1

DETECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE FAULTS USING FAST

FOURIER TRANSFORM AND WAVELET TRANSFORM
A project work done in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the Award of Degree
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
I n
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
By

ROSHNI UPPALA ( 1210508253 ) PRUDHVI RAJ RATHOD (1210508211)
M. SRAVYA ( 1210508258 ) K. BHARADWAJ ( 1210508234)

Under the Guidance
Of
Sri.CH. DAS PRAKASH M.Tech
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
GITAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
GITAM UNIVERSITY
2

Visakhapatnam
2012
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
GITAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
GITAM UNIVERSITY

CERTI FI CATE
This is to certify that the project work entitled DETECTION OF TRANSMISSION
LINE FAULTS USING FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM AND WAVELET TRANSFORM
is a bonafide work of ROSHNI UPPALA (Regd. No.1210508253),
M.SRAVYA(Regd.No.1210508258), B.PRUDHVI RAJRATHOD(Regd.No.1210508211),
K.BHARADWAJ(Regd.No.1210508234) submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the degree, Bachelor of technology in Electrical &Electronics Engineering
during the year 2011-2012.


( Prof. K. S. Linga Murthy ) ( Sri. Ch. Das Prakash )
Head of the Department Project guide

3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express our deep sense of gratitude and respect to our beloved Prof. K.S.Linga
Murthy, Head of the Department, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Gitam Institute of
Technology, GITAM University for his valuable guidance and cooperation throughout our
project.
We are deeply indebted to our project advisor Sri.Ch.Das Prakash, Asst.Professor, for his
constant support, guidance in completion of my project work and we wish to express our deepest
gratitude for his valuable advice, personal attention and continuous encouragement throughout
our bachelor program.
We also express our profound thanks to the Principal and management of GITAM
University for their cooperation.
We express our thanks to all teaching and non-teaching staff of Department of Electrical
and Electronics Engineering for providing a great assistance in accomplishment of our project.
Lastly but not the least thanks must go out to our family members for their tireless
support and encouragement and we thank one and all who supported us directly or indirectly in
completing this project successfully.

ROSHNI UPPALA (1210508253 )
M.SRAVYA (1210508258)
B.PRUDHVI RAJ RATHOD (1210508211)
K.BHARADWAJ (1210508234)



4

DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the work presented in this report DETECTION OF
TRANSMISSION LINE FAULTS USING FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM AND
WAVELET TRANSFORM submitted by us in partial fulfillment for the award of the
degree of bachelor of engineering is an authenticated record of our original work carried
out during 4
th
year, 2
nd
semester.
We have not submitted the matter embodied in this report for the award of
any other degree.



ROSHNI UPPALA (1210508253 )

M.SRAVYA (1210508258)

B.PRUDHVI RAJ RATHOD (1210508211)

K.BHARADWAJ (1210508234)




5

ABSTRACT

The project demonstrates the usage of fast fourier transform and wavelet transform in
locating faults using a simple transmission line. Transmission lines connect the generating
stations and load centers. Hence, the chances of fault occurring in transmission lines are very
high.
A fault occurs when two or more conductors come in contact with each other or ground
in three phase systems. Faults are classified as single line-to ground faults, line-to line faults,
double line-to ground faults and three phase faults. Electromagnetic transients in power system
result from a variety of disturbances on transmission and distribution lines, such as faults. Fault
location estimation is very important issue in power system engineering in order to clear faults
quickly and restore power supply as soon as possible with minimum interruption. This is
necessary for health of power equipment and satisfaction of customer. Fourier transform are used
to abstract fundamental frequency component but it has been shown Fourier transform based
analysis sometimes are not exactly enough. Recently wavelet transform has been used
extensively for estimating fault location accurately. The most important characteristic of wavelet
transform is to analyze the waveform on time-scale rather than frequency.
A typical simple transmission line is taken and is analyzed in this project. This
transmission line is subjected to a L-G,LL-G,LLL-G fault at a particular time instant. The fault is
analyzed through fast fourier transform and wavelet transform algorithms. The simulations are
carried on MATLAB/SIMULINK.




6

INDEX
Chapters Page No.
Chapter-1: Introduction 2
Chapter- 2: Digital Signal Processing And Power Systems 3
2.1 Power System 3
2.1.1 Components of power system 4
2.2 Digital Signal Processing 10
2.2.1 Time and Space domains 11
2.2.2 Frequency domain 12
2.2.3 Z Plane analysis 12
2.2.4 Wavelet 13
2.2.5 Applications 13
Chapter- 3: Faults in Transmission Line
3.1 Faults 15
3.2 Faults And Abnormal Phenomena in Power Systems 16
3.2.1 Transient Fault 17
3.2.2 Persistent Fault 17
3.2.3 Symmetric Fault 17
3.2.4 Asymmetric Fault 18
3.2.5 Phase to Ground Fault 18
3.2.6 Phase to Phase Fault 19
7

3.2.7 Phase-Phase to Ground Fault 19
3.2.8 Three Phase Fault 19
Chapter- 4: Fourier Analysis
4.1 Fourier Series 21
4.2 Fourier Transform 23
4.3 Fast Fourier Transform 27
4.4 Short Time Fourier Transform 29
Chapter-5: Wavelet Transform 33
5.1 Wavelet Transform 33
5.2 Continuous Wavelet Transform 34
5.3 Discrete Wavelet Transform 36
5.4 Wavelets 37
5.4.1 Haar Wavelet 39
5.5 Applications of Wavelet Transform 42
5.6 Multi resolution analysis 42
5.7 Subband 44
5.8 Difference between Wavelet and Fourier 45
Chapter- 6: Diagrams and Block details
6.1 Block diagram 47
6.2 Simulink block 48
6.2.1 Simulink Subsystem block 49
8

6.3 Block details 49

Chapter- 7: Results
7.1 Observation table 52
7.2 L-G Fault 52
7.2.1 Fourier Transform Output 52
7.2.2 Wavelet Transform Output 53
7.3 LL-G Fault 55
7.4 LLL-G Fault 56
Chapter-8: Conclusion 57
Chapter-9: References 59



9

LIST OF FIGURES
NUMBER DESCRIPTION
PAGE
NUMBER
2.1 Application of wavelets 13
3.1 Representation of Phase to Ground fault 18
3.2 Representation of Phase to Phase Fault 18
4.1 Initial Fourier series. 21
4.2 Fourier Series. 23
4.3 Continuous fourier series 26
4.4. Fast fourier series 28
4.5 Short time fourier series 29
4.6 Short time fourier Resolution 31
5.1 Demonstrating a wave and a wavelet 33
5.2 Continuous wavelet transform 36
5.3 Different types of mother wavelets 39
5.4 Haar wavelet 40
6.1 Block diagram 47
6.2 Simulink diagram 48
6.3 Simulink sub system 49
7.1 LG fault FFT `52
10

7.2 LG fault selected part of signal 53
7.3 Fast fourier transform of signal 53
7.4 LG fault wavelet transform 53
7.5 Analysis of LG fault 54
7.6 Density area of the faulted part 54
7.7 LLG fault using FFT 55
7.8 LLG fault using DWT 55
7.9 LLLG fault using FFT 56
7.10 LLLG fault using DWT 56

LIST OF TABLES
NUMBER DESCRIPTION
PAGE
NUMBER
3.1 Faults in Transmission Lines 16
6.1 Block Details of Three Phase Source 49
6.2 Block Details of Transformer 1 49
6.3 Block Details of Distributed Line Parameters. 49
6.4 Block Details of Three Phase Fault. 50
6.5 Block Details of Transformer 2. 50
6.6 Block Details of Three Phase Series RLC Load 50
11

7.1 Observation table 52

















12









CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION







13

1.INTRODUCTION

Operating an electric system that includes long transmission lines passing through rugged
terrain poses difficult challenges for operations personnel. Confirming the location of
transmission line faults typically involve a combination of helicopter and ground patrols both of
which may be difficult or impossible to execute due to adverse weather conditions which is
usually the time when transmission line faults occur. A method for quickly and accurately
locating transmission line faults has been a much desired tool for control center operators who
must act quickly to determine locations of system disturbances in order to direct the work of
search and repair crews. Factors such as high ground resistance, series capacitor banks, etc.
reduce the effectiveness of these fault location systems. To address the problem of accurate fault
location under these conditions, a traveling wave based fault location system has been developed
A fault occurs when two or more conductors come in contact with each other or
ground in three phase systems. Faults are classified as single line-to ground faults, line-to line
faults, double line-to ground faults and three phase faults. Electromagnetic transients in power
system result from a variety of disturbances on transmission and distribution lines, such as faults.
Fault location estimation is very important issue in power system engineering in order to clear
faults quickly and restore power supply as soon as possible with minimum interruption.
Various approaches have been discussed for fault detection and its location in
transmission lines. This transmission line is subjected to a L-G fault at a particular time instant.
The fault is analyzed through fast fourier transform and wavelet transform algorithms. The
simulations are carried on MATLAB/SIMULINK.




