Cold Water Deep Sea Corals:

A New Frontier of Discovery

Andrew Sullivan
9 Sycamore Place
St. Johns NL
A1B 2S2
3 March 2010
What Is Marine Biodiversity?

The oceans, while not so well understood as terrestrial life, occupy 71% of
the surface of the earth and contain 97% of all water on planet earth. This
excludes the polar ice caps, themselves diminishing due to the emission of
greenhouse gases. The oceans are less static than earth due to the natural
influence of temperature, currents, tides, salinity and dissolved oxygen. These
influences are the conditions that create life and have profound impacts upon the
entire food chain at all levels. This great marine biodiversity extends to the depths
of the ocean with marine species, unknown and unseen by most humans, with
some estimates that there may be as many as ten million species inhabiting the
oceans of the world. New species are being discovered in ocean depths of up to 7
miles, with many species yet to be discovered.

Article 2 of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines
biological diversity as the variability among living organisms from all sources,
including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, and the
ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems
1
.

Marine biodiversity refers to the diversity of animal and plant life in the
ocean. This life is a food web with many feeding relationships amongst the various
species within ecological communities. There is life from the smallest
phytoplankton all the way up through the various trophic levels to the large
predators such as sharks and whales. All are sustained by dependence for life
upon one another, as well as sustenance provided from nutrients, sun, air and the
energy created from multiple interactions.

At a simpler level, marine biodiversity for me is highlighted in a large color
poster entitled New Found Landtake a deeper look. This poster by Alexander

1
www.cdb.int/convention/convention.shtml
2
Konstantinov includes more than 170 depictions of the marine life within one small
area of ocean near St. Johns. There is the male lump fish guarding eggs until they
hatch, moon jelly fish capturing prey in the mucous surrounding its body, basket
stars forming a network to capture drifting plankton, finger sponges and many more
beautiful images which display the vitality of life.

Threats to marine biodiversity come from various sources such as
overfishing, ocean warming, ocean acidification and the destruction of habitat,
often associated with the growth of human populations in coastal areas and ground
fish bottom trawling. These threats are of great concern, as apart from their
impacts upon the living organisms in the oceans, life in our seas produces a third
of the oxygen that we breathe, impacts global climate and produces valuable
protein. While many marine organisms are currently safe from the footprint of man,
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has initiated steps to ensure that their
evolution over centuries is not disturbed beyond that caused by natural
phenomena. The CBD has developed a Strategic Plan to guide further
implementation of its conservation objectives at the national, regional and global
levels. The purpose of this Plan
is to effectively halt the loss of biodiversity so as to secure
the continuity of its beneficial uses through the conservation
and sustainable use of its components and the fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic
resources
2
.

Current Marine Biodiversity Research in Atlantic Canadas Oceans

The abundance, beauty and great variety of deep water corals living in
marine canyons off the coasts of Atlantic Canada is a fascinating subject area and
but one example of current biodiversity research in Atlantic Canada. These corals
are animals related to anemones and jellyfish; they are found below the depth that
light penetrates, are of many shapes and sizes, long living and slow growing, and

2
Ibid
3
support high biodiversity. Could it be that they play a significant role in preserving
plant and animal life and significantly contributing to the health of the ocean?

Research on deep sea corals is rather recent and, consequently much is
unknown about their biology and ecology. Breeze et al report upon a project that
identified and mapped deep sea corals off the coast of Nova Scotia in 1997
3
.
Hourigan et al provide an update on the status of cold-water coral communities of
the world
4
. The research reported on is in most cases less than a decade old. The
work of scientists at the Bedford Institute of Oceanography and that of Norwegian
coral expert Dr. Pal Mortensen within the Gully Marine Protected Area (MPA) to
expand knowledge of the distribution, abundance, and habitat requirements of
deep-water coral species and their associated fauna
5
is one example of this
research. The Gully is located approximately 40 kilometers east of Sable Island on
the edge of the Scotian Shelf. Dr. Mortensen stated that research efforts have
been more of data gathering and cataloguing than in-depth analysis of the
biodiversity impacts, and the knowledge of how the presence of corals influences
the faunal associations and the general mega fauna composition remains
rudimentary.
6
The lack of knowledge of the taxonomy of cold water corals has
been referenced in various sources. For additional reading see Roberts et al.
7

Meanwhile recent major international research programs are rapidly expanding
knowledge of cold-water ecosystems.
8



