RADAR IMAGES

Radar is an active remote sensing system because it provides its own source
of energy. The system “illuminates” the terrain with electromagnetic energy, detects
the energy returning from the terrain (called radar turn), and then records it as an
image. Passive remote sensing systems, such as photography and thermal IR,
detect the available energy reflected or radiated from the terrain. Radar systems
operate independently of lighting conditions and largely independently of weather. In
addition, the terrain can be “illuminated” in the optimum direction to enhance features
of interest.

Figure 1 Radar transmits a pulse Measures reflected echo (backscatter)

Radar is the acronym for radio detection and ranging; it operates in the radio
and microwave bands of the electromagnetic spectrum ranging from a meter to a few
millimeters in wavelength. The reflection of radio waves from objects was noted in
the late 1800s and early 1900s. Definitive investigations of radar began in the 1920s
in the United States and Great Britain for the detection of ships and aircraft. Radar
was developed during World War II for navigation and target location and used the
familiar rotating antenna and circular cathode – ray – tube (CRT) display. The
continuous – strip mapping capability of side – looking airborne radar (SLAR) was
developed in the 1950s to acquire reconnaissance images without the necessity of
flying over politically unfriendly regions.
Figure 2 Data Capturing mechanisms in SLAR

Aircraft Radar Systems

To aid in understanding the image – forming process, radar systems aboard
aircraft are described here, but the principles of aircraft systems are also applicable
to satellite systems.

Building up a radar image using the motion of the platform

Radar Components

The same antenna transmits the radar pulse and receives the return from the
terrain. An electronic switch, or duplexer, prevents interference between transmitted
 and received pulses by blocking the receiver circuit during transmission and blocking
the transmitter circuit during reception. The antenna is a reflector that focuses the
pulse on energy into the desired form for transmission and also collects the energy
returning from the terrain. A receiver, similar to a home radio, amplifies the weak
energy waves collected by the antenna. At the same time it preserves the variations
in intensity of the returning pulse. The receiver also records the timing of the return
pulse, which determines the position of terrain features on the image. The return
pulse may be displayed as a line sweep on a CRT and simultaneously recorded on
film; it may be recorded as nonimage data on signal film for later optical processing
into images; or it may be recorded on magnetic tape for later computer processing
into images.

Airborne Imaging System

The SLAR antenna illustrated in Figure is housed in a cylindrical pod mounted
with its long axis parallel with the aircraft fuselage. Newer, solid – state antennas
are flat plates, Pulses of energy transmitted from the antenna illuminate strips of
terrain in the look direction (also called the range direction). The look direction is
oriented normal to the azimuth direction (aircraft flight direction).
The return pulse is displayed as a function of two-way travel time on the
horizontal axis with the shortest times at the right, or near range, closest to the
aircraft flight path. The longest travel times by multiplying the time by C, the speed
of electromagnetic radiation (3 x 10 8 m. sec-1). The amplitude of the return pulse is a
complex function of the interaction between the terrain and the transmitted pulse.

In addition to an active system, radar is different from other remote sensing

systems such as cameras optical – mechanical scanners. Because, it records data
on basis of time rather than angular distance. Time can be much more precisely
measured and recorded than angular distance can; hence radar images can be
acquired at longer ranges with higher resolution. Also atmospheric absorption and
scattering are minimal except at the shortest microwave wavelengths.

Table 1. Typical features and signatures on radar images

Image
Image tone Terrain feature Cause of Signature
Signature
Highlights Bright Steep slopes and scarps Much energy is reflected
 facing toward antenna back to antenna.

Shadows Very dark Steep slopes and scarps No energy reaches terrain;
facing away from antenna hence there is no return to
antenna.

Diffuse surfaces Intermediate Vegetation Vegetation scatters energy

in may directions, including
returns to antenna.

Corner Very bright Bridges and cities Intersecting planar surfaces

reflectors strongly reflect energy
toward antenna.

Very dark Calm water, pavement, dry Smooth, horizontal surfaces

Specular lake beds totally reflect energy, with
surfaces angle of reflectance
opposite to angle of
incidence.

