Aronowitz, Alexis A., Human Trafficking, Human Misery

Human Trafcking, Human Misery
Recent Title in
Global Crime and Justice
Outsmarting the Terrorists
Ronald V. Clarke and Graeme R. Newman
HUMAN TRAFFICKING,
HUMAN MISERY
The Global Trade in
Human Beings
ALEXIS A. ARONOWITZ
Global Crime and Justice
Graeme R. Newman, Series Editor
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Aronowitz, Alexis A., 1956
Human trafcking, human misery : the global trade in human
beings / Alexis A. Aronowitz.
p. cm. (Global crime and justice, ISSN 1931-7239)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-275-99481-5 (alk. paper)
1. Human trafcking. 2. Human smuggling. 3. Human trafcking
Prevention. 4. Human smugglingPrevention. I. Title.
HQ281.A76 2009
364.1
0
37dc22 2008045310
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.
Copyright ' 2009 by Alexis A. Aronowitz
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be
reproduced, by any process or technique, without the
express written consent of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008045310
ISBN: 978-0-275-99481-5
ISSN: 1931-7239
First published in 2009
Praeger Publishers, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881
An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.
www.praeger.com
Printed in the United States of America
The paper used in this book complies with the
Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National
Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984).
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is dedicated to the victims of human trafcking and
all those who are working to make a difference in their lives.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Series Foreword ix
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Acronyms and Abbreviations xv
1. What Is Human Trafcking? 1
2. Human Trafcking: How Serious Is the Problem? 15
3. Contrasting Perspectives on Human Trafcking 23
4. Victims of Trafcking 31
5. The Trafckers: Their Methods of Operation and Organization
Structure 51
6. Regional Trafcking Patterns 77
7. Hidden Forms of Human Trafcking 103
8. New Opportunities for Trafcking 129
9. Ending Human Trafcking 145
Appendix 1. Risk Factors of Child Trafcking 163
Appendix 2. Trafcking Patterns by Region, Subregion, and Country 165
Appendix 3. Human Trafcking Indicators 215
Notes 221
References 249
Index 275
viii CONTENTS
Series Foreword
HOW FITTING THAT one of the rst books in this new Praeger series Global
Crime and Justice should be on human trafcking, the global crime of the
twenty-rst century. Though how disappointing that human trafcking is not
recognized as a crime in every part of the world, and that its global nature
dees nations that outlaw it and challenges international governmental and
nongovernmental efforts to police it. And how shocking it is that slaverya
global enterprise for centuriesstill exists, ying in the face of its heralded
abolition in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Human trafcking is a
very, very old practice, feeding very, very old vices.
In this thoroughly researched book, Alexis Aronowitz exposes the human
misery of trafcking, examining every nook and cranny of its practice. She
shows how innocent families and their children, looking for a better life, are
tricked and exploited into the nether world of modern slaverya world
in which they live hidden, yet in plain sight of those who benet from the
services they providethe indentured sex, domestic, farm, garment, and
factory workers.
One cannot doubt the authenticity of this book, the best documented
exposition on human trafcking available, presented by an author whose years
of experience in interviewing stakeholders and victims as she researched
human trafcking in many parts of the world shines through. The message is
clear enough, repeated on just about every page (and it needs to be): Readers,
wake up. Nations and international organizations, do more. Governments and
authorities, acknowledge the victim status of trafcked persons, regardless of
whether they are legal or illegal immigrants, and even if they are the latter,
know that they are victims rst, offenders last.
All those who read this book will be forced to ask themselves: how civil
are we? If the question elicits an honest answer, it may be painful ; but even
then, the pain of honesty is better than the consequences of hypocrisy.
Graeme R. Newman
Philadelphia, August 2008
x SERIES FOREWORD
Preface
FOR A PERIOD of over ve years, I worked in various capacities for the United
Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute and the United
Nations Ofce on Drugs and Crime as a researcher and consultant on human
trafcking projects in the Philippines, the Czech Republic, Benin, Nigeria,
and Togo. My work for the United Nations brought me to these countries on
numerous occasions. I returned to Nigeria while working as a consultant for
Winrock International and visited Albania while carrying out an assessment
on trafcking for Management Systems International in that country in 2003.
All of these missions involved meetings with stakeholders in the country
from high-ranking government ofcials, to police ofcers and immigration of-
cials, representatives of local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and inter-
national and intergovernmental organizations, and trafcked victims. We heard
moving stories from those who were working with the young victims in an NGO
in Beninof how children had died of starvation and hunger while in transit to
Gabon and how children on the boat were told to dispose of the corpses. We
spoke to two child victims of trafcking and their parents at an NGO in Togo.
The parents, poor and uneducated, explained to us how they only wanted to pro-
vide their young sons with an education and thought they were doing the right
thing when they gave the children to the care of a man who promised to educate
them. In Nigeria I spoke with a nine-year-old child who didnt know which vil-
lage or country she had come from. At the age of six, her older sister had left her
with a family in Nigeria to become a domestic slave. In Albania, while visiting a
shelter run by the International Organization for Migration for repatriated traf-
cked victims, I sat in the living room and spoke to the young women in English,
German, Dutch, and Italian. I could speak those languages because I had lived,
studied, or worked in those countries. They spoke those languages because they,
too, had worked in those countriesas prostitutes. After I left, it suddenly
dawned on me that perhaps they thought I, too, had been trafcked and thats
why I lived in so many countries to which they had traveled and spoke some of
the same languages. How different our lives were.
To look into the eyes of a trafcked victim or survivor and to hear their
stories is an unforgettable experienceone that should be passed on so that
others can become aware of their plight and the plight of millions of others
like them around the world. They are terrible, moving stories, yet many peo-
ple, perhaps most, have difculty in accepting the clear fact that slavery and
bondage still exist in the twenty-rst century, as U.N. Secretary General Ko
Anan noted in 2006. Ambassador John R. Miller, Ambassador-at-Large on
International Slavery in a speech presenting the U.S. State Departments 2006
Trafcking in Persons Report, further noted: Here we are in the twenty-rst
century and were talking about slavery. Wouldnt this be a shock to our abo-
litionist ancestors who thought they nished the job back in the 19th cen-
tury.
1
The U.S. State Department estimates that up to 800,000 people,
primarily women and children, are trafcked across national borders while
millions more are victims of trafcking within their own countries each year.
2
This is a crime of violence, and an inconceivable violation of human rights
and dignity. We talk of trafcking in terms of the sheer number of persons
exploited or the amount of money generated by the trafcking practice. But
behind every number and every dollar, pound, euro, ruble, rupee, or yen is a
story of human misery.
This book combines scientic, academic, and government reports; studies
generated by nongovernmental, international, and intergovernmental organiza-
tions; popular literature and media; and the authors experience coordinating
research and conducting trafcking assessments in various countries to pro-
vide the reader with a deeper understanding of human trafcking. The reader
will come to understand why victims are lured into dangerous situations, who
is behind the trafcking networks, and why it is so difcult to determine the
extent of the crime. Victims and their stories provide an understanding of how
and why this crime occurred and the impact it had on their lives. More
unusual forms of trafckingin child soldiers, mail-order brides, and trafck-
ing in human beings for their organs and illegal adoptionswill be exposed.
The book examines new markets and opportunities for trafcking as a result
of the growth of the Internet, international travel, military operations, sport-
ing events, and natural disasters. The last chapter presents good practices
and the role played by various stakeholders in the prevention, enforcement, and
victim assistance projects in an unceasing battle to stem the tide of human trafcking.
xii PREFACE
Acknowledgments
I WOULD LIKE to thank the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice
Research Institute and the United Nations Ofce on Drugs and Crime for the
opportunity to work on a number of U.N. trafcking projects and for the invi-
tation to attend the UN.GIFT (Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafcking)
Vienna Forum to Fight Human Trafcking. Special gratitude goes to all those
with whom I spoke during my years of work on trafcking in various coun-
tries. Their knowledge, experiences, and opinions have shaped my understand-
ing of human trafcking and have left a deep impression on menot only for
the horror of victims stories, but also for the dedication and commitment
shown by those working to help them. My appreciation goes to University
College Utrecht, which gave me research time to work on the book.
I am grateful to Graeme Newman, my mentor, for suggestions on
improvements to earlier versions of the manuscript, and to my niece Shavon,
for her assistance with the Index.
Most importantly, thanks to Gert-Jan, Marilyn, Julius, Jay and Andree
(and their children, Jenna, Jeboa, Shavon, Tony and Jason)my sources of
love, support and friendship, past, present and future.
Acronyms and Abbreviations
APLE Action Pour Les Enfants
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BKA Bundeskriminalamt (German Federal Criminal Police)
BNRM Bureau National Rapporteur Mensenhandel (Bureau of the Dutch
National Rapporteur on Trafcking in Human Beings)
CETS Child Exploitation Tracking System
CIS Commonwealth of Independent States
CRC Child Rights Committee (Pakistan)
CTM Counter-Trafcking Module [database]
DPKO Department of Peace Keeping Operations
ECPAT End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and the Trafcking of
Children
ELN National Liberation Army (Colombia)
EU European Union
EUROPOL European Law Enforcement Organisation
EXIT End Exploitation and Trafcking
FARC Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia
FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation
FUC United Front for Change (Chad)
ICE Immigration and Customs Enforcement
ICMEC International Centre for Missing and Exploited Children
ICMPD International Centre for Migration Policy Development
ICT information and communication technology
IJM International Justice Mission
ILO International Labour Organization
IMBRA International Marriage Broker Regulation Act
INTERPOL International Police Organization
IOM International Organization for Migration
IPTF International Police Task Force
LAC Latin America and the Caribbean
LRA Lords Resistance Army (Uganda)
LTTE Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (Sri Lanka)
MOHAN Multi Organ Harvesting Aid Network Foundation
MP3 Digital Audio Player
MTV Music Television
NAPTIP National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafc in Persons and Other
Related Matters (Nigeria)
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO nongovernmental organization
OAS Organization of American States
OHCHR Ofce of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
PSO Peace Support Operation
SEE South-Eastern Europe
SFOR Stabilization Force
SIUT Sind Institute for Urology and Transplantation
SPLA Sudan Peoples Liberation Army (Sudan)
TVPA Trafcking Victims Protection Act
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization
UN.GIFT United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafcking
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNICEF United Nations Childrens Fund
UNICRI United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute
UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women
UNMIBH United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina
UNMIK United Nations Mission in Kosovo
UNODC United Nations Ofce on Drugs and Crime
UNOHCHR United Nations Ofce for the High Commission on Human Rights
xvi ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
1
What Is Human Trafcking?
THIS CHAPTER BEGINS by dening human trafcking and smuggling, discussing
the similarities and differences between the two, and examines trafcking as a
process rather than a single crime. While trafcking and smuggling are both
forms of irregular migration and share some similarities, there are stark differ-
ences, particularly for the persons upon arrival at their destination. A distinc-
tion will also be made between internal and transborder trafcking, followed
by a discussion of push and pull factors. This is particularly pertinent
because the push and pull factors that affect illegal migration and smuggling
also affect human trafcking.
TRAFFICKING DEFINED
Since the ratication of the United Nations Trafcking Protocol,
1
there is
almost universal agreement on the denition of human trafcking. The United
Nations denes human trafcking as follows:
[T]he recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by
means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of
fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of
the giving or receiving of payments or benets to achieve the consent of a person
having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation
shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other
forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar
to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.
Trafcking must comprise
1. an action (recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or reception of
persons) ;
2. through means of (threat or use of force, coercion, abduction, fraud, decep-
tion, abuse of power or vulnerability, or giving payments or benets to a
person in control of the victim); and
3. goals (for exploitation or the purpose of exploitation, which includes exploit-
ing the prostitution of others, other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor
or services, slavery or similar practices, and the removal of organs).
One element from each of the above must be present for trafcking to occur.
Special protection is extended to children under the age of 18. The
recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or receipt of a child for the
purpose of exploitation is considered trafcking in persons, even if it does not
involve any of the means set forth above.
2
Coercion and Deception
The U.N. Trafcking Protocol is clear concerning its view toward children.
Questions, however, arise with respect to how one interprets the terms coer-
cion and deception when adults are involved. It is a misconception that all
trafcked victims have been recruited under false pretenses and that they had
no idea what they would be facing upon arrival in the destination country.
Just as the source countries and the areas of exploitation differ, so too do the
amount and kind of information that victims are given concerning their work
and living conditions upon arrival in the destination country. Various promises
are made to victims of trafcking to obtain their consent, and the knowledge
of what awaits them in the destination country varies from one victim to the
other. The nature of victimization can best be understood when it is viewed
on a continuum ranging from complete coercion to lesser forms of deception.
Complete coercion exists when victims have been abducted. However, coer-
cion occurs rarely with adults trafcked for labor and sexual exploitation, and
seldom in most instances involving child labor. There are exceptions, though,
involving cases of kidnapping of children. According to human rights activists,
Romanian children are drugged into submission so that they can be forced to
beg in metro stations and underground pedestrian walkways of major European
cities.
3
Other cases involve the kidnapping of both young boys and girls for use
as child soldiers and sex slaves to service the outlawed militias and renegade
military units. Children trafcked for labor in other parts of the world, however,
are often sold by their parents or freely given to trafckers in the false belief that
the children will receive an education or job training.
Deception occurs when individuals have been promised jobs in the legiti-
mate economy as nannies or domestic servants, hotel chamber maids, or
unskilled workers only to nd themselves forced into sexual slavery. Decep-
tion through half-truths occurs when individuals are told they will be working
in the entertainment industry as dancers or strippers. These women may
suspect there will be some sexual contact with customers but are unaware of
the fact that they will be forced into prostitution.
A lesser form of deception involves women who are aware before depar-
ture that they will be working as prostitutes but are unaware of the extent to
which they will be exploited, controlled, intimidated, and indebted.
4
Studies
have found that, even in prostitution, some women are willing collaborators.
5
Women are willingly brought to another country to knowingly work in prosti-
tution because they are told their wages will be much higher in the destination
2 HUMAN TRAFFICKING, HUMAN MISERY: THE GLOBAL TRADE IN HUMAN BEINGS
country than in the country of origin. This fact was supported by a representa-
tive of a Saint Petersburg (the Russian Federation)
*
human rights organization
who reports that, as a rule, victims are informed now about where they are
going and what they will be doing. She conrms that the proportion of girls
and women who have consented to working in the sex industry is growing,
but few realize that when they arrive and begin working, they will be locked
behind bars.
6
Even though a woman may willingly agree to working in prosti-
tution, when she is forced to turn over most or all of her wages to her trafck-
ers, or buy back her passport at an exorbitant fee, or when she is not free
to leave the premises, determine her working conditions, or quit her job, then
she, too, is exploited and is a victim of trafcking.
Coercion is a complex issue. Not all victims of trafcking are physically
restrained and constantly controlled. For many, the coercion is more psychologi-
cal than physical. The threat of violence or of being reported to immigration
ofcials as an illegal migrant keeps many trafcked victims in line and prevents
them for seeking assistance from the authorities. According to Anti-Slavery
International, coercion exists in any situation in which the person involved has
no real and acceptable alternative but to submit to the abuse involved.
7
Condi-
tions in sweatshops or in the agricultural sector may resemble slavery-like prac-
tices, but workers may endure these conditions on a voluntary basis, earning
more in a wealthy destination country than at home in their countries of origin.
The International Labour Organization (ILO) reports that this
appears to be the case of clandestine Chinese workers in France, who work long
hours in heavily indebted circumstances for a number of years, in order to repay
the advances they have received in their places of origin. Despite the appalling
conditions, the exploited Chinese workers may see the light at the end of the tun-
nel. They may know that this is a nite period of suffering, a sacrice that parents
are willing to make for their children.
8
SMUGGLING DEFINED
Smuggling of migrants has been dened by the United Nations as the pro-
curement, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a nancial or other mate-
rial benet, of the illegal entry of a person into a State Party of which the
person is not a national or a permanent resident.
9
Inherent in the denition
of smuggling is the crossing of international borders. If an individual pays
transportation costs prior to departure and, upon entering the destination coun-
try, terminates his or her relationship with the transporter, the individual has
been smuggled. The individual then enters the destination country and applies
for asylum or, as an illegal migrant, seeks work in the shadow economy.
*The Russian Federation and Russia will be used interchangeably throughout the text.
WHAT IS HUMAN TRAFFICKING? 3
Both illegal migrants and trafcked victims may have been recruited or
may have approached someone to assist them in entering another country.
Smuggled persons generally pay the entire amount owed prior to departure.
Trafcked persons may pay a percentage of the trip prior to departure and
incur a debt for the remainder. It is this debt that puts them at the mercy of
their trafckers. The difference between smuggled individuals and trafcked
persons may be apparent only when the journey has ended. If the person is
not able to exercise self-determination and nds him- or herself in a situation
of exploitation, what may have begun as a smuggling operation has then
turned into a situation of trafcking.
Smuggling is not without its perils. Boatloads of African migrants depart-
ing from Libya and Tunisia have attempted to reach the Italian island of Lamp-
edusa or the Spanish Canary Islands. According to data from the Italian Interior
Ministry, migrant landings in southern Italy almost doubled between 2004 and
2005, from 13,000 to 23,000of which at least 10,000 landed in Lampedusa in
2005. Figures had already reached 11,000 in the rst seven months of 2006.
10
The Canary Islands witnessed a ood of 30,000 migrants in 2006. Not all sur-
vive the dangerous trip, and newspaper accounts and reports by international
organizations regularly document their deaths in trying to reach Europe. The
Mauritanian Red Crescent estimates that 1,200 migrants died at sea in a ve-
month period between November 2005 and March 2006.
11
The International
Organization for Migration (IOM) estimates that up to 3,000 persons, including
women and children, have died attempting to cross by boat to Europe.
12
The
United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) reported that knife-
wielding smugglers forced 450 Somalis and Ethiopian refugees overboard into
stormy seas off the coast of the Republic of Yemen. Twenty-nine people died
and another 71 were reported missing.
13
The United States faces a similar prob-
lem with illegal migrants attempting to cross the Arizona desert. Between Octo-
ber 1, 2005, and September 15, 2006, 426 people died while illegally crossing
the border; the death toll since 1994 is reported at about 3,700.
14
The story of one young Nigerian woman (case 1.1) hoping to nd a good job
in Italy exemplies the perils to which smuggled and trafcked persons are
exposed in their attempt to illegally enter the European Union in search of work.
What began with the promise of a plane trip and a good job, resulted in a two-
year-long harrowing trip to Italy lled with violence and death only to be exposed
to exploitation upon arrival. This victims story exemplies the dangers to which
many African victims are exposed on their way to the promised land.
15
(IL)LEGAL MIGRATION
Trafcking and smuggling, while different, are in fact intricately intertwined.
Migrants may depart their own country legally or illegally and enter the desti-
nation country as legal or illegal migrants. The legal status of departure and
entry into the destination country may determine whether an individual travels
independently or uses the services of a smuggler/trafcker. An individual may
depart his or her country with a passport and necessary visa to enter the desti-
nation country to visit family members, work, or study. When the visa expires
and the individual chooses to remain in the destination country, he then
Case 1.1. The Story of a Nigerian Woman
A 25-year-old female victim of human trafcking was attracted by the offer to travel
abroad because she was from a polygamous family where there was much poverty and
suffering. The trip began in 2000. After having been informed that she and the others
in her group would travel by air to Italy, she joined ve others to leave Nigeria
through Kano in the north. From Kano, the group entered the Niger Republic and trav-
eled to Zinde and Tamaraset where they spent 10 days in the Sahara desert ; for three
of those days, there was no food or water to eat or drink. The group spent a month
and half at Tamaraset. From there they proceeded to Regan, Gadaya, and Oran, and
eventually arrived in Algeria where they were joined by more Nigerian girls who had
arrived there earlier. Together they spent another month waiting. During the trip,
which was undertaken by land through North Africa, many in their entourage died in
the desert. The group trekked for seven days to get to Morocco from Algeria.
