.
Rectal Examination: Masses, tenderness, impacted stool; gross or occult
blood.
Genital/Pelvic Examination: Cervical discharge, adnexal tenderness, uterine
size, masses, cervical motion tenderness.
Extremities: Femoral pulses, popliteal pulses (absent pulses indicate ischemic
colitis), edema.
Skin: Jaundice, dependent purpura (mesenteric infarction), petechia
(gonococcemia).
Stigmata of Liver Disease: Spider angiomata, periumbilical collateral veins
(Caput medusae), gynecomastia, ascites, hepatosplenomegaly, testicular
atrophy.
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, liver function tests, amylase, lipase, UA, pregnancy
test. ECG.
Chest x-ray: Free air under diaphragm, infiltrates, effusion (pancreatitis).
X-rays of abdomen (acute abdomen series): Flank stripe, subdiaphragmatic
free air, distended loops of bowel, sentinel loop, air fluid levels, thumb
printing, mass effects, calcifications, fecaliths, portal vein gas, pneumatobilia.
Generalized Pain: Intestinal infarction, peritonitis, obstruction, diabetic
ketoacidosis, sickle crisis, acute porphyria, penetrating posterior duodenal
ulcer, psychogenic pain.
Right Upper Quadrant: Cholecystitis, cholangitis, hepatitis, gastritis, pancreati
tis, hepatic metastases, gonococcal perihepatitis (Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syn-
Nausea and Vomiting 39

drome), retrocecal appendicitis, pneumonia, peptic ulcer.
Epigastrium: Gastritis, peptic ulcer, gastroesophageal reflux disease,
esophagitis, gastroenteritis, pancreatitis, perforated viscus, intestinal
obstruction, ileus, myocardial infarction, aortic aneurysm.
Left Upper Quadrant: Peptic ulcer, gastritis, esophagitis, gastroesophageal
reflux, pancreatitis, myocardial ischemia, pneumonia, splenic infarction,
pulmonary embolus.
Left Lower Quadrant: Diverticulitis, intestinal obstruction, colitis, strangulated
hernia, inflammatory bowel disease, gastroenteritis, pyelonephritis,
nephrolithiasis, mesenteric lymphadenitis, mesenteric thrombosis, aortic
aneurysm, volvulus, intussusception, sickle crisis, salpingitis, ovarian cyst,
ectopic pregnancy, endometriosis, testicular torsion, psychogenic pain.
Right Lower Quadrant: Appendicitis, diverticulitis (redundant sigmoid)
salpingitis, endometritis, endometriosis, intussusception, ectopic pregnancy,
hemorrhage or rupture of ovarian cyst, renal calculus.
Hypogastric/Pelvic: Cystitis, salpingitis, ectopic pregnancy, diverticulitis,
strangulated hernia, endometriosis, appendicitis, ovarian cyst torsion; bladder
distension, nephrolithiasis, prostatitis, malignancy.
Nausea and Vomiting

History of the Present Illness: Character of emesis (color, food, bilious,
feculent, hematemesis, coffee ground material, projectile); abdominal pain,
effect of vomiting on pain; early satiety, fever, melena, vertigo, tinnitus
(labyrinthitis).
Clay colored stools, dark urine, jaundice (biliary obstruction); recent change in
medications. Ingestion of spoiled food ; exposure to Ill contacts; dysphagia,
odynophagia.
Possibility of pregnancy (last menstrual period, contraception, sexual history).
Diabetes, cardiac disease, peptic ulcer, liver disease, CNS disease,
headache.
Drugs Associated with Nausea: Digoxin, colchicine, theophylline, chemother
apy, anticholinergics, morphine, meperidine (Demerol), ergotamines, oral
contraceptives, progesterone, antiarrhythmics, erythromycin, antibiotics,
antidepressants.
Past Testing: X-rays, upper GI series, endoscopy.
40 Anorexia and Weight Loss
Vital Signs: BP (orthostatic hypotension), pulse (tachycardia), respiratory rate,
temperature (fever).
Skin: Pallor, jaundice, spider angiomas.
HEENT: Nystagmus, papilledema; ketone odor on breath (apple odor, diabetic
ketoacidosis); jugular venous distention or flat neck veins.
Abdomen: Scars, bowel sounds, bruits, tenderness, rebound, rigidity,
distention, hepatomegaly, ascites.
Extremities: Edema.
Rectal: Masses, occult blood.
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, UA, amylase, lipase, LFTs, pregnancy test, four views
of the abdomen series.
Differential Diagnosis: Gastroenteritis, systemic infections, medications
(contraceptives, antiarrhythmics, chemotherapy, antibiotics), pregnancy,
appendicitis, peptic ulcer, cholecystitis, hepatitis, intestinal obstruction,
gastroesophageal reflux, gastroparesis, ileus, pancreatitis, myocardial
ischemia, tumors (esophageal, gastric) increased intracranial pressure,
labyrinthitis, diabetic ketoacidosis, renal failure, toxins, bulimia, psychogenic
vomiting.
Anorexia and Weight Loss

History of the Present Illness: Time of onset, amount and rate of weight loss
(sudden, gradual); change in appetite, nausea, vomiting, dysphagia,
abdominal pain; exacerbation of pain with eating (intestinal angina); diarrhea,
fever, chills, night sweats; dental problems; restricted access to food.
Polyuria, polydipsia; skin or hair changes; 24-hour diet recall; dyspepsia,
jaundice, dysuria; cough, change in bowel habits; chronic medical illness.
Dietary restrictions (low salt, low fat); diminished taste, malignancy, AIDS risks
factors; psychiatric disease, renal disease, alcoholism, drug abuse (cocaine,
amphetamines).
Signs of depression: Weight change, change in appetite, loss of interest in
usual activities, sleep abnormalities, decreased libido.
General Appearance: Muscle wasting, cachexia. Signs of dehydration. Note
whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: Pulse (bradycardia), BP, respiratory rate, temperature (hypother
mia).
Diarrhea 41
Skin: Pallor, jaundice, hair changes, skin laxity, cheilosis, dermatitis, glossitis
(Pellagra).
HEENT: Dental erosions from vomiting, oropharyngeal lesions, thyromegaly,
glossitis, temporal wasting, supraclavicular adenopathy (Virchow's node).
Chest: Rhonchi, barrel shaped chest.
Heart: Murmurs, displaced PMI.
Abdomen: Scars, decreased bowel sounds, tenderness, hepatomegaly
splenomegaly. Periumbilical adenopathy, palpable masses.
Extremities: Edema, muscle wasting, lymphadenopathy, skin abrasions on
fingers.
Neuropathy: Decreased sensation, poor proprioception.
Rectal: Occult blood, masses.
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, protein, albumin, pre-albumin, transferrin, thyroid
studies, LFTs, toxicology screen.
Differential Diagnosis: Inadequate caloric intake, peptic ulcer, depression,
anorexia nervosa, dementia, hyper/hypothyroidism, cardiopulmonary disease,
narcotics, diminished taste, diminished olfaction, poor dental hygiene (loose
dentures), cholelithiasis, malignancy (gastric carcinoma), gastritis, hepatic or
renal failure, systemic infection, alcohol abuse, AIDS, mesenteric ischemia.
Diarrhea
History of the Present Illness: Rate of onset, duration, frequency, timing of the
diarrheal episodes. Volume of stool output (number of stools per day), watery
stools; fever. Cramping, abdominal cramps, bloating, flatulence, tenesmus
(painful urge to defecate), anorexia, nausea, vomiting, bloating;
lightheadedness, myalgias, arthralgias, weight loss.
Stool Appearance: Buoyancy, blood or mucus, oily, foul odor.
Recent ingestion of spoiled poultry (salmonella), milk, seafood (shrimp,
shellfish; Vibrio parahaemolyticus); common sources (restaurant), travel
history, laxative abuse.
Ill contacts with diarrhea; inflammatory bowel disease, hyperthyroidism; family
history of coeliac disease.
Sexual exposures, immunosuppressive agents, AIDS risk factors, coronary
artery disease, peripheral vascular disease (ischemic colitis). Exacerbation
by stress.
Drugs and Substances Associated with Diarrhea: Laxatives, magnesiumcontaining antacids, sulfa drugs, antibiotics (erythromycin, clindamycin),
cholinergic agents, colchicine, milk (lactase deficiency), gum (sorbitol).
42 Diarrhea
General Appearance: Signs of dehydration or malnutrition. Septic appearance.
Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
temperature (fever).
Skin: Skin turgor, delayed capillary refill, jaundice.
HEENT: Oral ulcers (inflammatory bowel or coeliac disease), dry mucous
membranes, cheilosis (cracked lips, riboflavin deficiency); glossitis (B12,
folate deficiency). Oropharyngeal candidiasis (AIDS).
Abdomen: Hyperactive bowel sounds, tenderness, rebound, hepatomegaly
guarding, rigidity (peritoneal signs), distention, bruits (ischemic colitis).
Extremities: Arthritis, joint swelling (ulcerative colitis). Absent peripheral pulses
or bruits (ischemic colitis).
Rectal: Perianal or rectal ulcers, sphincter tone, tenderness, masses, occult
blood. Sphincter reflex.
Neuro: Mental status changes. Peripheral neuropathy (B6, B12 deficiency),
decreased perianal sensation.
Labs: Electrolytes, Wright's stain for fecal leucocytes; cultures for enteric
pathogens, ova and parasites x 3; clostridium difficile toxin. CBC with
differential, calcium, albumen, flexible sigmoidoscopy.
Abdominal X-ray: Air fluid levels, dilation, pancreatic calcifications.
Acute Infectious Diarrhea: Infectious diarrhea (salmonella, shigella, E coli,
Campylobacter, Bacillus cereus), enteric viruses (rotavirus, Norwalk virus),
traveler's diarrhea, antibiotic-related diarrhea
Chronic Diarrhea:
Osmotic Diarrhea: Laxatives, lactulose, lactase deficiency (gastroenteritis,
sprue), other disaccharidase deficiencies, ingestion of mannitol, enteral
feeding, sorbitol.
Secretory Diarrhea: Bacterial enterotoxins, viral infection; AIDS associated
disorders (mycobacterial, HIV), Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, vasoactive
intestinal peptide tumor, carcinoid tumors, medullary thyroid carcinoma,
colonic villus adenoma.
Exudative Diarrhea: Bacterial infection, Clostridium difficile, parasites,
Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, diverticulitis, intestinal ischemia,
diverticulitis.
Diarrhea Secondary to Altered Intestinal Motility: Diabetic gastroparesis,
hyperthyroidism, laxatives, cholinergics, irritable bowel syndrome,
dumping syndrome, bacterial overgrowth, constipation-related diarrhea.
Hematemesis and Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding 43
Hematemesis and Upper Gastrointestinal Bleed

ing
History of the Present Illness: Duration and frequency of hematemesis (bright
red blood, coffee ground material), volume of blood, hematocrit. Forceful
retching prior to hematemesis (Mallory-Weiss tear).
Abdominal pain, melena, hematochezia (bright red blood per rectum); history
of peptic ulcer, esophagitis, prior bleeding episodes.
Ingestion of alcohol, aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, steroids,
anticoagulants; nose bleeds, syncope, lightheadedness, nausea.
Weight loss, malaise, fatigue, anorexia, early satiety, jaundice. History of liver
or renal disease, hepatic encephalopathy, esophageal varices, aortic surgery.
Nasogastric aspirate quantity and character; transfusions given previously.
Family history of liver disease or bleeding disorders.
Past Testing: X-ray studies, endoscopy.
Past Treatment: Endoscopic sclerotherapy, shunt surgery.
General Appearance: Pallor, diaphoresis, cold extremities, confusion. Signs of
dehydration. Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: Supine and upright pulse and blood pressure (orthostatic
hypotension); (resting tachycardia indicates a 10% blood volume loss;
postural hypotension indicates a 20-30% blood loss); oliguria (<20 mL of
urine per hour), temperature.
Skin: Delayed capillary refill, pallor, petechiae. Stigmata of liver disease
[jaundice, umbilical venous collaterals (caput medusae), spider angiomas,
parotid gland hypertrophy]. Hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler-Weber-Rendu
syndrome), abnormal pigmentation (Peutz-Jeghers syndrome); purple brown
nodules (Kaposi's sarcoma).
HEENT: Scleral pallor, oral telangiectasia, flat neck veins.
Chest: Gynecomastia (cirrhosis), breast masses (metastatic disease).
Heart: Systolic ejection murmur.
Abdomen: Scars, tenderness, rebound, masses, splenomegaly, hepatic
atrophy (cirrhosis), liver nodules. Ascites, dilated abdominal veins.
Extremities: Dupuytren's contracture (palmar contractures, cirrhosis), edema.
Neuro: Decreased mental status, confusion, poor memory, asterixis (flapping
with wrists when hyperextended, hepatic encephalopathy).
Genitourinary/Rectal: Gross or occult blood, masses, testicular atrophy.
Labs: CBC, platelets, electrolytes, BUN (elevation suggests upper GI bleed),
glucose, INR/PTT, ECG. Endoscopy, nuclear scan, angiography.
Differential Diagnosis of Upper GI Bleeding: Gastric or duodenal ulcer,
esophageal varices, Mallory Weiss tear (gastroesophageal junction tear due
44 Melena and Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding

to vomiting or retching), gastritis, esophagitis, swallowed blood (nose bleed,
oral lesion), duodenitis, gastric cancer, vascular ectasias, coagulopathy,
hypertrophic gastropathy (Menetrier's disease), aorto-enteric fistula.
Melena and Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding

