#Brain: About 3 lbs", 2% of body weight", >10% of blood ow ", 20% of O2 Frontal Parietal Occipital Temporal (precental and

l and postcentral gyrus)

Franz Gall: phrenology; Phrenologists measured the bumps on the skull. They assumed that a larger bump on the skull meant a larger underlying region of the brain. (ii)
This was not a good proxy; exterior bumps on the skull do not reflect underlying brain structure. Fuck its 5:30 AM
2 types of cells: glial (support and structure) and neuron 10-100billion of each --- axon passes messages from the cell body to other neurons muscles or glands via
neural impulse, dendrites receive signals from other cells, cell bodies appear gray while myelin appears white (around the axon), cell bodies near surface while myelin.
in center of brain. When neuron is stimulated, an electrochemical change travels down the axon. Synapse is structure that permits this signals to pass through. Neuron
usually in contact with 10-100 other neurons. Travel :1-100 m/s 50,000 neurons per mm3 in cortex, around 3mm deep. Around 2000cm2 total. Cortex: 6 layers of cells.
Brodmanns Areas: 38 specialized areas of the brain, somewhat true. Problems for anatomist: 1. Many neurons -- 10 to 100 billion" 2. Small -- cell bodies 1 to 100 m"
3. Different kinds" 4. Same color -- except for myelin" 5. Connections complicated" penfield known for brain surgery for epilepsy. Motor cortex, somatosensory cortex
Can study brain via electric stimulation or ablations or lesions. Paul Broca discovered Brocas area for speech, saw a guy with gangrene and couldnt speak. Role of
area 17 in vision discovered via brain study or (anatomy physiology) also can use monkey brain and use chemicals to trace action potentials.
#CAT & MRI scans: structure (anatomy)! B. fMRI scans: function (physiology)MRI: Some atoms (H) can be made to give off (emit) radio frequency signals if placed
in a strong magnetic eld. What is measured? Signal differs depending upon concentration of H atoms and what they are surrounded by [e.g. myelin(fat) vs. water]!
Concentration: water>gray matter>white matter. fMRI more important to brain behavior since physiological. assumption Increases in brain activity produce increases in
local blood ow. Increase in local blood ow leads to change in local ratio of oxygenated to de-oxygenated hemoglobin. . This changes the local magnetic properties
and strength of radio frequency signal from H atoms. fMRI scanner detects signals from H atoms.<- proxy. Control subject needed. Voxel is a 3d pixel. Since depend
on blood flow, spatial resolution of technique is low. Regions of >1mm3, while microelectrodes are from single neutrons. Also slower, since blood flows 2-3 secs.
#200 million axons corpus callosum how sides of brain communicate. Left hemisphere for brain in most people for speech and language. 1. No single study or single
technique is completely convincing by itself.2. Combined evidence is convincing that there are differences between the hemispheres.! 3. But, the evidence does not
support popular claims.! Some evidence that right hemisphere biased toward global and left hemisphere biased toward local. Problems with research on brain
damage individuals is damages usually cover more than one area. Both hemispheres get input from both ears. ! But, information from opposite side is dominate. Effects
are not signicant however. Some weak evidence in studies of hemisphere specialization. In basic split brain experiments, 1. Right hemisphere knows something that
the left doesnt.! 2. Right hemisphere can understand some basic language. Gazzaniga hypothesized that there is an interpreter of our behavior in the left hemisphere.
Simplied Version of Gazzaniga s ! Simplied Framework of Consciousness:! 1. MANY, MANY brain modules (i.e. specialized systems).! 2. Moment to moment,
modules compete for attention! 3. The psychological unity we experience emerges from an interpreter system in the left hemisphere. ! 4. Consciousness is an
Emergent Property synesthesia is when you hear colors and taste shapes and that shit
#Speed basic features: Speed is relative: Speed of an object can only be specied in relation to another object If your speed doesnt change (and direction doesnt
change either), you cant feel motion. You can rightly claim that you are not moving. Speed is additive (and subtractive). Time dilation: Experimental Verication:
Atomic clock on airplane and Muon lifetime. Space: Space (distance) must also not be constant: Must change for observers in relative motion in just the right way to
compensate change in time, rendering speed of light = space/time unchanged. Measuring a trains length with ruler and stopwatch and speed will yield different results.