The victim was exposed to violence and death throughout her trip. She reported
nearly being shot dead. While in Algeria, a security operative shot at the group and the
bullet grazed her body. It hit a pregnant woman who was severely injured and had to be
rushed to an Algerian hospital for treatment. While trying to avoid being arrested by the
Moroccan police, one of the boys in the group was crushed to death while attempting
to jump onto a moving train, while another member of the group lost a leg while trying to
jump from a moving train. At a certain stage during the journey, the group had to travel
by water and another Nigerian boy drowned.
16
When the group reached a place called
Regan, another companion died, and a female member of the group who became pregnant
attempted to abort her pregnancy and died in the process. During this part of the journey,
35 people were packed like sardines inside a jeep. One of the girls was stabbed with scis-
sors over a small disagreement, and she also died. Furthermore, a quarrel between the
heads of the Yoruba and Ibo trafcking gangs resulted in the latter being stabbed to death.
According to the victim, although only six of the young women left Nigeria
together, the group swelled to 106 when they got to Morocco. Out of 106 of the group
who set out for the journey from Algeria, only about 100 made it to Spain.
The victim spent two months in Madrid and later proceeded to Italy in 2002. When
eventually she arrived in Italy with the expectation that she would get a decent job, she
was handed over to a woman, forced into prostitution, and told by the madam that
she had to refund the sum of $35,000 which was purportedly spent to get her into Italy.
Eight months after having arrived in Italy, she was arrested by a security patrol
team while she was on her way to buy something from a nearby shop. By then she
had already reimbursed $25,000 of the debt imposed on her before she was arrested
and deported to Nigeria on September 19, 2002.
becomes an illegal alien. A person may depart his or her country with the
necessary legal documents, destroy these while on board an airline, and seek
asylum in the destination country (legal departure, illegal entry). A person
departing his or her country of origin illegally (without papers or with forged
or illegal documents) often uses the service of a smuggler or trafcker to (ille-
gally) enter the destination country. The illegal status can change if the person
applies for and is granted asylum. Any time the status of a person in the desti-
nation country is that of an illegal, the person is in danger of being
exploited. Table 1.1 shows the status of persons upon departing their country
of origin and entering into or remaining in the destination country.
Migrants may enter a country legally or illegally and may have control over
their own lives. Table 1.1 shows that once people reside illegally in a country,
they are at risk of exploitation. The smuggled person or illegal migrant, however,
exercises enough autonomy to leave and seek out a less exploitive situation. The
trafcked victim remains exploited until their debt has been paid off (in some
cases, this never occurs), or until he or she escapes, is rescued, or dies.
THE MIGRATION-SMUGGLING-TRAFFICKING NEXUS
Both smuggling and trafcking are forms of irregular migration. Although
they differ, they do share some common elements. Both smuggled and
Table 1.1 Status of Departure from Source and Residence in Destination Country
Entry into Destination Country
Legal Illegal
Departure
from Country
of Origin
Legal All papers are legitimate; if
legal status expires, immigra-
tion violation; if seeking
work in shadow economy
there is risk of exploitation
Legal papers destroyed prior
to entry; may seek asylum;
exit legal but may attempt to
enter country illegally; if
seeking work in the shadow
economy there is risk of
exploitation
Illegal Departure from source coun-
try without papers; forged
papers obtained in transit
country; is granted legal
entry to country (albeit with
illegal papers); legal status
in destination country (until
forgery uncovered); may
obtain legal employment
Risk of trafcking or exploi-
tation; may be granted asy-
lum or special permission to
reside legally in destination
country
Source: Aronowitz (2003a).
trafcked individuals often leave a country of origin willingly. Additionally,
because their status in the country of destination is that of an illegal alien,
both smuggled and trafcked persons are at risk of being exploited. When
migrants voluntarily use the services of smugglers only to nd themselves in
coercive situations, they have then become trafcked victims. Where initial
consent is invalidated through the use of deception or coercion, a voluntary
trip on the part of the migrant, who may in fact have sought out the services
of the smuggler, is easily transformed into a situation of trafcking.
17
Even if the entire sum of money is paid in full prior to departure, this
does not guarantee that a person will not be trafcked and exploited. In a
study conducted under the supervision of the United Nations Interregional
Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) in the Philippines, two men
paid the entire sum of their journey prior to departure, having been promised
work in a factory making paper bags. Upon arrival in Malaysia, they were
sold to a plantation owner, imprisoned on the premises, and their salary was
withheld.
18
The most important difference between trafcked victims and
smuggled persons is that smuggled persons, even if they are living and work-
ing under exploitive conditions, are free to leave and look for better opportu-
nities. Trafcked victims are not so fortunate. They are at the mercy of those
to whom they must repay a debt or to those who have seized their documenta-
tion or are threatening to harm their families back home.
Other differences between trafcked victims and smuggled persons are their
legal status in the country of destination once they have come to the attention
of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) or enforcement agencies. Trafcked
persons are (or should be considered) victims and entitled in many countries to
special protection. Illegal migrants, unless they are granted asylum, are consid-
ered violators of immigration law and subject to arrest and deportation. Table
1.2 claries the differences between trafcked and smuggled persons.
Internal and Transborder Trafcking
Internal trafcking occurs as well, and possibly to an even greater extent in
many countries, than transnational trafcking. It is the subsequent exploitation,
and not the crossing of international borders, that denes trafcking of human
beings. When trafcking is international, only cooperation between source,
transit, and destination countries will ensure success in eradicating the problem.
Some studies have attempted to generate estimates on the degree to which
trafcking is a domestic rather than an international problem. In a study by
Free the Slaves on child trafcking in Northern India, the organization reports
that [t]he U.S. State Department estimates that 200,000 people are trafcked
into, within or through India annually. Within this gure, it is believed that
only 10% of human trafcking in India is international, while almost 90% is
inter-state.
19
The problem of internal trafcking is also recognized in India
and many West African countries in which children and young women are
trafcked for forced labor and prostitution. Internal trafcking of children is
documented in a United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) report on child
trafcking. The Innocenti Research Centre reports that [k]nowledge of cross-
border trafcking in Africa is signicantly higher than that concerning move-
ments within countries.
20
Research in the Netherlands has identied a pattern of internal trafcking
whereby young Dutch girls, usually teenagers, are courted by older men.
The young woman is showered with gifts and after having fallen in love,
her boyfriend then announces to her that he needs money. The loverboy
convinces the young woman to have sex with other men to help him nan-
cially. After having won her over, the loverboy will use psychological and
emotional inuence, threats, intimidation, blackmail, and violence to manipu-
late and control his victim. While this loverboy technique is used to recruit
Dutch teenagers into prostitution in the Netherlands,
21
it is a technique also
used by men to lure girls and young women from their homes into prostitution
in other countries. The IOM in Tirana, Albania, explained that one of the
most successful recruitment patterns was for men to date young women in
Table 1.2 Differences between Human Trafficking and Smuggling
Trafcking Smuggling
Force is used or consent is obtained
through fraud, deception, or coercion
(actual, perceived, or implied), unless
under 18 years of age; the person being
trafcked may or may not cooperate
The person being smuggled generally
cooperates and consents to the smuggling
Forced labor and/or exploitation There is generally no actual or implied
coercion*
Persons trafcked are victims Persons smuggled are violating the law;
by law they are not victims
Enslaved, subjected to limited move-
ment or isolation, documents may have
been conscated
Persons are free to leave, change jobs, etc.
Need not involve the actual or physical
movement of the victim
Facilitates the illegal entry of person(s)
from one country into another
No requirement to cross an international
border; trafcking can occur within a
country
Smuggling always crosses an international
border
Persons are exploited in labor/services
or commercial sex acts, i.e., must be
working
Person must be attempting illegal entry or
only be in country illegally
Note: *Smuggled persons may be subject to coercion or force during the transportation phase but
not upon entry into the destination country and not by the persons who facilitated their journey.
Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of State (2006b).
small villages, offer to marry them and bring them to a beautiful home in
Italy as a new young bride. Instead, the women were subjected to extreme
violence and forced into prostitution upon their arrival in Italy.
22
TRAFFICKING AS A PROCESS
The trafcking of human beings can be viewed as a process rather than a single
offense. The rst stage involves the abduction or recruitment of a person fol-
lowed by the transportation and entry of the individual into another country (in
the case of transborder trafcking). The third phase is the exploitation phase
during which the victim is forced into sexual or labor servitude. An additional
phase may occur, one which involves the offender and is common to any large-
scale criminal organization: the laundering of criminal proceeds. In studying
trafcking from a law enforcement perspective, there may be further links to
other criminal offenses, such as the smuggling of weapons or drugs.
23
During the trafcking process, a number of crimes can be committed.
According to Europol (the European Law Enforcement Organization), some of
these are instrumental criminal activities that are perpetrated in direct further-
ance of the trafcking activity.
24
Examples of these crimes are corruption of
government ofcials, forced prostitution, and violence associated with main-
taining control over victims. Other crimes, such as money laundering and tax
evasion, are secondary, and occur as a result of the trafcking activity.
As the trafcking process moves along through each of its phases, differ-
ent crimes are linked to that particular phase. To further rene our understand-
ing of trafcking, it is necessary to understand the victim against whom the
crime is being perpetratedthat is, the individual victim or the State. The
organization of the trafcking operation and sophistication of the criminal
groups involved therein will determine the number and types of offenses per-
petrated. The operations can be as simple as the smuggling and subsequent
trafcking of a single victim by an individual over a border without proper
documentation by vehicle or foot, to highly sophisticated operations moving
large numbers of persons, using forged documents, corrupting government
ofcials, and generating huge prots that subsequently must be laundered.
Crimes perpetrated against individual victims during the trafcking proc-
ess include threats, extortion, theft of documents or property, false imprison-
ment, aggravated or sexual assault, pimping, rape, and even death. Offenses
against the State include abuse of immigration laws, document forgery, cor-
ruption of government ofcials, money laundering, and tax evasion.
25
It can
be questioned whether or not the State can be viewed as a victim. The unre-
strained inux of persons entering a country illegally may result in an increase
in vice or criminal activities. Corruption of its government ofcials leads to
the moral and legal deterioration of a government, possibly leading to addi-
tional criminal activities on the part of corrupt ofcials.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the trafcking process and the various offenses per-
petrated during different phases, while indicating whether the victim is the
individual who has been trafcked or the state itself, or both.
The trafcking phases remain the same for all victims. Barring a kidnap-
ping, violence is seldom perpetrated against the victim during the recruitment
phase. Victims are generally recruited through promises of an education, a
good job, or marriage. During the transportation phase, victims of domestic
trafcking will be held in the same city or village or will be moved within
their country. Victims of international trafcking will be transported across
borders, increasing the possibility that forged documents or corruption of gov-
ernment ofcials is necessary to facilitate the activity. Violence may be used
during the transportation phase to maintain control over the victims. It is gen-
erally not until the arrival at the destination (the exploitation phase) that the
trafcker begins the reign of terror against the victim.
Studies carried out by UNICRI in Nigeria and the Philippines show
two completely different trafcking practices. The majority of victims traf-
cked from the Philippines traveled by air and arrived at their destination
within a few hours. During the transport phase, victims were sometimes
housed in (luxury) hotels. Their exploitation began only after arrival in the
destination country.
26
The picture that emerges from Nigeria is completely
different. In a study of Nigerian women and young girls trafcked to Italy,
the author reports that
The sexual exploitation of victims starts from Nigeria, especially in Lagos where
trafckers keep victims for up to two weeks. Some of the victims are raped by
trafckers and groomed or taught how to service male clients before they com-
mence their journey abroad. Along the routes, especially when victims travel by
land, victims are also sexually exploited, some of the victims end up becoming
Figure 1.1 Trafficking in Human Beings as a Process and Other Related Crimes
Recruitment
Transportation
and Entry Exploitation Criminal Proceeds
* Fraudulent promises * Assault * Unlawful coercion Money laundering
* Kidnapping * False imprisonment * Threat Tax evasion
Document forgery * Rape * Extortion Corruption of government
officials *Forced prostitution *Forced prostitution
Corruption of government * False imprisonment
officials * Theft of documents
Document forgery * Sexual assault
Abuse of immigration laws * Aggravated assault
* Rape
* Manslaughter or murder
Corruption of government
officials
Note: *Italics indicate offences perpetrated against the individual victims.
Source: Adapted from Aronowitz (2003a, 29).
pregnant (one of the victims interviewed was two months pregnant by the time
she arrived in Italy). Many victims have to engage in prostitution during the jour-
ney to survive. The survey team was told the story of a Nigerian victim who
delivered twins along the route, after spending nearly a year on the road. She
lost her life when their boat capsized as they were trying to cross from Morocco
to Spain.
27
A classic case of trafcking involves people working together from the rst
phase of recruitment to the last phase of exploitation. A woman approaches a
person whom she hopes will smuggle her abroad, or is approached by someone
who promises her a well-paying job in a restaurant. The trafcker either smug-
gles the young woman and forces her into prostitution or hands her over to
someone else who facilitates her illegal entry into the destination country. At
that point, the young woman is sold to a brothel owner who forces her into pros-
titution and, after having made a prot, may sell her to another brothel owner.
The concept of trafcking recognizes the process to which the victim has been
subjected as more than the sum of its parts (deception, abduction, false impris-
onment, assault, rape, slavery-like employment practices, etc.), it allows us to
identify the man who befriended and betrayed the girl, and all those who
colluded with him along the way, as fully implicated in her abuse.
28
PUSH AND PULL FACTORS
Migration, whether legal or illegal, is driven by push and pull factors.
The reasons why people leave their country of origin (push factors) either
through legitimate or illicit channels are the same. Countries of origin are tra-
ditionally developing nations or those in a state of transition. Migration takes
place from rural to municipal areas, from poorer to wealthier, more stable
countries.
Push factors include the following:
29
Inadequate employment opportunities, combined with poor living condi-
tions, a lack of basic education and poor health services;
Political and economic insecurity, which may be caused by mismanage-
ment, nepotism or political corruption, conict, environmental disaster, or
structural adjustment policies resulting in the rising cost of living, in
higher unemployment. and a lack of public services;
Discrimination (ethnic, gender, or caste) excluding certain persons from
the employment sector; and
Dissolution of the family (possibly as the result of sickness, HIV/AIDS,
the death of one or both parents) which may compel the remaining family
member(s) to migrate or send children away to work and help support
the family.
The pull of promises of a better future is powerful. The following have
been identied as pull factors:
30
Increased ease of travel (cheaper and faster travel opportunities, easier
access to passports);
Higher salaries and standard of living in larger cities and countries abroad
(greater possibilities for acquiring new skills and education, increased job
opportunity, and mobility);
Established migration routes and ethnic, national communities in destina-
tion countries;
Active demand for migrant workers in destination countries combined with
the existence of recruitment agencies and persons willing to facilitate jobs
and travel ; and
High expectations of opportunities in other countries boosted by global
media and Internet access, and stories of returning migrants or those
whose families have proted from the remittances.
The root causes of migrationboth licit and illicitlay in the unstable
political, social, and economic conditions in countries or origin. Other causes
include rapid growth of the population, high unemployment, abject poverty,
internal conicts resulting in civil disorder and widespread violence, unstable
or oppressive political regimes, and grave violations of human rights.
31
Economic crises have fueled migration from Russia, Central and Eastern
Europe, and Asia. Regional conicts were the cause of migration from areas
such as Kosovo, the former Yugoslavia, the Congo, Darfur, and Sudan. Politi-
cal and religious persecution is the push factor from nations such as China
*
and Russia.
32
Since the beginning of the war in 2003 and the resulting politi-
cal instability and insecurity in Iraq, the United Nations estimates that 2 mil-
lion people have ed the country. Over 20,000 Iraqis have entered Sweden,
many on forged European passports purchased in Istanbul.
33
Technological and communications advances, as well as open borders that
facilitate the ow of goods also facilitate the ow of people. Closed borders
may exacerbate illegal migration, which in turn may facilitate trafcking.
In an exploratory test of a theory of global trafcking, an expert on slavery
and human trafcking compiled a number of factors to empirically test which
variables are signicant predictors of trafcking from (the push factors) and to
(the pull factors) a country. The research identied the following push predic-
tors, rank ordered, from a country: (1) government corruption, (2) high infant
mortality, (3) a very young population, (4) low food production (an indication of
poverty), and (5) conict and social unrest.
34
The pull factors predicting trafcking to a country were less conclu-
sive. The permeability of the countrys border is a strong indicator of a pull
*China and the Peoples Republic of China will be used interchangeably throughout the text.
factor, and this may be related to government corruption, particularly within
border control or immigration agencies. Other factors, rank ordered, predicting
the pull of a country were as follows: (1) the male population over the age
of 60, (2) (low) governmental corruption, (3) food production, (4) energy
consumption, and (5) (low) infant mortality, all of which are indicators of
economic well-being of the destination country.
35
LINK BETWEEN SENDING AND RECEIVING COUNTRY
A link can sometimes be found between sending and receiving countries.
These links are inuenced by a number of factors, such as the trafckers use
of the local knowledge, key locations, and weaknesses in border or migration
control
36
or the ease in crossing borders.
37
This link is apparent in child traf-
cking in many West African nations. Tribal ties are much stronger than
national allegiance. A common language and tribal history (the Yoruba tribe
can be found on both sides of the Nigeria-Benin border); the long, unguarded
border; and the rural setting of these nations facilitate the trafcking of Beni-
nese children into Nigerian rock quarries. Other determining factors are the
presence and tolerance of an extensive sex industry, historical and colonial links
between countries,
38
and the existence of a large immigrant population. With
respect to Nigeria, destination countries appear to be linked to the recruiting
and sending state within Nigeria and are divided up by Nigerian ethnic groups.
According to an Interpol ofcer interviewed in a United Nations study, [w]hile
Edo State citizens monopolize the Schengen states, especially Italy, Spain and
the Netherlands, the Yorubas and the Ibos dominate the United Kingdom and
the U.S.A. Northern women dominate the Saudi Arabia route.
39
CONCLUDING REMARKS
This chapter has dened trafcking and has examined a number of issues cen-
tral to the problemthat of consent, violence, and fraud, as well as push and
pull factors. The misconception that trafcking involves the crossing of
international borders was discussed, as well as the use that trafckers make
of local migrant communities in various countries in which they trafc
their victims.
There is often confusion between smuggled persons and trafcked vic-
tims. Trafcking and smuggling, while clearly different crimes, are closely
related. A person who thinks he or she is paying for safe passage and illegal
entry into a country may be tricked into paying off a huge debt and forced
into exploitive labor conditions. Alternatively, a person who is being traf-
cked rst may be smuggled into a country before being forced to work under
exploitive conditions. With the growth of regional alliances (the European
Union, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations) and relaxed visa require-
ments, it is becoming easier for persons to legally enter a destination country.
These individuals still may be trafcked and exploited after having entered a
country through legitimate means.
The next chapter will examine what we know about the prevalence of
trafcking and the number of persons subjected to this modern-day slavery.
2
Human Trafcking: How Serious
Is the Problem?
IT IS UNDISPUTED that trafcking of persons is a serious problem, but just how
serious is it ? This section examines what we know, and why what we know
may not portray the true numbers. Drawing on research and data obtained
from organizations ranging from ofcial government bodies to nongovernmen-
tal and international organizations, the following review presents what is
known about the magnitude of human trafcking. Numbers of human trafck-
ing victims are notoriously inaccurate and estimates may range to a high
10 times that of the minimum.
DIFFICULTY IN MEASURING THE PROBLEM
1
Because of its clandestine nature and the hidden economies in which traf-
cked victims are forced to work, accurate statistics on the magnitude of the
problem are elusive and available statistics are notoriously unreliable. A num-
ber of reports have documented the difculty in obtaining accurate statistics
on the number of trafcked victims. In a report on sex trafcking in Central
America and the Caribbean carried out by the International Human Rights
Law Institute, the report states that,
In view of the clandestine and criminal nature of the phenomenon, the inadequate
monitoring by law enforcement agencies, and public confusion about the nature
of the problem, accurate quantitative data on the trafcking for sexual exploitation
was impossible to obtain. In fact, available quantitative data was purely specula-
tive and based on extrapolations.