History of the Present Illness: Duration, quantity, color of bleeding (gross
blood, streaks on stool, melena), recent hematocrit. Change in bowel habits
or stool caliber, abdominal pain, fever. Constipation, diarrhea, anorectal pain.
Epistaxis, anorexia, weight loss, malaise, vomiting.
Fecal mucus, tenesmus (straining during defecation), lightheadedness; history
of diverticulosis, hemorrhoids, colitis, peptic ulcer, hematemesis, bleeding
disease, coronary or renal disease, cirrhosis, alcoholism, easy bruising.
Anticoagulants, aspirin, NSAIDS.
Color of nasogastric aspirate.
Past Testing: Barium enema, colonoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, upper GI series.
General Appearance: Signs of dehydration, pallor. Note whether the patient
Vital Signs: BP, pulse (orthostatic hypotension), respiratory rate, temperature
(tachycardia), oliguria.
Skin: Cold, clammy skin; delayed capillary refill, pallor, jaundice. Stigmata of
liver disease: Umbilical venous collaterals (Caput medusae), jaundice, spider
angiomata, parotid gland hypertrophy, gynecomastia. Rashes, purpura;
buccal mucosa discolorations or pigmentation (Henoch-Schnlein purpura or
Peutz-Jeghers polyposis syndrome).
HEENT: Atherosclerotic retinal disease, silver wire arteries (ischemic colitis).
Heart: Systolic ejection murmurs; atrial fibrillation (mesenteric emboli).
Abdomen: Scars, bruits, masses, distention, rebound, tenderness, hernias,
liver atrophy (cirrhosis), splenomegaly. Ascites, pulsatile masses (aortic
aneurysm).
Genitourinary: Testicular atrophy.
Extremities: Cold, pale extremities.
Neuro: Decreased mental status, confusion, asterixis (flapping hand tremor;
hepatic encephalopathy).
Rectal: Gross or occult blood, masses, hemorrhoids; fissures, polyps, ulcers.
Labs: CBC (anemia), liver function tests. Abdominal x-ray series
(thumbprinting, air fluid levels).
Differential Diagnosis of Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding: Hemorrhoids,
fissures, diverticulosis, upper GI bleeding, rectal trauma, inflammatory bowel
disease, infectious or ischemic colitis, bleeding polyps, carcinoma,
Cholecystitis 45
angiodysplasias, intussusception, coagulopathies, Meckel's diverticulitis,
epistaxis, endometriosis, aortoenteric fistula.
Cholecystitis
History of the Present Illness: Duration of biliary colic (constant right upper
quadrant pain, 30-90 minutes after meals, lasting several hours). Radiation
to epigastrium, scapula or back; nausea, vomiting, anorexia, low grade fever;
fatty food intolerance, dark urine, clay colored stools; bloating, jaundice, early
satiety, flatulence, obesity.
Previous epigastric pain, gallstones, alcohol. History of fasting, rapid weight
loss, hyperalimentation, estrogen, pregnancy, diabetes, sickle cell anemia,
hereditary spherocytosis.
Prior Testing: Ultrasounds, HIDA scans, endoscopies.
Causes of Cholesterol Stones: Hereditary, pregnancy, exogenous steroids,
diabetes, Crohn's disease, terminal ileal resection; rapid weight loss,
hyperalimentation.
Causes of Pigment Stones: Asians with biliary parasites, sickle cell anemia,
hereditary spherocytosis, cirrhosis, biliary stasis.
General Appearance: Obese, restless patient unable to find a comfortable
position. Signs of dehydration, septic appearance. Note whether the patient
Vital Signs: Pulse (mild tachycardia), temperature (low-grade fever), respiratory
rate (shallow respirations), BP.
Skin: Jaundice
HEENT: Scleral icterus, sublingual jaundice.
Abdomen: Epigastric or right upper quadrant tenderness, Murphy's sign
(tenderness and inspiratory arrest during palpation of RUQ); firm tender,
sausage-like mass in RUQ (enlarged gallbladder); guarding, rigidity, rebound
(peritoneal signs); Charcot's sign (intermittent right upper quadrant abdominal
pain, jaundice, fever).
Labs: Ultrasound, HIDA (radionuclide) scan, WBC, hyperbilirubinemia, alkaline
phosphatase, AST, amylase.
Plain Abdominal X-ray: Increased gallbladder shadow, gallbladder calcifications;
air in gallbladder wall (emphysematous cholecystitis), small bowel obstruction
(gallstone ileus).
Differential Diagnosis: Calculus cholecystitis, cholangitis, peptic ulcer,
pancreatitis, appendicitis, gastroesophageal reflux disease, hepatitis,
nephrolithiasis, pyelonephritis, hepatic metastases, gonococcal perihepatitis
(Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome), pleurisy, pneumonia, angina, herpes zoster.
46 Jaundice and Hepatitis
Jaundice and Hepatitis

History of the Present Illness: Dull right upper quadrant pain, anorexia,
jaundice, nausea, vomiting, fever, dark urine, increased abdominal girth
(ascites), pruritus, arthralgias, urticarial rash; somnolence (hepatic
encephalopathy). Weight loss, melena, hematochezia, hematemesis.
IV drug abuse, alcoholism, exposure to hepatitis or jaundiced persons, blood
transfusion, day care centers, residential institutions, foreign travel history;
prior hepatitis immunization. Heart failure, sepsis.
Hepatotoxins: Acetaminophen, isoniazid, nitrofurantoin, methotrexate,
sulfonamides, NSAIDS, phenytoin.
Family history of jaundice/liver disease.
Prior Testing: Hepatitis serologies, liver function tests, liver biopsy.
Vital Signs: Pulse, BP, respiratory rate, temperature (fever).
Skin: Jaundice, needle tracks, sclerotic veins (from intravenous injections),
urticaria, spider angiomas, bronze discoloration (hemochromatosis).
HEENT: Scleral icterus, sublingual jaundice, lymphadenopathy, KayserFleischer rings (bronze corneal pigmentation, Wilson's disease).
Chest: Gynecomastia, Murphy's sign (cessation of inspiration with palpation of
the right upper quadrant).
Abdomen: Scars, bowel sounds, right upper quadrant tenderness; liver span,
hepatomegaly; liver margin texture (blunt, irregular, firm), splenomegaly
(hepatitis) or hepatic atrophy (cirrhosis), ascites. Umbilical venous collaterals
(Caput medusae). Courvoisier's sign (palpable nontender gallbladder with
jaundice; pancreatic or biliary malignancy).
Genitourinary: Testicular atrophy.
Extremities: Joint tenderness, palmar erythema, Dupuytren's contracture
(fibrotic palmar ridge).
Neuro: Disorientation, confusion, asterixis (flapping tremor when wrists are
hyperextended, encephalopathy).
Rectal: Occult blood; hemorrhoids.
Labs: CBC with differential, LFTs, amylase, lipase, hepatitis serologies
(hepatitis B surface antibody, hepatitis B surface antigen, hepatitis A IgM,
hepatitis C antibody), antimitochondrial antibody (primary biliary cirrhosis),
ANA, ceruloplasmin, urine copper (Wilson's disease), alpha-1-antitrypsin
deficiency, drug screen, serum iron, TIBC, ferritin (hemochromatosis), liver
biopsy.
Cirrhosis 47
Differential Diagnosis of Jaundice
Extrahepatic: Biliary tract disease (gallstone, stricture, cancer), infections
(parasites, HIV, CMV, microsporidia); pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer.
Intrahepatic: Viral hepatitis, medication-related, acute fatty liver of pregnancy,
alcoholic hepatitis, cirrhosis, primary biliary cirrhosis, autoimmune hepatitis,
Wilson's disease, right heart failure, total parenteral nutrition; Dubin Johnson
syndrome, Rotors syndrome (direct hyperbilirubinemia); Gilbert's syndrome,
Crigler-Niger syndrome (indirect); sclerosing cholangitis, sarcoidosis,
amyloidosis, tumor.
Cirrhosis
History of the Present Illness: Jaundice, anorexia, nausea, fever; abdominal
distension, abdominal pain, increased abdominal girth (ascites); vomiting,
diarrhea, fatigue. Somnolence, confusion (encephalopathy); alcohol use. Viral
hepatitis, blood transfusion, IV drug use.
Precipitating Factors of Encephalopathy: Gastrointestinal bleeding, high
protein intake, constipation, azotemia, CNS depressants.
General Appearance: Muscle wasting, fetor hepaticas (malodorous breath).
Signs of dehydration. Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnour
ished.
Vital Signs: Pulse, BP, temperature, respiratory rate.
Skin: Jaundice, spider angiomas (stellate, erythematous arterioles), palmar
erythema; bronze skin discoloration (hemochromatosis), purpura, loss of body
hair.
HEENT: Kayser-Fleischer rings (bronze corneal pigmentation, Wilson's
disease), jugular venous distention (fluid overload). Parotid enlargement,
sclera icterus, gingival hemorrhage (thrombocytopenia).
Chest: Bibasilar crackles, gynecomastia.
Abdomen: Bulging flanks, tenderness, rebound (peritonitis); fluid wave, shifting
dullness, puddle sign (examiner flicks over lower abdomen while
auscultating for dullness). Courvoisier's sign (palpable nontender gallbladder
with jaundice; pancreatic malignancy); atrophic liver; liver margin texture
(blunt, irregular, firm), splenomegaly. Umbilical or groin hernias (ascites).
Genitourinary: Scrotal edema, testicular atrophy.
Extremities: Lower extremity edema.
Neuro: Confusion, asterixis (jerking movement of hand with wrist
hyperextended; hepatic encephalopathy).
Rectal: Occult blood, hemorrhoids.
Stigmata of Liver Disease: Spider angiomas (stellate red arterioles), jaundice,
48 Cirrhosis
bronze discoloration (hemochromatosis), dilated periumbilical collateral veins
(Caput medusae), ecchymoses, umbilical eversion, venous hum and thrill at
umbilicus (Cruveilhier-Baumgarten syndrome); palmar erythema, Dupuytren's
contracture (fibrotic palmar ridge to ring finger). Lacrimal and parotid gland
enlargement, testicular atrophy, gynecomastia, ascites, encephalopathy,
edema.
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, LFTs, albumin, INR/PTT, liver function tests, bilirubin,
UA. Hepatitis serologies, antimitochondrial, antibody (primary, biliary
cirrhosis), ANA, anti-Smith antibody, ceruloplasmin, urine copper (Wilson's
disease), alpha-1-antitrypsin, serum iron, TIBC, ferritin (hemochromatosis).
Abdominal x-ray: Hepatic angle sign (loss of lower margin of right lateral liver
angle), separation or centralization of bowel loops, generalized abdominal
haziness (ascites). Ultrasound, paracentesis.
Differential Diagnosis of Cirrhosis: Alcoholic liver disease, viral hepatitis (B,
C, D), hemochromatosis, primary biliary cirrhosis, autoimmune hepatitis,
inborn error of metabolism (Crigler Najjar syndrome; Wilson's disease, alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency), heart failure, venous outflow obstruction (BuddChiari, portal vein thrombus).
Evaluation of Ascites Fluid

Etiology
Appearance
Protein
Serum/fluid
albumen
ratio
RBC
WBC
Other
Cirrhosis
Straw
<3 g/dL
>1.1
low
<250
cells/mm3
Spontane
ous
Bacterial
Peritoni
tis
Cloudy
<3
>1.1
low
>250 polys
Bacteria on gram stain and cul

ture
Secondary
Bacterial
Peritoni
tis
Purulent
>3
<1.1
low
>10000
Bacteria on gram stain and cul

ture
Neoplasm
Straw/bloody
>3
varies
high
>1000 lymphs
Malignant cells on cytology; tri

glycerides
Tuberculo
sis
Clear
>3
<1.1
low-high
>1000 lymphs
Acid fast bacilli
Heart Fail
ure
Straw
>3
>1.1
low
<1000
Pancreatitis
Turbid
>3
<1.1
varies
varies
Elevated amylase, lipase
50 Pancreatitis
Pancreatitis
History of the Present Illness: Constant, dull, boring, mid-epigastric or left
upper quadrant pain; radiation to the mid-back; exacerbated by supine
position, relieved by sitting with knees drawn up; nausea, vomiting, low-grade
fever, rigors, jaundice; anorexia, dyspnea; elevated amylase.
Precipitating Factors: Alcohol, gallstones, trauma, postoperative, retrograde
cholangiopancreatography, trauma, hypertriglyceridemia, hypercalcemia,
renal failure, Coxsackie virus or mumps infection, mycoplasma infection.
Lupus, vasculitis, penetration of peptic ulcer, scorpion stings, tumor.
Medications Associated with Pancreatitis: Sulfonamides, thiazides,
dideoxyinosine (DDI), furosemide, tetracycline, estrogens, azathioprine,
valproate, pentamidine.
General Appearance: Signs of volume depletion, tachypnea. Septic appear
ance. Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: Temperature (low-grade fever), pulse (tachycardia), BP
(hypotension), respirations (tachypnea).
Chest: Crackles, left lower lobe dullness (pleural effusion).
HEENT: Scleral icterus, Chvostek's sign (taping cheek results in facial spasm,
hypocalcemia).
Skin: Jaundice, subcutaneous fat necrosis (erythematous skin nodules on legs
and ankles); palpable purpura (polyarteritis nodosum).
Abdomen: Epigastric tenderness, distension; rigidity, rebound, guarding,
hypoactive bowel sounds; upper abdominal mass; Cullen's sign (periumbilical
bluish discoloration from hemoperitoneum), Grey-Turner's sign (bluish flank
discoloration; retroperitoneal hemorrhage).
Extremities: Peripheral edema, anasarca.
Labs: Amylase, lipase, calcium, WBC, triglycerides, glucose, AST, LDL, UA.
Abdomen X-Rays: Ileus, pancreatic calcifications, obscure psoas margins,
displaced or atonic stomach. Colon cutoff sign (spasm of splenic flexure with
no distal colonic gas), diffuse ground-glass appearance (ascites).
Chest x-ray: Left plural effusion.
Ultrasound: Gallstones, pancreatic edema or enlargement.
CT scan with oral contrast: Pancreatic phlegmon, pseudocyst, abscess.
Ranson's Criteria of Pancreatitis Severity.
Early criteria: Age >55; WBC >16,000; glucose >200; LDH >350 IU/L; AST
>250.
During initial 48 hours: Hematocrit decrease >10%; BUN increase >5; arterial
pO2 <60 mmHg; base deficit >4 mEq/L; calcium <8; estimated fluid
sequestration >6 L.
Differential Diagnosis of Midepigastric Pain: Pancreatitis, peptic ulcer,
Gastritis and Peptic Ulcer Disease 51

cholecystitis, hepatitis, bowel obstruction, mesenteric ischemia, renal colic,
aortic dissection, pneumonia, myocardial ischemia.
Factors Associated with Pancreatitis: Alcoholic pancreatitis, gallstone
pancreatitis, penetrating peptic ulcer, trauma, medications, hyperlipidemia,
hypercalcemia, viral infections, pancreatic divisum, familial pancreatitis,
pancreatic malignancy, methyl alcohol, scorpion stings, endoscopic
retrograde cholangiopancreatography, vasculitis.
Gastritis and Peptic Ulcer Disease

History of the Present Illness: Recurrent, dull, burning, epigastric pain; 1-3
hours after meals; relieved by or worsen by food; worse when supine or
reclining; relieved by antacids; awakens patient at night or in early morning.
May radiate to back; nausea, vomiting, weight loss, coffee ground
hematemesis; melena. Alcohol, salicylates, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs.
History of previous examinations: Endoscopy upper GI series, surgery; history
of previous ulcer disease and Helicobacter pylori (HP) therapy.
General Appearance: Mild distress. Signs of dehydration, septic appearance.
Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: Pulse (tachycardia), BP (orthostatic hypotension), respiratory rate,
temperature.
Skin: Pallor, delayed capillary refill.
Abdomen: Mild to moderate epigastric tenderness; rebound, rigidity, guarding
(perforated ulcer), bowel sounds.
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, BUN, amylase, lipase. Abdominal x-ray series,
endoscopy.
Differential Diagnosis: Pancreatitis, gastritis, gastroenteritis, perforating ulcer,
intestinal obstruction, mesenteric adenitis, mesenteric thrombosis, aortic
aneurysm, gastroesophageal reflux disease, non-ulcer dyspepsia.
52 Mesenteric Ischemia and Infarction
Mesenteric Ischemia and Infarction