3
Distribution and Staus of Deep Sea Corals off Nova Scotia.
www.ecologyaction.ca

4
The Status of Cold Water Coral Communities of the World:_ A Brief Update.
http://www.icriforum.org/gcrmn/2008/3.%20Cold-Water%20Corals.pdf
5
www.marinebiodiversity.ca/CoralWebsite/research-corals.htm
6
http://www.springerlink.com/content/p105w53070r25333, p.248
7
J. Murray Roberts, Andrew J. Wheeler, Andre Freiwald and Stephen D. Cairns-
Cold-Water Corals: The Biology and Geology of Deep-Sea Coral Habitats
Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88485-3
8
http://www.springerlink.com/content/p105w53070r25333
4
The establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) has provided a
foundation for various and uninterrupted research efforts to counteract threats to
marine biodiversity, including threats to slow growing deep sea corals. MPAs are,
in DFO language, areas which are ecologically significant with species or
properties that require special consideration. The Gully provides protection to a
very large marine canyon with a variety of habitats for fish, mammals, sea birds
and bottom vegetation including sea corals. The Gully MPA is an especially good
physical environment for the study of deep sea corals as it provides an
uninterrupted platform for the study of ecosystem and climatic change, and its MPA
has general prohibitions against the disturbance, damage, destruction or removal
of any living marine organism or any part of its habitat, including the seabed
9
.

The research effort I investigated was initiated by the Bedford Institute of
Oceanography around 2000. Its objective was to address questions being raised
regarding the effects of fishing and offshore hydrocarbon activities on deep sea
coral ecosystems
10
. In the intervening period to the present day further work was
also undertaken, concentrating upon expanding knowledge on the distribution of
deep sea corals and assessing their ecological importance. The research cruise by
the CGS Hudson during the summer of 2007 explored deep sea corals along the
Canadian Atlantic coast, utilizing deep water submersibles and high resolution
color video imaging to obtain a better understanding of relationships with other
species in deep-sea ecosystems
11
. Research scientist Dr. Ellen Kenchington
headed up this research team whose purpose was to further investigate the inter-
relationships with other species in the deep waters inhabited by corals. Since then,
the sampling and mapping of deep sea coldwater corals, the taxonomy work
undertaken, the examination of the inter relationships with other organisms and the
study of environmental impacts have led to an improved understanding of Gully
ecosystems. While the primary goal of the Gully research project is to expand

9
Gully Marine Protected Area Regulations (SOR/2004-112)
10
http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/media/back-fiche/2004/hq-ac61a-eng.htm
11
http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/Publications/annualreport-rapportannuel/ar-
ra0708/sect2-eng.htm
5
knowledge of the distribution of deep sea corals and their habitats, it also forms the
foundation for further studies to unravel the complex biodiversity of the ocean, and
the role and function of deep sea corals as an integral part of the puzzle of
sustaining marine life.

Implications of Work on Deep Sea Corals

The research off Nova Scotia and other areas of Atlantic Canada is an
important contributor to world research on cold water deep sea corals. As such, it
is providing for a better understanding of the importance of deep-sea coral
ecosystems to the marine environment in diverse areas such as the understanding
of past climate change and information on coral reproduction. The new knowledge
gained has been important in selecting further areas for protection.

In addition to the Gully MPA, the interest in deep sea corals has influenced
the establishment of other exclusion zones. The Northwest Atlantic Fisheries
Organization (NAFO), of which Canada is a member, has closed twelve significant
coral and sponge locations and five seamount areas to all bottom trawl fishing
12

until 2012, and the offshore commercial fishing industry has established a
voluntary 12,500 square kilometer exclusion zone to protect deep sea corals off the
northern Labrador Coast.

The research on deep-water corals in the Gully has determined that one-
third of all locations investigated had damaged corals due to ground fish bottom
trawling and scallop dredging. This destruction has negative implications for
associated fauna. For example more than 30 invertebrate species have been
found on gorgonian corals off Nova Scotia
13
. Research has also detected large
schools of redfish in the vicinity of Gully deep-sea corals.
14
Elsewhere it is reported
that colonies of corals form important nursery areas for maybe up to nine million

12
http://www.nafo.int/about/frames/media1.html
13
http://www.marinebiodiversity.ca/CoralWebsite/research-corals.htm
14
Ibid
6
species and shelter for juveniles
15
. Concern has also been expressed about the
potential effects of human activities on deep-water coral ecosystems, especially
fishing and oil and gas activities.
16


Beazley reported to the December 9, 2009 Annual General Meeting of the
Centre for Marine Biodiversity that while much is still unknown, the reproductive
characteristics of the gorgonian coral is considered by NAFO to be an indicator
and key component of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems
17
. This declaration provides
further evidence that deep sea corals are indicators of marine environmental health
and thus important to obtaining a greater understanding of the ecological links
amongst marine living organisms.