2
The absence of trafcking legislation, or legislation dening human trafcking
only in terms of sexual exploitation, or the failure to include internal trafcking of
their own citizens under human trafcking violations, further adds to the confu-
sion in trying to compile accurate trafcking statistics.
3
Where good legislation is
in place, the lack of political will, inexperience in conducting investigations and
prosecutions, and corrupt practices contribute to minimal successes in the identi-
cation of victims and the arrest and prosecution of trafckers.
4
Compounding the problem in obtaining reliable statistics is the fact that
victims rarely report their victimization and often are unwilling to cooperate
with law enforcement ofcials if identied and rescued. This is due to a num-
ber of reasons. Fear of reprisal from trafckers, lack of trust in the authorities,
the belief that the authorities cannot or will not help, rejection by their fami-
lies, and lack of opportunities in their home countries cause many women to
refuse to cooperate with authorities in destination countries. Victims may not
see themselves as being exploited, particularly if they are in love with their
trafcker/pimp or, in spite of exploitation, if they are earning more than they
could in their own country.
5
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), international agencies, and gov-
ernments provide different kind of data, which often are not comparable.
6
This means that the police may record presumed trafcked victims based
on the number of rescues of those found working in bars, brothels, massage
parlors, farms, factories, or as domestic servants. Immigration ofcials may
register cases of trafcking based on interceptionsthe number of persons
caught trying to leave or enter a country illegally (either without proper docu-
mentation or with fraudulent papers). NGOs, international organizations, and
embassies often count trafcked persons based on the number of persons to
whom they have provided assistance or who have been repatriated.
7
MAGNITUDE OF THE PROBLEM
Trafcking statistics provided by organizations on the number of trafcked
victims are either estimates of trafcking in the country or region, or are made
up of statistics based on what is known by governments, NGOs, and interna-
tional organizations. Estimates vary widely and the methodology used to
arrive at these gures is not always explained. The following sections provide
estimates on human trafcking and illustrate the difference between estimates
and actual numbers.
Estimates of Trafcking
The U.S. Department of State estimates that between around 800,000 children,
women, and men are trafcked across international borders each year
8
(some
NGOs and international organizations place the number far higher). Other esti-
mates range from 4 to 27 million, and [e]stimates that include global intra-
country trafcking in persons range from two to four million.
9
Within the United States, gures are much smaller. The U.S. State Depart-
ment calculated that between 14,500 and 17,500 trafcked victims enter the
United States each year.
10
This gure is down from the estimate of 45,000 to
50,000, which included women and children alone, in the year 2000. This reduc-
tion in the number of estimated victims in the United States has been attributed
to the U.S. governments improvement in the methodology used to calculate the
ow of trafcking victimsnot to a reduction in the actual number of victims.
The methodology used to calculate the gures is not explained.
11
In a study on labor exploitation in the United States, 131 incidents of traf-
cking for forced labor between January 1998 and December 2003 were iden-
tied. The number of victims involved was reported in 105 of the cases. A
total of 19,254 victims were identied. The study goes on to report that
experts interviewed revealed that individuals kept in forced labor are held on
average for a period of two to ve years, suggesting that 10,000 or more indi-
viduals are held in forced labor in the United States at any given time.
12
The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that the mini-
mum number of persons in forced labor at a given time as a result of trafck-
ing is 2.45 million.
13
This gure represents only 20 percent of the estimated
total number of persons in forced labor worldwide.
14
There are large geo-
graphic differences between regions, with Asia and the Pacic accounting for
more than half of the total gure (1.36 million trafcked persons in forced
labor). Additionally, in Asia, Latin America, and Sub-Saharan Africa the pro-
portion of trafcked victims is below 20 percent of total forced labor, while
in industrial and transition countries, as well as in North Africa and the Mid-
dle East, trafcking accounts for 75 percent of the forced labor. In other areas,
namely, in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, trafcking is the
main avenue into forced labor. Table 2.1 presents the regional distribution of
trafcked forced laborers.
The United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) maintains a Trafcking Statistics Project, which attempts to ascer-
tain the methodology used by other sources to calculate their trafcking statis-
tics with the aim of evaluating their validity.
15
UNESCO provides a data
comparison sheet on worldwide trafcking estimates by organizations.
16
The
gures vary by year and organization and, in some cases, estimate the total
number of persons or disaggregate the data into specic groups (children,
Table 2.1 Number of People in Forced Labor as a Result of Trafficking
Region People Trafcked
Asia and the Pacic 1,360,000
Industrial Countries 270,000
Latin America and the Caribbean 250,000
Middle East and North Africa 230,000
Transition Countries 200,000
Sub-Saharan Africa 130,000
World 2,450,000
Source: ILO (2005, table 1.2, 14).
HUMAN TRAFFICKING: HOW SERIOUS IS THE PROBLEM? 17
women, or women and children). Estimates for persons trafcked appear to
range from a low of around 2 million to a high of 4 million.
Estimates versus Actual Numbers
Huge discrepancies exist between the number of actual victims identied and
estimates projected by government agencies. This was made clear in a paper
presented at a United Nations workshop on trafcking in human beings.
17
Estimates placed the number of trafcked women and children in the United
States at 45,00050,000, while the number of documented cases was 38
involving 5,500 women for the year 19992000. Both the Netherlands and
Belgium estimated between 1,000 and 3,000 victims, while the number of
documented cases was 287 in the Netherlands in 1999, and 270 in Belgium in
the year 2000.
18
Germany estimated the annual number of victims at 2,000 to
20,000; in the year 2000, 926 victims were registered.
19
According to the
Joint Committee on Human Rights in its report to the British Parliament, the
U.K. Home Ofce estimates 4,000 victims of trafcking for prostitution annu-
ally. At the same time, the Committee states,
Referrals from the Poppy Project in some ways provide the most reliable gures
on the numbers of identied victims of trafcking for prostitution in the UK,
since they relate to the actual women who have been encountered. Between
March 2003 and May 2006, 489 referrals were made to the scheme.
20
The Dutch National Rapporteur on Trafcking in Human Beings estimates
that only 5 percent of victims report their victimization or come to the attention
of government authorities.
21
In a study of the magnitude of trafcking in the
United Kingdom, the researchers, based on 71 known cases, extrapolate the
actual gure at between 142 and 1,420 cases annually.
22
In a report for the Inter-
national Organization for Migration (IOM) on the trafcking of women and chil-
dren from the Russian Federation, the author states, [t]he number of women
and children who have become victims is unknown, but it is estimated to be in
the tens-of-thousands and possibly the hundreds-of-thousands.
23
In general, the
proportion of the number of identied victims out of the estimated totals varies
considerably between countries, but is somewhere between 5 and 10 percent.
24
There are a number of criticisms of trafcking estimates. First, the meth-
odology for computing the estimates is rarely given. Reports also often fail to
indicate whether estimates are annual gures or cover a period of several
years.
25
Furthermore, the ranges are often wide with a high of 10 times that
of the low estimate.
There is a danger is using estimates, particularly when it is unclear how
an organization arrived at the gure. According to UNESCO,
Numbers take on a life of their own, gaining acceptance through repetition, often
with little inquiry into their derivations. Journalists, bowing to the pressures of
editors, demand numbers, any number. Organizations feel compelled to supply
them, lending false precisions and spurious authority to many reports.
26
To support this argument, UNESCO reported that the widely cited gure
of 5,0007,000 Nepalese girls trafcked each year to India rst appeared in
1986, and that this was the gure most often quoted until one organization felt
it grossly underestimated the problem. One NGO changed the gure to 5000
to 7000 Nepalese girls are trafcked to India every day.
27
Overstating the Problem
It is not uncommon for countries to combine statistics on illegal migration,
smuggling, migrant sex workers, and trafcking. Statistics collected by police
and immigration ofcials often are not segregated by age or gender.
28
Even
when they are separated, it may be difcult to determine whether individuals
stopped at a border are being smuggled (in or out of the country) or are being
trafcked.
29
Statistics on repatriationsthose deported from a country and
sent back to their country of originoften include illegal migrants (and possi-
ble trafckers) as well as trafcked victims. The Nigeria Immigration Service
for the years 20022004 reported 31,277 repatriations (data disaggregated by
gender and adults/children).
30
Many of those repatriated were returned from
countries known as destination countries for trafcked Nigerian women and
children, but it is still impossible, barring the children, to determine the status
of those returning to Nigeria. This confusion between illegal migrants and
trafcked victims and their inclusion into a single group can increase the
number of potential victims.
This problem was documented by the European Commission in a study
conducted in 2001 to determine the scale of the problem of child trafcking
into the European Union. The United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF)
reported that during the period 1999 to 2000, a total of 33,402 unaccompanied
minors came to the attention of authorities. This group included child asylum
seekers, minors who had entered the country illegally, as well as a number
who were within the protection system of one of the member states. A per-
centage of these children could have been trafcked, but it is impossible to
determine what percentage of those children would have ended up as
exploited trafcked victims.
31
In the Netherlands, 716 unaccompanied minors who had applied for asy-
lum disappeared from reception centers in 2004, almost double the number of
children who disappeared from centers in 2003. The independent National
Rapporteur on Trafcking in Human Beings believes that some of these chil-
dren are trafcked through or into the Netherlands and are being exploited in
prostitution, as domestic servants, in restaurants, or as drug couriers or thieves
forced to work for criminal organizations.
32
It is unclear how many of these
children are victims of trafcking.
Understating the Problem
The IOM maintains impeccable statistics on the number of trafcked victims
it assists in returning home. While these statistics provide an accurate picture
of the number of victims assisted by the organization, statistics measuring the
number of victims rescued or repatriated reect only the tip of the iceberg.
IOM statistics and those generated by NGOs often report only those who seek
help and thus underrepresent the true nature of the problem.
A study of trafcking in Southeastern Europe sponsored by UNICEF, the
United Nations Ofce for the High Commission on Human Rights
(UNOHCHR), and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE), highlights the disparity between the number of possible trafcked
victims identied during police raids on bars and nightclubs, and those who
agree to accept repatriation assistance from the IOM. The number of girls and
women referred to the IOM by the International Police Task Force (IPTF)
reects a small percentage of suspected victims found during police raids.
For example, according to weekly security situation reports from the United Nations
Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH) for November 2001, the local police
and IPTF raided 10 bars and nightclubs, where they found 39 foreign women, of
whom only eight requested assistance from IPTF. Moreover, in one week 18-24 Feb-
ruary 2002, four bars were raided and 48 women found, out of whom only two
requested assistance.
33
It is impossible to determine whether any of those women identied in
the raids but who refused assistance were trafcked victims too frightened to
seek help, and if so, how many. Clearly, however, counting victims who
accept assistance and who are repatriated does not accurately identify the
number of trafcked victims.
Registrations of Trafcked Victims
If we turn our attention away from estimates to the actual number of known
cases or victims, these gures are surprisingly and disturbing small. It is pos-
sible to examine the number of victims actually identied by organizations
providing services to trafcked victims (IOM, ILO, UNICEF, Save the Chil-
dren, Terre des Hommes, or the myriad of local NGOs involved in victim
assistance), to (potential) victims identied by law enforcement agencies or to
governments providing legal residency status to trafcked victims.
In the period between 2001 and 2007, the U.S. Ofce of Refugee Reset-
tlement certied only 1,379 (131 minor and 1248 adult) trafcked victims,
providing even fewer with a T-visa.
34
The German Federal Criminal Police
identied 689 victims in 2007.
35
This is a sharp decrease from a high of
1,235 in 2003.
36
The United Kingdom identied and referred for services only
489 women between March 2003 and May 2006.
The Dutch National Rapporteur On Trafcking in Human Beings, in its
fourth report, identies two sources of data on trafcked victims in the Neth-
erlands. The Dutch police victim tracking system (slachtoffervolgsysteem)
IKP-S identied 153 possible victims in 2003 (371 in 2002). At the same
time, the NGO Foundation against Trafcking in Women (Stichting Tegen
Vrouwenhandel) registered 257 (potential) trafcked victims (2003), a decline
from 343 in 2002.
37
CONCLUDING REMARKS
An accurate picture of the trafcking problem continues to elude us. Numbers
range from estimates of trafcked victims to actual numbers of those identi-
ed who have sought help from the police and organizations providing assis-
tance. Governmental and international organizations such as the U.S.
Department of State and the United Nations continue to publish and revise
estimates of the number of trafcked victims without providing information
on how these estimates are reached. The ILO is attempting to provide esti-
mates of worldwide labor exploitation and trafcking while providing infor-
mation on the methodology used to reach those estimates.
There is a huge disparity between estimates and the actual number of traf-
cked victims who are identied as such. In spite of the fact that the numbers
of victims registered by police and NGOs are smallparticularly in compari-
son to estimateseach number represents a victim with a personal tragic
story. Some of these stories will be told in the following chapters when atten-
tion is focused on trafcked victims and patterns of trafcking.
The next chapter places human trafcking within a number of contrasting
perspectives to better understand how the problem of trafcking should be
viewed and solved. This is important because it provides the basis for govern-
ment and civil society best practices in response to the problema topic
addressed in the closing chapter.
3
Contrasting Perspectives on Human Trafcking
TRAFFICKING CAN BE examined and understood from a number of different
perspectives. It may be studied within the framework of the globalization,
migration, and labor literature. Trafcking also can be studied from a law
enforcement and criminal justice perspective focusing on the role of govern-
ments in preventing and punishing the trade, or from a human rights perspec-
tive, in which the victim takes the center stage. This chapter will briey
outline the different perspectives to provide a more comprehensive under-
standing of the phenomenon, particularly the implications of viewing trafck-
ing as a unique form of slavery.
TRAFFICKING AS A MIGRATION ISSUE
Human trafcking often occurs within the context of migrationwhether it is
internal migration from rural to metropolitan areas within a country, or exter-
nal migration from developing and countries in transition to more industrial
nations. As discussed in chapter 1, both documented and undocumented immi-
grants are at risk of becoming victims of trafcking and being exploited.
Irregular migrants are most at risk of being subjected to forced labor and
exploitation, but regular migrants are also routinely denied both their human
and labor rights.
1
The dimensions of the crime cannot be accurately measured, but it is a
fact that in the United States, and based on U.S. government statistics, traf-
cking is a crime most often perpetrated against undocumented migrants.
Women and children account for a great proportion of undocumented immi-
grants to the United States and thus are particularly vulnerable to trafcking.
High U.S. labor demand, limited country quotas, and the prioritization of fam-
ily reunication over employment-based immigration make many migrants
from less developed countries ineligible for legal entry into the United States.
Immigrants trying to enter Fortress Europe from Africa meet similar
obstacles. Faced with increased border patrols and heightened security at U.S.
and European ports of entry, illegal migrants increasingly rely on smugglers
to enter the United States and Europe. It is these same smugglers who are
uniquely positioned to engage in both labor and sexual exploitation.
2
TRAFFICKING AS A DEVELOPMENT ISSUE
Those who fall prey to human trafcking tend to be the most vulnerable
usually the socially deprived characterized by low income, poor education,
and lack of employment. These are typically circumstances of the pooreven
though available data shows that it is not necessarily the poorest people in a
country who are trafcked. Research, however, shows that many of the vic-
tims assisted by international organizations and NGOs invariably come from
some of the most poverty-stricken countries (for example, Bangladesh, Mali,
Moldova, and Nepal).
3
Extensive research has been undertaken and victim support provided in
Southeast Europe. There it is shown that trafcked victims come from the
poorer countries of the regionAlbania, Bulgaria, Moldova, and Romania.
Albania and Moldova are the poorest in the region and are also primary
source countries for trafcked persons.
4
In South Asia, Bangladesh and Nepal
(two of the regions most poverty-stricken countries) are the major source
countries.
5
Poverty is seen as the key factor in human trafcking in West and
Central Africa and for rural trafcking in China.
6
SMUGGLING AND TRAFFICKING AS AN ILLEGAL MARKET
Trafcking is a form of economic activity. Migration, smuggling, and trafck-
ing can be seen as forms of business in which participating institutions aim to
make a prot. Trafcking could be viewed as a by-product of migration, from
which organizations prot from peoples mobility. Researchers have argued
that trafcking should be studied as a business that acts as the middleman
in the global movement between origin and destination countries. Thus, traf-
cking networks can be viewed as business organizations.
7
Smuggling and trafcking in migrants could not have grown to such pro-
portions if it were not supported by powerful market forces. The increased
demand for migrant labor coupled with stricter entry controls or requirements
and diminishing legal channels to enter destination countries creates opportu-
nities for unscrupulous offenders to make money while at the same time gen-
erates other illicit business opportunities involving the provision of fraudulent
documents, safe-houses, guided border crossings, and job brokering.
8
The crime industry involves the illicit exploitation of business opportuni-
ties and is dominated by supply organizations. Criminal organizations provide
illicit goods and services to markets where the prots are high.
9
Transnational
criminal organizations have become global players in industries such as drug
trafcking yielding prots higher than the gross national products of some
developing nations. What they share in common is their involvement in theft
or smuggling of both licit (for example, cigarettes or persons) and illicit
(drugs) products.
10
While lawful enterprises operate within legal parameters,
transnational criminal organizations circumvent these legal requirements
through deceit, threats, force, corruption, and other evasive tactics.
11
Smuggling usually involves short-term prot whereas trafcking usually
involves long-term exploitation for added economic gain.
12
The prot in
smuggling is generated possibly before departure and during the transportation
phase. In trafcking, the prot can be made before and during the transporta-
tion phase but is made, in particular, through the exploitation, sexual or other-
wise, of the trafcked victims upon their arrival in the destination country.
Smuggling and trafcking can be viewed as an illicit marketas the inter-
action between supply and demand. In countries of origin there are always those
who dream of a better life and the ability to support themselves and family
members back home. In the receiving countries, there is a demand for cheap sex
and labor. There is never a shortage of those who are willing to take risks to
satisfy their needs and full their dreams. A complex process links the supply
and demand sides of the market.
13
SUPPLY AND DEMAND
Trafcking, whether for sexual or labor exploitation, cannot be fully under-
stood without looking at the question of supply and demand. If we concentrate
on the demand side of the equation, demand has always existed for prostitu-
tion and workers in the commercial sex market. As wages increase in highly
developed nations, there is a growing demand for cheap labor; as societies
progress, there is the demand for cheap, unskilled laborthe agricultural sec-
tor, food processing, domestic service, home health care, and construction.
14
In a multicountry study of the demand side of human trafcking for com-
mercial sexual services and domestic labor, the authors found that demand for
such services was a socially, culturally and historically determined matter
intimately related to questions concerning supply and vulnerability supply
generates demand rather than the other way around.
15
The availability of a
service, they argue, generates demandwhether it is for live-in domestic
workers or lap-dance clubs. It has been argued that it is the market in traf-
cked women that creates the demandnot the customers. This is the ration-
ale that underlies the Swedish legislation outlawing the purchase of sexual
services holding that [i]t is the market that is the driving force. Demand is
dened by the services produced, not vice versa, which contradicts certain
popular traditional market theories.
16
Women are particularly vulnerable. They are in greater demand in many
countries, in various legitimate and illicit sectors. In demand countries, there
is a booming billion dollar commercial sex and entertainment industry. Wom-
ens exploitation in these industries is driven by the unequal power relations
that exist in patriarchal societies, power relations that sexualize women and
objectify them for consumption.
17
Prostitution and the sex market aside,
CONTRASTING PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN TRAFFICKING 25
women are in high demand, in particular, in the domestic, household and
care-providing (nursing) sectors. Other sectors for which there is a high
demand for female employees include the fast food, service, and low-wage
manufacturing sectors. Migration is often both easier and cheaper for women
than for men. Education and skill requirements are lower for women than for
men migrating to the Middle East from Indonesia or Bangladesh. Women pay
lower fees to migrate than do men, and they are in greater demand in the
Middle East as domestic servants.