Radar Wavelengths
Table 2. lists the various radar wavelengths and corresponding frequencies.
Frequency is a more fundamental property of electromagnetic radiation than is
wavelength because, as radiation passes through media of different densities,
frequency remains constant whereas velocity and wavelength change. Most
interpreters, however, comprehend wavelengths more readily than frequencies; also,
wavelengths are used to describe the visible and infrared spectral regions.
Therefore wavelengths are used here to designate various radar systems. Equation
1.1 enables any frequency () to be converted into wavelength () in the following
manner:
C = 
3 x 108 m.sec-1
 = ---------------------- (1.1)

Where ‘c’ is the speed of electromagnetic radiation. A convenient version of
Equation 1.1 for converting radar frequencies into wavelength equivalents is
30
 (in cm) = 30/ (in GHZ)
Table 2 Radar wavelengths and frequencies used in remote sensing
Frequency (), GHZ
Band designation* Wavelength (), cm
(109 Cycles. Sec– 1 )

Ka (0.86 cm) 0.8 to 1.1 40.0 to 26.5

K 1.1 to 1.7 26.5 to 18.0
Ku 1.7 to 2.4 18.0 to 12.5
2.4 to 3.8 12.5 to 8.0
X (3.0cm, 3.2 cm)
3.8 to 7.5 8.0 to 4.0
C
7.5 to 15.0 4.0 to 2.0
S
15.0 to 30.0 2.0 to 1.0
L (23.5 cm, 25.0cm)
30.0 to 100.0 1.0 to 0.3
P

 Wavelengths commonly used in imaging radars are shown in parentheses.

 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Backscatter

Radar images are composed of many picture elements referred to as pixels. Each
pixel in the radar image represents an estimate of the radar backscatter for that area
on the ground. Darker areas in the image represent low backscatter, while brighter
areas represent high backscatter. Bright features mean that a large fraction of the
radar energy was reflected back to the radar, while dark features imply that very little
energy was reflected. Backscatter for a target area at a particular wavelength will
vary for a variety of conditions, such as the physical size of the scatterers in the
target area, the target's electrical properties and the moisture content, with wetter
objects appearing bright, and drier targets appearing dark. (The exception to this is a
smooth body of water, which will act as a flat surface and reflect incoming pulses
away from a target. These bodies will appear dark ). The wavelength and
polarisation of the Radar pulses, and the observation angles will also affect
backscatter

Figure 1.5 Backscatter from various surfaces types

A useful rule-of-thumb in analyzing radar images is that the higher or brighter the
backscatter on the image, the rougher the surface being imaged. Flat surfaces that
reflect little or no radio or microwave energy back towards the radar will always
appear dark in radar images. Vegetation is usually moderately rough on the scale of
most radar wavelengths and appears as grey or light grey in a radar image. Surfaces
inclined towards the radar will have a stronger backscatter than surfaces which slope
away from the radar and will tend to appear brighter in a radar image. Some areas
not illuminated by the radar, like the back slope of mountains, are in shadow, and will
appear dark. When city streets or buildings are lined up in such a way that the
incoming radar pulses are able to bounce off the streets and then bounce again off
the buildings (called a double-bounce) and directly back towards the radar they
appear very bright (white) in radar images. Roads and freeways are flat surfaces and
so appear dark. Buildings which do not line up so that the radar pulses are reflected
straight back will appear light grey, like very rough surfaces.

Real Aperture Radar (RAR)

Before considering the properties of a Synthetic Aperture Radar system, we will

consider a Real Aperture System. Aperture means the opening used to collect the
reflected energy that is used to form an image. In the case of radar imaging this is
the antenna. For RAR systems, only the amplitude (and not the phase) of each echo
return is measured and processed.
Spatial Resolution

The spatial resolution of a Real Aperture Radar system is determined by, among
other things, the size of the antenna used. For any given wavelength, the larger the
antenna the better the spatial resolution. Other determining factors include the pulse
length and the antenna beamwidth. The pulse length of the radar signal is
determined by the length of time that the antenna emits its burst of energy.