History of the Present Illness: Sudden onset of severe, poorly localized,
periumbilical pain; pain is postprandial and may be relieved by nitroglycerine;
frequent episodes of bloody diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, food aversion, weight
loss,.
Peripheral vascular disease, claudication, chest pain, angina, myocardial
infarction, atrial fibrillation, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes,
heart failure.
General Appearance: Lethargy, mild to moderate distress. Signs of dehydra
tion, septic appearance. Note whether the patient looks cachectic, ill, well,
or malnourished.
Vitals: Pulse, BP (orthostatic hypotension), pulse (tachycardia), respiratory rate,
temperature.
HEENT: Atherosclerotic retinopathy, silver wire arteries; carotid bruits
(mesenteric ischemia).
Skin: Cold, clammy skin, pallor, delayed capillary refill.
Abdomen: Initially hyperactive, then absent bowel sounds; peritoneal signs
rebound, tenderness, distention, guarding, rigidity (peritoneal signs), pulsatile
masses (aortic aneurysm), abdominal bruit.
Pain is usually out of proportion to the physical findings may be the only
presenting symptom.
Extremities: Weak peripheral pulses, femoral bruits; asymmetric pulses
(atherosclerotic disease).
Rectal: Occult or gross blood.
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, leukocytosis, hyperamylasemia. Hemoconcentration,
prerenal azotemia, metabolic acidosis.
Chest x-ray: Free air under diaphragm (perforated viscus). Abdominal x-ray:
thumb-printing (edema of intestinal wall), portal vein gas. Bowel wall gas
(colonic ischemia, nonocclusive); angiogram.
Differential Diagnosis. Peritonitis, acute appendicitis, acute cholecystitis,
perforated viscus, peptic ulcer, gastroenteritis, pancreatitis, bowel obstruc
tion, carcinoma, ruptured aortic aneurysm.
Intestinal Obstruction 53
Intestinal Obstruction
History of the Present Illness: Vomiting (bilious, feculent, bloody), nausea,
obstipation, distention, crampy abdominal pain. Initially crampy or colicky pain
with exacerbations every 5-10 minutes. Pain becomes diffuse with fever.
Hernias, previous abdominal surgery, use of opiates, anticholinergics,
antipsychotics, gallstones; colon cancer; history of constipation, recent weight
loss, recent weight loss.
Pain localizes to periumbilical region in small bowel obstruction and localizes
to lower abdomen in large bowel obstruction.
General Appearance: Severe distress, signs of dehydration, septic appear
ance. Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: BP (hypotension), pulse (tachycardia), respiratory rate, temperature
(fever).
Skin: Cold, clammy skin, pallor.
Abdomen: Hernias (incisional, inguinal, femoral, umbilical), scars
(intraabdominal adhesions).
Bowel Sounds: High pitch rushes and tinkles coinciding with cramping (early)
or absent bowel sounds (late).
Tenderness, rebound, rigidity, tender mass, distention, bruits.
Rectal: Gross blood, masses.
Labs: Leucocytosis, elevated BUN and creatinine, electrolytes; hypokalemic
metabolic alkalosis due to vomiting, hyperamylasemia.
Abdominal x-rays: Dilated loops of small or large bowel, air-fluid levels, ladder
pattern of dilated loops of bowel in the mid-abdomen. Colonic distention with
haustral markings.
Causes of Small Bowel Obstruction: Adhesions (previous surgery), hernias,
strictures from inflammatory processes; superior mesenteric artery syndrome,
gallstone ileus. Ischemia, small bowel tumors, metastatic cancer.
Causes of Large Bowel Obstruction: Colon cancer, volvulus, diverticulitis,
adynamic ileus, mesenteric ischemia, Ogilvie's syndrome (chronic pseudoobstruction); narcotic ileus. Inflammatory bowel disease with stricture.
Differential Diagnosis: Myocardial infarction, cholecystitis, peptic ulcer,
gastritis, gastroenteritis, peritonitis, sickle crisis, cancer, pancreatitis, renal
colic.
54 Amenorrhea
Gynecologic Disorders
Amenorrhea
History of the Present Illness: Primary amenorrhea (absence of menses by
age 16) or secondary amenorrhea (cessation of menses in a female with
previously normal menstruation). Age of menarche, last menstrual period.
Menstrual pattern, timing of breast and pubic hair development, sexual
activity, possibility of pregnancy, pregnancy testing.
Life style changes, dieting and excessive exercise, medications (contraceptives)
or drugs (marijuana), psychologic stress.
Hot flushes and night sweats (hypoestrogenism), galactorrhea (prolactinoma).
History of dilation and curettage, postpartum infection (Ashermans syndrome)
or hemorrhage (Sheehan's syndrome), obesity, weight gain or loss, headaches, visual disturbances, thyroid symptoms; symptoms of pregnancy
(nausea, breast tenderness), phenothiazines, antidepressants. Prior
pregnancies.
Assess diet, medications or drugs.
Previous radiation therapy, chemotherapy.
General Appearance: Secondary sexual characteristics, body habitus, obesity,
signs of hyperthyroidism (tremor) or hypothyroidism (non-pitting edema,
bradycardia, cool dry skin, hypothermia, brittle hair). Note whether the patient
HEENT: Acne, hirsutism, temporal balding, deepening of the voice
(hyperandrogenism), visual field defects, thyroid enlargement or nodules.
Chest: Galactorrhea, breast development, breast atrophy.
Abdomen: Abdominal striae (Cushings syndrome).
Gyn: Pubic hair distribution. Inguinal or labial masses, clitoromegaly, imperfo
rate hymen, vaginal septum, vaginal atrophy, uterine enlargement, ovarian
cysts or tumors.
Neuro: Focal motor deficits.
Labs: Pregnancy test, prolactin, TSH, free T4. Progesterone-estrogen challenge
testing.
Abnormal Uterine Bleeding 55
Differential Diagnosis of Amenorrhea

Pregnancy
Hormonal contraception
Hypothalamic-related
Chronic or systemic illness
Stress
Athletics
Eating disorder
Obesity
Drugs
Tumor
Pituitary-related
Hypopituitarism
Tumor
Infiltration
Infarction
Ovarian-related
Dysgenesis
Agenesis
Ovarian failure
Outflow tract-related
Imperforate hymen
Transverse vaginal septum
Agenesis of the vagina, cervix, uterus
Uterine synechiae
Androgen excess
Polycystic ovarian syndrome
Adrenal tumor
Adrenal hyperplasia (classic and
nonclassic)
Ovarian tumor
Other endocrine causes
Thyroid disease
Cushing syndrome
Abnormal Uterine Bleeding

History of the Present Illness: Last menstrual period, age of menarche;
regularity, duration and frequency of menses; amount of bleeding, number of
pads per day; passing of clots; postcoital or intermenstrual bleeding;
abdominal pain, fever, lightheadedness, sexual activity, possibility of
pregnancy, birth control method, hormonal contraception.
Psychologic stress, weight changes, exercise. Changes in hair or skin texture
or distribution
Molimina symptoms (premenstrual breast tenderness, bloating, dysmenorrhea).
Obstetrical history.
Thyroid, renal, or hepatic diseases, coagulopathies. Adenomyosis,
endometriosis, fibroids. Dental bleeding, endometrial biopsies.
Family history of coagulopathies, endocrine disorders.
General Appearance: Assess rate of bleeding. Pallor, obesity, hirsutism,
petechiae, skin and hair changes; fine thinning hair (hypothyroidism). Note
whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished, thyroid enlargement,
galactorrhea.
Vital Signs: Assess hemodynamic stability, tachycardia, hypotension,
orthostatic vitals; signs of shock.
56 Pelvic Pain and Ectopic Pregnancy

Gyn: Cervical motion tenderness, adnexal tenderness, uterine size, cervical
lesions. Cervical lesions should be biopsied.
Labs: CBC, platelets; serum pregnancy test; gonococcal culture, Chlamydia
test, endometrial sampling. INR/PTT, bleeding time, type and screen.
Pregnancy-related. Ectopic pregnancy, abortion
Hormonal contraception
Hypothalamic-related. Chronic or systemic illness, stress, excessive
exercise, eating disorders, obesity, drugs
Pituitary-related. Prolactinoma
Outflow tract-related. Trauma, foreign body, vaginal tumor, cervical
carcinoma, endometrial polyp, uterine myoma, uterine carcinoma,
intrauterine device
Androgen excess. Polycystic ovarian syndrome, adrenal tumor, ovarian
tumor, adrenal hyperplasia (classic and nonclassic)
Other endocrine causes. Thyroid disease, adrenal disease
Hematologic-related. Thrombocytopenia, abnormalities of clotting factors,
abnormalities of platelet function, anticoagulant medications
Infectious causes. Pelvic inflammatory disease, cervicitis
Pelvic Pain and Ectopic Pregnancy

History of the Present Illness: Positive pregnancy test, missed menstrual
period, pelvic or abdominal pain (bilateral or unilateral), symptoms of
pregnancy; abnormal vaginal bleeding (quantify). Menstrual interval, duration,
age of menarche, obstetrical history.
Characteristics of pelvic pain; onset, duration; palliative or aggravating factors,
shoulder pain. Rupture of ectopic pregnancy usually occurs 6-12 weeks after
last menstrual period.
Associated Symptoms: Fever, vaginal discharge. Urinary or gastrointestinal
symptoms, fever, abnormal bleeding, or vaginal discharge.
Past Medical History: Surgical history, gynecologic history, sexually transmit
ted diseases, Chlamydia, gonorrhea, infertility.
Method of Contraception: Oral contraceptives or barrier method, intrauterine
device (IUD). Current sexual activity and practices.
Risk Factors for Ectopic Pregnancy: Prior pelvic infection, endometriosis,
prior ectopic pregnancy, pelvic tumor, intrauterine device, pelvic/tubal surgery,
infertility, diethylstilbestrol exposure in utero.
Pelvic Pain and Ectopic Pregnancy 57

General Appearance: Moderate to severe distress. Signs of dehydration, septic
appearance. Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or distressed.
temperature (low fever).
Skin: Cold clammy skin, pallor, delayed capillary refill.
Abdomen: Cullen's sign (periumbilical darkening, intraabdominal bleeding),
local then generalized tenderness, tenderness, rebound (peritoneal signs).
Pelvic: Cervical discharge, cervical motion tenderness; Chadwick's sign
(cervical cyanosis; pregnancy); Hegar's sign (softening of uterine isthmus;
pregnancy); enlarged uterus; tender adnexal mass or cul-de-sac fullness.
Labs: Quantitative beta-HCG, transvaginal ultrasound. Type and hold, Rh, CBC,
UA with micro; GC, chlamydia culture. Laparoscopy.
Differential Diagnosis of Pelvic Pain
Pregnancy-Related Causes. Ectopic pregnancy, abortion (spontaneous,
threatened, or incomplete), intrauterine pregnancy with corpus luteum
bleeding.
Gynecologic Disorders. Pelvic inflammatory disease, endometriosis,
ovarian cyst hemorrhage or rupture, adnexal torsion, Mittelschmerz, uterine
leiomyoma torsion, primary dysmenorrhea, tumor.
Non-reproductive Tract Causes
Gastrointestinal. Appendicitis, inflammatory bowel disease,
mesenteric adenitis, irritable bowel syndrome, diverticulitis.
Urinary Tract. Urinary tract infection, renal calculus.
58 Pelvic Pain and Ectopic Pregnancy
Headache 59
Neurologic Disorders
Headache
History of the Present Illness: Quality of pain (dull, band-like, sharp,
throbbing), location (retro-orbital, temporal, suboccipital, bilateral or
unilateral), time course of typical headache episode; onset (gradual or
sudden); exacerbating or relieving factors; time of day, effect of supine
posture.
Age at onset of headaches; change in severity, frequency; awakening from
sleep; analgesic or codeine use; family history of migraine. The worst
headache ever (subarachnoid hemorrhage).
Aura or Prodrome: Visual scotomata, blurred vision; nausea, vomiting, sensory
disturbances.
Associated Symptoms: Numbness, weakness, diplopia, photophobia, fever,
nasal discharge (sinusitis); neck stiffness (meningitis); eye pain or redness
(glaucoma); ataxia, dysarthria, transient blindness. Lacrimation, flushing,
intermittent periodicity of headaches (cluster headaches).
Aggravating or Relieving Factors: Relief by analgesics or sleep. Exacerbation
by foods (chocolate, alcohol, wine, cheese), emotional upset, menses;
hypertension, trauma; lack of or excess sleep; exacerbation by fatigue,
exertion, monosodium glutamate, nitrates.
Drugs: Nitrates, phenothiazines, sedatives, theophylline, sympathomimetics,
estrogen, corticosteroids, excessive ergotamine, cold remedies, eye drops,
diet pills, cocaine.
Symptoms of Depression: Sleep disturbance, decreased energy, loss of
interest in usually pleasurable activities, poor concentration, depressed mood.
Weight loss, decreased appetite.
General Appearance: Note whether the patient looks ill or well.
Vital Signs: BP (hypertension), pulse, temperature (fever), respiratory rate.
HEENT: Cranial or temporal tenderness (temporal arteritis), asymmetric pupil
reactivity; papilledema, extraocular movements, visual field deficits.
Conjunctival injection, lacrimation, rhinorrhea (cluster headache).
Temporomandibular joint tenderness (TMJ syndrome); temporal or ocular bruits
(arteriovenous malformation); sinus tenderness (sinusitis).
Dental infection, tooth tenderness to percussion (abscess); paraspinal muscle
tenderness.
Neck: Neck rigidity.
Skin: Caf au lait spots (neurofibromatosis), facial angiofibromas (adenoma
sebaceum).
60 Dizziness and Vertigo

Neuro: Cranial nerve palsies (intracranial tumor); auditory acuity, focal
weakness (intracranial tumor), sensory deficits, deep tendon reflexes, ataxia.
Labs: Electrolytes, ESR, MRI scan, lumbar puncture. CBC with differential,
INR/PTT.
Indications for MRI scan: Focal neurologic signs, papilledema, decreased
visual acuity, increased frequency or severity of headache, excruciating or
paroxysmal headache, awakening from sleep, persistent vomiting, head
trauma with focal neurologic signs or lethargy.
Differential Diagnosis: Migraine, tension headache; systemic infection,
subarachnoid hemorrhage, sinusitis, arteriovenous malformation, hyperten
sive encephalopathy, temporal arteritis, meningitis, encephalitis, post
concussion syndrome, intracranial tumor, venous sinus thrombosis, benign
intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri), subdural hematoma,
trigeminal neuralgia, post-herpetic neuralgia, glaucoma, analgesic overuse,
psychogenic headache.
Characteristics of Migraine: Childhood to early adult onset; usually a family
history; aura of scotomas or scintillations, unilateral pulsating or throbbing
pain; nausea, vomiting. Lasts 2-6 hours; relief with sleep.
Characteristics of Tension Headache: Bilateral, generalized, bitemporal or
suboccipital. Band-like pressure; throbbing pain, occurs late in day; related
to stress. Onset in adolescence or young adult. Lasts hours and is usually
relieved by simple analgesics.
Characteristics of Cluster Headache: Unilateral, retro-orbital searing pain.
Lacrimation, nasal and conjunctival congestion. Young males; lasts 20-60
min. Occurs several times each day over several weeks, followed by pain-free
periods.
Dizziness and Vertigo