18
GLOBALIZATION AND TRAFFICKING
Globalization, market liberalization, and privatization have created an increas-
ing need for cash incomes to purchase the most basic needs, including those
once provided by the state. Often this demand cannot be satised in the local
labor markets, obliging families to send family members out into the global
workplace. An increasingly global world, easily accessible through television
and the Internet, provides ready access to information about actual or potential
opportunities in large cities, neighboring countries or other destinations, such
as Australia, Canada, Europe, or the United States
19
Globalization has resulted in an unprecedented mobilization of unskilled
and low-skilled labor to ll labor-decit markets for domestic work, agricul-
ture, construction, and manufacturing. At an ever-increasing rate, migrant
workers from less developed countries in South and East Asia often ll short-
term labor contracts in more developed Asian, European, and Near Eastern
countries. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates the popula-
tion of migrant laborers to be 120 million. Countries receiving large numbers
of migrant workers include Saudi Arabia (7.5 million), the United Arab Emi-
rates (2.3 million), Malaysia (2.3 million), and Kuwait (1.3 million). Supply-
ing countries include the Philippines (7 million), Indonesia (3 million),
Bangladesh (3 million), and Sri Lanka (1.5 million). Migrant labor supports
the economies in both the sending and receiving countries, and is, in itself,
benecial. It can, however, easily lead to situations of abuse, trafcking, and
conditions paramount to slavery.
Globalization goes hand in hand with free trade and the ideology of
free markets accompanied by a decline in state intervention and regulation.
Those who advocate globalization argue that reducing international regula-
tions and trade barriers will increase investment, trade, and development. The
very conditions that promote a global environment, however, aid in the
expansion of crime. Crime groups have exploited the enormous decline in
regulations, the lessened border controls, and the resultant greater freedom, to
expand their activities across borders and to new regions of the world. These
contacts have become more frequent, and the speed at which they occur has
accelerated.
20
TRAFFICKING AS A CRIMINAL JUSTICE ISSUE
From the perspective of the receiving or destination countries, trafcking has
traditionally been seen as an illegal migration and security issue
21
often oper-
ated by criminal networks or organized criminal groups. From a criminal jus-
tice perspective, the focus on human trafcking is upon intelligence gathering,
dismantling criminal groups, and arresting and prosecuting trafckers.
Human trafcking seldom occurs in a vacuum. Criminal groups that traf-
c persons rely to a great extent on existing smuggling routes, border vulner-
abilities, and corrupt ofcials.
22
They may make use of the same persons to
supply forged documents and safe-houses. In complex trafcking operations
moving large numbers of persons through numerous cities and countries, [a]
major service industry has also developed to serve all forms of transnational
criminals. This includes providers of false documents, money launderers, and
even high-level professionals who provide legal, nancial, and accounting
services to groups.
23
The networks that trafc human beings as well as the victims themselves
have been linked to other criminal activities. Trafckers have not only forced
their victims into prostitution, a criminal offence in most countries, but also
have been known to coerce trafcked victims into taking, transporting, or sell-
ing drugs; into organized begging and pick pocketing; and to move rearms
and stolen vehicles.
24
Criminal enterprises make use of the skills, existing contacts, corrupt net-
works, and routes developed in specic markets in certain countries and
expand into other illicit markets. Trafckers exploit immigrant smuggling
operations to nd new victims.
25
According to intelligence sources at Interpol,
human trafcking supplements more traditional criminal activities such as
vehicle theft, trafcking in arms, and drug trafcking.
26
Albanian groups have
been linked to the smuggling of both drugs and aliens across the Adriatic,
while Asian crime groups use the same routes to smuggle aliens across
the U.S.-Canadian border that were formerly used to smuggle cigarettes. Traf-
ckers have been linked to the use of physical violence, extortion for protec-
tion money or loan sharking to victims who must repay their debts, and
money laundering.
27
TRAFFICKING AS A VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Trafcking can be viewed within the framework of historical human rights
issues. The exploitation and abuses of victims of trafcking have been
addressed by various United Nations and ILO conventions long before the
U.N. Trafcking Protocol entered into force.
28
The League of Nations and
the ILO worked on the issue of human trafcking in the 1920s and 1930s.
The rst documented international conference on the trafcking of women
dates back to the previous century and was held in 1895 in Paris. When ana-
lyzing the phenomenon of human trafcking, the human rights paradigm has
the longest history. The emphasis of these international conventions is human
rights: Human rights are not a separate consideration or an additional
perspective. They are the common thread.
29
Trafckers in source countries take advantage of the unequal status of
women and girls, which include the misguided and dangerous stereotypes of
women as (sexual) objects, property, and servants of men.
30
Gender discrimi-
nation, a risk and push factor associated with trafcking, is recognized as a
fundamental denial of human rights. Among other rights violated are the
rights to health care, life, and liberty, and the right to be free from all forms
of slavery. Children have the right to grow up safe and free from abuse and
exploitation. Violations of human rights have been labeled both a cause and
a consequence of trafcking in persons.
31
The trafcking debate continues with attempts by governments to balance
their right to manage illegal migration against those of individualsthat is,
the right of people to leave their country of origin, to be free from political,
religious, or gender oppression, to be able to educate their children and pay
for medical treatment for their families, or to seek asylum in a safer place. To
protect smuggled and trafcked persons from abuses at the hands of those
who prot from their hardships while at the same time enforcing immigration
laws is the greatest challenge facing governments today.
TRAFFICKING AS SLAVERY
Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reads, No one shall
be held in slavery or servitude. Slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited
in all their forms.
32
And in spite of its abolition in the contemporary world,
it still exists in various forms in both developing and industrial nations. Debt
bondage occurs on a massive scale in South Asia, while descent slavery
33
can
still be found in countries such as Mauritania and Mali.
34
Child labor is preva-
lent in Central and West Africa and the trafcking of men for labor exploita-
tion and of women and children for sexual exploitation is a form of slavery
affecting almost every country on the globe.
Kevin Bales, a leading expert on slavery and trafcking, denes slavery as
a state marked by the loss of free will. An enslaved person, forced through vio-
lence or the threat of violence, is incapable of freely selling his or her own
labor. Slavery has three key dimensions: the appropriation of labor, control by
another person, and the use or threat of violence.
35
Trafcking is dened by its
end result of the victim arriving in a situation of enslavement. Trafcking in
persons is one of the means by which people or organizations bring people into,
and maintain them in, slavery and forced labor. Human trafcking is not a con-
dition or result of a process, but the process of enslavement itself.
36
The traditional slave trade of the sixteenth through the nineteenth centu-
ries depended upon raids, wars, and forced abduction to obtain slaves,
whereas trafcking relies to a great extent on false promises and deception.
Returning to the denition set forth in the U.N. Trafcking Protocol, victims
of trafcking are recruited through means of threat or use of force, coercion,
abduction, fraud, and deception; through abuse of power or vulnerability; and
through payments or benets to a person in control of the victim. Studies
often show that both children and adults are recruited through means of false
promises rather than force. Once they are brought to their interim or nal des-
tinations, though, it is force, threat of force, or harm that keeps them prisoners
and enslaved. It is at this point within the trafcking process that victims dif-
fer little from the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century African slaves who
were kidnapped, bought, and sold into slavery and servitude. Unlike tradi-
tional slaves of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, trafcking victims
are often hidden in plain sight. They, too, however, are openly bought
and soldsome in cattle markets, like the Karamojong women and children
in Uganda, or like foreign women sold in auctions to sex trafckers in
Taiwan
37
others are bought and sold through hidden means, such as through
the Internet, as models, escorts, and brides.
Trafcking violates political and civil rights that include the right to be
free from degrading and cruel treatment as well as the right to be free from
slavery-like practices.
38
Slavery had a signicant role in the economies of many societies. As
Bales observes, it was one of the rst forms of trade to become truly interna-
tional.
39
In the past, slavery found justication in racial and ethnic differen-
ces, but today the common denominator is poverty, not color or religion. It is
a special economic institution, able to overcome revolutions, changes in politi-
cal structures, adapt to a changing world and thrive. It continues to do so
today. In this sense, trafcking and modern-day slavery have rapidly adapted
to the new global economy.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
While trafcking can be examined from a number of different perspectives, it
is virtually impossible to separate any one of these from the other. Just as
trafcking must be viewed as a process rather than as a single offense, it must
also be understood and examined in relationship to issues of globalization,
supply and demand, migration, law enforcement, and human rights. These per-
spectives must be taken into account when designing effective measures to
combat trafcking. Failure to understand the mechanisms that fuel trafcking
in source and destination countries means that countries will be ineffective in
protecting potential victims before departure and providing safety and services
to exploited victims in the destination countries or in their countries of origin
after they have been repatriated. Failure to arrest offenders and dismantle
criminal networks that operate to exploit people only provides tacit support
for trafckers to continue their operations. Failure to acknowledge the human
rights abuses in trafcking means that the suffering of victims is not recog-
nized, which then places them in the arena of illegal migrants. Trafcking is
one of the most egregious forms of modern-day slavery and as such demands
protection of the victims and punishment of those who would exploit and
harm them.
4
Victims of Trafcking
HENRIETTE WAS 15 when she was taken by a friend of the family from Togo to
work and attend school in Paris. She ended up working as a domestic servant
from early morning until late at night and was forced to eat table scraps and
sleep on the oor. At the age of 12, Malik was taken from Niger to Mali
under the pretense that he would attend a religious school. Instead he was
forced to beg on the streets for long hours. Forty-two-year-old Robert was
forced to work eight months long for sometimes 18 hours a day with limited
food and no pay in the construction industry in Armenia. Maria, age 16, was
tricked by a friend into traveling from her home town in Romania to Bucha-
rest where she was sold into prostitution and kept in line through the threat of
beatings. Two 16-year-old Thai boys, Top and Wirat, were drugged, kid-
napped, and forced to work under inhumane conditions on a shing boat off
the coast of Thailand for nine months with little food and no pay. Thirty-nine-
year-old Lucy was showered with compliments and gifts in her native Kenya.
When she traveled to Germany to be with her German boyfriend, he forced
her into prostitution. These are the stories of real people.
1
They come from
different parts of the world. They differ in age and gender. The jobs they are
forced to do vary. But they share one thing in common. They were
exploitedvictims of human trafcking.
The victims of trafcking can be found in any sector in which there is a
demand for cheap labor and in which police, aid, human rights, and antitraf-
cking organizations look to nd them. But the victims of trafcking will not
always be recognized as such. Their status as trafcked victims to a large
extent will depend on whether there is adequate legislation and awareness of
the plight of trafcked victims. Countries lacking legislation dening labor
exploitation as trafcking will treat persons found in such situations as illegal
migrantsthat is, as criminals, not victims.
This chapter describes how the different global markets into which per-
sons are trafcked will have a diverse impact on their condition as victims.
The chapter provides a more in-depth analysis of child and adult victims of
trafcking through the prism of victims individual stories, and their physical
and mental suffering.
MARKETS IN WHICH VICTIMS ARE TRAFFICKED
Trafcking for Forced Labor versus Sexual Exploitation
There exists the belief that trafcking is perpetrated predominantly for the
sexual exploitation of the trafcked victim. This is only one form of exploita-
tion and forced labor to which trafcked victims are exposed. The market in
which victims are forced to work inuences a number of other factors, such
as the social stigma attached to the trade, the visibility of the individual,
contact with external sources, and how long the operation can last before
being dismantled by the authorities.
2
Both types of exploitation involve serious human rights abuses. It could
be argued, though, that forced sexual exploitation is morally more reprehensi-
ble. Because of the social stigma attached to this activity, and the fact that it
is illegal in many of the source and destination countries,
3
it is more difcult
to gain the cooperation of victims of sexual exploitation and to later reinte-
grate them back in their original communities.
4
Additionally, these victims
require more emotional and psychological support.
Prostitutes, because of their interaction with clients, have contact with
those other than their exploiters. This increases the likelihood that they will
seek help, escape, or, during police controls or raids, come to the attention of
the authorities. Victims trapped in situations of forced labor, particularly in
remote areas are more secluded. Victims forced into domestic labor or to
work in the agricultural industry are often isolated and lack contact with cli-
ents. For these reasons, forced labor operations appear to be able to survive
for longer periods of time. According to the U.S. Department of Justice, oper-
ations involving trafcking for labor exploitation tend to go unnoticed or are
able to operate longer than trafcking for sexual exploitation before being
uncovered. On average, trafcking operations for sexual exploitation can
last from approximately one to two and a half years, while forced labor opera-
tions generally lasted from four and a half to six and a half years before
being discovered.
5
Markets Proting from Smuggled and Trafcked Persons
Three basic legal and illicit markets prot from smuggled and trafcked
persons: (1) the conventional or legitimate market economies (factories, farms,
hotels, restaurants, etc.), (2) the legitimate domestic service economy (house-
holds that employ maids), and (3) the criminal economies of the sex industry
(foremost, prostitution).
6
Forced labor on farms or plantations often involves deplorable living,
working, and sanitary conditions. Haitian workers in the Dominican Republic
and Brazilian workers on plantations in Para State in Amazonia (Brazil) were
subjected to conditions resembling slavery, kept in virtual debt-bondage, and
subjected to the control of armed guards and soldiers who, on the estates in
Para, would beat or shoot workers who tried to escape.
7
In July 2006, Italian
police freed 119 Polish workers from forced labor camps in the south of the
country. Many of the victims had reportedly been beaten with metal rods,
raped, and attacked by dogs. Several committed suicide in the camps in
Puglia, southeast Italy.
8
In the United States in 2004, the Ramos brothers were
convicted of human trafcking. They employed 700 workers to pick fruit in
Lake Placid, Florida. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) reports that
[T]heir workers werent workers in the traditional sense. They were more like
slaves. They forced these individuals to pick fruit for ten hours a day, six days
a week, with no time off. They threatened them at gunpoint, promising torture
and death if they tried to escape. And they made them live in lthy, substandard,
and overcrowded apartments.
9
Across Europe, the building trade and textile industries have beneted
from smuggled and trafcked persons. In Milan, police uncovered an opera-
tion involving a Chinese organized crime group that forced dozens of
immigrants, under inhumane conditions, to manufacture handbags, belts,
and clothes, which were purchased by major companies operating in the
renowned Italian fashion world.
10
The organizations that smuggle and exploit
these victims generate a prot. However, the legitimate economy, which
subcontracts with these smaller operations, also benets nancially from the
use of exploited labor. Thus, a symbiotic relationship exists between the legal
and illicit economies in this type of labor market. In 2000, it was estimated
that the underground economy accounted for 28 percent of Italys gross
domestic product.
11
Domestic servants are often the least visible of all trafcked victims.
From India to Kuwait to the United States, female domestic workers are sub-
jected to exploitive conditions. Their wages are withheld, they are underpaid,
and they are emotionally, psychologically, and physically abused and isolated.
Female domestic workers report being beaten and sexually assaulted by male
members of the family. Their belongings are searched and their contact with
those outside of the family as well as their personal freedom is often limited.
They may be denied access to medical or legal services.
12
A Michigan couple,
both doctors, imprisoned a woman they had brought from the Philippines as a
domestic servant for 19 years. The woman was threatened with deportation,
isolated, and psychologically manipulated through fear. She was paid $100 a
month for her services.
13
The practice of keeping children as domestic servants is widespread in
Western and Central African countries. The author interviewed a nine-year-old
girl in Lagos, Nigeria. Her family had brought her to Lagos when she was six
years old to work as a maid in the household from which she escaped three years
later. She was forbidden contact with the children in the family and had been
made to sleep on the oor and eat leftover table scraps. During a trip to purchase
VICTIMS OF TRAFFICKING 33
groceries, the police found her wandering the streets. She knew her name but
did not know the village or the country from which she came.
14
The boundaries between these three markets of legitimate labor, domestic
service, and the sex industry are not always strictly drawn, and it is not
uncommon for those working in the legitimate economy or in domestic serv-
ice to escape unbearable conditions and nd themselves in the illicit sex
industry. Research conducted in Germany shows that many domestic servants
escape their employee-owner and drift into prostitution.
15
With respect to the illicit sex industry, Italian researchers have identied
three different levels of illicit prostitution. The rst level includes those indi-
vidual entrepreneurs who are involved in small-scale activities, such as run-
ning a brothel in a particular area. The second or mid-level prostitution
schemes involve women who are controlled by the clandestine operations that
imported them. The third and most sophisticated level includes large-scale
and international criminal organizations that are linked with domestic criminal
organizations. This third group seizes the womens documentation and main-
tains tight control over the women they have trafcked.
16
Particularly at this
last level, prots are high. They are generated for the trafckers as well as for
the brothel owners who buy and sell their victims. Money laundering allows
the huge prots generated by this industry to be reinvested in the legitimate
economy, and thus once again a prot nexus exists between the illicit and
legitimate business worlds.
DISTRIBUTION OF TRAFFICKED VICTIMS ACROSS MARKETS
The U.S. Department of State estimated that, worldwide, 80 percent of victims
of human trafcking are women and girls, with 70 percent of these the vic-
tims of commercial sexual exploitation.
17
These gures vary depending
entirely on the region of the world in which trafcking occurs, how national
legislation denes trafcking, the awareness of other forms of trafcking for
labor exploitation, as well as proactive investigation and enforcement.
With respect to the 14,50017,500 people estimated trafcked into the
United States annually, the U.S. government provides estimates on the age,
sex, and type of exploitation to which the victims are exposed. According to
these estimates, the largest percentage of victims are adult women (33 per-
cent) followed by girls under the age of 18 (23 percent) who are forced into
the commercial sex trade. This is followed by adult women and girls forced
into other forms of exploitation. On a smaller scale are boys forced into com-
mercial sex (10 percent) and other forms of exploitation (6 percent) followed
by men (4 percent for both forms of exploitation). This information is pro-
vided in table 4.1 below.
Research in the United States indicates that these estimates might not
reect reality. In reviewing trafcking cases between 1998 and 2003, 46
percent of 131 reported cases involved forced sexual exploitation, which
remained the largest single category, while the remaining 54 percent involved
exploitation for forced labor in the domestic service sector (27 percent), agri-
culture (10 percent), sweatshop/factory (5 percent), service/food care (4 per-
cent), entertainment (3 percent), and mail-order bride (1 percent).
18
Table 4.2
provides information on the number and percentage of cases and the sectors
Table 4.1 The Distribution of Victims in Exploitative Conditions by Gender
and Age
Victim by Gender and Age Exploitation Percent
Adult women Forced or coerced commercial sex 33
Girls (under the age of 18) Forced or coerced commercial sex 23
Adult women Other forms of exploitation 14
Girls (under the age of 18) Other forms of exploitation 11
Boys (under the age of 18) Forced or coerced commercial sex 10
Boys (under the age of 18) Other forms of exploitation 6
Adult men Other forms of exploitation 3
Adult men Forced or coerced commercial sex 1
Source: U.S. Mission to the European Union (2005b).
Table 4.2 Economic Sectors into Which Victims Were Trafficked in the United
States Based on Cases Uncovered between 1998 and 2003
Economic Sectors
Frequency of
cases (not
individuals) Percent of cases
Prostitution 58 46.4
Domestic Service 34 27.2
Agriculture 13 10.4
Sweatshop/Factory 6 4.8
Service/Food care 5 3.8
Sexual exploitation of children 4 3.1
Entertainment 4 3.1
Mail-order bride 1 0.8
Total 125 100
No economic sector reported 6
Total (all cases) 131
Source: Free the Slaves (2004, 14). Courtesy of Dr. Kevin Bales, President, Free the Slaves.
in which victims were discovered. This information says nothing about the
number of victims that were identied and rescued in these cases.
Data available on the victims and markets of exploitation may portray a
skewed picture of worldwide trafcking patterns. If it even exists, trafcking
legislation in many countries only addresses exploitation in the sex market,
virtually excluding men as victims of this crime. This has been referred to as
the one-dimensional focus of the research.
19
More research exists on trafck-
ing into forced prostitution than into other types of situations, and so it is easy
to gather information about this type of trafcking. One trafcking expert
argues that trafcking into domestic work may be a more serious problem
than trafcking into prostitution, but little attention has been paid to this type
of trafcking.