Consider an image to be a set of values A(x,y), where the x coordinate is in the

direction of platform motion and the y coordinate is in the direction of illumination.
Then the value of y, or range direction , and its resolution (range resolution) is based
on the pulse length, the arrival time of the echo, and the timing precision of the radar.
The value of x, which is azimuth direction (also referred to as the along-track
direction) , and its resolution (azimuth resolution) depends on the position of the
platform that carries the transmitting antenna and the beamwidth of the radar.

Range Resolution

For a Radar system to image separately two ground features that are close together
in the range direction, it is necessary for all parts of the two objects' reflected signals
to be received separately by the antenna. Any time overlap between the signals from
two objects will cause their images to be blurred together.

Azimuth Resolution

As mentioned above, the azimuth resolution is affected by the beamwidth. As the

antenna beam fans out with increasing distance from the earth to the platform
carrying the pulse transmitting source and receiver, the azimuth resolution
deteriorates. The beamwidth of the antenna is directly proportional to the wavelength
of the transmitted pulses and inversely proportional to the length of the antenna.

So, for any given wavelength, antenna beamwidth can be best controlled by one of
two different means:

 by controlling the physical length of the antenna, or

 by synthesising an effective length of the antenna
Those systems where beamwidth is controlled by the physical antenna length are
referred to as Real Aperture, or Noncoherent Radars and the natural resolution of
such an orbiting radar instrument, observing from 1000 km, is typically 10 km on the
ground. While these systems enjoy relative simplicity of design and data processing,
the resolution difficulties restrict them to short-range, low altitude operation and the
use of relatively short wavelengths. These restrictions limit the area of coverage
obtainable and the short wavelengths experience more atmospheric dispersion.

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) takes advantage of the Doppler history of the radar
echoes generated by the forward motion of the spacecraft to synthesise a large
antenna, enabling high azimuthal resolution in the resulting image despite a
physically small antenna, as shown is figure . As the radar moves, a pulse is transmitted at
each position. The return echoes pass through the receiver and are recorded in an echo store.

Figure Constructing a synthetic antenna

SAR is a coherent, active, microwave imaging method that improves natural radar
resolution by focusing the image through a process known as synthetic aperture
processing. This typically requires a complex integrated array of onboard
navigational and control systems, with location accuracy provided by both Doppler
and inertial navigation equipment. For a C band instrument, (such as ERS-1, ERS-2
or ASAR) 1000 km from its target, the area on the ground covered by a single
transmitted EM pulse, known as the radar footprint, is on the order of 5 km long in
the along-track (azimuth) direction. In SAR, the satellite must not cover more than
half of the azimuth antenna length between the emission of successive pulses, so as
not to degrade the range resolution. For example, a 10 m antenna should advance
only 5 m between pulses, to produce a 5 m long final elementary resolution cell.
Therefore, each 5 km long footprint is a collection of signals, each one of which is a
mixture of a thousand 5 m samples, each of which contributes to a thousand signals.
Focusing is the reconstruction of the contribution of each 5 m cell, which results in an
improvement of resolution of approximately a thousand times of a Real Aperture
Radar. This effectively provides a synthetic aperture of a 20 km antenna.

In essence, return signals from the centre portion of the beamwidth are discriminated
by detecting Doppler frequency shifts, which is a change in wave frequency resulting
from the relative velocities of a transmitter and a reflector. Within the wide antenna
beam, returns from features in the area ahead of the platform will have upshifted, or
higher, frequencies resulting from the Doppler Effect. Conversely, returns from
features behind the platform will have downshifted, or lower, frequencies. Returns
from features near the centreline of the beamwidth (the so-called Zero-Doppler line)
will experience no frequency shift.

The amplitude and phase of the signals returned from objects are recorded in the
echo store throughout the time period in which the objects are within the beam of the
moving antenna. By processing the return signals according to their Doppler shifts, a
very narrow effective antenna beamwidth can be achieved, even at far ranges,
without requiring a physically long antenna or a short operating wavelength.

Because the signals received by a SAR system are recorded over a long time
period, the system translates the real antenna over a correspondingly long distance,
which becomes the effective length of the antenna. The azimuth resolution with this
synthetic antenna length is greatly improved, due to the effective narrowing of the
beamwidth. The azimuth resolution is also essentially independent of range,
because at long range an object is in the beam longer, meaning that returns from it
are recorded over a longer distance.