History of the Present Illness: Sensation of spinning or movement of
surroundings, light headedness, nausea, vomiting, tinnitus. Rate of onset and
intensity of vertigo. Aggravation by change in position, turning of head,
changing from supine to standing, coughing.
Hyperventilation, postural unsteadiness. Recent change in eyeglasses.
Headache, hearing loss, head trauma.
Associated Symptoms: Recent upper respiratory infection, diplopia,
paresthesias, syncope; hypertension, diabetes, history of stroke, transient
ischemic attack, anemia, cardiovascular disease.
Drugs Associated with Vertigo: Antihypertensives, aspirin, alcohol, sedatives,
diuretics, phenytoin, gentamicin, furosemide.
Delirium, Coma and Confusion 61

General Appearance: Effect of hyperventilation on symptoms. Effect of Valsalva
maneuver on symptoms. Note whether the patient looks ill or well.
Vital Signs: Pulse, BP (supine and upright, postural hypotension), respiratory
rate, temperature.
HEENT: Nystagmus, visual acuity, visual field deficits, papilledema; facial
weakness. Tympanic membrane inflammation (otitis media), cerumen. Effect
of head turning or of placing the patient recumbent with head extended over
edge of bed; Rinne's test (air/bone conduction); Weber test (lateralization of
sound).
Heart: Rhythm, murmurs.
Neuro: Cranial nerves 2-12, sensory deficits, ataxia, weakness. Romberg test,
coordination (finger to nose test), tandem gait.
Labs: CBC, electrolytes, MRI scan.
Drugs Associated with Vertigo: Aminoglycosides, loop diuretics, aspirin,
caffeine, alcohol, phenytoin, psychotropics (lithium, haloperidol),
benzodiazepines.
Peripheral Causes of Vertigo: Acute labyrinthitis/neuronitis, benign positional
vertigo, Meniere's disease (vertigo, tinnitus, deafness), otitis media, acoustic
neuroma, cerebellopontine angle tumor, cholesteatoma (chronic middle ear
effusion), impacted cerumen.
Central Causes of Vertigo: Vertebrobasilar insufficiency, brain stem or
cerebellar infarctions, tumors, encephalitis, meningitis, brain stem or
cerebellar contusion, Parkinsons disease, multiple sclerosis.
Other Disorders Associated with Vertigo: Motion sickness, presyncope,
syndrome of multiple sensory deficits (peripheral neuropathies, visual
impairment, orthopedic problems), altered visual input (new eyeglasses),
orthostatic hypotension.
Delirium, Coma and Confusion

History of the Present Illness: Level of consciousness, obtundation (awake
but not alert), stupor (unconscious but awakable with vigorous stimulation),
coma (cannot be awakened). Confusion, hallucination, formification
(sensation that insects are crawling under skin); delirium, tremor, poor
concentration, agitation.
Activity and symptoms prior to onset. Use of insulin, oral hypoglycemics,
narcotics, alcohol, drugs, antipsychotics, anticholinergics, anticoagulants;
history of trauma, suicide attempts or depression, epilepsy (post-ictal state).
62 Delirium, Coma and Confusion

Fever, headache; history of dementia, stroke, transient ischemic attacks,
hypertension; renal, liver or cardiac disease.
General Appearance: Signs of dehydration; septic appearance. Note whether
Vital Signs: BP (hypertensive encephalopathy), pulse, temperature (fever),
respiratory rate.
HEENT: Skull palpation for tenderness, lacerations. Pupil size and reactivity;
extraocular movements, corneal reflexes. Papilledema, hemorrhages, flame
lesions; facial asymmetry, ptosis, weakness. Battle's sign (ecchymosis over
mastoid process), raccoon sign (periorbital ecchymosis, skull fracture),
hemotympanum (basal skull fracture). Tongue or cheek lacerations (post-ictal
state). Atrophic tongue (B12 deficiency).
Neck: Neck rigidity, carotid bruits.
Chest: Breathing pattern (Cheyne-Stokes hyperventilation); crackles, wheezes.
Abdomen: Hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, masses, ascites, tenderness,
distention, dilated superficial veins (liver failure).
Extremities: Needle track marks (drug overdose), tatoos.
Skin: Cyanosis, jaundice, spider angiomata, palmar erythema (hepatic
encephalopathy); capillary refill, petechia, splinter hemorrhages. Injection site
fat atrophy (diabetes).
Neuro: Concentration (subtraction of serial 7s, delirium), strength, cranial
nerves 2-12, mini-mental status exam; orientation to person, place, time,
recent events; coordination, Babinski's sign, primitive reflexes (snout, suck,
glabella, palmomental grasp). Tremor (Parkinson's disease, delirium
tremens), incoherent speech, lethargy, somnolence.
Glasgow Coma Scale
Best Verbal Response: None - 1; incomprehensible sounds or cries - 2;
appropriate words or vocal sounds - 3; confused speech or words - 4;
oriented speech - 5.
Best Eye Opening Response: No eye opening - 1; eyes open to pain - 2;
eyes open to speech - 3; eyes open spontaneously - 4.
Best Motor Response: None - 1; abnormal extension to pain - 2; abnormal
flexion to pain - 3; withdraws to pain - 4; localizes to pain - 5; obeys
commands - 6.
Total Score: 3-15
Special Neurologic Signs
Decortication: Painful stimuli causes flexion of arms, wrist and fingers with leg
extension; indicates damage to contralateral hemisphere above midbrain.
Decerebration: Painful stimuli causes extension of legs and arms; wrists and
Weakness and Ischemic Stroke 63

fingers flex; indicates midbrain and pons functioning.
Oculocephalic Reflex (Doll's eyes maneuver): Eye movements in response
to lateral rotation of head; no eye movements or loose movements occur with
bihemispheric (diencephalon) lesions.
Oculovestibular Reflex (Cold caloric maneuver): Raise head 60 degrees and
irrigate ear with cold water; causes tonic deviation of eyes to irrigated ear if
intact brain stem; if the patient is conscious, nystagmus and vertigo will occur.
Labs: Glucose, electrolytes, calcium, BUN, creatinine, ABG. CT/MRI, ammonia,
alcohol, liver function tests, urine toxicology screen, B-12, folate levels. LP if
no signs of elevated intracranial pressure and suspicion of meningitis.
Differential Diagnosis of Delirium: Electrolyte imbalance, hyperglycemia,
hypoglycemia (insulin overdose), alcohol or drug withdraw or intoxication,
hypoxia, meningitis, encephalitis, systemic infection, stroke, intracranial
hemorrhage, postictal state, exacerbation of dementia; narcotic or
anticholinergic overdose; steroid withdrawal, hepatic encephalopathy;
psychotic states, dehydration, hypertensive encephalopathy, head trauma,
subdural hematoma, uremia, vitamin B12 or folate deficiency, hypothyroidism,
ketoacidosis, factitious coma.
Weakness and Ischemic Stroke

History of the Present Illness: Rate and pattern of onset of weakness
(gradual, sudden); time of onset and time course to maximum deficit;
anatomic location of deficit; activity prior to onset (Valsalva, exertion, neck
movement, sleeping); improvement or progression of symptoms; headache
prior to event, nausea, vomiting, loss of consciousness; visual aura, vertigo,
seizure.
Confusion, dysarthria, incontinence of stool or urine, dysphagia, palpitations;
prior transient ischemic attacks (neurologic deficit lasting less than 24 hours)
or strokes; past transient monocular blindness (Amaurosis fugax), tongue
biting, tonic-clonic movements, head trauma.
Past Medical History: Hypertension, diabetes, coronary disease, endocarditis,
hyperlipidemia, IV drug abuse, cocaine use, heart failure, valvular disease,
arrhythmias (atrial fibrillation), claudication, anticoagulants, alcohol,
antihypertensives, cigarette smoking.
Past testing: CT scans, carotid Doppler studies, echocardiograms.
Family history: Stroke, hyperlipidemia, cardiac disease.
64 Seizure
General Appearance: Level of consciousness, lethargy. Note whether the
patient looks ill or well.
Vital Signs: BP, Pulse (bradycardia), temperature, respiratory rate. Cushings
response (bradycardia, hypertension, abnormal respirations).
HEENT: Signs of head trauma, pupil size and reactivity, extraocular movements.
Fundi: hypertensive retinopathy, Roth spots (flame shaped lesions,
endocarditis), retinal hemorrhages (subarachnoid hemorrhage), papilledema;
facial asymmetry or weakness. Tongue lacerations.
Neck: Neck rigidity, carotid bruits.
Chest: Breathing pattern, Cheyne Stokes respiration (periodic breathing with
periods of apnea, elevated intracranial pressure).
Heart: Irregular, irregular rhythm (atrial fibrillation), S3 (heart failure), murmurs
(mitral stenosis, cardiogenic emboli).
Abdomen: Aortic pulsations, renal bruits (atherosclerotic disease).
Extremities: Unequal peripheral pulses, ecchymoses, trauma.
Skin: Petechia, splinter hemorrhages.
Neuro: Focal motor deficits, cranial nerves 2-12, gaze, ptosis, Babinski's sign
(stroke sole of foot, and toes dorsiflex if pyramidal tract lesion). Clonus,
primitive reflexes (snout, glabella, palmomental, grasp). Mini-mental status
exam, memory concentration.
Signs of Increased Intracranial Pressure: Lethargy, headache, vomiting,
meningismus, papilledema, focal neurologic deficits.
Signs of Cerebral Herniation: Obtundation, dilation of ipsilateral pupil,
decerebrate posturing (extension of arms and legs in response to painful
stimuli), ascending weakness. Cushing's response - bradycardia, hyperten
sion, abnormal respirations.
Labs: CT scan: Bleeding, infarction, mass effect, midline shift. ECG, CBC.
Differential Diagnosis of Stroke: Infection (abscess, meningitis, encephalitis),
subdural hematoma, brain tumor, metabolic imbalance (hypoglycemia,
hypocalcemia), postictal paralysis (Todd's paralysis), delirium; conversion
reaction; atypical migraine, basilar artery stenosis, transient ischemic attack.
Seizure
History of the Present Illness: Time of onset of seizure, duration of seizure,
tonic-clonic movements, description of seizure. Past seizures, noncompliance
with anticonvulsant medication (recent blood level). Aura (irritability,
behavioral change, lethargy), pallor, incontinence of urine or feces, vomiting,
post-ictal weakness or paralysis.
Prodrome (visual changes, paresthesias), stroke, migraine headaches, fever,
Seizure 65
chills. Diabetes (hypoglycemia), family history of epilepsy.
Factors that May Precipitate Seizures: Fatigue, sleep deprivation, infection,
hyperventilation, head trauma, alcohol or drug withdrawal, cocaine intoxica
tion; meningitis, high fever, uremia, hypoglycemia, theophylline toxicity,
stroke.
Past testing: EEG's, CT scans.
General Appearance: Post-ictal lethargy. Note whether the patient looks ill or
well.
Vital Signs: BP (hypertension), pulse, respiratory rate, temperature
(hyperpyrexia).
HEENT: Head trauma; pupil reactivity and equality, extraocular movements;
papilledema, gum hyperplasia (phenytoin); tongue or buccal lacerations;
carotid bruits, neck rigidity.
Chest: Rhonchi, wheeze (aspiration).
Extremities: Cyanosis, fractures, trauma.
Genitourinary/Rectal: Incontinence of urine or feces.
Skin: Caf-au-lait spots, neurofibromas (Von Recklinghausen's disease),
splinter hemorrhages (endocarditis). Unilateral port-wine facial nevus (SturgeWeber syndrome); facial angiofibromas (adenoma sebaceum),
hypopigmented ash leaf spots (tuberous sclerosis). Spider angiomas (hepatic
encephalopathy).
Neuro: Dysarthria, sensory deficits, visual field deficits, focal weakness (Todd's
paralysis), cranial nerves, Babinski's sign.
Labs: Glucose, electrolytes, calcium, liver function tests, CBC, urine toxicology,
anticonvulsant levels, RPR/VDRL. EEG, MRI, lumbar puncture.
Differential Diagnosis: Epilepsy (complex partial seizure, generalized seizure),
noncompliance with anticonvulsant medications, hypoglycemia,
hyponatremia, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, hypertensive
encephalopathy, alcohol withdrawal, meningitis, encephalitis, brain tumor,
stroke, vasculitis, pseudo-seizure.
66 Seizure
Oliguria and Acute Renal Failure 67
Renal Disorders
Oliguria and Acute Renal Failure
History of the Present Illness: Oliguria (<20 mL/h, 400-500 mL urine/day);
anuria (<100 mL urine/day); hemorrhage, heart failure, sepsis, infection,
vomiting, nasogastric suction; diarrhea, fever, chills; measured fluid input and
output by Foley catheter; prostate enlargement, kidney stones,
anticholinergics.
Nephrotoxic drugs (aminoglycosides, amphotericin, NSAID's), dysuria, flank
pain. Abdominal pain, hematuria, passing of tissue fragments, foamy urine
(proteinuria). Administration of renally excreted medications.
Recent upper respiratory infection (post streptococcal glomerulonephritis),
recent chemotherapy (tumor lysis syndrome).
the patient looks ill or well.
Vital Signs: BP (orthostatic vitals; an increase in heart rate by >15 mmHg and
a fall in systolic pressure >15 mmHg, indicates significant volume depletion);
pulse (tachycardia); temperature (fever), respiratory rate (tachypnea).
Skin: Decreased skin turgor over sternum (hypovolemia); skin temperature and
color; delayed capillary refill; jaundice (hepatorenal syndrome).
HEENT: Oral mucous membrane moisture, ocular moisture, flat neck veins
(volume depletion), venous distention (heart failure).
Chest: Crackles (heart failure).
Heart: S3 (volume overload).
Abdomen: Hepatomegaly, abdominojugular reflex (heart failure); costovertebral
angle tenderness; distended bladder, nephromegaly (obstruction).
Pelvic: Pelvic masses, cystocele, urethrocele.
Rectal: Prostate hypertrophy; absent sphincter reflex, decreased sensation
(atonic bladder due to vertebral disk herniation).
Extremities: Peripheral edema (heart failure).
Labs: Sodium, potassium, BUN, creatinine, uric acid. Urine and serum
osmolality, UA, urine creatinine. Ultrasound of bladder and kidneys.
Fractional excretion of sodium (FE Na) =
Renal Failure Index =
UNa x 100
U/PCr
UNa(mMol/L) x SCr(mmol/L) x 100

SNa(mMol/L) UCr(mMol/L)
68 Oliguria and Acute Renal Failure
Clinical Findings in Pre-renal, Renal, Post-renal Failure

Prerenal
ARF
Postrenal
BUN/Creatinine
ratio
>15:1
<15:1
varies
Urine sodium
<20 mMol/L
>20
varies
Urine
osmolality
>500
mOsm/kg
<350
varies
Renal failure
Index
<1
>1
varies
FE Na
<1%
>1%
varies
Urine/plasma
creatinine
>40
>20
varies
Urine analyses
normal
cellular
casts
RBCs, WBCs,
bacteria
Differential Diagnosis of Acute Renal Failure