This is the case in the United States and in other parts of the world as well,
in particular, in West Africa, where children are often trafcked into domestic
service and manual labor. Male victims in the United States are trafcked into
forced labor in construction work, agriculture, and street vending. When this
same situation occurs in other countries, it is often labeled slavery rather than
trafckingfor example, this has been seen in situations involving men traf-
cked from the Brazilian cities into the interior of the country, from Mali to
Côte dIvoire, or from Cambodia into Thailands elds and sheries.
20
The question then arises whether or not trafcking in women for sexual
exploitation occurs more frequently or simply whether it has received more
attention and thus greater registration. The United Nations reports that traf-
cking in persons for forced labor has not been viewed as a serious problem
in many countries.
21
Clearly, it can be argued that trafcking for sexual
exploitation is more demeaning, robs victims of a basic human right to deter-
mine how to use and with whom to share their bodies, and exposes victims to
increased danger of infection from sexually transmitted diseases. This fact,
and given the limitations of legislation that only denes trafcking in relation
to sexual exploitation, may explain why so much attention has been focused
on this type of trafcking.
THE VICTIMS: TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN, CHILDREN, AND MEN
The United Nations Ofce on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) database was
established to track global trends in human trafcking. While there are limita-
tions in the data,
22
the database does represent the rst attempt, based on
research, to provide a global picture of trafcking trends. In an analysis of
113 source institutions providing information on trafcked victims (for traf-
cking cases involving both sexual exploitation and forced labor) where gen-
der is known, the largest group of persons reported trafcked are minors
(consisting of the combined categories girls, boys, and children). Adult women
account for the second largest group, but the single largest group of victims.
Adult males are reported in only a few sources. This pattern uctuates from one
region to the other. Children are most often mentioned as victims of trafcking in
Africa and Asia, whereas women are most frequently reported as trafcked victims
in Europe (Western, Central, and Southeastern), the Commonwealth of Independ-
ent States, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Oceania.
23
The International Organization for Migration (IOM) maintains a database
on trafcked victims covering more than 80 nationalities and 90 countries of
destination. The global database contains 12,750 cases of victims assisted by
the IOM through June 1, 2008.
24
In the IOM database, victims are, in general,
young, single females: less than 19 percent of the surveyed victims are males,
the majority are between 18 and 25 (56.9 percent), and more than 74 percent
at or under the age of 25 years. More than half (55 percent) are single, sepa-
rated, divorced, or widowed; only 8 percent were married.
25
Trafcking for Sexual and Labor Exploitation
With respect to the nature of the exploitation, the United Nations has divided
exploitation into sexual and labor exploitation. While some degree of detail
has been lost due to the fact that labor exploitation was not further catego-
rized, this division does provide a picture of the nature of the exploitation and
its relation to gender. Where information on the type of exploitation was
available, the analysis indicated that 80 percent of the sources cited sexual
exploitation, while 19 percent of the sources referred to exploitation for forced
labor. Women and children are most often the victims of sexual exploitation,
followed by sexual exploitation and forced labor combined. Men, on the other
hand, are more frequently the victims of sexual exploitation and forced labor
combined, followed by forced labor and then sexual exploitation.
26
This pattern may be misleading and may cause investigators and research-
ers, particularly with respect to women and children, to overlook exploitation
in the labor sector. The director of the U.S. Ofce to Monitor and Combat
Trafcking in Persons told of a meeting in a shelter in Thailand with a young
Burmese woman (see case 4.1).
27
CHILD VICTIMS
28
Trafcking cuts across age and gender. The (il)legal displacement and exploi-
tation of persons (within and across borders) affects the most vulnerableand
these are often women and children. Children and women are targeted for the
trade because of their powerlessness, innocence, and inability to protect them-
selves. They are easier to manipulate and less able to claim their rights. Chil-
dren can be made to work longer hours with less food, poor accommodation,
and no benets allowing employers to keep costs down.
29
Children are taken
away from their families and social networks resulting in isolation, which
increases their vulnerability to exploitation.
Risk Factors
In some countries, traditional practices contribute to the trafcking of women
and girls. There are particular push factors that place girls and young women
at a higher risk than boys or young men. Girls in many societies are less val-
ued than boys.
The custom of early and arranged marriage of young girls, particularly to
an older man, may be viewed as a manner to relieve the poverty of her fam-
ily. In other countries, female children are viewed as an economic liability
when the family must produce a dowry to the groom upon marriage. Further-
more, there is a demand for young girls, virgins, in many African and South
Asian countries, fueled by the false belief that sex with a virgin can cure sex-
ually transmitted diseases or HIV/AIDS.
30
The sale of young girls for early marriage effects 40 percent and 49
percent of young girls in Central and Western Africa, respectively.
31
Pressure
for girls to migrate is particularly strong in West Africa, where families are
poor and the girls require money for marriage preparations.
32
The same pat-
tern is found in India where the majority of victimsover 60 percentof
both in-country and transborder trafcking are adolescent girls in the 1216-
year age-group. The majority of young girls are trafcked for commercial sex
work. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) reports that in
Mumbai and other Indian cities, girl children as young as eight or nine are
sold at auctions.
33
Case 4.1. The Story of a Young Burmese Woman
Aye Aye Win was mislead by a recruiter who painted a beautiful picture of work in
a neighboring country. After having incurred a substantial debt to cover the costs
required by the recruiter for the job placement, Aye Aye was taken together with some
800 Burmese migrants, many children, to a shrimp farming and processing factory.
She was forced to work in a prison camp. The isolated 10-acre factory was surrounded
by 15-foot-tall steel walls, with barbed wire fencing, located in the middle of a coco-
nut plantation far from roads. Workers were forbidden phone contact with anyone on
the outside and were not allowed to leave the compound. They lived in run-down
wooden huts, with hardly enough to eat.
Aye Aye tried to escape with three other women. Guards at the factory caught
them and dragged them back to the camp where they were punished as an example to
others, tied to poles in the middle of the courtyard, and refused food or water. As
another form of punishment, to stigmatize her, Aye Ayes hair was shaved off. She
was beaten for trying to ee.
A study of trafcking among Nigerian girls and women in Edo State,
conducted by the Nigerian nongovernmental organization (NGO), Girls Power
Initiative, attributes the reason why girls are more susceptible to trafcking
abroad than boys and young men to a number of factors. First and foremost,
there is a demand for their sexual services that makes them marketable com-
modities. Girls are expected to sacrice their education and assume domestic
responsibilities taking care of their parents and siblings. Because they will
leave the family upon marriage, they are regarded as a poor investment and
this makes it easier for the parent(s) to send them out to work. Additionally,
domestic work is regarded as a preparation for marriage.
34
Because girls are
more willing to make a sacrice to support their families, parents prefer to
send their daughters abroad. Low rates of education among young girlsdue
to the fact that their parents were unwilling to educate themresult in high
rates of unemployment. This cultural pattern repeats itself in other countries
as well. According to Antonio Maria Costa, director of UNODC, When fam-
ilies (in Asian villages) sell their daughter, its not out of poverty necessarily,
it may be cultural.
35
All of these factors combined provided a pool of girls
to be trafcked abroad.
36
The trafcking of young boys into sexual exploitation is a newer pattern
that has been identied in countries from Afghanistan to Great Britain, from
Pakistan to the Dominican Republic, and beyond. The sexual exploitation is
often linked to child sex tourism in countries such as the Dominican Republic,
Mexico, Sri Lanka, or Thailand. In Costa Rica, where homosexuality is stig-
matized, men prefer to have sexual encounters with male children they have
found on the street. In Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan, where boys partake
in the cultural practice of bachabazi or launda dancing (where boys
dressed as girls dance at private parties and weddings for men), boys are
sometimes forced into prostitution. The U.S. Department of State reports that
young boys in prostitution is a growing problem in Ghana and The Gambia,
while in the Czech Republic and Great Britain, young rent boys are traf-
cked into prostitution for tourists in cities.
37
Trafcking of children takes various forms and resembles patterns of
recruitment used with adults. In the case of adolescent boys trafcked to Italy
from Gabon and Senegal, it appears that Maa-type organizations are
involved. These organizations recruit the boys in their countries of origin
through threats or deceit, trafcking them illegally by boat or with false travel
documents by plane to Italy. Once in Italy, the young boys are forced into
illegal drug dealing on the streets or transporting drugs such as crack, cocaine,
and heroin. They are under constant control of the trafckers and are subject
to threats of violence. The trafckers have been known to disgure the vic-
tims ngers with abrasive substances to evade police and immigration inves-
tigations based on ngerprint recognition.
38
A major difference in the recruitment of children in some countries lies
in the trafckers negotiation with the parents of the child to remove the child
from the family. While conducting research for the United Nations on trafck-
ing patterns in the West African nations of Benin, Nigeria, and Togo, the
author spoke to government ofcials, representatives from NGOs, and traf-
cked victims. In one case, the parents had willingly given their two sons to a
man who promised to offer them an education and job training skills. Instead,
he forced the young boys to work in a factory where they were physically
abused, underfed, and denied medical treatment when they became ill. After
three years, the boys were reunited with their family, having received no pay
for their work. While some children are given away or sold by their parents,
others are forcibly abducted or tricked. Other children, eager to travel, gain new
experiences, and support their families, willingly leave with their recruiters after
being promised some small token such as a radio. Our delegation was told that
it is not uncommon for a recruiter to come into the village and promise the
children if they work for three years they will be given a bicycle. After three
years of hard, physical labor, the children are released and given the promised
bicycle. Unaware of the fact that they have been exploited, they return to their
villages and, in turn, recruit other unsuspecting victims.
Abject poverty is not the only factor contributing to the trafcking of
children in West Africa. The trafcking of children is promoted by historical
and cultural patterns of child fosterage, or placing children outside the home.
The placement of children outside of the home is based on cultural values and
is done to foster extended family solidarity and to further the education and
vocational training of the child. This historical practice of child apprentice-
ship, known as child fosterage or vidomegon (putting a child in a home),
contributes to the internal displacement and trafcking of children that is met
with, if not acceptance, then less outrage than the trafcking of children
abroad.
39
Children are introduced to work at very young ages and as a result
of this are taught social values. It is a common belief that the life and educa-
tion of a child is the responsibility of the extended family, thus it is not
uncommon for children to grow up in the family of relatives, or third persons,
particularly if these persons are living in better circumstances and are able to
provide the child with better education and work opportunities.
40
The majority
of trafcked children in West and Central Africa come from large, poorly
educated polygamous families where the children have limited (if any) oppor-
tunities for education and training. The voluntary placement of children
(which often leads to their trafcking) is the result of poverty and the desire
to provide a better life for their children.
The ILO identies a number of factors that place children at risk of trafck-
ing. These include individual factors (marginalized ethnic minority, orphan or
runaway, low self-esteem, naivety); family risk factors (poor, single parent fam-
ilies, large family in poverty, domestic violence or sexual abuse, illness such as
HIV/AIDS, alcoholism or drug abuse); external and institutional risk factors
(war or armed conict, natural disaster, weak legal framework of enforcement,
corruption, gender discrimination and weak education) ; community risk factors
(history of migration, youth unemployment, quality of village and community
networks, lack of policing and trained railway staff and border guards); and
workplace risk factors (unsupervised hiring of workers, unregulated informal
economy of dangerous, dirty and demanding jobs with poor working condi-
tions). These many factors explain why some children from a village or neigh-
borhood are more susceptible to trafcking than others. For a full list of the
ILOs risk factors for child trafcking, see Appendix 1.
42
Poverty drives much of the child sex trafcking in the triple frontier area
where Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil meet. Many of the children most at
risk either live on the street or come from impoverished families. In cases of
extreme destitution, children are even contracted out by their parents. A blind
beggar in Puerto Igazu, reportedly walks the streets hand-in-hand with a
seven-year-old girlhis neighbors daughter. He makes his living by renting
her out for sex.
43
The ILOs International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour
(ILO-IPEC) estimates that 1,200,000 children are trafcked globally. Child
trafcking patterns vary by region, although commercial sexual exploitation
of children has been identied in all regions of the world. In East Asia and
the Pacic, the majority of children trafcked often end up in prostitution,
although some are exploited in agricultural and industrial work, sweatshops,
begging, and domestic labor. In Africa, children are trafcked into prostitu-
tion, domestic labor, mining, and armed conict.
44
In West Africa, young
children are forced to work as car washers, beggars, domestic servants, petty
traders, hawkers, and bus conductors, or on farms or in rock quarries.
45
In
Europe, children are trafcked for sexual and labor exploitation in agriculture
and also into crime.
46
Girls as young as 13, mainly from Eastern Europe and
Asia, are trafcked as mail-order brides and are forced to become involved in
pornography or prostitution.
47
Children in Southeastern Europe have been traf-
cked into begging and delinquency.
48
In Central and South America, child
victims are trafcked into sexual exploitation, crime, and plantation work. In
North America, the pattern is similar, with children also trafcked into agri-
cultural work, crime, and sexual exploitation.
49
The U.S. Department of
Case 4.2. The Story of a Young Woman from Togo
Henriette Akofa was 15 years old and living in Sokode, Togo, when a friend of her
family offered to take her to Paris. In exchange for light housework, Henriette could
attend school. Upon arrival in Paris, Henriette was forced to clean the house, shop, cook,
and babysit. She was not allowed to eat with the family, was forced to wear rags, and
sleep on the kitchen oor. She was taken by a second family as payment for a debt
owed the rst family. She was not allowed to speak to others and was allowed only lim-
ited contact with her family. It took Henriette four years to escape her slavery.
41
Justice has prosecuted cases against trafckers who have exploited children as
domestic slaves. Children in the Middle East are exploited in domestic labor
and commercial sex.
51
In China, children are often abducted and forced to work in rock quar-
ries.
52
This pattern differs in the Americas and the Caribbean, where child
trafcking is driven by child sex tourism. In South Asia, children are sold into
bondage to settle debts.
53
In the Gulf States, children under the age of ve
from South Asia and Africa have been forced to become camel jockeys while
in other parts of the world,
54
young boys are kidnapped or sold by parents to
serve as child soldiers.
Those children trafcked into labor exploitation are not necessarily safe
from sexual assaults or sexual exploitation. Children hired to work as domes-
tic servants in families have reported being sexually abused by their owners.
55
Children trafcked into one form of labor may be sold into another form of
labor. For example, girls from rural Nepal were recruited to work in carpet
factories or hotels in the city but are then trafcked into the sex industry over
the border in India. The United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) reports
that in almost all countries, the sex trade is the predominant form of exploita-
tion of trafcked children. This practice results in systematic, long-term physi-
cal and emotional abuse.
56
Debt Bondage: Born into Slavery
Debt bondage is a form of slavery and practiced widely in South Asia. This
modern-day slavery results in the exploitation of young children from birth.
These unfortunate victims inherit the debts of their family members.
Millions of low-caste laborers are believed to be trapped in debt bondage
in South Asia. Bonded labor occurs when victims take loans from
Case 4.3. Two Boys from Thailand
Two 16-year-old boys from Buriram, Thailand, were kidnapped by a trafcking gang
on the rst day they arrived in Bangkok. They were drugged, and while unconscious,
were transported to a shing port and imprisoned on a shing boat with two other kid-
napped victims for eight months. At times they were forced to work all day and all
night, only being allowed to sleep when they could no longer stand up. They ate two
meals a day, but never got paid. They were told stories of individuals on such shing
boats being killed and thrown overboard.
On February 23, 2007, the two boys were eventually released, after begging the
captain to be allowed to visit their home. The captain dropped them off at the railway
station in Nakornsritamrat and gave them 3,000 baht (less than US$100) each, inform-
ing them that the broker (i.e., the kidnapper) had already received all his fees from
the captain.
50
unscrupulous moneylenders and are coerced into repaying these debts by
working in the factories owned by their lenders. Exorbitant interest fees and
housing costs are added on to the loan so that it becomes almost impossible
to repay the debt. The debt is passed down from one generation to the next
and often results in the enslavement of entire families forced to work in rice
mills, brick kilns, or other factories owned by the moneylenders. Families
may be forced to work 14 to 16 hours a day. Children generally are prohibited
from attending school and bonded slave laborers are often subjected to physi-
cal abuse (female bonded laborers may be subjected to sexual assaults).
58
According to UNODC, the cultural norms of some countries have not deemed
some forms of slavery to be a crime.
WOMEN AS VICTIMS OF TRAFFICKING
The social and economic decline in Southeastern Europe has resulted in ina-
tion, unemployment, poverty, and income differentials. This has had a dra-
matic impact on women, weakening their position in the labor market and
resulting in increased unemployment among women and the feminization of
poverty. This has encouraged increased migration, particularly among younger
women.
59
Women in many societies face discrimination in the job market,
lack of skills training, and the added responsibility of being the sole provider
for the family.
60
The feminization of migration has been provided as an expla-
nation for the large number of women exploited in conditions of trafcking.
61
Women from poor countries with little or no education have limited access to
the labor market. They are also the rst to lose their jobs in times of eco-
nomic crisis. This unfavorable position strengthens their temptation to seek
their fortunes abroad.
In their study of sex trafcking in the Americas, the International Human
Rights Law Institute identied individual and outside risk factors that
heighten the likelihood that women may enter the illegal migration market
and fall prey to trafckers. Among the individual factors are poverty, lack of
economic alternatives, illiteracy or minimal education, physical or sexual
Case 4.4. The Story of One Boys Debt Bondage
Raman was born at the same brick kiln site where his father and grandfather had
worked their entire lives to pay off a debt incurred by his grandfather. For 15 years,
Raman and his family earned 3 rupees (2 cents) per 80 kilogram bag of bricks to pay
off the US$450 advanced by the brick kiln manager. They were beaten with sticks and
hit by the owner if they were not working hard enough or producing enough bricks.
They could not leave, because the brick kiln owner threatened to hunt them down and
beat them or bribe the police into arresting them.
57
abuse, family dissolution, and homelessness. Among the outside factors are
gender discrimination, objectication of children (this could apply to women
as well), and the demand for prostitution, stripping, and sex tourism.
62
Because, for years, many countries concentrated only on the sexual
exploitation of the victims, more is known about the women victims of the
sexual exploitation trafcking dimension. Chapter 1 placed trafcking victims
on a continuum from those who are totally unaware of their fate to those who
suspect or know that they will be working in the sex industry. It is unclear
how many adult women suspect or are aware of what awaits them in the des-
tination country. This understanding may depend on how and under what cir-
cumstances they are recruited in their country of origin. A study in the
Netherlands on trafcked women from Central and Eastern Europe who were
forced to work in prostitution shows that the majority of those interviewed
were working as prostitutes in their own countries or at least knew that they
would be working as prostitutes abroad.
63
Those working with trafcked vic-
tims in Benin City, Nigeria, also report that most victims are aware that they
will be working in prostitution upon arrival in Italy.
64
Others, like Lucy, are caught totally off-guard (see case 4.5).
Case 4.5. Lucys Story
Lucy Kabanya, 39, left Kenya for Germany in July 2006 for a three-month holiday to
join her German boyfriend in Frankfurt. Lucy, who was introduced to the man through
a friend, began communicating with him through e-mail early in 2005; in 2006, he
came to Kenya to meet her. When he came to Kenya, they stayed together in a hotel
for a month before he returned to Germany. He promised to send her an airline ticket
to go on holiday and visit him. Before she traveled to Germany, her boyfriend sent
her gifts and money. Before I left Kenya, my host had treated me so well ; he had
lavished me with gifts of all kinds, sent me money whenever I asked for cash. He
promised me a life I had never seen before.
Upon her arrival in Germany, instead of a vacation, Lucy had her travel docu-
ments conscated and she was denied food for several days before her boyfriend
informed her that she would be working as a prostitute. She was raped, viciously
beaten, and threatened with death.
Lucy was one of the lucky ones. Although she had been kept incommunicado,
denied a telephone, and refused permission to talk to strangers, she was able to con-
vince her captor to allow her to call relatives to inform them that she was all right.
Instead, she called a friend who gave her the number of the German police hotline.
She was immediately rescued and taken to a hospital, a safe-house, and then to Sol-
wodi, an NGO that provides victim assistance.