14








CHAPTER 2
DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING AND POWER SYSTEMS


15

2.DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING AND POWER SYSTEMS
2.1.POWER SYSTEM:
An electric power system is a network of electrical components used to supply, transmit
and use electric power. An example of an electric power system is the network that supplies a
region's homes and industry with power - for sizable regions, this power system is known as the
gridand can be broadly divided into the generators that supply the power, the transmission
system that carries the power from the generating centres to the load centres and the distribution
system that feeds the power to nearby homes and industries. Smaller power systems are also
found in industry, hospitals, commercial buildings and homes. The majority of these systems rely
upon three-phase AC power - the standard for large-scale power transmission and distribution
across the modern world. Specialized power systems that do not always rely upon three-phase
AC power are found in aircraft, electric rail systems, ocean liners and automobiles.
2.1.1.COMPONENTS OF POWER SYSTEM:
Supplies-
All power systems have one or more sources of power. For some power systems, the
source of power is external to the system but for others it is part of the system itself - it is these
internal power sources that are discussed in the remainder of this section. Direct current power
can be supplied by batteries, fuel cells or photovoltaic cells. Alternating current power is
typically supplied by a rotor that spins in a magnetic field in a device known as a turbo
generator. There have been a wide range of techniques used to spin a turbine's rotor, from steam
heated using fossil fuel (including coal, gas and oil) or nuclear energy, falling water
(hydroelectric power) and wind (wind power).
The speed at which the rotor spins in combination with the number of generator poles
determines the frequency of the alternating current produced by the generator. If the load on the
system increases, the generators will require more torque to spin at that speed and, in a typical
power station, more steam must be supplied to the turbines driving them. Thus the steam used
and the fuel expended are directly dependent on the quantity of electrical energy supplied.
(Generators linked to a grid through an asynchronous tie such as an HVDC link need not be
synchronous with the rest of the system and may not even be at the same frequency.)
16

Depending on how the poles are fed, alternating current generators can produce a variable
number of phases of power. A higher number of phases leads to more efficient power system
operation but also increases the infrastructure requirements of the system.
Loads-
Power systems deliver energy to loads that perform a function. These loads range from
household appliances to industrial machinery. Most loads expect a certain voltage and, for
alternating current devices, a certain frequency and number of phases. The appliances found in
your home, for example, will typically be single-phase operating at 50 or 60 Hz with a voltage
between 110 and 260 volts (depending on national standards). An exception exists for centralized
air conditioning systems as these are now typically three-phase because this allows them to
operate more efficiently. All devices in your house will also have a wattage, this specifies the
amount of power the device consumes. At any one time, the net amount of power consumed by
the loads on a power system must equal the net amount of power produced by the supplies less
the power lost in transmission.
Making sure that the voltage, frequency and amount of power supplied to the loads is in
line with expectations is one of the great challenges of power system engineering. However it is
not the only challenge, in addition to the power used by a load to do useful work (termed real
power) many alternating current devices also use an additional amount of power because they
cause the alternating voltage and alternating current to become slightly out-of-sync
(termed reactive power). The reactive power like the real power must balance (that is the reactive
power produced on a system must equal the reactive power consumed) and can be supplied from
the generators, however it is often more economical to supply such power from capacitors .
A final consideration with loads is to do with power quality. In addition to sustained
overvoltages and undervoltages (voltage regulation issues) as well as sustained deviations from
the system frequency (frequency regulation issues), power system loads can be adversely
affected by a range temporal issues. These include voltage sags, dips and swells, transient
overvoltages, flicker, high frequency noise, phase imbalance and poor power factor. Power
quality issues occur when the power supply to a load deviates from the ideal: For an AC supply,
the ideal is the current and voltage in-sync fluctuating as a perfect sine wave at a prescribed
frequency with the voltage at a prescribed amplitude. For DC supply, the ideal is the voltage not
17

varying from a prescribed level. Power quality issues can be especially important when it comes
to specialist industrial machinery or hospital equipment.
Conductors-
Conductors carry power from the generators to the load. In a grid, conductors may be
classified as belonging to the transmission system, which carries large amounts of power at high
voltages (typically more than 50 kV) from the generating centres to the load centres, or
the distribution system, which feeds smaller amounts of power at lower voltages (typically less
than 50 kV) from the load centres to nearby homes and industry .
Choice of conductors is based upon considerations such as cost, transmission losses and
other desirable characteristics of the metal like tensile strength. Copper, with lower resistivity
than aluminium, was the conductor of choice for most power systems. However, aluminum has
lower cost for the same current carrying capacity and is the primary metal used for transmission
line conductors. Overhead line conductors may be reinforced with steel or aluminum alloys.
Conductors in exterior power systems may be placed overhead or underground. Overhead
conductors are usually air insulated and supported on porcelain, glass or polymer insulators.
Cables used for underground transmission or building wiring are insulated with cross-linked
polyethylene or other flexible insulation. Large conductors are stranded for ease of handling;
small conductors used for building wiring are often solid, especially in light commercial or
residential construction.
Conductors are typically rated for the maximum current that they can carry at a given
temperature rise over ambient conditions. As current flow increases through a conductor it heats
up. For insulated conductors, the rating is determined by the insulation. For overhead conductors,
the rating is determined by the point at which the sag of the conductors would become
unacceptable.
Capacitors and reactors-
The majority of the load in a typical AC power system, is inductive; the current lags
behind the voltage. Since the voltage and current are out-of-sync, this leads to the emergence of a
"useless" form of power known as reactive power. Reactive power does no measurable work but
is transmitted back and forth between the reactive power source and load every cycle. This
18

reactive power can be provided by the generators themselves but it is often cheaper to provide it
through capacitors, hence capacitors are often placed near inductive loads to reduce current
demand on the power system. Power factor correction may be applied at a central substation or
adjacent to large loads.
Reactors consume reactive power and are used to regulate voltage on long transmission
lines. In light load conditions, where the loading on transmission lines is well below the surge
impedance loading, the efficiency of the power system may actually be improved by switching in
reactors. Reactors installed in series in a power system also limit rushes of current flow, small
reactors are therefore almost always installed in series with capacitors to limit the current rush
associated with switching in a capacitor. Series reactors can also be used to limit fault currents.
Capacitors and reactors are switched by circuit breakers, which results in moderately large steps
in reactive power. A solution comes in the form of static VAR compensators and static
synchronous compensators. Briefly, static VAR compensators work by switching in capacitors
using thyristors as opposed to circuit breakers allowing capacitors to be switched-in and
switched-out within a single cycle. This provides a far more refined response than circuit breaker
switched capacitors. Static synchronous compensators take it a step further by achieving reactive
power adjustments using only power electronics.
Power electronics-
Power electronics are semi-conductor based devices that are able to switch quantities of
power ranging from a few hundred watts to several hundred megawatts. Despite their relatively
simple function, their speed of operation (typically in the order of nanoseconds) means they are
capable of a wide range of tasks that would be difficult or impossible with conventional
technology. The classic function of power electronics is rectification, or the conversion of AC-
to-DC power, power electronics are therefore found in almost every digital device that is
supplied from an AC source. High-powered power electronics can also be used to convert AC
power to DC power for long distance transmission in a system known as HVDC. HVDC is used
because it proves to be more economical than similar high voltage AC systems for very long
distances (hundreds to thousands of kilometres). HVDC is also desirable for interconnects
because it allows frequency independence thus improving system stability. Power electronics are
also essential for any power source that is required to produce an AC output but that by its nature
19