Prerenal Insult
A. Prerenal insult is the most common cause of acute renal failure,
accounting for 70%.
B. It is usually caused by reduced renal perfusion pressure secondary to
extracellular fluid volume loss (diarrhea, diuresis, GI hemorrhage), or
secondary to extracellular fluid sequestration (pancreatitis, sepsis), inadequate cardiac output, renal vasoconstriction (sepsis, liver disease),
or inadequate fluid intake or replacement.
Intrarenal Insult
A. Insult to the renal parenchyma (tubular necrosis) causes 20% of acute
renal failure.
B. Prolonged hypoperfusion is the most common cause of tubular necrosis.
C. Nephrotoxins (radiographic contrast, aminoglycosides) are the second
most common cause of tubular necrosis.
D. Pigmenturia induced renal injury can be caused by intravascular
hemolysis or rhabdomyolysis.
E. Acute glomerulonephritis or acute inflammation of renal interstitium
(acute interstitial nephritis) (usually from allergic reactions to beta-lactam
antibiotics, sulfonamides, rifampin, NSAIDs, cimetidine, phenytoin,
allopurinol, thiazides, furosemide, analgesics) are occasional causes of
intrarenal kidney failure.
Chronic Renal Failure 69

Postrenal Insult
A. Postrenal damage results from obstruction of urine flow, and it is the
least common cause of acute renal failure, accounting for 10%.
B. Postrenal insult may be caused by extrarenal obstructive uropathy
(prostate cancer, benign prostatic hypertrophy, renal calculi obstruction)
or by intrarenal obstruction (amyloidosis, uric acid crystals, multiple
myeloma, or acyclovir).
Chronic Renal Failure

History of the Present Illness: Oliguria, current and baseline creatinine, and
BUN. Diabetes, hypertension; history of pyelonephritis, sepsis, heart failure,
liver disease; peripheral edema, dark colored urine, rashes or purpura;
medications (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, aminoglycosides, contrast
dyes). Hypovolemia secondary to diarrhea, hemorrhage, over-diuresis;
glomerulonephritis, interstitial nephritis.
Past ultrasounds, flank pain, history of kidney stones, prostate disease, urethral
obstruction. Anorexia, insomnia, fatigue, malaise, weight loss, bleeding
diathesis, paresthesias, anemia.
Family history of polycystic kidney disease, hereditary glomerulonephritis.
General Appearance: Evaluate intravascular volume status. Signs of fluid
overload. Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnourished.
Vital Signs: Postural blood pressure and pulse (tachycardia, hypertension),
temperature (fever), respiratory rate.
Skin: Skin turgor, sallow yellow skin (urochromes), fine white powder (uremic
frost), purpura, petechiae (coagulopathy). Jaundice, spider angiomas
(hepatorenal syndrome).
HEENT: Neck vein distention (volume overload).
Chest: Crackles (rales).
Heart: S3 gallop (volume overload), cardiac friction rub (pericarditis), displace
ment of heart border, muffled heart sounds (effusion), arrhythmias (electrolyte
imbalances).
Abdomen: Distended bladder, costovertebral angle or suprapubic tenderness,
pelvic masses, ascites.
Rectal: Occult blood, prostate enlargement.
Neuro: Asterixis, myoclonus, sensory deficits.
Labs: BUN, creatinine, potassium (hyperkalemia), albumin, calcium, phospho
rus, proteinuria.
Differential Diagnosis of Chronic Renal Failure: Hypertensive
nephrosclerosis, diabetic nephrosclerosis, glomerulonephritis, polycystic
70 Hematuria
kidney disease, tubulointerstitial renal disease, reflux nephropathy, analgesic
nephropathy, chronic obstructive uropathy, amyloidosis, Lupus nephropathy.
Hematuria
History of the Present Illness: Frequency, dysuria, suprapubic pain, flank pain
(renal colic), abdominal or perineal pain; fever. Recent exercise, menstrua
tion; bleeding between voidings.
Foley catheterization, prior stone passage, tissue passage in urine, joint pain.
Color, timing, pattern of hematuria: Initial hematuria (anterior urethral lesion);
terminal hematuria (bladder neck or prostate lesion); hematuria throughout
voiding (bladder or upper urinary tract).
Recent sore throat, streptococcal skin infection (glomerulonephritis). Prior
pyelonephritis, joint pain; occupational exposure to toxins.
Family History: Hematuria, renal disease, sickle cell, bleeding diathesis,
deafness (Alport's syndrome), hypertension.
Medications Associated with Hematuria: Warfarin, aspirin, ibuprofen,
naproxen, phenobarbital, allopurinol, phenytoin, cyclophosphamide.
Causes of Red Urine: Pyridium, phenytoin, ibuprofen, cascara laxatives,
levodopa, methyldopa, quinine, rifampin, berries, flava beans, food coloring,
rhubarb, beets, hemoglobinuria, myoglobinuria.
General Appearance: Signs of dehydration. Note whether the patient looks ill,
Vital Signs: BP (hypertension).
Skin: Rashes.
HEENT: Pharyngitis, carotid bruits.
Heart: Heart murmur; irregular, irregular (atrial fibrillation, renal emboli).
Abdomen: Tenderness, masses, costovertebral angle tenderness (renal
calculus or pyelonephritis), abdominal bruits, nephromegaly, suprapubic
tenderness.
Genitourinary: Urethral lesions, discharge, condyloma, foreign body, cervical
malignancy; prostate tenderness, nodules, or enlargement (prostatitis,
prostate cancer).
Extremities: Peripheral edema (nephrotic syndrome), arthritis, ecchymoses,
petechiae, unequal peripheral pulses (aortic dissection).
Labs: UA with microscopic exam of urinary sediment, CBC, KUB, intravenous
pyelogram, ultrasound. Streptozyme panel, ANA, INR/PTT.
Indicators of Significant Hematuria: (1) >3 RBC's per high-power field on 2
of 3 specimens; (2) >100 RBC's per HPF in 1 specimen; (3) gross hematuria
The patient should abstain from exercise for 48 hours prior to urine collection,
Nephrolithiasis 71
and it should not be collected during menses.
A. Medical Hematuria is caused by a glomerular lesion; plasma proteins
filter into urine out of proportion to the amount of hematuria. It is
characterized by glomerular RBCs that are distorted with crenated
membranes and an uneven hemoglobin distribution and casts. Micro
scopic hematuria and a urine dipstick test of 2+ protein is more likely to
have a medical cause.
B. Urologic Hematuria is caused by a urologic lesion such as a urinary
stone or carcinoma; it is characterized by minimal proteinuria, and
protein appears in urine proportional to the amount of whole blood
present. RBCs are disk shaped with an even hemoglobin distribution,
and there is an absence of casts.
Nephrolithiasis
History of the Present Illness: Severe, colicky, intermittent, migrating, lower
abdominal pain; flank pain, hematuria, fever, dysuria; prior history of renal
stones. Pain is not associated with position; abdominal pain may radiate
laterally around abdomen to groin, testicles or labia. History of low fluid
intake, urinary tract infection, parenteral nutrition.
Excessive calcium administration, immobilization, furosemide, neurogenic
bladder, chemotherapy; family history of kidney stones. Inflammatory bowel
disease, ileal resection. Diet high in oxalate: Spinach, rhubarb, nuts, tea,
cocoa. Excess vitamin C intake, hydrochlorothiazide, indinavir; unusual
dietary habits.
Abdomen: Costovertebral angle tenderness, suprapubic tenderness; enlarged
kidney. Pelvic examination for cervical motion tenderness, adnexal tender
ness.
Labs: Serum calcium, phosphorus, bicarbonate, creatinine, uric acid. Urine
cystine, UA microscopic (hematuria), urine culture, intravenous pyelogram.
Differential Diagnosis: Nephrolithiasis, cystitis, diverticulitis, appendicitis,
salpingitis, torsion of hernia, ovarian torsion, ovarian cyst rupture or
hemorrhage, bladder obstruction, prostatitis, prostate cancer, endometriosis,
ectopic pregnancy, colonic obstruction, carcinoma (colon, prostrate, cervix,
bladder).
Causes of Nephrolithiasis: Hypercalcemia, hyperuricosuria, hyperoxaluria,
cystinuria, renal tubular acidosis, Proteus mirabilis urinary tract infection with
72 Hyperkalemia
staghorn calculi.
Hyperkalemia
History of the Present Illness: Serum potassium >5.5 mMol/L (repeat test to
exclude lab error); muscle weakness, syncope, lightheadedness, palpitations,
oliguria; excess intake of oral or intravenous potassium, salt substitutes,
potassium sparing diuretics, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors;
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, beta blockers, heparin, digoxin toxicity
cyclosporine, succinylcholine; muscle trauma, chemotherapy (tumor lysis
syndrome).
History of renal disease, diabetes, adrenal insufficiency (Addisons syndrome).
History of episodic paralysis precipitated by exercise (familial hyperkalemic
periodic paralysis).
General Appearance: Dehydration. Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or
malnourished.
Skin: Hyperpigmentation (Addison's disease), hematomas.
Abdomen: Suprapubic tenderness.
Neuro: Muscle weakness, abnormal deep tendon reflexes, cranial nerves 2-12.
Labs: Potassium, platelets, bicarbonate, chloride, anion gap, LDH, urine K, pH.
Serum aldosterone, plasma renin activity.
ECG: Tall peaked, precordial T waves; diminished QT interval; widened QRS
complex, prolonged PR interval, P wave flattening, AV block, ventricular
arrhythmias, sine wave, asystole.
Inadequate Excretion: Renal failure, adrenal insufficiency (Addisons
syndrome), potassium sparing diuretics (spironolactone), urinary tract
obstruction, lupus, hypoaldosteronism, ACE inhibitors, NSAIDs, heparin.
Increased Potassium Production: Hemolysis, rhabdomyolysis, muscle crush
injury, internal hemorrhage, drugs (succinylcholine, digoxin overdose, beta
blockers), acidosis, hyperkalemic periodic paralysis, hyperosmolality.
Excess Intake of Potassium: Oral or IV potassium supplements, salt
substitutes.
Pseudo-hyperkalemia: Hemolysis after collection of blood, use of excessively
small needle, excessive shaking of sample, delayed transport of blood to
lab, thrombocytosis, leukocytosis, prolonged tourniquet use.
Hypokalemia 73
Hypokalemia
History of the Present Illness: Potassium <3.5 mMol/L (repeat test to exclude
lab error), hyperglycemia, diuretics, diarrhea, vomiting, laxative abuse; poor
intake of potassium containing foods; corticosteroids, nephrotoxins,
bicarbonate, beta agonists. Conns syndrome (hyperaldosteronism).
Associated Symptoms: Muscle weakness, cramping pain, nausea, vomiting,
constipation, palpitations, paresthesias, polyuria.
Precipitating Factors: Renal disease, stress (catecholamine release), vitamin
B12 treatment; biliary drainage, enteric fistula; Kayexalate ingestion, dialysis,
excessive licorice ingestion, chewing tobacco.
Vital Signs: BP, pulse, temperature, respiratory rate.
Heart: Rate and rhythm.
Abdomen: Hypoactive bowel sounds (ileus).
Neuro: Weakness, hypoactive tendon reflexes.
Labs: Serum potassium. 24 hour urine potassium >20 mEq/day indicates
excessive urinary K loss. If <20 mEq/d, low K intake or nonurinary K loss is
the cause. Electrolytes, BUN, creatinine, glucose, magnesium, CBC, plasma
renin activity, aldosterone. Urine specific gravity.
ECG: Flattening and inversion of T-waves (II, V3), ST segment depression, U
waves (II, V1, V2, V3); first or second degree block, QT interval prolongation,
premature atrial or ventricular contractions, supraventricular tachycardia,
ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation.
Differential Diagnosis of Hypokalemia
Cellular Redistribution of Potassium: Intracellular shift of potassium by
insulin (exogenous or glucose load), beta2 agonist; thyrotoxic periodic
paralysis; alkalosis-induced shift (metabolic or respiratory); familial periodic
paralysis, vitamin B12 treatment, hypothermia; acute myeloid leukemia.
Nonrenal Potassium Loss:
Gastrointestinal Loss. Diarrhea, laxative abuse, villous adenoma, biliary
drainage, enteric fistula, potassium binding resin ingestion
Non-gastrointestinal Loss. Sweating, low potassium ingestion, dialysis
Renal Potassium Loss:
Hypertensive High Renin States. Malignant hypertension, renal artery
stenosis, renin-producing tumor.
Hypertensive Low Renin, High Aldosterone States. Primary
hyperaldosteronism (adenoma or hyperplasia).
Hypertensive Low Renin, Low Aldosterone States. Congenital adrenal
74 Hyponatremia
hyperplasia, Cushing's syndrome, exogenous mineralocorticoids
(Florinef, licorice, chewing tobacco), Liddle's syndrome
Normotensive. Renal tubular acidosis (type I or II), metabolic alkalosis with
a urine chloride <10 mEq/day is caused by vomiting; metabolic alkalosis
with a urine chloride >10 mEq/day is caused by Bartter's syndrome,
diuretics, magnesium depletion, normotensive hyperaldosteronism
Hyponatremia
History of the Present Illness: Serum sodium <135 mMol/L (repeat test to
exclude lab error); decreased mental status, confusion, agitation, irritability,
lethargy, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, headache, muscle weakness or tremor,
cramps, seizures; decreased output of dark urine (dehydration); polydipsia
(water intoxication); diuretics, diarrhea, steroid withdrawal.
Renal, CNS, or pulmonary disease (syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic
hormone); heart failure, cirrhosis; hypotonic IV fluids, psychotropic medica
tions, chemotherapeutic agents, hypothyroidism, hyperlipidemia
(pseudohyponatremia).
Vital Signs: BP, pulse (orthostatic vitals), temperature, respiratory rate.
Skin: Decreased skin turgor, delayed capillary refill; hyperpigmentation
(Addison's disease), moon-face, truncal obesity (hypocortisolism with steroid
withdrawal).
HEENT: Decreased ocular and oral moisture.
Chest: Cheyne-Stokes respirations, crackles.
Heart: Rhythm and rate. Premature ventricular contractions.
Abdomen: Ascites, tenderness.
Extremities: Edema.
Neuro: Confusion, irritability, motor weakness, ataxia, positive Babinski's sign,
muscle twitches; hypoactive deep tendon reflexes, cranial nerve palsies.
Labs: Electrolytes, BUN, creatinine, cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, protein,
osmolality, albumin; urine sodium, urine osmolality, chest x-ray, ECG.
Differential Diagnosis of Hyponatremia Based on Urine Osmolality
A. Low Urine Osmolality (50-180 mOsm/L). Primary excessive water
intake (psychogenic water drinking).
B. High Urine Osmolality (urine osmolality >serum osmolality)
1. High Urine Sodium (>40 mEq/L) and Volume Contracted. Renal
fluid loss (excessive diuretic use, salt-wasting nephropathy, Addi-
Hypernatremia 75
son's disease, osmotic diuresis).
2. High Urine Sodium (>40 mEq/L) and Normal Volume. Water
retention caused by a drug (carbamazepine, cyclophosphamide),
hypothyroidism, syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone
secretion.
3. Low Urine Sodium (<20 mEq/L) and Volume Contraction.
Extrarenal source of fluid loss (vomiting, burns).
4. Low Urine Sodium (<20 mEq/L) and Volume-expanded, Edema
tous. Heart failure, cirrhosis with ascites, nephrotic syndrome.
Hypernatremia
History of the Present Illness: Serum sodium >145 mEq/L (repeat test to
exclude lab error). History of dehydration due to fever, vomiting, burns, heat
exposure, diarrhea, elevated glucose, salt ingestion, administration of
hypertonic fluids (sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride), sweating, impaired
access to water (elderly), adipsia (lack of thirst); head injury.
Altered mental status, lethargy, agitation, polyuria, anorexia, muscle twitching,
renal disease. Recent fluid intake.
Drugs causing hypernatremia: Amphotericin, phenytoin, lithium,
aminoglycosides.
General Appearance: Lethargy, obtundation, stupor. Note whether the patient
Vital Signs: BP (orthostatic hypotension), pulse (tachycardia), temperature,
respiratory rate; decreased urine output.
Skin: Decreased skin turgor (doughy consistency), delayed capillary refill,
hyperpigmentation (Conns syndrome), moon-face, truncal obesity, stria
(hypoadrenal crisis, steroid withdrawal).
HEENT: Dry mucous membranes, flat neck veins, decreased eye turgor.
Neuro: Decreased muscle tone, ataxia, tremor, hyperreflexia; extensor plantar
reflexes (Babinskis sign), spasticity.
Labs: Increased hematocrit; sodium, BUN, creatinine, urine and serum,
osmolality. Spot urine sodium, creatinine.
Differential Diagnosis:
Hypernatremia with Hypovolemia
A. Extrarenal Loss of Water (urine sodium >20 mMol/L). Vomiting,
diarrhea, sweating, pancreatitis, respiratory water loss.
B. Renal loss of water (urine sodium <10 mMol/L). Diuretics,
hyperglycemia, renal failure.
76 Hypernatremia
Euvolemic Hypernatremia with Renal Water Losses. Diabetes insipidus
(central or nephrogenic secretion of excessive antidiuretic hormone).
Hypernatremia with Hypervolemia (urine sodium >20 mMol/L): Hypertonic
solutions of sodium chloride or sodium bicarbonate, hyperaldosteronism,
Cushing's, syndrome, congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
Diabetic Ketoacidosis 77
Endocrinologic Disorders
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
History of the Present Illness: Initial glucose level, ketones, anion gap.
Polyuria, polyphagia, polydipsia, fatigue, lethargy, nausea, vomiting, weight
loss; noncompliance with insulin, hypoglycemic agents, or diet; blurred vision,
physical stress, infection, dehydration, abdominal pain (appendicitis),
dyspnea.
Cough, fever, chills, ear pain (otitis media), dysuria, frequency (urinary tract
infection); back pain (pyelonephritis), chest pain; frequent Candida albicans
or bacterial infections.
Factors that May Precipitate Diabetic Ketoacidosis. New onset of diabetes,
noncompliance with insulin, infection, pancreatitis, myocardial infarction,
stress, trauma, stroke, pregnancy.
Renal disease, prior ketoacidosis, sensory deficits in extremities (diabetic
neuropathy), retinopathy, hypertension.
General Appearance: Somnolence, Kussmaul respirations (deep sighing
breathing). Signs of dehydration, toxic appearance. Note whether the patient
Vital Signs: BP (orthostatic hypotension), pulse (tachycardia), temperature
(fever or hypothermia), respiratory rate (tachypnea).
Skin: Decreased skin turgor, delayed capillary refill; hyperpigmented atrophic
macules on legs (shin spots); intertriginous candidiasis, erythrasma, localized
fat atrophy (insulin injections).
HEENT: Diabetic retinopathy (neovascularization, hemorrhages, exudates);
acetone breath odor (musty, apple odor), decreased visual acuity, low oral
moisture (dehydration), tympanic membrane inflammation (otitis media); flat
neck veins, neck rigidity.
Chest: Rales, rhonchi.
Abdomen: Hypoactive bowel sounds (ileus), abdominal tenderness,
costovertebral angle tenderness (pyelonephritis), suprapubic tenderness
(urinary tract infection).
Extremities: Decreased pulses (atherosclerotic disease), foot ulcers, cellulitis.
Neuro: Delirium, confusion, peripheral neuropathy (decreased proprioception
and sensory deficits in feet), hypotonia, hyporeflexia.
Labs: Glucose, sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, chloride, BUN, creatinine,
anion gap; triglycerides, phosphate, CBC, serum ketones; UA (proteinuria,
ketones). Chest x-ray, ECG.
78 Hypothyroidism and Myxedema Coma