Depression Angle and Spatial Resolution

Resolution in the range (look) direction and azimuth (flight) direction is
determined by the engineering characteristics of the radar system. An important
characteristic is the depression angle (), defined as the angle between a horizontal
plane and beam from the antenna to a target on the ground (Figure.5A).
Radar backscatter is a function of incidence angle, (theta)i the depression angle is
steeper at the near – range side of an image strip and shallower at the far – range
side. Average depression angle of an image is measured for a beam to the midline
of an image strip. An alternate geometric term is incidence ange (), defined as the
angle between a radar beam and a line perpendicular to the surface. For a
horizontal surface,  is the complement of , but for an inclined surface there is no
correlation between the two angles (Figure.5B). The incidence angle more correctly
describes the relationship between a radar beam and a surface than does
depression angle; however, in actual practice the surface is usually assumed to be
horizontal and the incidence angle is taken as the angle between the radar beam
and a vertical plane passing through the antenna. Several other terms have been
applied to this angle, including look angle and off – nadir angle; using the
unambiguous term depression angle avoids this confusion. Recall, however, that
depression angle is the complement of incidence angle.
The combination of range resolution and azimuth resolution determines the
dimensions of the ground resolution cell, which in turn determines the spatial
resolution cell, which in turn determines the spatial resolution of a radar image.

Range Resolution
Range resolution (Rr), or resolution in the range direction, is determined by
the depression angle and by the pulse length. Range resolution is theoretically
equal to one – half the pulse length (Figure.6), Pulse length () is the duration of the
transmitted pulse and is measured in microseconds ( sec, or 10-6 sec). It is
converted from into distance by multiplying by the speed of electromagnetic radiation
(c = 3 x 108 m. sec-1). The resulting distance is measured in the slant range, or
direction in which the energy propagates from the antenna to the target. Range
resolution, however, is expressed in ground range, which is the distance measured
on the terrain (Figure.6). Dividing the slant – range distance by the cosine of the
depression () angle converts slant – range distance into ground – range distance.
The equation for range resolution is
c
Rr = -------- (1.0)
2 cos 

For a depression angle of 50 and a pulse length of 0.1  sec, range
resolution is calculated as
(0.1 x 10 –6 sec) (3 x 108 m. sec-1)
Rr = ---------------------------------------------------
2 cos 50

30 m
= -----------
2 x 0.64

= 23.4 m

Therefore, at a depression angle of 50 and pulse length of 0.1  sec, targets
must be separated by more than 23 m in the range direction to be resolved. At a
depression angle of 35, however, range resolution improves to 18.3m. in Figure.6,
target pairs A – B and C – D are both separated by 20 m. Targets A and B are
located in the near – range poison where  = 50 and Rr = 23 m; therefore A and B
are not resolved as separate targets in the image. Targets C and D are located in
the far-range position where  = 35 and Rr = 18 m; therefore C and D are resolved
as two separate features in the image.

One method of improving range resolution is to shorten the pulse length, but
this reduces the total amount of energy in each transmitted pulse. The energy and
pulse length cannot be reduced below the level required to produce a sufficiently
strong return from the terrain. Electronic techniques have been developed for
shortening the apparent pulse length while providing adequate signal strength.

Azimuth Resolution
Azimuth resolution (Ra), or resolution in the azimuth direction, is determined
by the width of the terrain strip illuminated by the radar beam. To be resolved,
targets must be separated in the azimuth direction by a distance greater than the
beam width as measured on the ground. As shown in Figure.7, the fan – shaped
beam is narrower in the near range than in the far range, causing azimuth resolution
to be smaller in the near – range portion of the image. Angular beam width is
directly proportional to wavelength of the transmitted energy; therefore azimuth
resolution is higher for shorter wavelengths, but the short wavelengths lack the
desirable weather penetration capability. Angular beam width is inversely
proportional to antenna length; there fore resolution improves with longer antennas
but there are practical limitations to the maximum antenna length.
The equation for azimuth resolution (Ra) is
0.7 S 
Ra = ---------- (2.0)
D
Where S is slant – range distance, and D is the antenna length. For a typical
X – band system,  = 3.0 cm and D = 500cm. At the near – range position, the slant
– range distance (Snear in Figuure.7) is 8 km and Ra is calculated from Equation 2 as
0.78 (8km x 3.0 cm)
Ra = ---------------------------
500 cm