The manager of the Kenya branch of German-based Solwodi, said, We have
received more than 25 women who have been returned to Kenya from Europe after
falling prey to international crooks who took them there as their boyfriends before they
turned them into sex slaves.
65
Lucys hell on earth in Germany lasted three weeks before she was
able to escape. The length of time that women are forced to work in prostitu-
tion as trafcked victims depends on a number of factors, perhaps most
important, the nationality of the woman and her trafcker, and whether or
not the woman has repaid her debt. Research into trafcking patterns in Italy
found that Nigerian women were exploited until they repaid the debt incurred.
The period usually lasts a couple of years and depends on how quickly the
victim can repay the trafcker based on the monthly agreed-on amount. Once
they have repaid their debt, they become free agents and may themselves
become involved in recruiting and exploiting victims. In contrast, Albanian
women are forced to work as prostitutes their entire lives: The rules imposed
upon them and the modes of their recruitment (deceit or abduction) imply
unconditional exploitation for an indeterminate period of time.
66
MALE VICTIMS
Much less is known about male victims of trafcking than about female and
child victims. In part this is due to the fact that emphasis has traditionally
been placed on trafcking for sexual exploitation.
67
Male victims of trafck-
ing, particularly male children, are represented in victim statistics for sexual
exploitation, but adult males tend to be exploited in commercial rms, speci-
cally in the agricultural, construction, and manufacturing sectors. This varies
across countries and geographic regions. Floridas citrus industry has been
linked to forced labor of predominantly Mexican and Guatemalan men, while
foreign men in other states are exploited in sweatshops.
68
In Western Europe,
male victims are trafcked into forced labor in restaurants and sweat shops. In
Italy, trafcked victims forced to work in the manufacturing industry have
been linked to international fashion houses that make use of underpaid
labor.
69
Internal trafcking is prevalent in Brazil, where Brazilian men are
exploited for forced agricultural labor, while foreign victims are trafcked to
Brazil for labor exploitation in factories.
70
In countries that rely heavily on
shing, this industry tends to exploit trafcked victims. Men in China have
been trafcked in forced labor, often into brick kilns.
71
The plight of male victims of trafcking is receiving more notice. Three
research projects on male victims of trafcking are being conducted: one
examining trafcking patterns from East Africa and the Horn to South Africa;
one examining the trafcking of men into maritime, construction, and agricul-
ture in the Philippines; and one examining the trafcking of men in Serbia.
72
In the United States, in 2007, 30 percent of the 303 individuals who received
certication letters recognizing them as trafcked victims were malea
signicant increase over the 6 percent of male victims certied the
previous year.
73
OTHER VULNERABLE VICTIMS
Other vulnerable groups have been known to be trafcked. These include the
physically or mentally impaired, the homeless, or drug addictedindividuals
who are less capable of protecting or standing up for themselves. In the Com-
monwealth of Independent States, disabled people are induced into street beg-
ging for support and protection,
75
while disabled children are used for
begging in Thailand.
76
In New York, two defendants were convicted of smug-
gling disabled citizens from Romania into the United States to force them to
Case 4.6. A Thai Immigrant Seeks Work in the United States
Sathaporn Pornsrisirisak, a Thai immigrant, thought he was coming to America, the
fairy tale place, to work for a Napa rm as a welder on the San Francisco-Oakland
Bay Bridge for wages six times higher than he could earn in his native Thailand. For
the privilege of a coveted job in the United States, Pornsrisirisak was required to pay a
$12,500 recruitment fee from his $200 monthly wage. Desperate to provide for his
family, he borrowed the money from a bank and loan shark at exorbitant interest rates.
The Napa steel rm agreed to a subcontractor compensation package that amounted to
$18.80 per hour for each worker, and that the employment agency, Kota Manpower,
was supposed to pay the welders directly.
Instead of providing the 49 Thai nationals with high-paying jobs, the subcontractor/
trafcker took away their passports; housed them in a shabby apartment with no gas, elec-
tricity, heat, or furniture; and threatened to send the men back to Thailand to face crushing
debts if they complained. A Kota employee conscated workers passports, drove them to
and from the job site, and threatened them with deportation if they complained.
Pornsrisirisak and the others were trapped in near-slavery, working 13-hour days
at a Long Beach restaurant. They were kept in safe-houses where they slept on oors
and were given scraps of food. For three months of full-time work, Pornsrisirisak was
paid a total of $220.
After three months, Pornsrisirisak and the others plotted an escape with a Thai
patron of the restaurant who drove them to a Thai temple.
74
Case 4.7. Homeless Men Forced to Work on Farms
Ronald Evans recruited homeless men from shelters, forced them to work on his farm,
and kept them in debt by selling them beer and overpriced and highly addictive crack
cocaine on credit. The men would be lured from Miami with promises of a decent wage,
hot meals, and a place to stay. Instead, they were forced to work on one of Ronald
Evans work camps in northeast Florida or North Carolina. When police raided the East
Palatka, Florida, camp in June 2005, they found 148 individually wrapped crack cocaine
rocksone nights supply. Evans was sentenced to 30 years in federal prison.
77
work as beggars.
78
Disabled men were trafcked from the Slovak Republic to
Slovenia for the purpose of forced begging in 2007.
79
In Florida, law enforce-
ment ofcials investigated a case involving U.S. citizens recruited from shel-
ters for the homeless, as well as men who might be suffering from forms of
mental illness or who are addicted to drugs and subsequently forced to work
in the agricultural sector (see case 4.7).
80
HARM TO THE VICTIMS
The trauma experienced by victims varies from one individual to the other
and may be inuenced by the age of the victim upon being trafcked, the na-
ture of the exploitation, the length of time the victim is exploited, and the
degree of violence and manipulation to which the victim is exposed. Victims
of both sexual exploitation and forced labor are often left with little or no
resources to rebuild their lives.
81
Victims of forced prostitution are often stig-
matized by their families and communities, making it virtually impossible to
return home and receive support. The Nigerian Immigration Service and work-
ers from NGOs in Nigeria reported that the women who were forced into
prostitution in Italy and subsequently arrested and deported from Italy are
crazed when they return home. They are angry and belligerent because of
the trauma inicted on them by the trafckers as well as by the police and
immigration ofcials who arrest and deport them with little more than the
clothes they were wearing at the time of arrest. After having spent weeks to
months working in prostitution, the women are not even allowed to take the
few possessions and clothes that they had been able to accumulate.
82
Aid workers report that victims suffer from depression and that suicidal
thoughts are common. Victims mental states include withdrawal, disassocia-
tion, and feelings of helplessness and self-blame. Trafcked persons experi-
ence depressive, psychiatric, and psychotic disorders.
83
Cristina Talens and
Joe Murat, workers at the French NGO Committee Against Modern Slavery
(Comite Contre lEsclavage Moderne), were involved in the rescue of Henri-
ette Akofa, the Togolese teenager forced into domestic slavery in Paris. Henri-
ette survived her ordeal well. Another trafcked woman from Côte dIvoire
who they rescued was so traumatized by her ordeal that she was completely
withdrawn and incapable of communicating with her rescuers. She had to be
committed to a mental institution.
84
The IOM, which often comes into contact
with trafcking victims who need assistance in resettling in their home coun-
tries, reports that victims who do escape have been so brutalized that they
experience life-long psychological trauma, and, according to psychologists,
only 30 percent fully recover to live a normal life.
85
Trafcking of girls and women for commercial sex places many young
victims in situations in which they are not protected by the law, they experi-
ence greater social stigma, and they have even less access to health and social
services.
87
Trafcking also increases the victims vulnerability to drug addic-
tion, unwanted pregnancies, and dangerous abortions.
The Link between Trafcking for Prostitution and HIV/AIDS
Forced prostitution and trafcking expose young women and children to sexu-
ally transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS, during the time that they are
exploited. Victims face the risk of unwanted pregnancy, early motherhood,
and reproductive illnesses that might affect future reproductive ability. The
sometimes-serious health problems experienced by women victims of trafck-
ing for sexual exploitation have been clearly documented.
88
UNICEF has illuminated a more sublime link between AIDS and child
trafcking. According to the organization, studies point to a clear link
between the vulnerability of children to trafcking and the spread of HIV/
AIDS. According to the latest estimates in Sub-Saharan Africa, the region
more heavily affected by HIV/AIDS than any other region in the world, more
than 12 million children have been orphaned by AIDS.
89
Children with families affected by the AIDS pandemic may be abandoned
to fend for themselves following the death of one or both parents. Even in
instances in which one or both parents is still living, a child may be forced to
care for or support a sick parent
90
or the other children or may be pressured
to leave a village because of the stigma associated with having a family mem-
ber with AIDS.
91
All of these factors put children at risk of being trafcked.
NOT ALL VICTIMS ARE THE SAME
A typical victim does not exist. Victims are not just young women, nor are
victims exploited only in the commercial sex industry. Another quality that
differentiates victims is the way in which they cope with their situation. While
some victims recognize their victimization and are willing to seek assistance
and cooperate with justice authorities in the prosecution of their trafcker,
others refuse to relate to the term of trafcking or identify with the victim
Case 4.8. A Wife Is Kidnapped
Coco was kidnapped in Mexico and taken to Canada after her husband double-crossed
the men he worked with as a drug money courier. At the beginning, they wanted all
the information about money, properties, bank accounts and everything that my hus-
band stole from them. The drug dealers soon altered their initial plans. Coco was
beaten, locked up, and forced to perform sex acts for money. Within three months of
working as a prostitute she got pregnant. Her captors took her to a doctor for an abor-
tion. Instead, the doctor helped her escape.
86
role and thus refuse assistance. In a study of trafcked women exploited in
various sectors of the sex industry (from massage parlors to strip clubs) in
Canada, even women brought to Canada under false pretenses, subjected to
debt bondage, and forced to work in slavery-like conditions did not consider
themselves trafcked victims.
92
One woman, who police believed to be a vic-
tim of the Netherlands largest and most violent trafcking ring, responded to
accusations that she was forced into prostitution and subjected to exploitation
and violence with the following comment, This scenario appears to be more
like a Hollywood lm than reality.
93
Refusal to recognize that they are victims of trafcking can be caused by
a number of reasons, ranging from a failure to realize that they are victims of
trafcking or knowing that they can depend on the support of family in their
countries of origin, to a desire to protect their exploiter (with whom they may
have fallen in love). Some victims fear retaliation or violence against their
families, and others may still be in debt to their trafckers or feel they have
to continue working to repay the debt. Yet others fear they have failed in their
rst attempt to go abroad and are determined to go abroad again.
94
This is
often a euphemism for returning to prostitution, but the victims often believe
that, once they have learned the ropes, they can work as freelance sex
workers the second time around. Organizations working with children in West
Africa have reported that in spite of being exploited at hard labor under
deplorable conditions for years at time, children are given their promised
bicycle at the end of their term and are allowed to return home, proud of the
fact that they are the only ones with a bicycle in their village. Some of these
same children return to their village and recruit other children to work abroad.
In Chapter 5, we will examine the phenomenon of those who transform from
victim into perpetrator.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Although women and children are most susceptible to human trafcking, even
men are not spared this egregious form of modern-day slavery. Trafcking
and exploitation will occur in any market in which there is a demand for
cheap labor. There is a never-ending supply of potential victims trying to
improve their lives and those of their families. Exploitation affects victims in
various ways. Whether they are able to psychologically and emotionally sur-
vive their situation will depend on their own internal strength, the nature of
their abuse, and perhaps the legal, medical, and psychological support and
protection they receive upon being rescued. Whether or not victims even
recognize that they have been victimized will determine how they process
their experience. These issues will be addressed in more depth in Chapter 9.
The next chapter will examine the trafckers, their organizations, and how
they operate.
5
The Trafckers: Their Methods of Operation
and Organization Structure
CHAPTER 5 INTRODUCES the reader to the criminals involved in human trafcking
and then discusses the trafcking process and provides an analysis of trafcking
organizationsas networks, highly sophisticated criminal enterprises, organized
crime groups, and business models. To fully understand the trafcking process,
one must understand criminal organizations and the methods they use to recruit,
transport, control, and exploit their victims and how they manipulate the system
to protect their operations. Only within this context is it possible to formulate
enforcement and policy responses to react to the criminal organizations involved
in human trafcking and design prevention programs aimed at potential vic-
timstopics that will be covered in more depth in chapter 9.
WHO ARE THE TRAFFICKERS?
Who are the people who so ruthlessly recruit and exploit the victims? What is
their national or ethnic background in relationship to the victims? Is it only
men who recruit others for exploitation or are women also involved in this
insidious trade? The answer to these questions may depend on a number of
factors, such as the country of origin of the trafckers and their victims, how
the victim was recruited and whether we are examining the recruitment, trans-
portation, or exploitation phase.
Police and court (ofcial) statistics provide us with a good, but limited,
picture of people who have been arrested on (suspicion of) human trafcking
charges. This is only a limited picture, for it tells us nothing about those traf-
ckers who have not yet come to the attention of the authorities. Trafcked
victims and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are another source of
information on the background of offenders. This is what they tell us.
A number of countries provide annual statistics on trafckers arrested by
local or national law enforcement. Germanys Federal Criminal Police Ofce
(Bundeskriminalamt) provides the following data: in 2007, 714 suspects (644 in
2006 and 683 in 2005) were identied by the police. More than three-quarters
(78 percent) of those arrested for human trafcking were men. The largest ma-
jority, 344 or 48 percent were German (of which 71 [20.7 percent] were not born
in Germany). Europeans accounted for 87 percent of those arrested for trafck-
ing with the largest number of trafckers arrested coming from Turkey (49),
Bulgaria (42), Hungary (29), Romania (25), and Poland.
1
The Dutch National Rapporteur on Trafcking in Human Beings provides
detailed information on the number of trafckers against whom charges are
brought as well as their age, gender, and the country of birth. Between 2002
and 2006, 715 suspects faced charges. The average age of those arrested for
trafcking was 32 years old (in 70 percent of the registered cases, the suspects
were between the ages of 18 and 41). In 2006, 11 suspects were minors, which
represented an increase over the previous years. While the number of suspects
with relation to country of birth varied over a ve-year period, the countries
with the largest number of suspects include the Netherlands, Turkey, Bulgaria,
Rumania, and Morocco. The gender distribution is particularly interesting. Of
all suspects, males accounted for 81 percent in 2004, 87 percent in 2005, and
83 percent in 2006. This, however, differed among ethnic groups. Among the
Turkish trafckers arrested in 2006, there were no females involved in trafck-
ing, and among the Dutch trafckers, there were few females. Among the
Russian, Hungarian, Rumanian, and Bulgarian trafckers, the percentage of
women was high and varied between 30 percent and 39 percent.
2
Studies conducted by organizations working with victims may provide in-
formation unavailable to the police, because not all victims cooperate with
criminal justice authorities. Information gleaned from victims trafcked in
Southeastern Europe indicates that recruiters/trafckers from Albania and the
province of Kosovo are almost exclusively men, while a large percentage of
those trafcking women from Moldova, Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzego-
vina are themselves women.
3
U.K. police provide information on trafckers obtained from cooperative
victims and from those arrested during Operation Pentameter (described in
more detail in chapter 9). Eastern European groupsincluding Lithuanians
and Czechspredominate among trafckers; however, Albanian males appear
to be the most heavily involved both as pimps and within trafcking. Informa-
tion was beginning to emerge concerning the involvement in Chinese net-
works involved in the illicit sex trade. Trafckers are mostly males in their
mid-20s. Many of the men are illegal migrants, asylum seekers or those who
have overstayed their visas.
4
WOMEN AS TRAFFICKERS
Women have often been portrayed as the victims of trafcking, although
this is not always the case. Women are not only becoming more involved
in the trade, but contrary to popular belief, the role of women as trafckers
is signicant and increasing.
5
Some of these women have been the
victims of trafcking. This may explain the high number of women from the
Russian Federation, Bulgaria, and Rumania arrested in the Netherlands as
perpetratorswomen from these countries are overrepresented among victims
of trafcking.
If they play a role in the trafcking process, women are generally
involved in the recruitment phase. They may unknowingly be asked to recruit
friends to work abroad. They may be sent back to their countries of origins to
recruit friends under the watchful eye and threat of the organization that traf-
cked them. They may knowingly recruit women as a way to buy their free-
dom or may have become part of the trafcking organization.
6
The United
Nations has called this happy trafcking, although there is nothing happy
about it. It has been described as a sort of human pyramid scheme in which a
few of the trafcked victims are released, and sometimes provided nancial
incentives, to return to their home countries and recruit other victims. The
term happy refers to the illusion that the new recruiters create by pretend-
ing that they have had a wonderful experience in a legitimate job abroad. This
manipulative method reduces the risk to organizers by putting women in visi-
ble positions as recruiters and at the same time increases prots, turning vic-
tims into proxy recruiters and eventually trafckers.
7
Law enforcement is noticing an increased involvement of the number of
women organizing the business operation and controlling victims. In some
cases, the women act as compatriots to male partners, while in others, the
women are in control of most of the operation. During an expose of trafck-
ing in women between the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom, an
undercover reporter went to the Czech Republic to allegedly purchase prosti-
tutes for his U.K. brothels. He was shown one of the women who would rst
be sent to the United Kingdom to work as a prostitute, and at the same time,
would verify the legitimacy of the organization for her trafckers back home.
According to the reporter, she was being groomed to move up in the trafck-
ing organization.
8
In another case, a San Antonio woman and her two daugh-
ters were directly responsible for managing the entire operation trafcking
Mexican children to the United States for sexual exploitation. The women
allegedly traveled to Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and recruited and then smuggled
girls as young as 15 to work as prostitutes in Texas.
9
This pattern has
been found in various countries. Police and justice statistics may provide an
indication of the number of women arrested as suspects; individual case
les provide more detailed information on the specic role played by the
female trafckers.
The role of women in the trafcking of Nigerian girls and women for
forced prostitution has been well documented. Young women between the
ages of 15 and 25 are recruited for commercial sexual exploitation by an older
woman, a Maman or Madam, who acts as facilitator for the women and girls
and the organization preparing their migration. When the young women arrive
THE TRAFFICKERS: THEIR METHODS OF OPERATION AND ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE 53
in the destination country, another Maman
11
supervises, controls, organizes
the groups (comprising 10 to 15 girls or women), coordinates their activities,
and collects their prots. Most Mamans were themselves prostitutes. Once
they repaid their debt to their Maman, they, in turn, use the same method to
make money.
12
A study of Nigerian women involved in trafcking of Nigerians to the
Netherlands revealed that the women were on average 45 years old, had legal
residence in the Netherlands, or were awaiting a residence permit based on a
relationship or marriage to a Dutch partner. All had worked in prostitution in
Nigeria and the Netherlands and had worked their way up to the role of
madam. The women play a key if not the main role in the trafcking organi-
zation, planning and controlling the entire process.
13
The Dutch National Rap-
porteur reports that among Nigerian trafcking suspects arrested between
2002 and 2006, the numbers are small, yet 78 percent are women.
14
Limited statistics are available on the number of females suspected of or
convicted for their involvement in human trafcking. The International Orga-
nization for Migrations (IOMs) Counter-Trafcking Module (CTM) database
(data obtained from 78 countries between 1999 and 2006) indicates that 42
percent of the 9,646 sex recruiters were women (an additional 6 percent of
the cases involved recruitment by both women and men).
15
Statistics from the
Dutch National Rapporteur on Human Trafcking indicates that 32 (17 per-
cent) of the suspects arrested in 2006 were females from Bulgaria, Romania,
and the former Soviet Union (ve suspects each), the Netherlands (four),
Morocco (three), and one each from Brazil ; Hong Kong, China; Hungary;
India; the Islamic Republic of Iran; the former Yugoslavia; Lithuania; Nige-
ria; Poland; and the former Czechoslovakia. Thirty-eight percent of
the Bulgarian and 36 percent of the Romanian suspects are women.