Ketosis-Causing Conditions. Alcoholic ketoacidosis or starvation.
Acidosis-Causing Conditions
Increased Anion Gap Acidoses. DKA, lactic acidosis, uremia, and
salicylate or methanol poisoning.
Non-Anion Gap Acidoses. Renal or gastrointestinal bicarbonate losses
due to diarrhea or renal tubular acidosis.
Hyperglycemia-Causing Conditions. Hyperosmolar nonketotic coma.
Diagnostic Criteria for DKA. Glucose $250, pH <7.3, bicarbonate <15, ketone
positive >1:2 dilutions.
Hypothyroidism and Myxedema Coma

History of the Present Illness: Fatigue, cold intolerance, constipation, weight
gain or inability to lose weight, muscle weakness; thyroid swelling or mass;
dyspnea on exertion; mental slowing, dry hair and skin, deepening of voice;
carpal tunnel syndrome, amenorrhea.
Past history of hyperthyroidism, thyroid testing, thyroid surgery or radioactive
iodine treatment, antithyroid medication, lithium.
Somnolence, apathy, depression.
Myxedema madness: Agitation, disorientation, delusions, hallucinations,
paranoia, restlessness, lethargy.
Factors Predisposing to Myxedema Coma. Cold exposure, infection, trauma,
surgery, anesthesia, narcotics, phenothiazines, phenytoin, sedatives,
propranolol, alcohol.
General Appearance: Hypoactivity, confusion, somnolence, coarse, deep
voice; dull, expressionless face. Signs of dehydration.

Vital Signs: Bradycardia, hypotension, hypothermia.
Skin: Cool, dry, pale, rough, doughy skin; thin, brittle dry nails with longitudinal
ridges; yellowish skin without scleral icterus (carotenemia). Hyperkeratosis
of elbows and knees.
HEENT: Thin, dry, brittle hair, alopecia; macroglossia (enlarged tongue), puffy
face and eyelids; loss of lateral third of eyebrows, papilledema, thyroid
surgery scar. Jugular venous distention (pericardial effusion).
Chest: Dullness to percussion (pleural effusion).
Heart: Muffled heart sounds (pericardial effusion); displacement of lateral heart
border, bradycardia.
Abdomen: Hypoactive bowel sounds (ileus), myxedematous ascites.
Extremities: Diminished muscle strength and power. Myxedema: transient local
swelling after tapping a muscle.
Hyperthyroidism and Thyrotoxicosis 79

Neuro: Visual field deficits, cranial nerve palsies (pituitary tumor), hypoactive
tendon reflexes with delayed return phase. Decreased mental status, stupor,
ataxia; paresthesias, weakness, sensory impairment.
Labs: Thyroid stimulating hormone, CBC, electrolytes, hypercholesterolemia,
hypertriglyceridemia, creatinine phosphokinase, LDH.
ECG: Bradycardia, low voltage QRS complexes; flattened or inverted T waves,
prolonged Q-T interval.
Differential Diagnosis of Hypothyroidism

Cause
Clues to Diagnosis
Autoimmune thyroiditis
(Hashimoto's disease)
Family or personal history of autoimmune thyroiditis or goiter
Iatrogenic: Ablation, medication,

surgery
History of thyroidectomy, irradia

tion with iodine 131, or thio
amide drug therapy
Diet (high levels of iodine)
Kelp consumption
Subacute thyroiditis (viral)
History of painful thyroid gland or

neck pain
Postpartum thyroiditis
Symptoms of hyperthyroidism fol

lowed by hypothyroidism 6
months postpartum
Hyperthyroidism and Thyrotoxicosis

History of the Present Illness: Tremor, nervousness, hyperkinesis (restless
ness), fever, heat intolerance, palpitations, diaphoresis, irritability, insomnia;
thyroid enlargement, masses, thyroid pain, amenorrhea.
Weight loss with increased appetite; dyspnea and fatigue after slight exertion;
softening of the skin; fine, silky hair texture; proximal muscle weakness
(especially thighs when climbing stairs), hyperdefecation.
Atrial fibrillation; diplopia, reduced visual acuity, eye discomfort or pain,
lacrimation; recent upper respiratory infection. Previous thyroid function
testing; family history of thyroid disease.
Factors Precipitating Thyroid Storm: Infection, surgery, diabetic ketoacidosis,
pulmonary embolus, excess hormone medication, cerebral vascular accident,
myocardial infarction, labor and delivery, iodine-131 or iodine therapy.
80 Hyperthyroidism and Thyrotoxicosis

General Appearance: Restless, anxious, hyperactive; delirium. Signs of
dehydration.
Vital Signs: Widened pulse pressure (difference between systolic and diastolic
pressure), hyperpyrexia (>104EF), tachycardia, hypertension.
Skin: Moist, warm, velvety skin, diaphoresis; palmar erythema, fine silky hair.
Plummer's nails (distal onycholysis, separation of fingernail from nail bed),
clubbing of fingers and toes (acropachy). Loss of subcutaneous fat and
muscle mass.
HEENT: Exophthalmos (forward displacement of the eyeballs), proptosis,
widened palpebral fissures; lid lag, infrequent blinking.
Ophthalmoplegia (restricted extraocular movements), chemosis (edema of
conjunctiva), conjunctival injection, corneal ulcers; periorbital edema or
ecchymoses; optic nerve atrophy, impaired visual acuity, difficulty with
convergence. Painless, diffusely enlarged, thyroid without masses; thyroid
thrill and bruit.
Heart: Irregular, irregular rhythm (atrial fibrillation), systolic murmur (mitral or
tricuspid regurgitation, flow murmur), displacement of apical impulse.
Accentuated first heart sound.
Extremities: Fine tremor; non-pitting pre-tibial edema (Graves disease).
Neuro: Proximal muscle weakness, hyperreflexia (rapid return phase of deep
tendon reflexes); rapid, pressured speech, anxiety.
Labs: Free T4, TSH, beta-HCG pregnancy test.
ECG: Sinus tachycardia, atrial fibrillation.
Differential Diagnosis: Grave's disease, toxic multinodular goiter, acute
thyroiditis, thyrotoxicosis factitia (ingestion of thyroid hormone), trophoblastic
tumor (molar pregnancy), TSH producing pituitary adenoma, postpartum
thyroiditis, ectopic thyroid tissue (struma ovarii, functional follicular carci
noma), thyroid adenoma or carcinoma.
Deep Venous Thrombosis 81
Hematologic and Rheumatologic

Disorders
Deep Venous Thrombosis
History of the Present Illness: Sudden onset of unilateral calf pain, swelling,
and redness; exacerbation of pain by walking and flexing of foot, dyspnea.
Risk Factors for Deep Venous Thrombosis
A. Venous stasis risk factors include prolonged immobilization, stroke,
myocardial infarction, heart failure, obesity, anesthesia, age >65 years
old.
B. Endothelial injury risk factors include surgery, trauma, central venous
access catheters, pacemaker wires, previous thromboembolic event.
C. Hypercoagulable state risk factors include malignant disease, high
estrogen level (pregnancy, oral contraceptives).
D. Hematologic Disorders. Polycythemia, leukocytosis, thrombocytosis,
antithrombin III deficiency, protein C deficiency, protein S deficiency,
antiphospholipid syndrome.
Past Medical History: Peptic ulcer, melena, surgery.
General Appearance: Dyspnea, respiratory distress. Note whether the patient
Vital Signs: BP, pulse, respiratory rate (tachypnea if pulmonary embolus),
temperature (low-grade fever).
Chest: Breast masses.
Abdomen: Distention, tenderness, masses.
Genitourinary/Rectal: Occult fecal blood, prostate masses, testicular or pelvic
masses, inguinal lymphadenopathy.
Extremities: >2 cm difference in calf circumference, redness, cyanosis;
mottling, tenderness; Homan's sign (tenderness with dorsiflexion of foot);
warmth, dilated varicose veins.
Labs: Doppler studies, venogram; INR/PTT, CBC, electrolytes, BUN, creatinine;
ECG, UA, chest x-ray.
Differential Diagnosis: Thrombophlebitis, ruptured Baker's cyst, lymphatic
obstruction, cellulitis, muscle injury, hematoma, plantaris tendon rupture.
82 Connective Tissue Diseases
Connective Tissue Diseases

History of the Present Illness: Joint pain, fatigue, malaise, weight loss, fever,
skin rashes; swelling of upper and lower extremities, morning joint stiffness,
photosensitivity, muscle aches, weakness.
Hip and back pain, oral ulcers, renal disease; anemia, psychiatric illness,
dysphagia, pleurisy, positional chest pain (pericarditis), Raynaud's syndrome
(cyanosis of hands when exposed to cold); migraine headaches, stroke,
depression, hypertension.
Drugs Associated with Lupus: Procainamide, isoniazid, hydralazine,
methyldopa (Aldomet).
General Appearance: Note whether the patient looks ill, well, or malnour
ished.
Vital Signs: Hypertension
Skin: Skin fibrosis (thickening, scleroderma), telangiectasias, discoid lesions
(erythematous plaques), purpura, skin ulcers, rheumatoid nodules, livedo
reticularis.
HEENT: Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (dry inflammation of conjunctiva), malar rash
(erythematous rash in butterfly pattern on the face), oral ulcers. Episcleritis
or scleritis, xerophthalmia (dry eyes), parotid enlargement.
Chest: Pleural friction rub (pleuritis), fine rales (interstitial fibrosis).
Heart: Cardiac friction rubs (pericarditis).
Abdomen: Hepatosplenomegaly, abdominal tenderness.
Extremities: Joint tenderness, muscle weakness, lymphadenopathy
sclerodactyly (thickening of digital subcutaneous tissue).