They are both right. There is no THE length of the train. Length of train depends on its speed when you measure it. Rest length is length measured by someone at
rest relative to the train. General Conclusion for SPACE: Moving objects appear shortened (along the direction theyre moving). Known as Length contraction or
Lorentz contraction.Mass: Parable of the two jousters. ENERGY of motion increases MASS of an object Energy and mass are interchangeable Einstein: Formula
relating mass and energy. E=mc2 since c is constant if energy changes mass has to change. Why cant an objects speed ever be increased up to and then beyond the
speed of light, c? Answer: As objects speed approaches c, its mass gets ever larger and so needs an ever greater push to go faster still. Just as we reach c, the required
push reaches infinity.From perspective of stationary observe: Moving objects appear shortened (by factor of ) Moving objects mass grows with speed (by factor )
#Main difference between general relativity and Newtonian gravity is that newton said it is instantenous, while GR states it travels at speed of light, which is fastest
speed in universe. space itself and time communicates the force of gravity according to einstein in 1916. GR: standard analogy is the rubber sheet, rubber sheet replaced
by space and time. deep connection between motion and gravity. accelerated motion and gravity is the equivalence principle. consider special kind of accelerated
motion: fixed speed but changing direction: circular motion, like a tornado ride. inside tornado ride find that radius same to stationary but circumference different. Due
to warped curved geometry. general relativity makes predictions for bending of distant starlight's trajectory as it passes by the sun, which idffer from Newton's
predictions. Solar eclipse in 1919 confirmed this. GR gives a mechanism for how gravity exerts influence. makes predictions for what we should see in astronomical
observations that are more accurate than Newton's. GR comes to its own when enourmous mass in small regions, ie black holes and big bang. black holes impact
passage of time as acceleration leads to slower time. Thus gravity slow time. galaxies rushing away could be evidence of an earlier explosion that sent everything flying
outwards or the fabric of space stretching. Data supports universe expansion, approx. 13.8 billion years ago. Fuck my life
# Quantum mechanics (QM also known as quantum physics, or quantum theory) is a branch of physics which deals with physical phenomena at nanoscopic scales
where the action is on the order of the Planck constant. It departs from classical mechanics primarily at the quantum realm of atomic and subatomic length scales.
Quantum mechanics provides a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter.Protons have a
diameter of 1.6 to 1.71015 meters.Quantam mechanics: Astounding features of reality that become most apparent on length scales of molecules, atoms, subatomic
particles. Profound impact on everyday life. Double Slit experiment Fire bullets at barrier with two thin openings. Record where the bullets land. Dial down size of
bullets to size of particles. Record where the particles land. Strange Pattern in Data: Yet rings a very loud bell... ...Pattern is familiar from a different subject. Criss-
crossing WAVES yield this kind of pattern. : We re PARTICLES yet data looks like that associated with WAVES.Suprising? Maybe not: Water is made of
PARTICLES: H2O molecules. A water WAVE arises when MANY molecules act together, executing precise choreography. Maybe MANY electrons working together
make an electron wave.Firing one by one, Interference pattern IS STILL formed from landing positions of SEPARATE, INDIVIDUAL electrons. CONCLUSION:
Electrons (particles) have some kind of wavelike quality Weird: particles exist at a point waves are spread out. But data attests to a deep link between particles and
waves. Max Born said electron Is a Wave is a PROBABILITY WAVE. New Wave of Reality: Reality before observation/measurement: Fuzzy haze of vast number of
possibilities Reality after observation/measurement: Single denite outcome. Likelihood dictated by shape of probablity wave. Transition from fuzzy possibilities to
single outcome? Quantum Measurement Problem. Momentum= mass times velocity. HEINSENBURG uncertainty principle: p = mass x velocity = h/ Location?
Location: Where wave peaks (Uncertainty in Position) x (Uncertainty in Momentum) h/4 p? v? Many possibilities. Location is Uncertain Wavelength???
Velocity is Uncertain (Uncertainty in Position) x (Uncertainty in Momentum) h/4. Microworld: Uncertainty Rules:::::: Putting it all together: SR -> (included) GR
<--> (versus) Quantum Mechanics <----- SR (quantum field theory) Conflict: GR: Spacetime smooth geometrical object ! QM: Discrete, Fuzzy: Uncertainty principle.
One proposal: String Theory Basic Idea: Point particles (dots) replaced by laments. Experiment: Difcult as Strings (conventional formulation): Length = 10-35
meters. One other feature: Math of string theory doesnt work if there are 3 dimensions of space Math of string theory does work if there are 9 dimensions of space
How make sense? Extra Dimension Reaction: Many shapes means many different predictions, no knowledge of which are right. Need to understand theory better,
nd a principle for selecting shape. Most radical reaction: There is no right shape. All are real. Many Universes: Inationary Cosmology (Lecture 2)Many big
bangs String Theory Twist: Each has a different shape for extra dimensions********* Summary Unites general relativity and quantum mechanics Not yet
experimentally tested Envisions fundamental particles are vibrating laments Requires more than 3 spatial dimensions Many possibilities for the shape of the extra
dimensions In one CONTROVERSIAL formulation: String theory is combined with inationary cosmology Yields a multiverse: each universe has different shape for
extra dimensions**** Double Slit experiment: Interference Pattern Particles have characteristics usually ascribed to waves E = h; p = h/ Waves are probability
waves: Big wave implies high probability to nd particle there. Small wave implies low probability to nd particle there. New way of describing how universe evolves:
Probabilities instead of denite/ certain outcomes. Spectacularly accurate predictions Spectacular applications. I want to sleep
Evidence from brain-damaged patients suggests right hemisphere may be more important in face recognition. Martha Farah examined 81 patients with face
agnosia (prosopagnosia). BILATERAL damage -- 65% only RIGHT hemisphere damage -- 29% only LEFT hemisphere damage -- 6%. Gazzinga Simplified
Framework of Consciousness: 1. Emergent property arising from MANY brain modules (specialized systems). 2. Moment to moment, modules compete for attention