There are also broader implications than the impacts upon the corals
themselves. Due to heightened awareness regarding the degradation of marine
ecosystems, we are now witnessing throughout our world that legislation is being
promulgated, programs developed and funds provided to counteract known and
unknown threats to marine biodiversity. The U.S National Research Council has
proposed an agenda similar to that of Canada requiring a fundamental change in
the approach by which biodiversity is measured and studied in the ocean by
emphasizing an integrated regional-scale research strategy with an
environmentally relevant and socially responsible framework
18
. UNESCO has
developed a marine spatial management guide to assist countries move towards
ecosystem based management of their marine environments.
19
Likewise, the
United Nations General Assembly in 2002 called upon intergovernmental
organizations to consider urgently ways to integrate and improve, on a scientific

15
//marinehabitats.suite101.com/article.cfm/why_coral_reefs_have_so_much_bidive
rsity
16
http://coris.noaa.gov/about/deep/
17
http://www.marinebiodiversity.ca/cmb/activities/annual-general-meeting
18
http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_rm/rm_gtr229/rm_gtr229_223_228.pdf
19
Marine Policy Volume 32, Issue 5, September 2008, Pages 762-771
The Role of Marine Spatial Planning in Implementing Ecosystem-based, Sea
Use Management

7
basis, the management of risks to marine biodiversity of seamounts and certain
underwater features within the framework of the UN Convention on the Law of the
Sea
20
.

This ecosystem approach to resource management should provide for a
healthy marine biodiversity by both protecting the environment and allowing
commercial activity through good marine management. Also, integrated network
planning should enhance biodiversity conservation as scientists from various
disciplines work together. Initiatives such as the research on corals in the Gully are
not being studied in isolation, but rather being incorporated into this integrated
ocean management framework. While current presumptions that favor freedom to
fish and freedom of the seas need to be replaced with the new concept of freedom
for the seas
21
it would be premature to state that there is yet sufficient
international recognition of the importance of protecting deep sea corals.

How This Research Contributes to Canadas Profile and Recognition in the
International Community

Canadas profile and international recognition in protecting marine
biodiversity comes from its leadership in many initiatives. These include the
Convention on Biology Diversity (1992) and the FAO Code of Conduct on
Responsible Fishing (1995). Canada was also one of the first countries in the world
to legislate an ecosystem based approach to the management of its oceans, when
it created the Oceans Act in 1996. Other legislation such as the Environmental
Assessment Act of 1995 and the Species at Risk Act of 2004 is internationally
recognized as being at the forefront of the development of an overall
comprehensive policy for the management of marine habitat. A more recent

20
United Nations General Assembly Resolution on Oceans and the Law of the Sea
A/RES/57/141, para. 56, 2002
21
www.worldwatch.org/ocean-in-peril Oceans in Peril: Protecting Marine
Biodiversity

8
example is Canadas leadership in United Nations resolution 61/105 which was
adopted by the U.N. General Assembly in March 2007, and provides a roadmap to
both identify and protect vulnerable marine ecosystems, including cold water corals
from destructive fishing practices which, in turn, threaten all varieties of marine
life
22
.

On the other hand, Canadas international reputation has suffered due to an
inability to properly manage key fish resources such as Northern cod. Another
contrary view is that of Dr. Jeff Hutchings who stated, in reference to Canadian
ocean management:
Biological depredation of the waters bordered by the
longest coastline in the world ultimately reflects ineffectual
leadership & disingenuous commitment to environmental
sustainability. There is a clear need to replace governmental
& societal lip service with meaningful responses to over-
exploitation, habitat alteration, and climate change.
23


Apart from national initiatives, Canada has made many international
commitments in the realm of protecting our marine biodiversity. These include the
commitment made under the Convention on Biological Diversity to establish
comprehensive systems to address marine biodiversity loss by 2012, and further
commitments to the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 and the
World Park Congress in 2003
24
. Regrettably, not all these commitments have been
fully met.