produces a DC output. They are therefore used by many photovoltaic installations both industrial
and residential.
Protective devices-
Power systems contain protective devices to prevent injury or damage during failures.
The quintessential protective device is the fuse. When the current through a fuse exceeds a
certain threshold, the fuse element melts, producing an arc across the resulting gap that is then
extinguished, interrupting the circuit. Given that fuses can be built as the weak point of a system,
fuses are ideal for protecting circuitry from damage. Fuses however have two problems: First,
after they have functioned, fuses must be replaced as they cannot be reset. This can prove
inconvenient if the fuse is at a remote site or a spare fuse is not on hand. And second, fuses are
typically inadequate as the sole safety device in most power systems as they allow current flows
well in excess of that that would prove lethal to a human or animal.
The first problem is resolved by the use of circuit breakers - devices that can be reset
after they have broken current flow. In modern systems that use less than about 10 kW, miniature
circuit breakers are typically used. These devices combine the mechanism that initiates the trip
(by sensing excess current) as well as the mechanism that breaks the current flow in a single unit.
Some miniature circuit breakers operate solely on the basis of electromagnetism. In these
miniature circuit breakers, the current is run through a solenoid, and, in the event of excess
current flow, the magnetic pull of the solenoid is sufficient to force open the circuit breaker's
contacts (often indirectly through a tripping mechanism). A better design however arises by
inserting a bimetallic strip before the solenoid - this means that instead of always producing a
magnetic force, the solenoid only produces a magnetic force when the current is strong enough to
deform the bimetallic strip and complete the solenoid's circuit.
In higher powered applications, the protective relays that detect a fault and initiate a trip
are separate from the circuit breaker. Early relays worked based upon electromagnetic principles
similar to those mentioned in the previous paragraph, modern relays are application-specific
computers that determine whether to trip based upon readings from the power system. Different
relays will initiate trips depending upon different protection schemes. For example, an
overcurrent relay might initiate a trip if the current on any phase exceeds a certain threshold
whereas a set of differential relays might initiate a trip if the sum of currents between them
20

indicates there may be current leaking to earth. The circuit breakers in higher powered
applications are different too. Air is typically no longer sufficient to quell the arc that forms
when the contacts are forced open so a variety of techniques are used. The most popular
technique at the moment is to keep the chamber enclosing the contacts flooded with sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6) - a non-toxic gas that has superb arc-quelling properties. Other techniques are
discussed in the reference.
The second problem, the inadequacy of fuses to act as the sole safety device in most
power systems, is probably best resolved by the use of residual current devices (RCDs). In any
properly functioning electrical appliance the current flowing into the appliance on the active line
should equal the current flowing out of the appliance on the neutral line. A residual current
device works by monitoring the active and neutral lines and tripping the active line if it notices a
difference. Residual current devices require a separate neutral line for each phase and to be able
to trip within a time frame before harm occurs.
SCADA systems-
In large electric power systems, Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) is
used for tasks such as switching on generators, controlling generator output and switching in or
out system elements for maintenance. The first supervisory control systems implemented
consisted of a panel of lamps and switches at a central console near the controlled plant. The
lamps provided feedback on the state of plant (the data acquisition function) and the switches
allowed adjustments to the plant to be made (the supervisory control function). Today, SCADA
systems are much more sophisticated and, due to advances in communication systems, the
consoles controlling the plant no longer need to be near the plant itself. Instead in today's power
systems, it is increasingly common for plant to be controlled from a central remote site with
equipment similar to (if not identical to) a desktop computer. The ability to control such plant
through computers has increased the need for security and already there have been reports of
cyber-attacks on such systems causing significant disruptions to power systems.



21

2.2. DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
Digital Signal Processing in Power System Protection and Control bridges the gap
between the theory of protection and control and the practical applications of protection
equipment.
Digital signal processing (DSP) is concerned with the representation of discrete time,
discrete frequency, or other discrete domain signals by a sequence of numbers or symbols and
the processing of these signals. Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are
subfields of signal processing. DSP includes subfields like: audio and speech signal processing,
sonar and radar signal processing, sensor array processing, spectral estimation, statistical signal
processing, digital image processing, signal processing for communications, control of systems,
biomedical signal processing, seismic data processing, etc.
The goal of DSP is usually to measure, filter and/or compress continuous real-world
analog signals. The first step is usually to convert the signal from an analog to a digital form, by
sampling and then digitizing it using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), which turns the
analog signal into a stream of numbers. However, often, the required output signal is another
analog output signal, which requires a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). Even if this process is
more complex than analog processing and has a discrete value range, the application of
computational power to digital signal processing allows for many advantages over analog
processing in many applications, such as error detection and correction in transmission as well
as data compression.
DSP algorithms have long been run on standard computers, on specialized processors
called digital signal processor on purpose-built hardware such as application-specific integrated
circuit (ASICs). Today there are additional technologies used for digital signal processing
including more powerful general purpose microprocessors, field-programmable gate
arrays(FPGAs), digital signal controllers (mostly for industrial apps such as motor control),
and stream processors, among others.
In DSP, engineers usually study digital signals in one of the following domains: time
domain (one-dimensional signals), spatial domain (multidimensional signals), frequency domain,
and wavelet domains. They choose the domain to process a signal in by making an informed
22

guess (or by trying different possibilities) as to which domain best represents the essential
characteristics of the signal. A sequence of samples from a measuring device produces a time or
spatial domain representation, whereas a discrete Fourier transform produces the frequency
domain information, that is the frequency spectrum. Autocorrelation is defined as the cross-
correlation of the signal with itself over varying intervals of time or space.
2.2.1 TIME AND SPACE DOMAINS:
The most common processing approach in the time or space domain is enhancement of the
input signal through a method called filtering. Digital filtering generally consists of some linear
transformation of a number of surrounding samples around the current sample of the input or
output signal. There are various ways to characterize filters; for example:
A "linear" filter is a linear transformation of input samples; other filters are "non-linear".
Linear filters satisfy the superposition condition, i.e. if an input is a weighted linear
combination of different signals, the output is an equally weighted linear combination of
the corresponding output signals.
A "causal" filter uses only previous samples of the input or output signals; while a "non-
causal" filter uses future input samples. A non-causal filter can usually be changed into a
causal filter by adding a delay to it.
A "time-invariant" filter has constant properties over time; other filters such as adaptive
filters change in time.
A "stable" filter produces an output that converges to a constant value with time, or
remains bounded within a finite interval. An "unstable" filter can produce an output that
grows without bounds, with bounded or even zero input.
A "finite impulse response" (FIR) filter uses only the input signals, while an "infinite
impulse response" filter (IIR) uses both the input signal and previous samples of the
output signal. FIR filters are always stable, while IIR filters may be unstable.
Filters can be represented by block diagrams, which can then be used to derive a sample
processing algorithm to implement the filter with hardware instructions. A filter may also be
23

described as a difference equation, a collection of zeroes and poles or, if it is an FIR filter,
an impulse response or step response.The output of a digital filter to any given input may be
calculated by convolving the input signal with the impulse response.
2.2.2.FREQUENCY DOMAIN:
Signals are converted from time or space domain to the frequency domain usually
through the Fourier transform. The Fourier transform converts the signal information to a
magnitude and phase component of each frequency. Often the Fourier transform is converted to
the power spectrum, which is the magnitude of each frequency component squared.
The most common purpose for analysis of signals in the frequency domain is analysis of
signal properties. The engineer can study the spectrum to determine which frequencies are
present in the input signal and which are missing.In addition to frequency information, phase
information is often needed. This can be obtained from the Fourier transform. With some
applications, how the phase varies with frequency can be a significant consideration.
Filtering, particularly in non-realtime work can also be achieved by converting to the
frequency domain, applying the filter and then converting back to the time domain. There are
some commonly used frequency domain transformations. For example, the cestrum converts a
signal to the frequency domain through Fourier transform, takes the logarithm, then applies
another Fourier transform. This emphasizes the frequency components with smaller magnitude
while retaining the order of magnitudes of frequency components.Frequency domain analysis is
also called spectrum- or spectral analysis.
2.2.3.Z-PLANE ANALYSIS:
Whereas analog filters are usually analysed in terms of transfer functions in the s
plane using Laplace transforms, digital filters are analysed in the z plane in terms of Z-
transforms. A digital filter may be described in the z plane by its characteristic collection
of zeroes and poles. The z plane provides a means for mapping digital frequency
(samples/second) to real and imaginary z components, were for continuous periodic
signals and ( is the digital frequency). This is useful for providing a visualization
of the frequency response of a digital system or signal.

24

2.2.4.WAVELET:
An example of the 2D discrete
wavelet transform that is used in JPEG2000.
The original image is high-pass filtered,
yielding the three large images, each
describing local changes in brightness
(details) in the original image. It is then low-
pass filtered and downscaled, yielding an
approximation image; this image is high-
pass filtered to produce the three smaller
detail images, and low-pass filtered to
produce the final approximation image in
the upper-left.
FIG 2.1 :WAVELETS
In numerical analysis and functional analysis, a discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is any wavelet
transform for which the wavelets are discretely sampled. As with other wavelet transforms, a key
advantage it has over Fourier transforms is temporal resolution: it captures both
frequency and location information (location in time).
2.2.5.APPLICATIONS:
The main applications of DSP are audio signal processing, audio compression, digital image
processing, video compression, speech processing, speech recognition, digital
communications, RADAR, SONAR, seismology and biomedicine. Specific examples are speech
compression and transmission in digital mobile phones, room correction of sound in hi-fi and sound
reinforcement applications, weather forecasting, economic forecasting, seismic data processing,
analysis and control of industrial processes, medical imaging such as CAT scans.