Labs: Electrolytes, creatinine, ANA, anti-Smith antibody, anti-DNA antibody,
antineutrophilic cytoplasmic antibody, LE cell prep, RPR, ESR, CBC, UA,
ECG, complement. UA (proteinuria, casts).
Diagnostic Criteria for Rheumatoid Arthritis: Four or more of the following.
1. Morning stiffness (>6 weeks)
2. Arthritis in 3 or more joints (>6 weeks)
3. Arthritis of hand joints (>6 weeks)
4. Symmetric arthritis (>6 weeks)
5. Rheumatoid nodules
6. Positive rheumatoid factor
7. X-ray abnormalities: Erosions, bony decalcification (especially in
hands/wrist).
Diagnostic Criteria for Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: Four or more of the
following.
1. Malar rash
2. Discoid rash
Connective Tissue Diseases 83

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Photosensitivity
Oral or nasopharyngeal ulcers
Nonerosive arthritis
Pleuritis or pericarditis
Persistent proteinuria
Seizures or psychosis
Hemolytic anemia
Positive lupus erythematosus cell, positive anti-DNA antibody, Smith
antibody, false positive VDRL.
11. Positive ANA
84 Connective Tissue Diseases
Clinical Evaluation of the Psychiatric Patient 85
Psychiatric Disorders
Clinical Evaluation of the Psychiatric Patient
I. Psychiatric History
A. Identifying Information: Age, sex, marital status, race.
B. Chief Complaint (CC): Reason for consultation; often a direct quote from
the patient.
C. History of Present Illness (HPI)
1. Current Symptoms: Date of onset, duration and course
2. Previous psychiatric symptoms and treatment
3. Recent Psychosocial Stressors: Stressful life events that may have
contributed to the patient's current presentation
4. Reason the patient is presenting now
5. This section should provide evidence that supports or rules out the
diagnosis.
6. Suicidal Ideation. Intent and planning.
D. Past Psychiatric History
1. Previous and current psychiatric diagnoses
2. History of psychiatric treatment, including outpatient and inpatient
treatment
3. History of psychotropic medication use
4. History of suicide attempts
E. Past Medical History
1. Current and previous medical problems
2. Treatments, including prescription, over the counter medications,
home or folk remedies.
F. Family History: Relatives with history of psychiatric disorders, suicide or
suicide attempts, alcohol or substance abuse.
G. Social History
1. Source of income
2. Level of education, relationship history, including marriages and sexual
orientation, number of children; individuals that currently live with
patient.
3. Support network
4. Current alcohol or illicit drug usage
5. Occupational history
H. Developmental History: Family structure during childhood, relationships
with parental figures and siblings; developmental milestones; peer
relationships; school performance
86 Clinical Evaluation of the Psychiatric Patient

II.
Mental Status Examination
A. General Appearance and Behavior
1. Grooming, level of hygiene, characteristics of clothing
2. Unusual physical characteristics or movements
3. Attitude: Ability to interact with the interviewer
4. Psychomotor activity: Agitation or psychomotor retardation
5. Degree of eye contact
B. Affect
1. Definition: External range of expression observed by interviewer,
described in terms of quality, range, and appropriateness
2. Types of Affect
a. Flat: Absence of all or most affect
b. Blunted or restricted: Moderately reduced range of affect
c. Labile: Intense changes in affect
d. Full or wide range of affect: Appropriate affect
C. Mood: Internal emotional tone of the patient (ie, dysphoric, euphoric,
angry, euthymic, anxious).
D. Thought Processes
1. Use of Language: Quality and quantity of speech
2. Rate, tone, associations and fluency of speech
E. Thought Content
1. Definition: Hallucinations, delusions and other perceptual distur
bances
2. Thought Content Disorders
a. Hallucinations: False sensory perceptions; may be auditory,
visual, tactile, gustatory or olfactory in nature.
b. Delusions: Fixed, false beliefs, firmly held in spite of contradictory
evidence.
c. Illusions: Misinterpretations of reality
d. Derealization: Feelings of unrealness involving the outer environ
ment
F. Cognitive Evaluation
1. Level of consciousness
2. Orientation: Person, place and date
3. Attention and Concentration: Repeat 5 digits forwards and back-
wards or spell a five letter word (world) forwards and backwards
4. Short-Term Memory: Ability to recall 3 objects after 5 minutes
5. Fund of Knowledge: Ability to name past five presidents or historical
dates
6. Calculations: Subtraction of serial 7s, simple math problems
7. Abstraction: Proverb interpretation and similarities
G. Insight: Does the patient display an understanding of his current
problems? Does the patient understand the implication of these prob-
Mini-mental Status Examination 87

lems?
H. Judgment
1. Ability to make sound decisions regarding everyday activities
2. Best evaluated by assessing a patient's history of decision making.
III.
DSM-IV Multiaxial Assessment Diagnosis
Axis I:
Clinical Disorders
Other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention
Axis II: Personality Disorders
Mental Retardation
Axis III: General Medical Conditions
Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems
Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning
Mini-mental Status Examination

Orientation: What is the year, season, day of week, date, month? - 5 points
What is the state, county, city, hospital, floor ? - 5 points
Registration: Repeat: 3 objects: apple, book, coat. - 3 points
Attention/Calculation: Spell WORLD backwards - 5 points
Memory: Recall the names of the previous 3 objects: - 3 points
Language: Name a pencil and a watch - 2 points
Repeat, No ifs, and's or buts - 1 point
Three stage command: Take this paper in your right hand, fold it in half, and
put it on the floor. - 3 points
Written command: Close your eyes. - 1 point
Write a sentence. - 1 point
Visual Spacial: Copy two overlapping pentagons - 1 point
Total Score
Normal: 25-30
Mild intellectual impairment: 20-25
Moderate intellectual impairment: 10-20
Severe intellectual impairment: 0-10
Attempted Suicide and Drug Overdose

History of the Present Illness: Time suicide was attempted and method.
Quantity of pills; motive for attempt. Alcohol intake, other medications; place
where medication was obtained; last menstrual period.
Symptoms of Tricyclic Antidepressant Overdose: Dry mouth, hallucinations,
seizures, agitation, visual changes.
88 Alcohol Withdrawal
Psychiatric History: Previous suicide attempts or threats, family support,
marital conflict, alcohol or drug abuse, sources of emotional stress.
Availability of other dangerous medications or weapons.
Precipitating factor for suicide attempt (death, divorce, humiliating event,
unemployment, medical illness); further desire to commit suicide; is there a
definite plan? Was action impulsive or planned?
Detailed account of events 48-hours prior to suicide attempt and events after.
Feelings of sadness, guilt, hopelessness, helplessness. Reasons that a
patient has to wish to go on living. Did the patient believe that he would
succeed in suicide? Is the patient upset that he is still alive?
Personal or family history of emotional, physical, or sexual abuse.
Family history of depression, suicide, psychiatric disease.
General Appearance: Level of consciousness, confusion, delirium; presence
of potentially dangerous objects or substances (belts, shoe laces).
Vital Signs: BP (hypotension), pulse (bradycardia), temperature (hyperpyrexia),
respiratory rate.
HEENT: Signs of trauma; pupil size and reactivity, mydriasis, nystagmus.
Chest: Abnormal respiratory patterns, rhonchi (aspiration).
Heart: Rhythm (arrhythmias).
Abdomen: Decreased bowel sounds.
Extremities: Needle marks, wounds, ecchymoses.
Neuro: Mental status exam; tremor, clonus, hyperactive reflexes.
ECG Signs of Antidepressant Overdose: QRS widening, PR or QT interval
prolongation, AV block, ventricular tachycardia, Torsades de pointes
vertricular arrhythmia.
Labs: Electrolytes, BUN, creatinine, glucose; ABG. Alcohol, acetaminophen
levels; chest x-ray, urine toxicology screen.
Alcohol Withdrawal
History of the Present Illness: Determine the amount and frequency of alcohol
use and other drug use in the past month, week, and day. Time of last alcohol
consumption; tremors, anxiety, nausea, vomiting; diaphoresis, agitation, fever,
abdominal pain, headaches; hematemesis, melena, past withdrawal
reactions; history of delirium tremens, hallucinations, chest pain.
Determine whether the patient ever consumes five or more drinks at a time
(binge drinking). Previous abuse of alcohol or other drugs.
Effects of the alcohol or drug use on the patient's life may include problems with
health, family, job or financial status or with the legal system.
History of blackouts or motor vehicle crashes; affect of alcohol use on family
Alcohol Withdrawal 89
members.
Past Medical History: Gastritis, ulcers, GI bleeding; hepatitis, cirrhosis,
pancreatitis, drug abuse. Age of onset of heavy drinking.
Family history of alcoholism.
General Appearance: Poor nutritional status, slurred speech, disorientation,
diaphoresis.
Vital Signs: BP (hypertension), pulse (tachycardia), respiratory rate, tempera
ture (hyper/hypothermia).
HEENT: Signs of head trauma, ecchymoses. Conjunctival injection, icterus,
nystagmus, extraocular movements, pupil reactivity.
Chest: Rhonchi, crackles (aspiration), gynecomastia (cirrhosis).
Heart: Rate and rhythm, murmurs.
Abdomen: Liver tenderness, hepatomegaly or liver atrophy, liver span,
splenomegaly, ascites.
Genitourinary: Testicular atrophy, hernias.
Skin: Jaundice, spider angiomas (stellate arterioles with branching capillaries),
palmar erythema, muscle atrophy (stigmata of liver disease); needle tracks.
Neuro: Cranial nerves 2-12, reflexes, ataxia. Asterixis, decreased vibratory
sense (peripheral neuropathy).
Wernicke's Encephalopathy: Ophthalmoplegia, ataxia, confusion (thiamine
deficiency).
Korsakoff's Syndrome: Retrograde or antegrade amnesia, confabulation.
Labs: Electrolytes, magnesium, glucose, CBC, liver function tests, UA; chest
X-ray; ECG.
Differential Diagnosis of Altered Mental Status: Alcohol intoxication,
hypoglycemia, narcotic overdose, meningitis, drug overdose, head trauma,
alcoholic ketoacidosis, anticholinergic poisoning, sedative-hypnotic with
drawal, intracranial hemorrhage.
Commonly Used Formulas

A-a gradient = [(PB-PH2O) FiO2 - PCO2/R] - PO2 arterial
= (713 x FiO2 - pCO2/0.8 ) -pO2 arterial
PB = 760 mmHg; PH2O = 47 mmHg ; R . 0.8
normal Aa gradient <10-15 mmHg (room air)
Arterial oxygen capacity =(Hgb(gm)/100 mL) x 1.36 mL O2/gm Hgb
Arterial O2 content = 1.36(Hgb)(SaO2)+0.003(PaO2)= NL 20 vol%
O2 delivery = CO x arterial O2 content = NL 640-1000 mL O2/min
Cardiac output = HR x stroke volume
CO L/min =
125 mL O2/min/M2
8.5 {(1.36)(Hgb)(SaO2) - (1.36)(Hgb)(SvO2)}
x 100
Normal CO = 4-6 L/min

SVR = MAP - CVP x 80 = NL 800-1200 dyne/sec/cm2
COL/min
PVR = PA - PCWP x 80 = NL 45-120 dyne/sec/cm2
CO L/min
GFR mL/min =
(140 - age) x wt in Kg
72 (males) x serum Cr (mg/dL)
85 (females) x serum Cr (mg/dL)
Creatinine clearance =
U Cr (mg/100 mL) x U vol (mL)

P Cr (mg/100 mL) x time (1440 min for 24h)
Normal creatinine clearance = 100-125 mL/min(males), 85-105(females)

Body water deficit (L) = 0.6(weight kg)([measured serum Na]-140)
140
Osmolality mOsm/kg = 2[Na+ K] +
BUN +
2.8
glucose = NL 270-290 mOsm

18
kg
Fractional excreted Na = U Na/ Serum Na x 100 = NL<1%

U Cr/ Serum Cr
Anion Gap = Na - (Cl + HCO3)
For each 100 mg/dL increase in glucose, Na+ decrease by 1.6 mEq/L.
Corrected
= measured Ca mg/dL + 0.8 x (4 - albumin g/dL)
serum Ca+ (mg/dL)
Ideal body weight males = 50 kg for first 5 feet of height + 2.3 kg for each addi
tional inch.
Ideal body weight females = 45.5 kg for first 5 feet + 2.3 kg for each additional
inch.
Basal energy expenditure (BEE):
Males=66 + (13.7 x actual weight Kg) + (5 x height cm)-(6.8 x age)
Females= 655+(9.6 x actual weight Kg)+(1.7 x height cm)-(4.7 x age)
Nitrogen Balance = Gm protein intake/6.25 - urine urea nitrogen - (3-4

gm/d insensible loss)
Predicted Maximal Heart Rate = 220 - age
Normal ECG Intervals (sec)
PR
0.12-0.20
QRS
0.06-0.08
Heart rate/min
Q-T
60
0.33-0.43
0.31-0.41
70
0.29-0.38
80
0.28-0.36
90
0.27-0.35
100
Commonly Used Drug Levels

Drug
Therapeutic Range
Amikacin
Amitriptyline
Carbamazepine
Desipramine
Digoxin
Disopyramide
Doxepin
Flecainide
Gentamicin
Imipramine
Lidocaine
Lithium
Nortriptyline
Phenobarbital
Phenytoin
Procainamide
Quinidine
Salicylate
Streptomycin
Theophylline
Tocainide
Valproic acid
Vancomycin
Peak 25-30; trough <10 mcg/mL

100-250 ng/mL
4-10 mcg/mL
150-300 ng/mL
0.8-2.0 ng/mL
2-5 mcg/mL
75-200 ng/mL
0.2-1.0 mcg/mL
Peak 6.0-8.0; trough <2.0 mcg/mL
150-300 ng/mL
2-5 mcg/mL
0.5-1.4 mEq/L
50-150 ng/mL
10-30 mEq/mL
8-20 mcg/mL
4.0-8.0 mcg/mL
2.5-5.0 mcg/mL
15-25 mg/dL
8-20 mcg/mL
4-10 mcg/mL
50-100 mcg/mL
Commonly Used Abbreviations