3. The psychological unity we experience emerges from an interpreter system in the left hemisphere.
I: The so-called Astonishing Hypothesis states that all our thoughts, hopes, and behaviors are nothing more than the firing of neurons. (We use Cricks version in class,
but the notion goes back at least to Muller and Bell and the early 1800s.)By electrically stimulating the post-central gyrus of the human cortex Penfield initiated action
potentials in the cells under the electrode, which resulted in his patients feeling the sensation of touch in different parts of their body depending on the exact location of
the stimulus. According to the Astonishing Hypothesis all your experience is no more than the activity of your neurons. Here, the patient perceived touches due to
neural activity, despite the fact that the patient was not REALLY touched. Furthermore, the location of the stimulating electrode determined the location of the
perception of touch (e.g. forearm vs. finger). Clearly, which specific cells are active determines the nature of the behavior/ perception; i.e., brain location is a code for
function.A person is said to have a phantom limb if s/he senses touch and movement (and sometimes pain) associated with an amputated or missing limb, even though
the person is aware that the limb is not there. These sensations relate to neural activity in specific parts of the brain. This provides support for the Astonishing
Hypothesis in that the neural activity trumps awareness of reality. Phantom limbs suggest that our sense of reality is based on brain activity, rather than knowledge of
what is really there.Phrenologists wanted to map human personality characteristics (e.g. criminal behavior) to specific brain areas. This could be considered an
extension of the Astonishing Hypothesis if all of ones thoughts, hopes, and behaviors are nothing more than the firing of nerve cells, one could (wrongly!) suggest
that, for example, propensity for criminality is reflected simply in the relative enlargement of one area of the brain.
Communication within neurons occurs via the action potential, which is an electro-chemical change that travels down the neurons axon. At the end of the axon (the
terminal ending), a chemical called a neurotransmitter is secreted. This chemical acts as a signal between neurons, and can cause action potentials in the next cell.
our understanding of the physical universe has deepened profoundly during the past century. The theoretical tools of quantum mechanics and general relativity allow us
to understand and make testable predictions about physical happenings from the atomic and subatomic realms all the way through phenomena occurring on the scales of
galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and beyond to the structure of the whole universe itself. This is a monumental achievement. It is truly inspiring that beings confined to one
planet orbiting a run-of-the-mill star in the far edges of a fairly ordinary galaxy have been able, through thought and experiment, to ascertain and comprehend some of
the most mysterious characteristics of the physical universe. Nevertheless, physicists by their nature will not be satisfied until they feel that the deepest and most
fundamental understanding of the universe has been unveiled. This is what Stephen Hawking has alluded to as a first step toward knowing "the mind of God."31 There
is ample evidence that quantum mechanics and general relativity do not provide this deepest level of understanding. Since their usual domains of applicability are so
different, most situations require the use of quantum mechanics or general relativity, but not both. Under certain extreme conditions, however, where things are very
massive and very smallnear the central point of black holes or the whole universe at the moment of the big bang, to name two exampleswe require both general
relativity and quantum mechanics for proper understanding. But like the mixing of fire and gunpowder, when we try to combine quantum mechanics and general
relativity, their union brings violent catastrophe. Well-formulated physical problems elicit nonsensical answers when the equations of both these theories are
commingled. The nonsense often takes the form of a prediction that the quantum-mechanical probability for some process is not 20 percent or 73 percent or 91 percent
but infinity. What in the world does a probability greater than one mean, let alone one that is infinite? We are forced to conclude that there is something seriously
wrong. By closely examining the basic properties of general relativity and quantum mechanics, we can identify what that something is.
