Review: Volume 1 (2005-2006) : R16-17

Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations Volume 1 (2005-2006): R16-17
Ben Ezra, Impact of Yom Kippur on Early Christianity 16 http://escholarship.bc.edu/scjr/vol1/iss1/art28

Daniel Stkl Ben Ezra, The Impact of Yom Kippur on Early Christianity: The Day of
Atonement from Second Temple to the Fifth Century

(Tbingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 2003), paper, xx + 445 pp.

Reviewed by Dmitrij F. Bumazhnov, University of Tbingen

The book is a revised doctoral dissertation and investigates the impact of Yom Kippurs ritual,
imagery and theology on the Christian tradition in the first five centuries. Although there have
been numerous studies about the influence of Yom Kippur on various Jewish and Christian
religious practices and beliefs, Ben Ezra has successfully presented not merely the history of
ideas but also the development of the liturgical traditions over this period. This extensive study,
which although in some sections appears like a lexicon-article, makes the work of Ben Ezra an
indispensable starting point for further studies on the impact of Yom Kippur on early Christianity.

The first part of his book focuses on the Second Temple and early rabbinic evidence.
Discussing the description of Temple ritual of Yom Kippur in Mishnah Yoma, Ben Ezra observes
a certain individualization of Yom Kippur in the time of the Second Temple: private
confessions were added on top of the high priests vicarious confession. Christian and
surprisingly enough probably also pagan (e.g. Juvenal) eyewitnesses shed light on the ritual of
the people (praying, fasting, walking barefoot, dancing etc.) in the celebrations of Christians (p.
7077; 273283), but surprisingly enough probably also pagans (e.g. Juvenal, p. 69) after the
destruction of the Temple. As for the influence of Temple ritual in Jewish thought and liturgical
practice, Ben Ezra points to allusions of the high priests entry into the holy of holies in
descriptions of heavenly ascent in the Testament of Levi, 1 Enoch, Apocalypse of Abraham
Philo and the Hekhalot literature. He argues that this tradition is to be traced in the soteriology
and eschatology of the Valentinian Gnostics through which it influenced the early Christian
mysticism of Clement of Alexandria.

In Jewish apocalyptic literature Ben Ezra notes the influence of the scapegoat ritual on 1 Enoch
10 and 11QMelchizidek where the eschatological triumph over evil is shown with clear allusions
to Yom Kippur, while the scapegoat appears as a personification of the demonic adversary of
the Lord. Of great importance is the figure of Melchizedek who in 11QMelchizidek is described
as high priest performing a collective atonement on eschatological Yom Kippur. The author
remarks that the Apocalypse of Abraham 1314 uses the demonology of Azazel, employed
also in 1 Enoch, combining the elements from the scapegoat ritual with Zechariah 3. It is
through this association of Yom Kippur with Zechariah 3, with its high priest Joshua/Jesus, that
Christian Jewish thinkers before Hebrews justified the high priesthood of the non-Levite Jesus.

In Part Two, Ben Ezra scrutinizes the earliest Christian evidences of the reception of Yom
Kippur in early Christian writings, in Gnostic writings and in early Christian mysticism and
legend. He suggests that Yom Kippur was observed by various Jewish Christian groups up to
the second century, a thesis which challenges the widespread consensus about the abolition of
Christian participation in Yom Kippur because of Christ accomplishing a once-and-for-all
atonement. Basing his thesis mainly on Acts 27:9, Ben Ezra argues that Luke, who does not
include interpretations of Jesus death as atonement and even eliminates them from his source,
Mark, did not have one of the theological reasons to abolish Yom Kippur. Consequently, he
observed it with his community. Here Ben Ezra in my opinion underestimates both the possibility
of the fast in Acts 27:9 being a common reference to the time of the year rather than to
observance, and to the renouncing of Jewish practice in Luke 23:45.
REVIEW
Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations Volume 1 (2005-2006): R16-17
Ben Ezra, Impact of Yom Kippur on Early Christianity 17 http://escholarship.bc.edu/scjr/vol1/iss1/art28
In Part Three, Ben Ezra focuses on the 3
rd
5
th
century evidence about the Christian exegesis of
Leviticus, Christian participation in the Jewish fast, and the impact of Yom Kippur on the autumn
festivals Encaenia/Exaltation of the Cross and the Ember Day of September. Ben Ezra cites
Origen, John Chrysostom and the Canons of Apostles that admonish Christians not to take part
in the Jewish fast. While the author is certainly right that the texts in question provide evidence
for the participation of Christians in the Yom Kippur fast (p. 277), his conclusion that these
three authors felt [threat] from Yom Kippurs alternative atonement needs further support. Only
Origen speaks about it and even then the claim that Origens (re)interpretation of Leviticus 16
and 23 and use of Yom Kippur as his hermeneutical key may be due to other factors than
being challenged by Christian participation in the Jewish festival. Similarly, Chrysostoms
mocking Jewish templization of Yom Kippur rites does not necessarily provide a reason to
understand Christian templization of the Eucharist in terms of a response to the Jewish
challenge, as the author suggest. In my view, the thesis that there is an interdependence
between the polemics against Christian participation in the Jewish fast and the development of
a Christian alternative sacrificial atonement theology requires further support.

Finally, Ben Ezra highlights the Christian autumn festivals Encaenia/Exaltation of the Cross and
the Ember Day of September which, in his view, were influenced by the biblical description and
contemporary Jewish practice of Yom Kippur. Notably in this section, there was a strong
correspondence between the Bible readings on the Roman Ember Days and on Yom Kippur.

The book gives the impression of overemphasis and overgeneralization, based on scant
evidence of Christian theological polemic in the 3
rd
4
th
centuries. The central thesis of the
author who argues that Christian atonement theology and its festal calendar not only emerged
under the influence of Yom Kippur but also continued to be developed in light of the ongoing
challenge that the contemporary Yom Kippur posed to Christians is only convincing if restricted
to the Christian liturgical practices in Palestine and Rome in the 4
th
and 5
th
century respectively.

Ben Ezras most impressive achievement lies in his meticulous collection, systematization and
historical analysis of a huge amount of material on Yom Kippur over almost eight centuries,
combined with great number of insightful observations of which only a small part could be
presented here. Having chosen an important and neglected area of the Late Antiquity religion
history, Ben Ezra has provided an innovative and thought-provoking study which will certainly
help sharpen our understanding of Jewish-Christian relations in this formative period.

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Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations Volume 1 (2005-2006): R16-17

Ben Ezra, Impact of Yom Kippur on Early Christianity 16 http://escholarship.bc.edu/scjr/vol1/iss1/art28

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