25








CHAPTER 3
FAULTS IN TRANSMISSION LINE







26

3.FAULTS IN TRANSMISSION LINE
3.1.FAULTS

In an electric power system, a fault is any abnormal flow of electric current. For example, a short
circuit is a fault in which current flow bypasses the normal load. An open-circuit fault occurs if a
circuit is interrupted by some failure. In three-phase systems, a fault may involve one or more phases
and ground, or may occur only between phases. In a "ground fault" or "earth fault", current flows
into the earth. The prospective short circuit current of a fault can be calculated for power systems. In
power systems, protective devices detect fault conditions and operate circuit breakers and other
devices to limit the loss of service due to a failure. The most common reasons of abnormal states are:
Overvoltage due to lightening
Short-circuits due to mechanical destruction of bridging of isolation (e.g. during road works,
caused by falling trees, animals, birds, etc)
Thermal overload (over currents)
Aging of isolation
Maintenance mistakes
Climatic disorders(floods, earthquakes, heavy snowfalls etc)
The consequence of a fault maybe:
Damage to a plant due to dynamic and thermal effects of the fault current,
Loss of supply to loads,
Danger to human lives,
Loss of system stability,
Possibility of cascading events leading to blackouts.
27

xposure Fault Damage Operation Task
Short- Circuit Yes Yes Response with
trip command
Limitation of
damage range
Ground Fault Yes No Response with
signaling
Indication and
location of fault
Overload No No Acting with
Command/signal
Avoiding of
possible damage
Undervoltage No No Acting with
command/signal
Avoiding of
possible damage
Table 3.1.Faults in transmission lines
3.2.FAULTS AND ABNORMAL PHENOMENA IN POWER SYSTEMS
The protection relays should differentiate the normal operating conditions from the abnormal ones,
including short-circuits and other impacts that can be dangerous to protected equipments itself and may
impair safe operation of the power system. Under normal operating conditions the power systems is
characterized by:
Almost symmetrical three-phase voltages and currents,
Operational currents remaining below the pre-set levels( including some permissible overload),
Voltage level within permissible range around the nominal value,
Frequency of the signals equal or very close to the nominal 50/60 Hz,
Harmonic content within permissible limits
Power quality satisfying customer and standard requirements
The power system is rather seldom in an ideal state, thus voltage and current signals may vary due
to variations of load and generations as well as switching operations.It must be noted here that some
phenomena occurring in power systems under normal conditions may also be seen as abnormal for the
sake of current/voltage signal parameters being far distant from the nominal values. However, their
28

reason is not always a fault and the protection should not operate operate in such cases. The protection
devices should issue a tripping/warning decision in cases of faults within the protected plant or zone. It
should be said that the faults may be of various kinds,type, intensity and possible Consequences.
3.2.1.Transient Fault
A transient fault is a fault that is no longer present if power is disconnected for a short time. Many
faults in overhead power lines are transient in nature. At the occurrence of a fault power operates to
isolate area of the fault. A transient fault will then clear and the power line can be returned to service.
Typical examples of transient faults include:
momentary tree contact
bird or other animal contact
lightning strike
conductor clash
In electricity transmission and distribution systems an automatic reclose function is commonly used
on overhead lines to attempt to restore power in the event of a transient fault. This functionality is not as
common on underground systems as faults there are typically of a persistent nature. Transient faults may
still cause damage both at the site of the original fault or elsewhere in the network as fault current is
generated.
3.2.2.Persistent Fault
A persistent fault does not disappear when power is disconnected. Faults in underground power
cables are often persistent. Underground power lines are not affected by trees orlightning, so faults,
when they occur, are probably due to damage. In such cases, if the line is reconnected, it is likely to be
damaged further.
3.2.3.Symmetric fault
A symmetric, symmetrical or balanced fault affects each of the three-phases equally. In
transmission line faults, roughly 5% are symmetric[citation needed]. This is in contrast to an asymmetric
fault, where the three phases are not affected equally. In practice, most faults in power systems are
29

unbalanced. With this in mind, symmetric faults can be viewed as somewhat of an abstraction; however,
as asymmetric faults are difficult to analyze, analysis of asymmetric faults is built up from a thorough
understanding of symmetric faults.
3.2.4.Asymmetric fault
An asymmetric or unbalanced fault does not affect each of the three phases equally. Common types
of asymmetric faults, and their causes:
line-to-line - a short circuit between lines, caused by ionization of air, or when lines come into
physical contact, for example due to a broken insulator.
line-to-ground - a short circuit between one line and ground, very often caused by physical
contact, for example due to lightning or other storm damage
double line-to-ground - two lines come into contact with the ground (and each other), also
commonly due to storm damage
3.2.5.Phase to Ground Fault:
In this type of Electrical fault all the three
sequence components (positive, negative and
zero sequence components ) are present and are
equal to each other. In case of isolated neutral
connection to the generator, there will be no
return path for the current. So for such fault,
fault current is zero.



3.2.6.Phase to Phase fault:
These are unsymmetrical faults as these faults give rise to unsymmetrical currents (Current differ in
magnitude and phase in the three phases of power system).In case of Phase to Phase fault positive and
negative sequence component of current are present, they are equal in magnitude but opposition in
phase. zero sequence components are absent.

30


3.2.7.Phase - Phase to Ground Fault:
These faults are of unsymmetrical nature. In this type of faults negative and zero sequence faults
are in opposition with positive sequence components.
3.2.8.Three Phase Fault:
This type of faults are called symmetrical fault. This type of faults occurs very rarely but more
severe compared to other faults. In this faults negative and zero sequence component currents are absent
and positive sequence currents are present.
To summarize:
positive sequence currents are present in all types of faults
Negative Sequence currents are present in all unsymmetrical faults
Zero sequence currents are present when the neutral of the system is grounded and the fault also
involves the ground, and magnitude of the neutral currents is equal to 3Io









31







CHAPTER 4
FOURIER ANALYSIS









32

FOURIER ANALYSIS
4.1.FOURIER SERIES
In mathematics, a Fourier series decomposes periodic functions or periodic signals into the sum
of a (possibly infinite) set of simple oscillating functions, namely sines and cosines (or complex
exponentials). The study of Fourier series is a branch of Fourier analysis.
The Fourier series is named in honour of Joseph Fourier (17681830), who made important
contributions to the study of trigonometric series, after preliminary investigations by Leonhard
Euler, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and Daniel Bernoulli. Fourier introduced the series for the purpose of
solving the heat equation in a metal plate, publishing his initial results in his 1807 Mmoire sur la
propagation de la chaleur dans les corps solides (Treatise on the propagation of heat in solid bodies), and
publishing his Thorie analytique de la chaleur in 1822.
The heat equation is a partial differential
equation. Prior to Fourier's work, no solution to
the heat equation was known in the general
case, although particular solutions were known
if the heat source behaved in a simple way, in
particular, if the heat source was
a sine or cosine wave. These simple solutions
are now sometimes called eigen solutions.
Fourier's idea was to model a complicated heat
source as a superposition (or linear
combination) of simple sine and cosine waves,
and to write the solution as a superposition of
the corresponding eigen solutions. This
superposition or linear combination is called the
Fourier series.


Fig 4.1.: Initial fourier series

From a modern point of view, Fourier's results are somewhat informal, due to the lack of
a precise notion of function and integral in the early nineteenth century.
Later, Dirichlet and Riemann expressed Fourier's results with greater precision and formality.
33

Although the original motivation was to solve the heat equation, it later became obvious
that the same techniques could be applied to a wide array of mathematical and physical problems,
and especially those involving linear differential equations with constant coefficients, for which the
eigen solutions are sinusoids. The Fourier series has many such applications in electrical
engineering, vibration analysis, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image processing, quantum
mechanics, econometrics, thin-walled shell theory, etc.
In this section, (x) denotes a function of the real variable x. This function is usually
taken to be periodic, of period 2, which is to say that (x + 2) = (x), for all real numbers x.
Fourier's formula for 2-periodic functions using sines and cosines-
For a periodic function (x) that is integrable on [, ], the numbers
and

are called the Fourier coefficients of . One introduces the partial sums of the Fourier series for ,
often denoted by,

The partial sums for are trigonometric polynomials. One expects that the
functions SN approximate the function , and that the approximation improves as N tends to
infinity. The infinite sum

is called the Fourier series of . These trigonometric functions can themselves be expanded,
using multiple angle formulae.


34

The Fourier series does not always
converge, and even when it does converge for a
specific value x0 of x, the sum of the series
at x0 may differ from the value (x0) of the
function. It is one of the main questions
in harmonic analysis to decide when Fourier
series converge, and when the sum is equal to
the original function. If a function is square-
integrable on the interval [, ], then the
Fourier series converges to the function
at almost every point.