16
The
Case 5.1. Young Women Promised Legitimate Work Are
Forced into Prostitution
A sex trafcking ring run by nine illegal migrants smuggled girls and young women
from Guatemala into the United States with the promise of legitimate work as babysit-
ters or waitresses. Upon arrival, they were forced to work as street prostitutes to repay
an inated debt. Some of the girls were as young as 13. The children were told to lie
about their age if asked. Some of the victims were taken to reputed witch doctors,
who would allegedly place a curse on the victims or their families in Guatemala if the
victims tried to escape. All victims were told that if they did not repay their debt
or tried to escape, they, their children, or their families back home would be beaten
or killed.
The majority of those arrested for trafcking were women. The nine defendants
included a family of six, among them, ve women. Other trafckers were the son of a
trafcker and his live-in girlfriend, and two live-in boyfriends of the same women.
10
German Federal Criminal Police reported that almost one-quarter (22 percent)
of the 714 suspects arrested in 2007 were women.
17
Other statistics provided by the United Nations Ofce on Drugs and
Crime indicate that, in Nigeria, 60 percent of those prosecuted (and 50 percent
of those convicted) for trafcking are women, while in the Slovak Republic, a
quarter of those prosecuted in trafcking cases are women. Furthermore, the
United Nations. reports that the percentage of women involved in trafcking
in Italy varies tremendously from one country to the next. Data collected
between 1996 and 2003 show the percentage of women trafckers: Albania
(7 percent), the former Yugoslavia Republic (11 percent), Italy (12 percent),
Romania (25 percent), and Ukraine (79 percent).
18
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TRAFFICKERS AND THEIR VICTIMS
Law enforcement agencies and studies reveal that (sex) trafckers, particularly
those operating in source countries, recruit victims of their own ethnic back-
ground or nationality.
19
The relationship may determine the method used to
recruit the individual victims. Victims may be recruited by strangers through
formal advertisements, Internet ads, word of mouth, or family members or
friends. In Albania, young women from rural areas are reported to be courted
with expensive gifts and recruited with false promises marriage. Almost one-
third of the women (738) repatriated to Albania were found to have been
recruited through fraudulent promises of marriage.
20
Kidnapping, while an
uncommon recruitment practice among trafckers in other countries, appears to
occur with some regularity in Albania. Within this same sample, 7 percent of
the repatriated women reported having been kidnapped. Children in West Africa
are often placed in the trust of trafckersoften family members or friends
who promise the parents to provide education or work opportunities. Organiza-
tions working with trafcked children report that they are at times sold outright
or traded for items. One NGO told of an Albanian child who was traded for a
second-hand television set.
21
THE TRAFFICKING PROCESS
Recruitment and Preparation for Travel
Recruitment very often involves promises of marriage (or of employment,
education opportunities, or a better life). The U.S. government identied this
same pattern in Taiwan, China, where the demand for young Vietnamese
women as brides and concubines has resulted in a record number of these
young women being brought into Taiwan. After being married and becoming
legal citizens, many are sold into prostitution.
22
Believing that they will be
happily married, all women willingly depart their native countries.
This is also true for women who believe that they will be working
abroad. A study in the Philippines found that all victims left the Philippines
willingly. The majority of respondents in the study said they were sought out
by recruiters, while less than a quarter of the 85 victims interviewed sought
out the recruiters themselves. A large majority of the victims were contacted
through word of mouth by intermediaries that included family members,
friends, or acquaintances known to the respondent or the family.
23
Trafckers use various methods to bring trafcked persons into a destination
country. They may, under false pretenses, attempt to secure legal visas into a
desired country, or use this country as a point of entry into Western Europe.
Once in the European Union, they are subject to no or minimal border controls.
During a mission to Nigeria in 2000 to assess the problem of trafcking in
women, our U.N. delegation
24
was told by embassy personnel of EU Member
States, that Nigerian trafckers used to visa shop for the embassy, which
imposed the fewest restrictions on the issuance of visas. Consular ofcers told of
individuals who sought to obtain travel visas for womens study groups or tours.
One consular ofcial told of a Nigerian who sought visas for members of his
young womens badminton team. When embassy personnel invited the young
women in individually to interview them and test their knowledge of the sport,
the women had no idea what a badminton shuttlecock looked like. When embas-
sies began coordinating their efforts and made it more difcult to obtain visas
from EU countries, Nigerian trafckers began moving their victims to Benin to
attempt to secure visas from the embassies of EU Member States in that country.
When this failed, they began moving victims overland to Northern Africa.
Customs and immigration ofcials report other ruses as well. Picture sub-
stitution in passports or passport rental from young women to smuggle look-
alikes into a country have also been reported by law enforcement ofcials.
While more and more passports contain bio-information printed on chips, this
clearly is not the case in many developing nations where funds are scare and
the verication of a persons identity is difcultbirth records in rural vil-
lages are often nonexistent.
Transportation
The transportation phase varies per trip and client. Some victims are unaware
of what awaits them at their destination due, in part, to the fact that they are
treated so well during the transportation phase. The exploitation or victimiza-
tion of persons in transit may depend in part upon whether they are trans-
ported by plane or through other modes of transportation prolonging the
journey. In a U.N. study of Filipinos who were trafcked to Japan, the Repub-
lic of Korea
*
, and other destinations, many reported residing in four- to ve-
star hotels in transit.
25
Others are not so lucky.
*Republic of Korea and South Korea will be used interchangeably throughout the text.
Stories of children trafcked from and within West African countries por-
tray a harsher reality. Togolese child victims reported varying degrees of hard-
ship and exposure to uncomfortable and dangerous situations during their
travels. Children reported being transported without documents across national
borders and being forced to walk long distances. Child victims interviewed
told of being subjected to physical and psychological violence once they were
on the journey. Children transported by boat reported that other child victims
had succumbed to thirst or drowned.
26
Likewise, Nigerian women reported
being raped while in transit overland to Northern Africa to groom and pre-
pare them for what awaits them in their destination country in Western
Europe or to force them to pay for their upkeep during the transport phase.
27
Exploitation
Creation of debt is one of the main mechanisms used by trafckers to main-
tain control over victims. Debt can be incurred as a result of the cost of the
trip of having been smuggled into the destination country. Trafcking, how-
ever, occurs also in situations in which no debt was incurredeither the vic-
tim paid all costs before departure, or there was never any discussion of
repayment for expenses, in cases, for example, when women are unsuspect-
ingly brought to a country as the girlfriend of the trafckers.
Even when the initial debt has been repaid, victims are not always free to
leave. Some victims continue to be nancially exploitedby having to pay
for food, rent, and other services, often at exorbitant prices. In the case of
Turkish trafckers in Amsterdam, women were forced to turn over C
1,000
28
per day to the trafckers and also had to pay for the rental of their rooms and
an additional C
100 to C
150 a week for their security guards.

29
Nigerian women are generally exploited until they repay the debt
incurred.
30
This means that they are forced to remain in prostitution for a cou-
ple of years depending on how much money they repay their madams each
month. The conditions in which the women work and live is reported to be
abominable and results in a short life expectancy, which sometimes does not
extend much beyond the time needed to extinguish the debt.
31
Once the
women are successful in repaying their debt, they often themselves become
madams, join the criminal organizations, and recruit their own victims who
they force or trick into prostitution.
In contrast to the Nigerian victims, Albanian women are forced to work
in prostitution their entire lives. They are subjected to unconditional exploi-
tation and for an indeterminate period of time.
32
Their only chance of being
saved is to escape or be caught by police, report their victimization, and tes-
tify against their trafckers. The situation is similar for Eastern European
women who are forced to work in prostitution in Italy.
This pattern of exploitation and debt bondage extends to trafcked vic-
tims in situations of labor exploitation as well. Bangladeshi workers responded
to an advertisement to work in a garment factory in Jordan promising them a
salary of US$125 a month to work eight hours a day, six days a week. The
three-year contact also offered paid overtime, free accommodation, free food,
and medical care in addition to no advance fees. Upon their arrival in the
United States, workers passports were conscated, and they were prohibited
from leaving the factory and forced to pay exorbitant fees. No salary was
forthcoming, food was inadequate, and sick workers were tortured. Workers
were forced to stay to repay the debt they had incurred in having borrowed
money to pay for their trip.
33
MAINTAINING CONTROL OVER VICTIMS
Trafckers resort to a number of psychological and physical means to manip-
ulate and control their victims.
Use of Violence and Threats to Control Victims
Violence or threats of violence are often used to intimidate or punish noncom-
pliant victims. The degree to which trafckers exercise control over their vic-
tims has been well documented in victims accounts. Seizure of documents
and threats of violence (to beat the victims or to harm the victims family in
the country of origin) have been reported to police and NGOs. In one case in
the United Kingdom, a trafcker threatened to use a young Czech mothers
children in pornographic videos if she did not cooperate and work for him as
a prostitute.
34
Violence or the threat of violence is used routinely to keep
women in line or prevent future transgressions.
Violence is also used as punishment for rule-violating behavior. Women
who have tried to escape, communicate with customers, or cooperate with
police are often severely beaten. A Human Rights Watch study on Nepalese
girls and women trafcked to brothels in India reported that trafcking vic-
tims in India are subjected to conditions tantamount to slavery and to serious
physical abuse. Held in debt bondage for years at a time, they are raped and
subjected to other forms of torture, to severe beatings, exposure to AIDS, and
arbitrary imprisonment.
35
Numerous studies report that between a quarter to
more than half of trafcked women seeking assistance from organizations
working with migrants or those repatriated have been severely beaten and or
raped by their pimps and trafckers.
36
Another instance in which violence is used by trafckers is as a warning
to keep other trafcked victims in line. Punishment is extreme and occurs
publicly. In a murder in Istanbul, Turkey, two Ukrainian women were thrown
to their deaths from a balcony while six of their Russian friends watched. In
another incident in Serbia, a woman who refused to work as a prostitute was
beheaded in public.
37
The large-scale and highly sophisticated trafcking-prostitution ring run
by two Turkish-German brothers (Hasan and Saban B.) in the Netherlands
was described as one of the most brutal. Women who spoke to police were
beaten with baseball bats and then submerged in cold water to prevent or
reduce the visibility of bruises. They were forced to undergo abortions and
breast implants. A number of victims were also tattooed with the name or ini-
tials of one of the two brothers. The message: the girls were not for sale.
39
While seizure of documents and beatings are a common method to exert
control, other forms are more psychological, nuanced, and less visible. The
Turkish-German brothers Hasan and Saban, in addition to beating and con-
stantly supervising the women they forced into prostitution, manipulated them
to ensure their compliance. Women were complimented, made jealous, belit-
tled, and abused.
40
This same pattern is found in the practices of loverboys
(a modus operandi) in the Netherlands. After having convinced their young
Dutch victims that they are in love, these older men (usually of Moroccan and
Antillean descent) ease these girls into prostitution. This creation of emotional
dependence facilitates the long-term exploitation of young women who may
not even realize that they are being exploited.
41
The deputy director at the Washington-based Polaris Project describes the
same pattern in the United States. Runaway girls are targeted by pimps and
showered with a mixture of affection and violence, gifts, and degradation. The
girl may be required to tattoo her pimps name on her thigh as a sign of own-
ership. In exchange, she may be given jewelry or clothing as presents. It is
the emotional bond and fear that keeps the victim tied to the trafcker. This
trauma bonding occurs when the trafcker wields the power to kill the vic-
tim, but does not do so.
42
Case 5.2. Latvian Women Forced to Strip
Alex Mishulovich, a naturalized U.S. citizen from Russia, posed as a nightclub owner
and contacted Latvian women whom he and his wife approached on the streets of
Riga, Latvia. He told them they could earn up to $60,000 a year in a nightclub and
that the men would not be allowed to touch them. At least ve Latvian women were
trafcked to Chicago and held in slavery-like conditions and forced to strip at Chicago
nightclubs. The women would earn as much as $600 a night but were forced to give
all but $20 to the trafckers.
Mishulovich, who claimed allegiance with the Chechnyan maa, helped the
women obtain immigration papers, but as soon as they arrived in Chicago he took their
papers, locked them in apartments or hotel rooms, beat them, and threatened to kill
them. He told the women his mobster associates would kill their families in Latvia if
they refused to obey him. At times, he held a gun to a womans head or put a knife to
her throat.
38
Unique to a number of West African countries, in particular, Nigeria and
Ghana, is the use of voodoo practices or juju to instill fear into young
women and prevent them from escaping or cooperating with police. Trafck-
ers practice voodoo rights on the girls prior to departure from Nigeria. Young
women are forced to swear an oath, and a piece of (intimate) clothing, a n-
gernail clipping, or lock of hair is used in a voodoo ritual that binds the vic-
tims to their trafckers. Failure to respect the oath results in misfortune
befalling the girls or their families.
43
Allegedly, the trafcked women are so
fearful of these oaths that Italian police note that, compared with other foreign
women trafcked into prostitution into Italy, Nigerian women are subjected to
much less physical supervision and control.
44
The situation may be changing in some countries. According to organiza-
tions working with or conducting research on trafcked victims, trafcking is
increasing but fewer victims are coming to the attention of these or other of-
cial agencies. The patterns of exploitation and abuse are changing. The use of
physical abuse and overt violence is decreasing, while psychological abuse
and manipulation is increasing.
45
Exploitation is becoming more subtle and
control over victims is more relaxed. Victims are being given small payments
and are even being moved into their own apartments in an attempt on the part
of trafckers to buy the victims silence and ensure that victims to do not
denounce their trafckers.
46
This diffuses the sharp line drawn between traf-
cked victims and freelance sex workers and makes it difcult for agencies
providing assistance and law enforcement to identify who is a trafcked vic-
tim entitled to help and who is an illegal migrant and freelance sex worker
subject to deportation.
Rotation of Victims and Provision of Sex Services to Illegal Migrants
Trafckers and brothel owners treat women as commodities. A typical pattern
that emerged in case studies of police les conducted in the Netherlands
revealed the buying and selling of women to brothel owners and pimps after
they had spent a certain amount of time in particular brothels. These prosti-
tution carrousels meant new faces that in turn ensured new clients. The man-
ner in which brothel owners and pimps acquired trafcked victims for forced
prostitution varied from those who went to the countries of origin (often from
the former Eastern Bloc) to bring back their women, to others who simply
bought women from known pimps and recruiters.
47
Organizations protect their operation through the rotation of prostitutes
between clubs, massage parlors, or brothels in a city, between cities, and even
between different countries. The prosecutors ofce of Ascoli Piceno, Italy,
reported that Eastern European women are rotated every six to seven months
both within Italy and to other countries as a result of the need to protect the
criminal organization from arrest and market forces (clients want new girls).
48
In the United States, Asian trafcking networks rotate trafcked victims forced
into prostitution between hostess clubs or room salons, massage parlors, and
brothels hiding behind legitimate businesses. According to the deputy director of
the Polaris Project, workers are shared by all three kinds of sex operations, all
sell sex, and all are linked to organized crime.
49
At an IOM shelter in Tirana, Albania, many of the young victims of sex
trafcking spoke Italian, German, Dutch, and English. They learned these dif-
ferent languages while working in those countries. Some of the girls were
in as many as four different countries during their time as sex slaves. That
was disturbing, but more shocking was the realization that the majority of the
girls were under the age of 21. This same pattern was revealed in a police
and prosecutorial investigation into the trafcking of women from Lithuania
to the Netherlands for forced prostitution. Victims were being moved or sold
to brothels in Austria, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Spain.
50
Rotation provides new faces to the male clientele but also ensures that
male customers do not establish a relationship with the trafcked women. This
situation may result in a customer reporting the womans situation to the police.
While this rotation is a protective mechanism used by trafcking organi-
zations to prevent the establishment of a bond between the customer and vic-
tim, other trafckers exploit this situation for further nancial gain.
Trafcking gangs in Dubi, Czech Republic, reportedly do not sell their vic-
tims, rather they rent them out to other trafckers and brothel owners. One
young 21-year-old woman had worked as a prostitute in different cities in the
Czech Republic, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.
51
Women and children also may be rotated out of the commercial sex market
if they are sold to a customer. In a U.N. study of Filipinos trafcked to
Malaysia, four cases were uncovered of women being bought by men to
become wives or mistresses. It cannot be determined whether the men, in buy-
ing them, freed these women from sexual slavery and improved their position, or
whether the women then became domestic and sex slaves to these men.
52
Another way in which criminals avoid detection is to keep their business
within the illegal circuit. The Mexican Cadena family created a market for
sexual services among illegal migrant workers in Florida and then supplied
the men with often-underage women from Mexico. They protected their enter-
prise by beating and threatening the young women and by providing services
to illegal migrants who, themselves, were hardly in a position to report any
criminal practices. Their silence was guaranteed by the migrant workers fear
of arrest and deportation.
53
MANIPULATION OF THE SYSTEM
To avoid detection, trafcking networks often rely on corruption of govern-
ment ofcials in source, transit, or destination countries or exploit laws in des-
tination countries.
Corruption
Trafcking does not exist in a vacuum and corruption of government ofcials
is central to many trafcking operations. Data from the Council of Europe
suggest that corruption is one of the most important cost factors for trafck-
ers.
54
Without corrupt law enforcement, border guards, police, consular of-
cials, diplomats, lawyers, security, and transport sectors, this trade could not
exist. These and other ofcials such as personnel in the airports and railroad
industry, or border agents turn a blind eye, often after the payment of a signif-
icant sum, and allow trafckers to proceed and trafcking networks to pros-
per. Human Rights Watch found evidence of Bosnian ofcials facilitating
human trafcking by creating or ignoring false documents produced by traf-
ckers to facilitate transport through the country, visiting brothels to partake
of free sexual services in exchange for ignoring trafcking and sometimes
engaging in trafcking directly by operating bars in which trafcked women
were forced to work as prostitutes.
55
Corruption can be either (or both) proactive (such as actively assisting
trafckers in procuring travel documents) or passive (a failure to react by
turning a blind eye). A study of corruption and human trafcking in South-
eastern Europe suggests that organized trafcking requires systematic corrup-
tion entailing corrupt relationships and networks, as well as corruption at high
levels. Bribes do not remain with lower-ranking ofcials who take them, but
ow up the chain of command.
56
The Albanian prime minister accused the
judicial system and government of widespread corruption that exacerbated the
countrys human trafcking problem.
57
A U.N. study in Malaysia looking at trafcking of Filipinos to that coun-
try also found corruption at different levels. Senior police ofcers in collusion
with trafcking syndicates were provided with regular nancial payments and
free access to drinks as well as sexual services of the (trafcked) women in
the entertainment centers. Lower-ranking law enforcement personnel who
were not party to those arrangements attempted to get their share through
direct extortion of the women themselves using harassment with the threat of
arrest and detention. Three different incidents were reported where women
were told by club owners to provide sexual services to men identied as
police ofcers.
58
Within the course of this same study, victims identied corrupt practices
on the part of immigration ofcers at the airport in Manila, claiming that traf-
ckers would notify immigration ofcials by beeper of when and where
escorts would be coming through immigration checks with a number of peo-
ple and that ofcers had escorted them through immigration checkpoints with
false or no documentation. The Philippines Bureau of Immigration took
prompt steps to thwart these practices, including removing numbers from
immigration counters; prohibiting the use of pagers, beepers, or cellular phones;
banning escorts from bringing groups of persons through immigration; and
assigning restaurants near the airport known to be contact places for smugglers
and trafckers off limits to immigration personnel.
Police corruption in Indonesia also reportedly facilitates trafcking in that
country. Individual members of the security forces were accused of engaging
in or facilitating trafcking by providing protection to brothels and prostitu-
tion fronts in karaoke bars, discos, and hotels, or by receiving bribes to ignore
the practice.
59
Exploitation of the Laws in Destination Countries
Trafckers are often good entrepreneurs and adapt to the laws and regulations
in destination countries. As embassies, customs, and law enforcement ofcers
make it more difcult for trafckers to secure visas or smuggle their victims
into destination countries, trafckers have become more creative in their
methods. They are familiar with laws and exploit these laws to maximize the
number of victims that can be brought into a country and at the same time
reduce the chances of getting caught. Over a two-year-period, Nigerian traf-
ckers brought more than 140 Nigerian minors to the Netherlands under false
pretenses and had the minors claim asylum upon entering the Netherlands.