In its simplest form the cross-wiring explanation has the following physiological/ anatomical assumptions: - the existence of separate brain areas for processing
information about color and shapes of numbers; these areas are situated in relatively close proximity in the brain (a region in the fusiform gyrus and in the TPO region
is involved in processing information about color and a nearby, but different, region in the fusiform gyrus and TPO region is involved in processing information about
the shapes of numbers; see figure on p. 55); cross-wiring takes place between either the fusiform regions or the TPO regions. This cross-wiring needs to be further
specified. There are at least two ways for this to occur: - the cells responding to red and to 5 could be connected (i.e., axons from one go to the other), so that they
respond together. more likely, the input (axons from earlier stages) to the number fusiform region goes to the cells that usually respond to red as well as to the cells
that usually respond to 5. The authors also assume that the perception of red results from activity (action potentials) in some subset of cells and the perception of a
5 results from activity in a different subset of cells. According to their explanation, the black-and-white stimulus 5 activates both subsets in a patient with this type
of synesthesia.
What hypothesis was tested in this article? The right cerebral hemisphere is thought to be more responsible for face recognition than is the left, as damage to only the
right can impair a persons ability to recognize others. It is unclear if the right hemisphere is also primarily responsible for self-recognition. Imaging studies have shown
that self-relevant material activates the left hemisphere, prompting the authors to hypothesize that self-recognition may require additional cognitive processing in the
left hemisphere. The stimuli consisted of a series of photographs of a face, which ranged from 0% to 100% JW (self), computer generated so as to morph by 10%
increments with the image of MG (a familiar other person). Each image was briefly presented to the visual field of a single hemisphere of the split-brain patient JW,
who was asked to identify whether the image was of himself or of MG. As JW is a split-brain patient, flashing an image in his right visual field resulted in his left
hemisphere interpreting the information, whereas flashing it in his left visual field resulted in his right hemisphere interpreting the information. As the corpus callosum
is split in JW (and all other split brain patients), the two hemispheres do not communicate and the hemisphere that was not presented with the information has no
information about the image. The left hemisphere recognizes self a higher proportion of the time than does the right hemisphere for all conditions except the 100%
condition, where there is essentially no difference between the hemispheres. The left hemisphere therefore seems to be superior at self-recognition compared with the
right hemisphere. The right hemisphere recognizes the familiar other over 50% of the time once the image contains 40% or more of the familiar other, whereas the left
hemisphere requires the image to contain 70% familiar other in order to recognize it over 50% of the time. At least when the image is degraded, the right hemisphere
seems to be superior at familiar other recognition. The small sample size; only one split-brain patient was used. Additionally, only one familiar other was tested.
1. Behavioral experiments with normal individuals. Example: The experiment in which a composite face based on mirror images of either the right or left side was
shown to subjects, who were asked to decide which image most closely resembled the original. The face associated with the left side of the composite image was
chosen 69% of the time. This suggested that while both hemispheres of the brain play a role in facial recognition, the right hemisphere dominates. Limitation: the
effects are small, perhaps due to the fact that there is time for both hemispheres to receive information. 2. Studies of humans with brain damage: Patients with damage
to a particular part of the brain can see/identify objects and details, but cannot recognize familiar faces. Martha Farah examined patients with face agnosia. They had
bilateral damage in 65% of cases, only right hemisphere damage in 29% of cases, and only left hemisphere damage in 6% of cases. Limitation: other parts of the brain
may be affected by the damage, i.e. via impaired connections. 3. PET and fMRI experiments with normal individuals: Bilateral activation, slightly more extensive in the
right hemisphere, but not significantly so, and not in every subject. Limitation: both temporal and spatial limitations, relative to what we really want to measure, which
is neural activity.
Given: This portion of the ILPG corresponds to the arms and hands. All subjects were right handed. The left motor cortex controls the right side of the body, so we
would expect that right-handed controls would have a larger motor cortex (and a larger ILPG length) in their left hemisphere, as compared to their right hemisphere. We
would expect the ILPG length of the left hemisphere to be similar when comparing musicians to non-musicians since both groups are right handed. This is consistent
with the results. The left motor cortex controls the right side of the body, so we would expect that right-handed controls would have a larger motor cortex (and a larger
ILPG length) in their left hemisphere, as compared to their right hemisphere. We would expect the ILPG length of the left hemisphere to be similar when comparing
musicians to non-musicians since both groups are right handed. This is consistent with the results. (i) The trend: musicians starting training at younger ages (age 2) have
longer right hemisphere ILPG than those who started training later (age 10). There is a negative correlation between age and right hemisphere ILPG length. (ii) A
correlation does not necessarily mean that training causes the ILPG length to increase. Correlation is not causation. (iii) For example, it could be the case that children
with longer ILPGs at birth are more likely to receive and stick with musical training.
In a linear plot, steps are equal. In a logarithmic plot, successive steps increase by a factor of 10. If we were to plot the answers from Part A on a linear scale, we would
mainly just see the largest value, with all the other values concentrated at the origin (value 0). Plotting numbers of greatly varying magnitude on a logarithmic scale
allows all of the points to be viewed relative to each other in one reasonably sized graph.