Fig 4.2:Fourier series
In engineering applications, the Fourier series is generally presumed to converge everywhere
except at discontinuities, since the functions encountered in engineering are more well behaved than
the ones that mathematicians can provide as counter-examples to this presumption. In particular, the
Fourier series converges absolutely and uniformly to (x) whenever the derivative of (x) (which
may not exist everywhere) is square integrable.
The fourier transform is probably the most widely used signal analysis method. In 1807, a
French mathematician Joseph Fourier discovered that a periodic function can be represented by an
infinite sum of complex exponentials. The fourier transform retrieves the global information of the
frequency content of a signal. A computationally more effective method is the fast fourier
transform.
4.2.FOURIER TRANSFORM
The fourier transform decomposes a signal into orthogonal trigonometric basis functions.
The fourier transform of a continuous signal x(t). The fourier transform signal X FT (f) gives the
global frequency distribution of the time signal x(t) and the original signal can be reconstructed
using the inverse fourier transform. The Fourier Transform is an important image processing tool
which is used to decompose an image into its sine and cosine components. The output of the
transformation represents the image in the Fourier or frequency domain, while the input image is
35

the spatial domain equivalent. In the Fourier domain image, each point represents a particular
frequency contained in the spatial domain image.
The Fourier transform is a mathematical operation with many applications
in physics and engineering that expresses a mathematical function of time as a function
of frequency, known as its frequency spectrum; Fourier's theorem guarantees that this can always
be done. The function of time is often called the time domain representation, and the frequency
spectrum the frequency domain representation. The inverse Fourier transform expresses a frequency
domain function in the time domain. Each value of the function is usually expressed as a complex
number (called complex amplitude) that can be interpreted as a magnitude and a phase component.
The term "Fourier transform" refers to both the transform operation and to the complex-valued
function it produces.
In the case of a periodic function, such as a continuous, but not necessarily sinusoidal, musical tone,
the Fourier transform can be simplified to the calculation of a discrete set of complex amplitudes,
called Fourier series coefficients. Also, when a time-domain function is sampled to facilitate
storage or computer-processing, it is still possible to recreate a version of the original Fourier
transform according to the Poisson summation formula, also known as discrete-time Fourier
transform. For an overview of those and other related operations, refer to Fourier analysis or List of
Fourier-related transforms.
There are several common conventions for defining the Fourier transform of
an integrable function : R C (Kaiser 1994). This article will use the definition:
for every real number .
When the independent variable x represents time (with SI unit of seconds), the transform variable
represents frequency (in hertz). Under suitable conditions, can be reconstructed from by the inverse
transform:
for every real number x.
For other common conventions and notations, including using the angular frequency instead of
the frequency , see Other conventions and Other notations below. The Fourier transform on
36

Euclidean space is treated separately, in which the variable x often represents position
and momentum.
The motivation for the Fourier transform comes from the study of Fourier series. In the study of
Fourier series, complicated functions are written as the sum of simple waves mathematically
represented by sines and cosines. Due to the properties of sine and cosine, it is possible to recover
the amplitude of each wave in the sum by an integral. In many cases it is desirable to use Euler's
formula, which states that e
2i
= cos 2 + i sin 2, to write Fourier series in terms of the basic
waves e
2i
. This has the advantage of simplifying many of the formulas involved, and provides a
formulation for Fourier series that more closely resembles the definition followed in this article. Re-
writing sines and cosines as complex exponentials makes it necessary for the Fourier coefficients to
be complex valued. The usual interpretation of this complex number is that it gives both
the amplitude (or size) of the wave present in the function and the phase (or the initial angle) of the
wave. These complex exponentials sometimes contain negative "frequencies". If is measured in
seconds, then the waves e
2i
and e
2i
both complete one cycle per second, but they represent
different frequencies in the Fourier transform. Hence, frequency no longer measures the number of
cycles per unit time, but is still closely related.
There is a close connection between the definition of Fourier series and the Fourier transform for
functions which are zero outside of an interval. For such a function, we can calculate its Fourier
series on any interval that includes the points where is not identically zero. The Fourier transform
is also defined for such a function. As we increase the length of the interval on which we calculate
the Fourier series, then the Fourier series coefficients begin to look like the Fourier transform and
the sum of the Fourier series of begins to look like the inverse Fourier transform.
To explain this more precisely, suppose that T is large enough so that the interval [T/2,T/2]
contains the interval on which is not identically zero. Then the n-th series coefficient cn is given
by:

Comparing this to the definition of the Fourier transform, it follows that
since (x) is zero outside [T/2,T/2]. Thus the Fourier coefficients are just the values of the Fourier
37

transform sampled on a grid of width 1/T. As T increases the Fourier coefficients more closely
represent the Fourier transform of the function.The Fourier Transform is used in a wide range of
applications, such as image analysis, image filtering, image reconstruction and image compression.
The fourier transforms utility lies in its ability to analyze a signal in the time domain for its frequency
content. The transform woks by first translating a function in the time domain into a function in the
frequency domain. The signal can then be analyzed for its frequency content because the fourier coefficients
of the transformed function represent the contribution of each sine and cosine function at each frequency. An
inverse fourier transform justs transforms data from the frequency domain into the time domain.
The discrete Fourier transform (DFT), occasionally called the finite Fourier transform, is a
transform for Fourier analysis of finite-domain discrete-time signals.It is widely employed in signal
processing and related fields to analyze the frequencies contained in a sampled signal, to solve partial
differential equations, and to perform other operations such as convolutions. The DFT can be computed
efficiently in practice using a fast Fourier transform(FFT) algorithm.
The discrete fourier transform estimates the fourier transform of a function from a finite number
of its sampled point. The sampled points are supposed to be typical of what the signal looks like at the other
times. The sequence of N complex numbers x0, ..., xN1 is transformed into another sequence of N complex
numbers according to the DFT formula:




Fig 4.3: Continuous Fourier Transform
38

4.3.FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM
The calculations of the DFT can become very time-consuming for large( large N). The
fast fourier transform algorithm does not take an arbitrary number of intervals N, but only the
interval N=2
m
,mN. The reduction in the number of intervals makes the FFT very fast, as the
name implies. A drawback compared to the ordinary DFT is that the signal must have 2
m
samples. A fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an efficient algorithm to compute the discrete Fourier
transform (DFT) and its inverse. There are many distinct FFT algorithms involving a wide range
of mathematics, from simple complex-number arithmetic to group theory and number theory.
A DFT decomposes a sequence of values into components of different frequencies. This
operation is useful in many fields but computing it directly from the definition is often too slow
to be practical. An FFT is a way to compute the same result more quickly: computing a DFT
of N points in the naive way, using the definition, takes O(N
2
) arithmetical operations, while an
FFT can compute the same result in only O(N log N) operations. The difference in speed can be
substantial, especially for long data sets where N may be in the thousands or millionsin
practice, the computation time can be reduced by several orders of magnitude in such cases, and
the improvement is roughly proportional to N / log(N). This huge improvement made many
DFT-based algorithms practical; FFTs are of great importance to a wide variety of applications,
from digital signal processing and solving partial differential equations to algorithms for
quick multiplication of large integers.

The most well known FFT algorithms depend upon the factorization of N, but there are
FFTs with O(N log N) complexity for all N, even for prime N. Many FFT algorithms only
depend on the fact that is an th primitive root of unity, and thus can be applied to
analogous transforms over any finite field, such as number-theoretic transforms. Since the
inverse DFT is the same as the DFT, but with the opposite sign in the exponent and a 1/N factor,
39

any FFT algorithm can easily be adapted for it. In practice the calculation of the FFT can suffer
two main problems. First, since only a small part of the signal x(t) on the interval 0 < t <T is
used, leakage can occur. Leakage is caused by the discontinuities introduced by periodically
extending the signal. Leakage caused energy of fundamental frequencies to leak out to
neighboring frequencies. A solution to prevent signal leakage is by applying a window to the
signal which makes the signal more periodic in the time interval. A disadvantage is that the
window itself has a contribution in the frequency spectrum. The second problem is the limited
number of discrete signal values, this can lead to aliasing. Aliasing causes fundamental
frequencies to appear as different frequencies in the frequency spectrum and is closely related to
the sampling rate of the original signal. Aliasing can be prevented is the sampling theorem of
Shannon is fulfilled.



Fig 4.4.:Fast Fourier Transform
40

4.4.SHORT TIME FOURIER TRANSFORM
The limitation of the fourier transform i.e., it gives only the global frequency content of a
signal, is overcome by the short-time fourier transform(STFT). The STFT is able to retrieve both
frequency and time information from a signal. The STFT calculates the fourier transform of a
windowed part of the original signal, where the window shifts along the time axis. Signal x(t) is
windowed by a window g(t) of limited extend, centered at time T of the windowed signal FT is
taken, giving the frequency content of the signal in the windowed time interval.
Short-time Fourier transform (STFT), is a signal processing method used for analyzing
non-stationary signals, whose statistic characteristics vary with time. In essence, STFT extracts
several frames of the signal to be analyzed with a window that moves with time. If the time
window is sufficiently narrow, each frame extracted can be viewed as stationary so that Fourier
transform can be used. With the window moving along the time axis, the relation between the
variance of frequency and time can be identified.