1/2 NS
ac
ABG
ac
ACTH
ad lib
ADH
AFB
alk phos
ALT
am
AMA
vice
amp
AMV
ANA
ante
AP
ARDS
ASA
AST
bid
B-12
BM
BP
BUN
c/o
c
C and S
C
Ca
cap
CBC
cc
CCU
cm
CMF
0.45% saline solution

ante cibum (before
meals)
arterial blood gas
before meals
adrenocorticotropic
hormone
ad libitum (as
needed or desired)
antidiuretic hormone
acid-fast bacillus
a l k a l i n e
phosphatase
a l a n i n e
aminotransferase
morning
against medical adampule
assisted mandatory
ventilation; assist
mode ventilation
antinuclear antibody
before
anteroposterior
adult respiratory
distress syndrome
acetylsalicylic acid
a s p a r t a t e
aminotransferase
bis in die (twice a
day)
vitamin B-12
(cyanocobalamin)
bowel movement
blood pressure
blood urea nitrogen
complaint of
cum (with)
culture and sensitivity
centigrade
calcium
capsule
complete blood
count; includes hem o g l o b i n ,
hematocrit, red
blood cell indices,
white blood cell
count, and platelets
cubic centimeter
coronary care unit
centimeter
cyclophosphamide,
methotrexate,
fluorouracil
CNS
CO2
COPD
CPK-MB
CPR
CSF
CT
CVP
CXR
d/c
D5W
DIC
diff
DKA
dL
DOSS
DTs
ECG
ER
ERCP
ESR
ET
ETOH
Fe/TIBC
Fe
FEV1
FiO2
g
GC
GFR
GI
gm
gt
gtt
h
H20
HBsAG
HCO3
Hct
HDL
Hg
Hgb
HIV
hr
hs
IM
central nervous system

carbon dioxide
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
myocardial-specific CPK
isoenzyme
cardiopulmonary resuscitation
cerebrospinal fluid
computerized tomography
central venous pressure
chest x-ray
discharge; discontinue
5% dextrose water solution;
also D10W, D50W
disseminated intravascular
coagulation
differential count
diabetic ketoacidosis
deciliter
docusate sodium
sulfosuccinate
delirium tremens
electrocardiogram
emergency room
endoscopic retrograde
cholangiopancreatography
erythrocyte sedimentation
rate
endotracheal tube
alcohol
iron/total iron-binding capacity
iron
forced expiratory volume (in
one second)
fractional inspired oxygen
gram(s)
gonococcal; gonococcus
glomerular filtration rate
gastrointestinal
gram
drop
drops
hour
water
hepatitis B surface antigen
bicarbonate
hematocrit
high-density lipoprotein
mercury
hemoglobin concentration
human immunodeficiency
virus
hour
hora somni (bedtime, hour
of sleep)
intramuscular
I and O
IU
ICU
IgM
IMV
INH
INR
IPPB
IV
IVP
K+
kcal
KCL
KPO4
KUB
L
LDH
LDL
liq
LLQ
LP
LR
MB
MBC
mcg
mEq
mg
Mg
MgSO4
MI
MIC
mL
mm
MOM
MRI
Na
NaHCO3
Neuro
NG
intake and output-

measurement of the
patient's intake and
output, including
urine, vomit, diar
rhea, and drainage
international units
intensive care unit
immunoglobulin M
intermittent manda
tory ventilation
isoniazid
International normal
ized ratio
intermittent positivepressure breathing
intravenous or intra
venously
intravenous
pyelogram; intrave
nous piggyback
potassium
kilocalorie
potassium chloride
potassium phos
phate
x-ray of abdomen
(kidneys, ureters,
bowels)
liter
l a c t a t e
dehydrogenase
low-density lipopro
tein
liquid
left lower quadrant
lumbar puncture,
low potency
lactated Ringer's
(solution)
myocardial band
minimal bacterial
concentration
microgram
milliequivalent
milligram
magnesium
Magnesium Sulfate
myocardial infarc
tion
minimum inhibitory
concentration
milliliter
millimeter
Milk of Magnesia
magnetic resonance
imaging
sodium
sodium bicarbonate
neurologic
nasogastric
NKA
NPH
NPO
NS
NSAID
O2
OD
oint
OS
Osm
OT
OTC
OU
oz
p, post
pc
PA
PaO2
pAO2
PB
pc
pCO2
PEEP
per
pH
PID
pm
PO
pO2
polys
PPD
PR
prn
PT
PTCA
PTT
PVC
q
qid
qAM
qd
qh
qhs
qid
qOD
qs
no known allergies
neutral protamine Hagedorn
(insulin)
nulla per os (nothing by
mouth)
normal saline solution
(0.9%)
nonsteroidal anti-inflamma
tory drug
oxygen
right eye
ointment
left eye
osmolality
occupational therapy
over the counter
each eye
ounce
after
post cibum (after meals)
posteroanterior; pulmonary
artery
arterial oxygen pressure
partial pressure of oxygen in
alveolar gas
phenobarbital
after meals
partial pressure of carbon
dioxide
positive end-expiratory pres
sure
by
hydrogen ion concentration
(H+)
pelvic inflammatory disease
afternoon
orally, per os
partial pressure of oxygen
polymorphonuclear leuko
cytes
purified protein derivative
per rectum
pro re nata (as needed)
physical therapy;
prothrombin time
percutaneous transluminal
coronary angioplasty
partial thromboplastin time
premature ventricular contraction
quaque (every) q6h, q2h
every 6 hours; every 2 hours
quarter in die (four times a
day)
every morning
quaque die (every day)
every hour
every night before bedtime
4 times a day
every other day
quantity sufficient
R/O
RA
Resp
RL
ROM
rt
s
s/p
sat
SBP
SC
SIADH
SL
SLE
SMA-12
SMX
sob
sol
SQ
ss
STAT
susp
tid
T4
T3RU
tab
TB
Tbsp
Temp
TIA
tid
TKO
TMP
rule out
rheumatoid arthritis;
room air; right atrial

respiratory rate
Ringer's lactated
solution (also LR)
range of motion
right
sine (without)
status post (the con
dition of being after)
saturated
systolic blood pres
sure
subcutaneously
syndrome of inap
propriate antidiuretic
hormone
sublingually under
tongue
systemic lupus
erythematosus
sequential multiple
analysis; a panel of
12 chemistry tests.
Tests include Na+ ,
K+, HCO3 , Chloride
, BUN, glucose,
creatinine, bilirubin,
calcium, total pro
tein, albumin, and
a l k a l i n e
phosphatase. Other
chemistry panels
include SMA-6 and
SMA-20
sulfamethoxazole
shortness of breath
solution
under the skin
one-half
statim (immediately)
suspension
ter in die (three
times a day)
Thyroxine level (T4)
Triiodothyronine
resin uptake
tablet
tuberculosis
tablespoon
temperature
transient ischemic
attack
three times a day
to keep open, an
infusion rate (500
mL/24h) just enough
to keep the IV from
clotting
trimethoprim
TMP-SMX trimethoprim-sulfameth
oxazole combination
tissue plasminogen activator
thyroid-stimulating hormone
teaspoon
units
urinalysis
ointment
upper respiratory infection
as directed
urinary tract infection
vincristine, adriamycin, and
cyclophosphamide
vag
vaginal
VC
vital capacity
VDRL
Venereal Disease Research
Laboratory
VF
ventricular function
V fib
ventricular fibrillation
VLDL
very low-density lipoprotein
Vol
volume
VS
vital signs
VT
ventricular tachycardia
W
water
WBC
white blood count
x
times
TPA
TSH
tsp
U
UA
ung
URI
Ut Dict
UTI
VAC
14
Connective tissue dis
ease 82
Cor pulmonale 24
Abdominal pain 37
Cough 30
Acropachy 80
Courvoisier's sign 38
Acute abdomen 37
Adenoma sebaceum 59
Cr/BUN ratio 68
Cranial Nerve Examina
Alcohol withdrawal 88
tion 7
Alveolar/arterial O2 gradi
Cruveilhier-Baumgarten
ent 90
syndrome 48
Amaurosis fugax 63
CSF fluid 34
Amenorrhea 54
Cullen's sign 38
Anorexia 40
Cushing's Syndrome 19
Aortic Coarctation 18
Cushing's triad 64
Aortic Dissection 12
Arteriovenous nicking 17 CVAT 6
Decerebration 62
Ascites 49
Decortication 62
Asterixis 46, 47
Deep tendon reflexes 7
Asthma 24
Deep vein thrombosis
Atrial fibrillation 16
81
Axis I 87
Delirium 61
Axis II 87
Delusions 86
Axis III 87
Depression 59
Axis IV 87
Derealization 86
Axis V 87
Diabetic ketoacidosis 77
B12 deficiency 62
Diabetic retinopathy 77
Babinski's sign 64
Diarrhea 41
Body water deficit 90
Discharge Note 8
Brudzinski's sign 33
Discharge summary 9
Bruit
Discoid rash 82
renal 18
Caput medusae 38, 46, Dizziness 60
Doll's eyes maneuver 63
48
Dupuytren's contracture
Carotenemia 78
48
CBC 7
Dysdiodokinesis 61
CCE 6
Dyspnea 12
Cephalization 15
Ecthyma gangrenosum
Cerebral Herniation 64
29
Charcot's sign 38
Ectopic 56
Charcot's triad 45
Edema 13
Chest pain 11, 12
Cheyne Stokes respira Egophony 31
Electrolytes 7
tion 64
Endocarditis 35
Chief Compliant 5
Endocrinology 77
Cholecystitis 12, 45
Chronic obstructive pul EOMI 6
monary disease 25 Epistaxis 44
Chronic Renal Failure 69 Esophageal Rupture 12
Fever 29
Chvostek's sign 50
Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syn
Cirrhosis 47
drome 45
Cold caloric maneuver 63
Fluid wave 47
Colon cutoff sign 50
Formulas 90
Coma 61
Fractional excretion of
Confusion 61
sodium 67
Congestive heart failure
Index
Friction rub 20
Gastritis 51
Gastrointestinal bleeding
lower 44
upper 43
Glasgow coma scale 62
Grey Turner's sign 38
Gum hyperplasia 65
Hallucinations 86
Hashimoto's disease 79
Headache 59
Heart failure 14
Hegar's sign 57
Hematemesis 43
Hematochezia 37
Hematology 81
Hematuria 70
Hemoptysis 23
Hepatic angle sign 48
Hepatitis 46
Hepatorenal syndrome
67, 69
History 5
History of Present Illness
5
Homan's Sign 26, 81
Hyperaldosteronism 19
Hyperdefecation 79
Hyperinflation 24
Hyperkalemia 72
Hyperkeratosis 78
Hypernatremia 75
Hyperparathyroidism 19
Hypertension 17
Hypertensive retinopathy
17
Hyperthyroidism 79
Hypertrophic gastropathy
44
Hypokalemia 73
Hyponatremia 74
Hypothyroidism 78
Iliopsoas sign 38
Illusions 86
Increased intracranial
pressure 64
Infectious diseases 29
Intestinal obstruction 53
Ischemic stroke 63
Janeway lesions 36
Jaundice 46
Jugular venous distention
15
JVD 6
Kaposi's sarcoma 32
Kayser-Fleischer rings
46, 47
Kerley B lines 15
Kernig's sign 33
LFT's 7
Lower Gastrointestinal
Bleeding 44
Lupus 82
Macroglossia 78
Malar rash 82
Mallory Weiss tear 44
McBurney's point 38
Melena 37, 44
Menetrier's disease 44
Meningitis 32-34
pathogens 33
Mesenteric ischemia 52
Migraine 60
Mini-mental status exam
87
Murmurs 6
Murphy's Sign 29, 38, 45
Muscle Contraction Headache 60
Myocardial infarction 11,
12
Myxedema coma 78
Myxedema madness 78
Nausea 39, 40
Nephrolithiasis 71
Nephrology 67
Nephromegaly 70
Nephrotoxic drugs 67
Neurology 59
New York Heart Assoc 16
Obstipation 37
Obtundation 61
Obturator sign 38
Oculocephalic reflex 63
Oculovestibular reflex 63
Odynophagia 37
Oliguria 43, 67
Onycholysis 80
Ophthalmoplegia 80
Orthostatic hypotension
43
Osler's nodes 36
Osmolality, estimate of 90
Palmar erythema 47, 48
Palpitations 16
Pancreatitis 50
Paracentesis
table 49
Past Medical History 5
Peptic ulcer disease 51
Pericarditis 12, 19
ease 38
Peritonitis 49
Stroke 63, 64
PERRLA 6
Stupor 61
Pheochromocytoma 18,
Sturge-Weber syndrome
19
65
Physical Examination 6 Subcutaneous fat necro
Pigmenturia 68
sis 50
Pleuritic pain 19
Subhyloid retinal hemor
Plummer's nails 80
rhages 64
PMI 6
Syncope 20
Pneumocystis pneumo Tactile fremitus 31
Tenesmus 44
nia 31
Thyroid Storm 79
Pneumonia 30
Thyroiditis 79
Port-wine nevus 65
Thyrotoxicosis 79
Postrenal failure 68
Postural hypotension 43 Todd's paralysis 65
Transient ischemic attack
Prerenal failure 68
Prescription Writing 9
62
Presyncope 61
Tuberculous 34
Primitive reflexes 64
Tumor lysis syndrome 72
Problem-oriented prog UA 7
Upper Gastrointestinal
ress note 7
Procedure Note 8
Bleeding 43
Progress note 7
Uremic frost 69
Pseudo-hyperkalemia Urinary tract infection 35
Urine analysis 7
72
Urochromes 69
Psychiatry 85
Uterine bleeding 55
Puddle sign 47
Pulmonary embolism 26 Vertigo 60
Vomiting 39
Pulmonology 23
Von Recklinghausen's
Pulses 6
Pulsus paradoxicus 24
disease 65
Pyelonephritis 35
Water bottle sign 20
Raynaud's syndrome 82 Weakness 63
Renal bruit 18
Weber test 7, 61
Renal failure
Weight loss 40
Wheezing 24
table 68
Renal failure index 67 Whispered pectoriloquy
Rendu-Osler-Weber
31
disease 23
Wilson's disease 46
Renovascular Hyperten
sion 19
Renovascular Stenosis
18
Review of Systems 5
Rheumatology 81
Rinne's test 61
Romberg's test 7
Roth's spots 36
Rovsing's sign 38
RRR 6
Seizure 64
Sepsis 29
Spider angiomas 47
Stigmata of Liver Dis

History and Physical Exam

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History and Physical Exam

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Contents

Hematologic and Rheumatologic Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Deep Venous Thrombosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Connective Tissue Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Commonly Used Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Commonly Used Drug Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Commonly Used Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

History and Physical Examination 5

Allergies: Penicillin, codeine?

Family History: Medical problems in family, including problems similar to

patient's disorder. Asthma, coronary artery disease, heart failure, cancer,

6 History and Physical Examination

duration), age of menarche, menopause; dysmenorrhea, contraception,

vaginal bleeding, breast masses.

Endocrine: Polyuria, polydipsia, skin or hair changes, heat intolerance.

Musculoskeletal: Joint pain or swelling, arthritis, myalgias.

Skin and Lymphatics: Easy bruising, lymphadenopathy.

Neuropsychiatric: Weakness, seizures, memory changes, depression.

Problem-Oriented Daily Progress Note 7

V: Facial sensation, ability to open jaw against resistance, corneal reflex.

Problem-Oriented Daily Progress Note

Attending or Ward Team Responsible for Patient:

Surgical Procedures, Diagnostic Tests, Invasive Procedures:

Brief History, Pertinent Physical Examination, and Laboratory Data:

Chest Pain and Myocardial Infarction 11

looks ill, well, or malnourished.

14 Congestive Heart Failure

Congestive Heart Failure

Congestive Heart Failure 15

D. Cardiomyopathies: Hypertrophic, idiopathic dilated, postpartum, genetic,

toxic, nutritional, metabolic

16 Palpitations and Atrial Fibrillation

Palpitations and Atrial Fibrillation

D. Renovascular Stenosis. Paraumbilical abdominal bruits.

E. Polycystic Kidneys. Flank or abdominal mass.

F. Pyelonephritis. Urinary tract infections, costovertebral angle tender

Screening Tests for Secondary Hypertension

Captopril Test: Plasma renin level before and 1 hr

Differential Diagnosis of Hypertension

A. Primary (essential) Hypertension (90%)

pheochromocytoma, cocaine use; withdrawal from alpha2 stimulants,

Medications Associated with Syncope

Chest: Crackles, rhonchi (aspiration).

Heart: Irregular rhythm (atrial fibrillation); systolic murmurs (aortic stenosis),

cardiac friction rub.

Differential Diagnosis of Syncope

Reflex (heart structurally normal)

Prior chest X-rays, CT scans, tuberculin testing (PPD).

24 Wheezing and Asthma

Wheezing and Asthma

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 25

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Frequency of Symptoms and Signs in Pulmonary Embolism

Labs: ABG: Hypoxemia, hypocapnia, respiratory alkalosis.

Fever and Sepsis 29

30 Cough and Pneumonia

Laboratory Tests for Serious Infections

Cultures with antibiotic sensitivities

Cough and Pneumonia

Pneumocystis Carinii Pneumonia and AIDS 31