The research on deep sea corals has strengthened Canadas international
profile as a world leader in this area, and the rich diversity and abundance of deep
sea corals has attracted international scientists to the Gully. Apart from the
research in the Gully, biodiversity research was also conducted from May to

22
www.cbd.int/convention/convention.shtml Text of the Convention on
Biological Diversity

23
http://www.urbanvancouver.com/node/6677
24
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/18785108/protecting-marine-biodiversity-in-
canada-adaptation-options
9
September, 2009 onboard the Spanish research vessel Miguel Oliver in an area
outside Canadas 200-mile exclusive economic zone. Scientists from several
countries participated in this research survey, a primary focus of which was to
survey the seabed and collect samples of organisms living on the sea bottom. It is
stated that the analysis of the data gathered will have an extra focus on cold-water
corals and sponges and their habitat preferences
25
.

Canada is also recognized through its participation in the TRACES (Trans-
Atlantic Coral Ecosystem Study) international research project where coral experts
from the U.S. and Canada have joined forces with European experts to investigate
the highly diverse yet endangered cold-water coral ecosystems across the entire
Atlantic Ocean basin
26
. The collaboration will provide for more in-depth analysis of
topics such as how corals are impacted by climate change. Canada is also a
contributor to the bi-annual International Deep-sea Coral Symposium, an important
medium to facilitate the exchange of the latest scientific knowledge of deep water
corals and associated biodiversity relationships, which brings together experts from
around the world to advance the knowledge of deep sea corals and their
biodiversity impacts. The inaugural Symposium was held in Halifax in 2000.

The Marine Conservation Biology Institute has commended Canada as
being one of the first countries to have taken steps towards protecting corals, and
Canada also participates in the International Coral Reef Initiative, the Deep Sea
Conservation Coalition and other international forums which enrich understanding
of deep sea corals. The work on coldwater corals certainly contributes to Canadas
international reputation.






25
http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/media/back-fiche/2009/nl-tnl31-eng.htm
26
http://www.sams.ac.uk/sams-news/Media%20releases/cold-water-coral-research-
the-way-ahead
10
Bibliography


Books

1) Ormond, Rupert F.G., John D. Gage and Martin Vivian Angel (editors).
Marine Biodiversity: Patterns and Processes, Cambridge University
Press, N.Y., (449 pages), 1997.

2) Thorne-Miller, Boyce The Living Ocean: Understanding and
Protecting Marine Biodiversity, Island Press, Washington, D.C. 1999

Internet Sources

1) Canadas Progress: Protecting Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems in the
Deep Seas. Online. www.dfo-mpo.ca.ca/overfishing-superpeche

2) Carbon Dioxide and Our Ocean Legacy. Online
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3) Census of Marine Life. Online.
http://news.coml.org/baseline/index.htm

4) Centre for Marine Biodiversity. Online www.marinebiodiversity.ca

5) Cleaning up our Oceans. Online www.davidsuzuki.org

6) Deep-water corals and their habitats in the Gully, a submarine canyon
off Atlantic Canada www.springerlink.com/content/p105w53070r25333

7) Distribution and Staus of Deep Sea Corals off Nova Scotia.
www.ecologyaction.ca

8) Fisheries and Oceans Canada , various online sources

9) Food Web. Online. www.eoearth.org/article/food_web

10) Marine Biodiversity. Online. www.eoearth.org/article/marine_biodiversity

11) Marine Spatial Management Guide. Online.
www.unesco-ico-marinesp.be/msp_guide

12) Multinational Research of the Deep Sea off Canadas East Coast.
Online. www.dfp.mpo.gc.ca/media/back-fiche/2009/nl-tn131-eng.htm

11
13) Oceans in Peril: Protecting Marine Biodiversity. Online.
www.worldwatch.org/ocean-in-peril

14) Ocean Threats, Endangered Species. Online.
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threats.html

15) Text of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Online.
www.cbd.int/convention/convention.shtml

16) The Future of Biodiversity. Online.
www.sciencemag.org/cgi/contract/abstract/269/5222/347

17) The Future Oceans-Warming Up, Rising High, Turning Sour, German
Advisory Council on Global Change.
Online.www.wbgu.de/wbgu_sn2006_en.pdf
18) The Status of Cold Water Coral Communities of the World:_ A Brief
Update. http://www.icriforum.org/gcrmn/2008/3.%20Cold-
Water%20Corals.pdf

19) Understanding Marine Biodiversity, The National Academy Press.
Online. www.books.nap.edu/openbook.php.record_id-4923











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