Fig 4.5: Short time fourier transform


41

The Fourier transforms (FT, DTFT, DFT, etc.) do not clearly indicate how the frequency
content of a signal changes over time. That information is hidden in the phase - it is not revealed
by the plot of the magnitude of the spectrum. To see how the frequency content of a signal
changes over time, we can cut the signal into blocks and compute the spectrum of each block.
To improve the result,
1. blocks are overlapping
2. each block is multiplied by a window that is tapered at its endpoints.
Several parameters must be chosen:
Block length, R.
The type of window.
Amount of overlap between blocks.
Amount of zero padding, if any.
The short-time Fourier transform is defined as,

where w(t) is the window function, commonly a Hann window or Gaussian bell centered around
zero, and x(t) is the signal to be transformed. X(,) is essentially the Fourier Transform
ofx(t)w(t-), a complex function representing the phase and magnitude of the signal over time
and frequency. Often phase unwrapping is employed along either or both the time axis, , and
frequency axis, , to suppress any jump discontinuity of the phase result of the STFT. The time
index is normally considered to be "slow" time and usually not expressed in as high resolution
as time t.
42


Fig 4.6: STFT Resolution
The performance of the STFT analysis depends critically on the chosen window. A short
window gives a good time resolution, but different frequencies are not identified very well. A
long window gives an inferior time resolution, but a better frequency resolution. It is not possible
to get both good time and good frequency resolution. This is known as Heisenberg uncertainty.
The basic difference between wavelet transform and STFT are, first, the window width can be
changed in the WT as a function of the analyzing frequency. Secondly, the analysis function of
the WT can be chosen with more freedom.










43










CHAPTER 5
WAVELET ANALYSIS








44

WAVELET ANALYSIS
5.1 WAVELET TRANSFORM
A wavelet is a wave-like oscillation with an amplitude that starts out at zero, increases,
and then decreases back to zero. It can typically be visualized as a "brief oscillation" like one
might see recorded by a seismograph or heart monitor. Generally, wavelets are purposefully
crafted to have specific properties that make them useful for signal processing. Wavelets can be
combined, using a "revert, shift, multiply and sum" technique called convolution, with portions
of an unknown signal to extract information from the unknown signal.
The wavelet transform provides a time-frequency representation of the signal. It was
developed to overcome the short coming of the short time fourier transform, which can also be
used to analyze non-stationary signals. While STFT gives a constant resolution at all frequencies
are analyzed with different resolutions.
A wave is an oscillating function of time or space and is periodic. In contrast, wavelets
are localized waves. They have their energy concentrated in time or space and are suited to
analysis of transient signals. While fourier transform and STFT use waves to analyze signals, the
wavelet transform uses wavelets of finite energy.

Fig 5.1: Demonstration of (a) a wave and (b)a wavelet
As a mathematical tool, wavelets can be used to extract information from many different
kinds of data, including - but certainly not limited to - audio signals and images. Sets of wavelets
are generally needed to analyze data fully. A set of "complementary" wavelets will deconstruct
data without gaps or overlap so that the deconstruction process is mathematically reversible.
45

Thus, sets of complementary wavelets are useful in wavelet based compression/decompression
algorithms where it is desirable to recover the original information with minimal loss.
In formal terms, this representation is a wavelet series representation of a square-
integrable function with respect to either a complete, orthonormal set of basis functions, or an
overcomplete set or frame of a vector space, for the Hilbert space of square integrable functions.
Wavelet transform (WT) is a mathematical technique used for many application of signal
processing. Wavelet is much more powerful than conventional method in processing the
stochastic signal because of analyzing the waveform in time scale region. In wavelet transform
the band of analysis can be adjusted so that low frequency and high frequency components can
be windowing by different scale factors. The necessary and sufficient condition for wavelets is
that it must be oscillatory, must decay quickly to zero and must have an average value of zero.
Recently WT is widely used in signal processing application such as de noising, filtering, and
image compression. Many pattern recognition algorithms were developed based on the wavelet
transform.
The main reason for selecting the wavelet transform is because of the few problems
created by STFT and Fourier. Anyone who would like to use STFT is faced with this problem of
resolution and the kind of window to use. Narrow windows give good time resolution, but poor
frequency resolution. Wide windows give good frequency resolution, but poor time resolution;
furthermore, wide windows may violate the condition of stationary. The problem, of course, is a
result of choosing a window function, once and for all, and use that window in the entire
analysis. The answer, of course, is application dependent: If the frequency components are well
separated from each other in the original signal, than we may sacrifice some frequency resolution
and go for good time resolution, since the spectral components are already well separated from
each other. However, if this is not the case, then a good window function is difficult to find and
wavelet transform comes into play.

5.2.CONTINUOUS WAVELET TRANSFORM
The continuous wavelet transform was developed as an alternative approach to the short time
Fourier transform to overcome the resolution problem. The wavelet analysis is done in a similar
way to the STFT analysis, in the sense that the signal is multiplied with a function, (it the
wavelet), similar to the window function in the STFT, and the transform is computed separately
46

for different segments of the time-domain signal. However, there are two main differences
between the STFT and the CWT:
1. The Fourier transforms of the windowed signals are not taken, and therefore single peak
will be seen corresponding to a sinusoid, i.e., negative frequencies are not computed.
2. The width of the window is changed as the transform is computed for every single
spectral component, which is probably the most significant characteristic of the wavelet
transform.
In continuous wavelet transforms, a given signal of finite energy is projected on a continuous
family of frequency bands (or similar subspaces of the L
p
function space ). For instance
the signal may be represented on every frequency band of the form for all positive
frequencies f>0. Then, the original signal can be reconstructed by a suitable integration over all
the resulting frequency components.
The frequency bands or subspaces (sub-bands) are scaled versions of a subspace at scale 1.
This subspace in turn is in most situations generated by the shifts of one generating
function , the mother wavelet. For the example of the scale one frequency
band this function is

The subspace of scale a or frequency band is generated by the functions (sometimes
called child wavelets)
,
where a is positive and defines the scale and b is any real number and defines the shift. The
pair (a,b) defines a point in the right halfplane .
The projection of a function x onto the subspace of scale a then has the form

47

with wavelet coefficients
.
Continuous Wavelet Transform
(CWT) is very efficient in determining the
damping ratio of oscillating signals (e.g.
identification of damping in dynamical
systems). CWT is also very resistant to the
noise in the signal. The main disadvantage
of CWT is that it cannot be computed by
using analytical equations, integrals. This
method can be used in solving peak
overlapping problem in different analytical
techniques (simultaneous determination).




Fig 5.2: Continuous wavelet transform

5.3.DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM
In numerical and functional, a discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is any wavelet
transform for which the wavelets are discretely sampled. As with other wavelet transforms, a key
advantage it has over Fourier Transform is temporal resolution: it captures both frequency and
location information (location in time). The DWT, which is based on sub-band coding is found
to yield a fast computation of Wavelet transform. It is easy to implement and reduces the
computation time and resources required. The foundations of DWT go back to 1976 when
techniques to decompose discrete time signals were devised. In CWT, the signals are analyzed
using set of basis functions which relate to each other by simple scaling and translation. In the
case of DWT, a time-scale representation of the digital signal is obtained using digital filtering
techniques. The signal to be analyzed is passed through filters with different cutoff frequencies at
different scales.
Although the discretized continuous wavelet transform enables the computation of the
continuous wavelet transform by computers, it is not a true discrete transform. As a matter of

48

fact, the wavelet series is simply a sampled version of the CWT, and the information it provides
is highly redundant as far as the reconstruction of the signal is concerned. This redundancy, on
the other hand, requires a significant amount of computation time and resources. The discrete
wavelet transform (DWT), on the other hand, provides sufficient information both for analysis
and synthesis of the original signal, with a significant reduction in the computation time.The
DWT is considerably easier to implement when compared to the CWT.
The 1-D wavelet transform is given by,

The inverse 1-D wavelet transform is given by,

5.4.WAVELETS:

A wavelet is a mathematical function used to divide a given function or continuous-time
signal into different scale components. Usually one can assign a frequency range to each scale
component. Each scale component can then be studied with a resolution that matches its scale. A
wavelet transform is the representation of a function by wavelets. The wavelets are
scaled and translated copies (known as "daughter wavelets") of a finite-length or fast-decaying
oscillating waveform (known as the "mother wavelet"). Wavelet transforms have advantages
over traditional Fourier transforms for representing functions that have discontinuities and sharp
peaks, and for accurately deconstructing and reconstructing finite, non-periodic and/or non-
stationary signals.