= 33.6 m

Therefore targets in the near range, such as A and B in Figure.7 must be

separated by approximately 34 m to be resolved. At the far – range position, the
slant – range distance (Sfar in Figure.7) is 20km and R a is calculated as 84 m;
therefore targets C and D, also separated by 35 m, are not resolved. Values for
range resolution in modern radar systems far greater than those in Equation 2 are
obtained using synthetic – aperture methods, as described in the following section.

Real – Aperture and Synthetic – Aperture System

The two basic systems are real – aperture radar synthetic – aperture radar,
which differ primarily method each uses to achieve resolution in the azimuth
direction. The real – aperture, or “brute force,” system uses an antenna of the
maximum practical length produce a narrow angular beam width in the azimuth
direction.
 The synthetic – aperture radar (SAR) employs an antenna that transmits a
relatively broad beam (Fig.8A). The Doppler principle and special data – producing
techniques are employed to synthesize the azimuth resolution of a very narrow
beam. Using the fan example of sound, the Doppler principle states that the
frequency (pitch) of the sound heard differs from the frequency of the vibrating
source whenever the listener and the source are in motion relative to one another.
The rise and drop in pitch of the siren as an ambulance approaches and receded is a
familiar example. This principle is applicable to harmonic wave motion, including the
microwaves employed in radar systems.

GEOMETRY OF RADAR IMAGES

The nature of radar illumination causes specific geometric characteristics in the

images that include shadows and highlights, slant – range distortion, and image
displacement.
Slant – Range and Ground – Range Images
Depending on design of the recording system, images are presented either as
slant – range or as ground – range displays. On slant – range displays the scale in
the near – range portion of the image is compressed relative to the fan – range
portion. .

Image Layover
The curvature of a transmitted radar pulse causes the top of a tall vertical
target to reflect energy in advance of its base. Which results in displacement of the
top toward the near range on the image.
The amount of layover is influenced by the following factors:
1. Height of targets : Taller targets are displaced more than shorter
targets.
 2. Radar depression angle: Images acquired with steep (large)
depression angles have more displacement than those acquired with
shallow (small) depression angles.
3. Location of targets: For targets of the same height, those located in
the near – range are displaced more on the image than are those in the
far range because depression angle is steeper in the near range.

Because of the complex three – dimensional factors that cause layover, it is

not practical to correct for this distortion. Layover can be minimized by acquiring
images at relatively shallow depression angles, but radar shadows may be excessive
for terrain with high topographic relief.
Table 6.3 Operational aircraft radar

SATELLITE RADAR SYSTEMS

Since 1978, NRSA has launched three earth – orbiting radar satellite systems,
one Seasat and two Shuttle imaging radars (SIR – A and SIR – B), whose
characteristics are summarized in Table. 4.

Table 6.4 Characteristics of Seasat, SIR – A, and SIR – B systems

Characteristics Seasat (1978) SIR – A (1981) SIR – B (1984)
Orbit inclination 108 38 57

Wavelength L – band (23.5 cm) L – band (23.5 cm) L – band (23.5 cm)

Spatial resolution 25 m 38 m 25 m

Latitude coverage 72N to 72S 50N to 35S 58N to 58S

Altitude 790 km 250 km 225 km

Image – swath 100 km 50 km 40 km

width

Depression 67 to 73 37 to 43 30 to 75(variable)

angle, 
At average  70 40 52

Smooth criterion h <1.0 cm h <1.5 cm h <1.2 cm

Rough criterion h > 5.7 cm h > 8.3 cm h > 6.8 cm

Polarization HH HH HH

RADAR RETURN AND IMAGE SIGNATURES

Stronger radar returns produce brighter signatures on an image than do

weaker returns, as shown diagrammatically in Figure.3 and in the image of Figure .4.
intensity of the radar return, for both aircraft and satellite systems, is determined by
the following properties:
1. Radar system properties
Wavelength
Depression angle
Polarization
2. Terrain properties
Dielectric properties (including water content)
Surface roughness
Feature orientation
The following sections discuss these properties in more detail. The effects of
depression angle and wavelength of the radar system are described in the section o
surface roughness of the terrain; polarization is discussed in the section ”Image
Characteristics”, and feature orientation is described in the section “Look Direction
and Terrain Features”.