49

Wavelet transforms are classified into discrete wavelet transforms (DWTs)
and continuous wavelet transforms (CWTs). CWTs operate over every possible scale and
translation whereas DWTs use a specific subset of scale and translation values or representation
grid. There are a large number of wavelet transforms each suitable for different applications. The
following are the wavelet functions:
Continuous wavelet transform (CWT)
Discrete wavelet transform (DWT)
Fast wavelet transform (FWT)
Lifting scheme & Generalized Lifting Scheme
Wavelet packet decomposition (WPD)
Stationary wavelet transform (SWT)
Fractional Fourier transform (FRFT)
Fractional wavelet transform (FRWT)
Discrete wavelets are Beylkin, BNC wavelets,Coiflet (6, 12, 18, 24, 30),Cohen-
Daubechies-Feauveau wavelet (Sometimes referred to as CDF N/P or Daubechies ,biorthogonal
wavelets),Daubechies wavelet (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20),Binomial-QMF (Also referred to
as Daubechies wavelet),Haar wavelet,Mathieu wavelet,Legendre wavelet,Villasenor
wavelet,Symlet.Continuous wavelets are of two types real valued and complex valued
wavelets.Real-valued wavelets are Beta wavelet,Hermitian wavelet,Hermitian hat
wavelet,Mexican hat wavelet,Shannon wavelet. The Complex-valued wavelets are Complex
mexican hat wavelet,Morlet wavelet,Shannon wavelet,Modified Morlet wavelet.

50


Fig 5.3 : Different types of mother wavelets
5.4.1.HAAR WAVELET:
In mathematics, the Haar wavelet is a sequence of rescaled "square-shaped" functions which
together form a wavelet family or basis. The Haar wavelet is also the simplest possible wavelet.
The technical disadvantage of the Haar wavelet is that it is not continuous, and therefore
not differentiable. This property can, however, be an advantage for the analysis of signals with
sudden transitions, such as monitoring of tool failure in machines.
The Haar wavelet's mother wavelet function can be described as

Its scaling function can be described as

51



Fig 5.4 : HAAR wavelet
The Haar wavelet has several notable properties:
1. Any continuous real function can be approximated by linear
combinations of and their shifted functions.
This extends to those function spaces where any function therein can be approximated by
continuous functions.
2. Any continuous real function can be approximated by linear combinations of the constant
function, and their shifted functions.
3. Orthogonality in the form

Here i,j represents the Kronecker delta. The dual function of is itself.
4. Wavelet/scaling functions with different scale m have a functional relationship:


5. Coefficients of scale m can be calculated by coefficients of scale m+1:

52

If
and
then


The Haar transform is the simplest of the wavelet transforms. This transform cross-
multiplies a function against the Haar wavelet with various shifts and stretches, like the Fourier
transform cross-multiplies a function against a sine wave with two phases and many stretches.
The Haar transform is derived from the Haar matrix. An example of a 4x4 Haar transformation
matrix is shown below.

The Haar transform can be thought of as a sampling process in which rows of the
transformation matrix act as samples of finer and finer resolution. Haar-like features are digital
image features used in object recognition. They owe their name to their intuitive similarity
with Haar wavelets and were used in the first real-time face detector.
A Haar-like feature considers adjacent rectangular regions at a specific location in a
detection window, sums up the pixel intensities in each region and calculates the difference
between these sums. This difference is then used to categorize subsections of an image.The key
advantage of a Haar-like feature over most other features is its calculation speed. Due to the use
of integral images, a Haar-like feature of any size can be calculated in constant time.



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5.5. APPLICATIONS OF WAVELET TRANSFORM

One of the most popular applications of wavelet transform is image compression. The
advantage of using wavelet-based coding in image compression is that it provides
significant improvements in picture quality at higher compression ratios over
conventional techniques.

Since wavelet transform has the ability to decompose complex information and patterns
into elementary forms, it is commonly used in acoustics processing and pattern
recognition.

Wavelet transforms can be applied to the following scientific research areas: edge and
corner detection, partial differential equation solving, transient detection, filter design,
Electrocardiogram (ECG) analysis, texture analysis, business information analysis and
gait analysis.

5.6.MULTI-RESOLUTION ANALYSIS

A time-scale representation of a digital signal is obtained using digital filtering
techniques.The CWT is a correlation between a wavelet at different scales and the signal with the
scale (or the frequency) being used as a measure of similarity. The continuous wavelet transform
was computed by changing the scale of the analysis window, shifting the window in time,
multiplying by the signal, and integrating over all times. In the discrete case, filters of different
cutoff frequencies are used to analyze the signal at different scales. The signal is passed through
a series of high pass filters to analyze the high frequencies, and it is passed through a series of
low pass filters to analyze the low frequencies.

The resolution of the signal, which is a measure of the amount of detail information in the
signal, is changed by the filtering operations, and the scale is changed by upsampling and
downsampling (subsampling) operations. Subsampling a signal corresponds to reducing the
sampling rate, or removing some of the samples of the signal. For example, subsampling by two

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refers to dropping every other sample of the signal. Subsampling by a factor n reduces the
number of samples in the signal n times.

Upsampling a signal corresponds to increasing the sampling rate of a signal by adding
new samples to the signal. For example, upsampling by two refers to adding a new sample,
usually a zero or an interpolated value, between every two samples of the signal. Upsampling a
signal by a factor of n increases the number of samples in the signal by a factor of n.
The procedure starts with passing this signal (sequence) through a half band digital lowpass filter
with impulse response h[n]. Filtering a signal corresponds to the mathematical operation of
convolution of the signal with the impulse response of the filter. The convolution operation in
discrete time is defined as follows:
A half band lowpass filter removes all frequencies that are above half of the highest
frequency in the signal. For example, if a signal has a maximum of 1000 Hz component, then
half band lowpass filtering removes all the frequencies above 500 Hz.
The unit of frequency is of particular importance at this time. In discrete signals,
frequency is expressed in terms of radians. Accordingly, the sampling frequency of the signal is
equal to 2 radians in terms of radial frequency. Therefore, the highest frequency component that
exists in a signal will be radians, if the signal is sampled at Nyquists rate (which is twice the
maximum frequency that exists in the signal); that is, the Nyquists rate corresponds to rad/s in
the discrete frequency domain. Therefore using Hz is not appropriate for discrete signals.
However, Hz is used whenever it is needed to clarify a discussion, since it is very common to
think of frequency in terms of Hz. It should always be remembered that the unit of frequency for
discrete time signals is radians.
After passing the signal through a half band lowpass filter, half of the samples can be
eliminated according to the Nyquists rule, since the signal now has a highest frequency of /2
radians instead of radians. Simply discarding every other sample will subsample the signal by
two, and the signal will then have half the number of points. The scale of the signal is now
doubled. Note that the lowpass filtering removes the high frequency information, but leaves the
scale unchanged. Only the subsampling process changes the scale. Resolution, on the other hand,
is related to the amount of information in the signal, and therefore, it is affected by the filtering
operations. Half band lowpass filtering removes half of the frequencies, which can be interpreted

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as losing half of the information. Therefore, the resolution is halved after the filtering operation.
Note, however, the subsampling operation after filtering does not affect the resolution, since
removing half of the spectral components from the signal makes half the number of samples
redundant anyway. Half the samples can be discarded without any loss of information. In
summary, the lowpass filtering halves the resolution, but leaves the scale unchanged. The signal
is then subsampled by 2 since half of the number of samples are redundant. This doubles the
scale.

5.7.SUBBAND

As an example, suppose that the original signal x[n] has 512 sample points, spanning a
frequency band of zero to rad/s. At the first decomposition level, the signal is passed through the
highpass and lowpass filters, followed by subsampling by 2. The output of the highpass filter has
256 points (hence half the time resolution), but it only spans the frequencies /2 to rad/s (hence
double the frequency resolution). These 256 samples constitute the first level of DWT
coefficients. The output of the lowpass filter also has 256 samples, but it spans the other half of
the frequency band, frequencie
s from 0 to /2 rad/s. This signal is then passed through the same lowpass and highpass
filters for further decomposition. The output of the second lowpass filter followed by
subsampling has 128 samples spanning a frequency band of 0 to /4 rad/s, and the output of the
second highpass filter followed by subsampling has 128 samples spanning a frequency band of /4
to /2 rad/s. The second highpass filtered signal constitutes the second level of DWT coefficients.
This signal has half the time resolution, but twice the frequency resolution of the first level
signal. In other words, time resolution has decreased by a factor of 4, and frequency resolution
has increased by a factor of 4 compared to the original signal. The lowpass filter output is then
filtered once again for further decomposition. This process continues until two samples are left.
For this specific example there would be 8 levels of decomposition, each having half the number
of samples of the previous level. The DWT of the original signal is then obtained by
concatenating all coefficients starting from the last level of decomposition (remaining two
samples, in this case). The DWT will then have the same number of coefficients as the original
signal.

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The frequencies that are most prominent in the original signal will appear as high
amplitudes in that region of the DWT signal that includes those particular frequencies. The
difference of this transform from the Fourier transform is that the time localization of these
frequencies will not be lost. However, the time localization will have a resolution that depends
on which level they appear. If the main information of the signal lies in the high frequencies, as
happens most often, the time localization of these frequencies will be more precise, since they
are characterized by more number of samples. If the main information lies only at very low
frequencies, the time localization will not be very precise, since few samples are used to express
signal at these frequencies. This procedure in effect offers a good time resolution at high
frequencies, and good frequency resolution at low frequencies. Most practical signals
encountered are of this type.

5.8.DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WAVELET AND FOURIER
The most interesting dissimilarity between these two kinds of transforms is that
individual wavelet functions are localized in space. Fourier sine and cosine functions are
not. This localization feature, along with wavelets localization of frequency, makes many
functions and operators using wavelets sparse when transformed into the wavelet
domain. This sparseness, in turn, results in a number of useful applications such as data
compression, detecting features in images, and removing noise from time series.
One way to see the time-frequency resolution differences between the Fourier transform
and the wavelet transform is to look at the basis function coverage of the time-frequency
plane. The square wave window truncates the sine or cosine function to fit a window of a
particular width. Because a single window is used for all frequencies in the WFT, the
resolution of analysis is the same at all locations in the time-frequency plane.








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CHAPTER 6
BLOCK DIAGRAM DETAILS















58


6. BLOCK DIAGRAM DETAILS

6.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM


Fig6.1: Block diagram



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6.3.BLOCK DETAILS
1. Three phase source:
Phase to phase rms voltage 25kV
Frequency 50Hz
Base voltage 25Kv
X/R ratio 7
Table 6.1: Three phase source
2. Transformer 1:
Connection Yg-Yg
Nominal Power 250MVA
Nominal frequency 50Hz
Winding 1 voltage 25kV
Winding 2- voltage 315kV
Table 6.2: Transformer 1
3. Distributed line parameters:
Number of phases 3
Frequency 50Hz
Resistance per unit length [R1 R0] [0.01273 0.3864]
Inductance per unit length [0.9337e-3 4.126e-3]
Capacitance per unit length [12.74e-9 7.751e-9]
Line length 50
No. of distributed parameters used 4
Length of transmission lie 200km
Table 6.3: Distributed line parameters
4. Three phase fault:
Fault resistance 1.5 ohms
Ground resistance 1 ohms
Transtition time 0.3 -0.4 secs
Types of faults L-G,LL-G,LLL-G
Table 6.4: Three phase fault
5. Transformer 2:

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Connection Delta-Yg
Nominal power 250MVA
Nominal frequency 50Hz
Winding 1 voltage 315 kV
Winding 2-voltage 25kV
Table 6.5: Transformer 2
6. Three phase series RLC load:
Nominal phase to phase voltage 25kV
Nominal frequency 50Hz
Active power 10MW
Inductive reactive power 100VAR
Capacitive reactive power 100VAR
Table 6.6: Three phase series RLC load
7. Subsystem:
The subsystem consists of a buffer, discrete wavelet transform block and a complex to
magnitude-angle block.
The output buffer size is 32 and the discrete wavelet block uses the Haar wavelet for the
analysis of its input signals.











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CHAPTER 7
RESULTS














7.RESULTS

7.1.OBSERVATION TABLE:
TYPE OF
FAULT
TYPE OF
ANALYSIS
Ia
CURRENT(amps)
Ib
CURRENT(amps)
Ic
CURRENT(amps)
L-G FFT 0.003 0.005 0.005
DWT 0.018 0.025 0.025
LL-G FFT 0.004 0.004 0.003

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DWT 0.025 0.025 0.02
LLL-G FFT 0.0028 0.0028 0.0028
DWT 0.018 0.01 0.01
Table 7.1: Observation table
7.2.L-G FAULT:
7.2.1.FOURIER TRANSFORM OUTPUT:

Fig 7.1.L-G Fault Fast Fourier transform output(from top-Ia , Ib, Ic)

Fig 7.2:L-G Fault selected part for FFT analysis

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Fig 7.3: Fast Fourier transform of the above selected signal part
7.2.2.WAVELET TRANSFORM OUTPUT:

Fig 7.4: L-G Fault Wavelet transform( from top : Ia, Ib, Ic)

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Fig 7.5: Analysis of the L-G fault using the wavemenu

Fig 7.6: Analysis of L-G fault using the wavemenu The high density area represents the fault

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7.3.LL-G FAULT:

Fig 7.7: LL-G fault using FFT

Fig 7.8: LL-G fault analysis using DWT





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7.4.LLL-G FAULT:

Fig 7.9:LLL-G fault analysis using FFT

Fig 7.10:LLL-G Fault analysis using DWT






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CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION

68



69


In this project a mathematical approach using Fast Fourier Series and Wavelet transform has been
developed for fault location in transmission lines. Among all the components of a power system
transmission lines are more affected by faults. As the transmission lines are spread to far distances
location of faults is difficult. By using the wavelet analysis we can find the fault location, magnitude of
the fault. A three phase transmission line is given with a fault and by using the fast fourier series and
wavelet transform we the find the fault location. Digital signal processing (DSP) is concerned with the
representation of discrete time, discrete frequency, or other discrete domain signal by a sequence of
numbers or symbols and the processing of these signals. From this , we can conclude that some faults
can be easily be located by Fast fourier transform, but when such faults location seems to be obscure
then the wavelet transform method is used to analysis the transmission line fault.
















70











CHAPTER 9
REFERENCES












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9.REFERENCES
IEEE PAPERS:

A Comparison of Fourier Transform and Wavelet Transform Methods for Detection and
Classification of Faults on Transmission Lines D.Das, N.K.Singh, and A.K.Sinha, Member,
IEEE.
Detection and Classification of Voltage Swells using Adaptive Decomposition Wavelet
transforms by M.Sushama, G. Tulasi Ram Das journal of Theoretical and Applied
Information Technology 2005 - 2008 JATIT.
Wavelet Theory and Applications A literature stud R.J.E. Merry DCT 2005.53 Prof. Dr. Ir.
M. Steinbuch Dr. Ir. M.J.G. van de Mol engraft Eindhove n University of Technology
Department of Mechanic al Engine erring Control Systems Technology Group Eindhoven,
June 7, 2005
B.Ravindranath, Dr.M.Vijay Kumar, Dr.M.Surya Kalavathi, Y.Venkata Raju, Detection &
Localization of faults in transmission lines using Wavelet Transforms(coiflet and mexican
hat),IEEE
Sunusi.Sani Adamu, Sada Iliya Fault location and distance estimation on power
transmission lines using DWT,IEEE
S.A.Shaban, Prof.Takashi Hiyama Transmission line faults classification using wavelet
transform,IEEE
S.Sajedi, F.Khalifeh, Z.Khalifeh, T.Karimi Application of wavelet transform for
identification of fault location on transmission lines,IEEE
D.Chanda, N.K.Kishore, A.K.Sinha Application of wavelet multiresolution analysis for
classification of faults on transmission lines,IEEE
G.T.Heydt, A.W.Galli Transient power quality problems analyzed using wavelets,IEEE
Pannala Krishna Murthy, J.Amarnath, S.Kamakshiah, B.P.Singh Wavelet transform
approach for detection and location of faults in HVDC system,IEEE
B.Ravindranath Reddy, M.Vijaya Kumar, Dr.M.Surya Kalavathi, Ch.Prasanth Babu Fault
detection, classification and location on transmission lines using wavelet transform 2009
Annual Report Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric phenomena.



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BOOKS:
Electrical Power Systems , J.B.Gupta
Wavelet Transform , R.S.Pathak
The Wavelet Transform- Introduction to theory and Applications,Raghuveer M.Rao
INTERNET:
http://www.amara.com/IEEEwave/IEEEwavelet.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQ0LODraq3g
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=namEuXQqxF4&feature=related
http://users.rowan.edu/~polikar/wavelets/wttutorial.html
OTHER MATERIALS:
The Engineers ultimate guide to Wavelet analysis the Wavelet tutorial by Robi Polkar.
Wavelet Tutorial in Matlab
A Theory for Multiresolution Signal Decomposition: The Wavelet Representation
STEPHANE G. MALLAT





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