Dielectric Properties and Water Content

One electrical property of matter that influences its interaction with
electromagnetic energy is called the dielectric constant. At radar wavelengths the
dielectric constant of dry rocks and soils ranges from about 3 to 8, while water has a
value of 20 or more.
Backscatter coefficient is a quantitative measure of the intensity of energy
returned to the antenna.

Surface roughness
Comparable is size to the radar wavelength, such as leaves and twigs of vegetation
and sand, gravel, and cobble particles.
The average surface roughness within a ground resolution cell determines the
intensity of the return for that cell. Ground resolution cells are 10 by 10 m for typical
airborne systems and 25 by 25 m for Seasat. Surface roughness is a composite of
the vertical and horizontal dimensions and spacing of the small – scale features,
together with the geometry of the individual features (leaves, twigs, sand , and gravel
particles). Because of the complex geometry of most natural surfaces, it is difficult to
characterize them mathematically, particularly for the large area of a resolution cell.
For most surfaces the vertical relief. Or average height of surface irregularities is an
adequate approximation of surface relief.
Surfaces may be grouped into the following three roughness categories:
1. A smooth surface reflects all the incident radar energy with the angle of
reflection equal and opposite to the angle of incidence (Snell’s law).
2. A rough surface diffusely scatters the incident energy at all angles. The
rays of scattered energy may be thought of as enclosed within a
hemisphere, the center of which is located at the point where the incident
wave encounters the surface.
3. A surface of intermediate roughness reflects a portion of the incident
energy and diffusely scatters a portion.
 Roughness of a surface return is determined by the relationship of surface relief,
at the scale of centimeters, to radar wavelength and to the depression angle of the
antenna.
 Roughness Criteria. The Rayleigh criterion considers a surface to be smooth
if

h < ----------- (3.0)
8 sin 

Where ‘h’ is the vertical relief.  is the radar wavelength, and  is the
depression angle. Both h and  are given in the same units, usually centimeters.
For Seasat with a wavelength of 23.5 cm and a depression angle of 70, the surface
relief below which the surface will appear smooth is determined by substituting into
Equation.3.

23.5 cm
h< ------------
8 sin 70

23.5 cm
< ------------
8 x 0.94

< 3.1 cm

Therefore a vertical relief of 3.1 cm is the theoretical boundary between

smooth and rough surfaces for the given wavelength and depression angle. The
Rayleigh criterion does not consider the important category of surface relief that is
intermediate between definitely smooth and definitely rough surfaces.
Peake and Oliver (1971) modified the Rayleigh criterion by defining upper and
lower values of h for surfaces of intermediate roughness. By their “smooth” criterion,
a surface is smooth if

h < ----------- (4.0)
25 sin 

Substituting Seasat’s  of 23.5 cm and  of 70 results in

23.5 cm
h< ------------
25 sin 70

23.5 cm
 < ------------
25 x 0.94

< 1.0 cm

Therefore a vertical relief of 1.0 cm is the boundary between smooth surfaces

of intermediate roughness for the given wavelength and depression angle.
Peak and Oliver (1971) also derived a “rough” criterion that considers a
surface to be rough if

h > ----------- (5.0)
4.4 sin 

Substituting for Seasat results in

23.5 cm
h> ------------
4.4 sin 70

23.5 cm
> ------------
4.4 x 0.94

> 5.7 cm

Therefore a vertical relief of 5.7 cm is the boundary between intermediate

surfaces and rough surfaces for the given radar wavelength and depression angle.
Note that the value determined earlier form the Rayleigh criterion (h<3.1 cm) is
intermediated between those derived for the smooth criterion and the rough criterion.