Trafckers supplied the young women with false passports and instructions on
how to apply for asylum upon landing at Schiphol airport. Dutch law prohibits
asylum seekers from being deported until their case has been investigated.
Unaccompanied minors are housed in an open reception centermeaning
that they are free to come and go as they pleasewhile they are awaiting a
decision on their case. According to Dutch law, asylum seekers cannot be
incarcerated; they are viewed as victims rather than offenders. These young
victims remained for a period of weeks or months in these receptions centers
before being contacted by trafckers. Shortly thereafter, they disappeared into
street prostitution in a number of southern European countries. Those victims
found in France, Italy, and Spain were returned to the Netherlands and offered
assistance. As a result of this practice, high-risk groups of unaccompanied
minors are now being housed in a closed institution at a secret location. In
connection with this case, police and justice ofcials arrested more than 20
suspects in Belgium, England, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, the
United Kingdom, and the United States.
60
CRIMINAL EARNINGS
Experts perhaps know the least about criminal earnings. Few trafcking opera-
tions are uncovered and, when they are, it is difcult to get the victims to tes-
tify against their trafckers. Even when trafckers are arrested, it is a
technical and time-consuming task to uncover the criminal earnings of these
organizations. Much of the money has been laundered and sent back to the
trafckers home country or invested in (il)legitimate businesses.
In the case of trafcking for sexual exploitation, the earnings per victim
and the number of clients per day serviced by a victim will determine the
prot earned by trafckers. A number of studies based on interviews with vic-
tims indicate that women are forced to have sexual relations with as many as
15 to 30 customers a day.
61
The women are generally allowed to keep very
little, if any, of the money they earn.
In the case of trafcking for forced prostitution, trafckers earn money on
the women they exploit and then sell them to other trafckers. An undercover
report by ITN news on the trade of Czech women to the United Kingdom
found, however, that women are not sold but rented to brothel owners or
other trafckers. Reporter Chris Rogers established an Internet cover opera-
tion, EUrotica, in the United Kingdom and then traveled to the Czech Repub-
lic to discuss with trafckers the possibility of securing women for his U.K.
brothels. The girls, he was told, were for rent for a period of six months. The
rental price for a woman, who would be delivered to the United Kingdom,
was 5,0003,000 of which was to be paid upfront and the remainder upon
delivery of the woman. Half of her earnings would be paid to the brothel
owner in the United Kingdom, the other half to the trafckers in the Czech
Republic. To provide an idea of the huge amount of money generated by
prostitution, Rogers told CNN that within two hours of launching his Web
site, the Internet company had received 400 bookings for prostitutes. If only
half of the bookings were realized, his organization would have made
20,000 pounds in a two-week period.
62
Police in the United Kingdom found that the services of prostitutes cost
between 25 to 40 for half an hour of sex. An hour of unprotected sex could
bring as much as 70. Some trafcked victims reported being forced to work
16 hours a day, possibly earning their trafckers in excess of 1,000 a day.
Prices paid by pimps for purchasing trafcked victims in the United Kingdom
varied from 3,000 to 8,000.
63
Police found a Lithuanian girl had been sold
for 8,000 on arrival in the United Kingdom because she was a virgin.
64
Concrete sums of money found during police raids provide only a limited
picture of the trafcking operation. Spanish police arrested 60 people involved
in a trafcking operation suspected of having forced 2,000 Russian women
into prostitution in Spain. Alerted to large transactions with Russian money
through foreign currency exchange outlets, police began an investigation.
Police found the equivalent of $28,350 in cash, gold, nine cars, ve com-
puters, passports, and plane tickets and estimate that trafckers sent more than
$74,000 back to Russia.
65
The Dutch police estimate that the prostitutes work-
ing for the Turkish-German brothers in the Sneep case generated C
400,000 a
month.
66
Two university professors from Uzbekistan living in Texas victi-
mized two young Uzbek girls and in 18 months made $400,000 off the serv-
ices of their victims.
67
Europol reports that trafcked Lithuanian women are traded for between
C
2,200 and C
6,000. Women may be resold numerous times, and in the case

of Lithuanian women, up to seven times during the course of their exploita-
tion. A bar owner from the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia gener-
ated a prot of between C
10,000 and C
15,000 from one trafcked victim.

Recent research in Italy estimates that approximately 5,000 trafcked
victims generate annual prots for the trafckers at between C
380 and
C
950 million.
68
The International Labour Organization (ILO) attempted to calculate the
prots generated by criminal agents and organizations trafcking humans.
Based on an estimate of 1.1 million victims of human trafcking for forced
economic exploitation, the ILO found that total prots
69
amounted to US$3.8
billionmost of it generated in industrial countries. Prots in other regions
varied between US$40 million in Sub-Saharan Africa and US$776 million in
Latin America. When restricting the assessment to prots from forced com-
mercial sexual exploitation as a result of trafcking,
[T]he ILO found that the global prots made from trafcking into forced commer-
cial sexual exploitation amounted to US$27.8 billion. Almost half of all prots
US$13.3 billionare made with people trafcked into or within industrial coun-
tries. Second highest prots are in Asia (US$9.5 billion), followed by transition
economies (US$3.2 billion), Middle-East and North Africa (US$1.0 billion), Latin
America (US$0.6 billion) and Sub-Saharan Africa (US$0.1 billion).
70
The study estimated that each woman in forced sexual servitude generates
approximately US$100,000 per year.
The ILO study examined a number of cases to test their estimates. Prots
varied. In a case in Finland, police seized accounts showing that prostitutes
generated between C
75,000 and C
120,000 per year per woman. A case in the

United Kingdom (the so-called Plakici case) generated earnings of about
US$276,000 by forcing a 16-year-old girl into prostitution over a period of
two years (representing earnings of about US$140,000 per year). An investiga-
tion by the Canadian police into a prostitution network revealed that brothel
keepers made about US$5 million annual prots with 100 trafcked women
amounting to annual prots of US$50,000 per women.
71
GENERAL OVERVIEW OF TRAFFICKING ORGANIZATIONS
The degree to which trafckers and networks are organized varies from one
incident, operation, and country to the next. Trafcking can range from some-
thing as simple as a single individual recruiting and exploiting single victim
in the same city or country of origin, to highly sophisticated operations mov-
ing large numbers of victims across numerous borders. The operation can be
solely in the hands of criminals who arrange everything from recruitment to
the production of false documents, transportation, and exploitation, or it can
be a segmented business involving an interaction between a criminal network
and, for instance, a legitimate transportation company, which may knowingly or
unknowingly transport victims (as was the case involving the tragic death of
almost 300 illegal Pakistani migrants in 1996).
72
Trafcking can involve numer-
ous people who provide the entire range of services
73
and be as sophisticated
and complex as the international operation that smuggled 60 Chinese persons
from Fujian province, China, to Serbia, Hungary, Austria, France, Belgium, the
Netherlands, and nally to the United Kingdom. The journey, which included
travel on airline ights, by high speed train, and being smuggled in the back of
a truck, ended in death by suffocation of 58 of the 60 passengers.
74
Operations moving large numbers of persons through numerous countries
over a longer period of time are, by nature, highly organized. There is, however,
little evidence of highly structured, hierarchical organized crime enterprises
involved in human trafcking. Instead, human trafcking tends to be the domain
of more loosely organized, entrepreneurial organized crime networks that work
together and exibly move along, dealing with numerous partners and have a
wide range of players that are not part of the group but a part of a network that
provides criminal services.
75
This concept has been supported by research in the
Netherlands that found that offenders trafcking Central and Eastern European
women to the Netherlands were organized in trafcking networks.
76
Trafcking organizations fall on a continuum ranging from (and broadly
grouped into) individuals, or amateur trafckers, to small groups of organized
criminals, to international trafcking networks.
77
Individual trafckers who
maintain control of the entire operation recruit, transport, and exploit their vic-
tims. The Albanian men who court their young victims with promises of
marriage, smuggle them into Italy, and then force the girls into prostitution
are examples of individual trafckers. The family who brought Henriette
Akofa from Togo to France (see chapter 4) and forced her into domestic slav-
ery, or the foreign diplomats in the United States who have been accused of
holding their nationals as domestic helpers in virtual slave-like conditions are
also examples of individual trafckers.
78
Freelance criminals may have ties to
organized crime overseas, as is the case with Russians smuggling women into
the United States to work in the sex industry.
79
Case 5.3. Forced Prostitution in Philadelphia
In Philadelphia, a Ukrainian national, Yelena Telichenko, met a Russian woman who
she convinced to move down to Orlando with her. Shortly after arriving in Florida,
Ms. Telichenko forced the young woman to serve as a mistress for a series of men so
the men would support the two women through gifts. If the victim objected in any
way, Telichinko repeatedly and brutally beat her. Telichenko was caught and plead
guilty to violation of 18 U.S.C., Section1589 (forced labor) for holding the Russian
victim in servitude.
80
The second type of trafcking organization is characterized by small
groups of organized criminals. They may be involved in trafcking within a
countrys borders or small-scale international trafcking. These loose confedera-
tions of organized criminal entrepreneurs or enterprises were seen among the
Asian gangs who control the trafcking of women to and in the United States.
81
In the United Kingdom, police characterized this group as market traders
who seize opportunities in the most protable markets. They rotate their victims
around the United Kingdom and sell them to other trafckers.
82
There is some
degree of specialization and sophistication, but not to the degree witnessed in
the third groupthose of international trafcking networks.
At the end of the continuum are the highly structured, criminal organiza-
tions controlling the trafcking process and providing the full set of services
(from recruitment, documentation forgery, transportation, corruption of police
ofcials, where necessary, and exploitation) from start to nish. These
complex networks are characterized as exible, horizontal, and decentralized.
This exible structure allows cooperation with other criminal groups.
Increased exibility facilitates a rapid response to changes in legislation and
law enforcement activity as well as uctuating supply and demand in different
markets. Members of these organizations may be located in origin, transit and
destination countries providing transportation and safe-houses along the route.
Larger organizations are divided into smaller subunits that make use of crimi-
nal specialists, who provide particular services and expertise that otherwise
might be outside of the scope of the criminal organization itself. This enables
the organization to rapidly adjust to new market opportunities.
83
The Bureau of the Dutch National Rapporteur on Trafcking in Human
Beings conducted an in-depth analysis of 156 trafcking case les from the
police over the period 19982002. Researchers identied three organizational
forms and examined the distribution of these criminal organizations. In 41
cases (26 percent), the criminal organization form was classied as a soloist
operation. The soloist is generally a single person who exploits one or more
girls. Slightly fewer cases (35 or 22 percent) involved isolated criminal
groups. The isolated criminal group with a minimum of two and a maximum
of ve members is responsible for the entire range of activities from recruit-
ment to forcing women into prostitution. Members of the groups travel to for-
eign countries to bring the women into the Netherlands. More than half of the
cases (51 percent) were classied as criminal networksan undened crimi-
nal infrastructure, in which members are bound together and in which mem-
bership and clear clusters are based on geographic proximity, family
relationships, friendships, trade relations, and related activities.
84
The Sophistication of Large Trafcking Organizations
Larger, more sophisticated trafcking units have been described as horizontal
designs divided into several subunits that specialize in a particular part or
sequence of the operation.
85
Subunits may provide the same services to
smuggled and trafcked persons initiallyrecruitment, provision of false
identity papers or passports, transportation, safe-houses, and entry into the
destination country. In situations in which persons are trafcked, the exploit-
ing unit and re-escort unit (for the purpose of rotation to other destinations)
provide services to networks dealing with trafcked persons. The manage-
ment unit maintains a vertical structure and has knowledge of and controls the
other subunits. All other subunits are organized horizontally and have limited
knowledge of the other subunits.
86
Migrant trafcking enterprises are character-
ized by a number of specic roles that individuals take on within the organiza-
tion to provide specic services.
87
Investors: put forward funding for the operation, and oversee the entire
operation; these people are unlikely to be known by the everyday employ-
ees of the operation, as they are sheltered by an organizational pyramid
structure that protects their anonymity
Recruiters: seek out potential migrants and secure their nancial commit-
ment. These people may be members of the culture and the community
from which migrants are drawn
Transporters: assist the migrants in leaving their country of origin, either
by land, sea, or air
Corrupt public ofcials or protectors: may assist in obtaining travel
documents, or accept bribes to enable migrants to enter/exit illegally
Informers: gather information on matters such as border surveillance,
immigration, and transit procedures, asylum systems, law enforcement
activities
88
Guides and crew members: are responsible for moving illegal migrants
from one transit point to the other or helping the migrants to enter the des-
tination country
Enforcers: are primarily responsible for policing staff and migrants, and
for maintaining order
Debt collectors: are in the destination country to collect fees
Money launderers: launder the proceeds of crime, disguising their origin
through a series of transactions or investing them in legitimate businesses
Supporting personnel and specialists: may include local people at transit
points who might provide accommodation and other assistance
Signicant evidence points toward a high degree of organization and
sophistication in trafcking operations. The European Police Agency, Europol,
characterized a highly organized operation as one that (1) smuggles large
numbers of persons over great distances, (2) is able to smuggle different
nationalities on the same transport, (3) moves large amounts of money, and
(4) when things go wrong, has immediate legal assistance. A study of illegal
migrants intercepted in Lithuania found that the migrants had passed through
an average of 3.6 transit countries and that their journey had been multimodal
with an average of four modes of transport used. No migrant had covered the
entire journey by the same means of transport.
89
Case 5.4 describes a large and highly sophisticated trafcking organiza-
tion. This case, dubbed Sneep, was described by Dutch police as signicant
in terms of violence and degree of organization.
Open border and technological advances have facilitated criminal activ-
ities (smuggling, counterfeiting, and fraud) that require less specialization than
was previously necessary and that have allowed criminals to diversify their
activities. The criminal groups have been known to make use of existing con-
tacts, routes, corrupt government ofcials, and networks to expand their opera-
tions.
90
Intelligence sources at Interpol reveal that trafcking in human beings
supplements more traditional criminal activities, such as drug trafcking, traf-
cking in arms vehicle theft, and money laundering. Trafckers have been
linked to money lending to repay debts, extortion for protection money, and
physical violence. Furthermore, trafckers have been known to coerce their
victims into smuggling and selling drugs. Belgian investigators, conrming
reports by Europol and Interpol, found that organized criminal groups rarely
limit themselves to one activity but are involved in people smuggling, drug
and human trafcking, theft, and fraud.
91
Europol reports that these criminal groups reach informal agreements to
work together, and the organization has seen an increase in multinational
criminal groups active in the European Union. In July 2000, the Dutch police
apprehended an international criminal group, including 54 Iranians, three
Case 5.4. The Dutch Case: Sneep
In 1998 two Turkish-German brothers arrived in Amsterdam forcing two young women
to work as prostitutes from a hotel in the citys Red Light district. They began bringing
more women, mainly from Eastern Europe, who were then forced to work behind the
windows in the Red Light district. Over the years, they expanded their operation to
two other Dutch cities, Utrecht and Alkmaar. The police suspect that as many as 90
women from Bulgaria, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland, and Rumania were
forced into prostitution by the brothers.
They had established an enterprise, with themselves as the directors of the organi-
zation. Working under them were pimps, all of whom were responsible for a specic
operational branch. One was responsible for the bodyguards; a second oversaw the pro-
duction and management of false documents, while the third pimp coordinated prostitu-
tion services in Germany. Under this mid-level management (the pimps) were
guards (assigned to protect the women if clients became aggressive). Lower on the
scale were chauffeurs and others who provided peripheral services. According to the
police, approximately 30 people were working for the organization.
92
Iraqis, two Algerians, and one Romanian. They were charged with drug traf-
cking and falsication of documents. The criminal group, in possession of
265 passports, Schengen visas, and other identication papers were believed
to also be involved in the smuggling of migrants.
94
Researchers in organized
crime nd that criminals of different ethnic backgrounds seem able to nd
each other.
95
ORGANIZED CRIME AND TRAFFICKING
There is a considerable body of research concerning organized crime, and
there have been many attempts to link organized crime to trafcking, particu-
larly as organized crime has a long history of exploiting opportunities in
regard to vice, police corruption, and drug dealing.
Organized crime groups involved in trafcking humans can be studied
from a number of different approaches. One of these approaches looks at tra-
ditional organized crime with its hierarchical structure and central authority.
Another approach examines trafcking operations from the perspective of net-
work analysis, while a third position analyzes trafcking organizations as
business models. The role of organized crime groups will be dealt with
briey, while more emphasis will be paid to the last two structures.
A denition or organized crime that has gained widespread recognition is
the denition put forth in the U.N. Convention against Transnational Organ-
ized Crime and is considered to be the most important attempt to date to
arrive at a globally agreed upon concept of organized crime.
96
Article 2 of
the Convention denes organized crime as follows:
Case 5.5. A European Prostitution Ring
Adult women and juvenile females were recruited from countries in Eastern and Cen-
tral Europe. They were brought via diverse routes to a central meeting place in Hun-
gary, provided with false documents and handed over to chauffeurs who organized
their transportation to the Netherlands. Once in the Netherlands, victims were distrib-
uted among various individuals. Transportation was arranged to bring the young
women to their place of employment where they were forced to work in prostitution
from 12 to 15 hours a day.
The police arrested 22 suspects mainly from the former Yugoslavia. Three sus-
pects played an executive role in the trafcking network, while the remainder fullled
such tasks as recruiters, transporters or chauffeurs, guards, debt collectors, or providers
of a safe-house. In addition to these suspects, the police identied a large number of
people providing supportive services to the network; 11 others were involved in a false
marriage scam.
93
(a) Organized criminal group shall mean a structured group of three or more
persons, existing for a period of time and acting in concert with the aim of
committing one or more crimes or offences established in accordance with this
Convention, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a nancial or other mate-
rial benet ;
(b) Serious crime shall mean conduct constituting an offence punishable by maxi-
mum deprivation of liberty of at least four years or a more serious penalty;
(c) Structured group shall mean a group that is not randomly formed for the
immediate commission of an offence and that does not need to have formally
dened roles for its members, continuity of its membership or a developed
structure.
This widely accepted denition of organized crime provides a sharp con-
trast to the traditional, hierarchical organized crime structures most closely
associated with organizations such as the Italian maa. Organized crime
groups matching all of these models have been identied as being involved in
the trafcking and exploitation of persons.
Traditional Organized Crime Groups and Sex Trafcking
Older, traditional organized crime groups such as the Russian maa, Japanese
Yakuza, and Chinese triads have long been involved in the prostitution and sex
industry.
97
With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, destabilization in the
Balkans, globalization, economic instability, and more supple border controls,
new opportunities and crime groups have sprung up to ll the demand for
smuggling and trafcking, labor and sexual exploitation.
98
Albanian crime
groups control the ow of drugs, arms, and people into Italy and are responsible
for the trafc [of] thousands of women and girls into Italy for prostitution
every year they are known for their ruthlessness and retaliation against anyone
interfering with their trafcking business.
99
Similar organized crime groups
operate in other parts of the world. In India, organized prostitution is reported to
be in the hands of the Dawood Ibrahim group, while Nigerian organized crime
groups trafc drugs and force young Nigerian women into prostitution in Western
European countries. These groups and practices have expanded into other West
African countries such as Ghana and Benin. Law enforcement in Great Britain
refers to a West African rather than a Nigerian crime problem.
100
In Mexico and
Latin America, organized crime groups smuggle drugs and people and use these
same routes to trafc humans.
101
Trafcking as a Network
Network analysis is a more formal way of giving structure to much of what
was reviewed in the overview of smuggling and trafcking operations pre-
sented in the beginning of this chapter. The approach generally identies two
important dimensions of networks involved in organized crime: the degree of
dominance or inuence exercised by some members of the network over
others, and the degree to which there is explicit coordination among members
of the organization.
102
With respect to this second dimension, characteristics
such as the degree of specialization or division of tasks within the organiza-
tion are the focus. Are there a limited number of persons responsible for car-
rying out a large number of tasks, or is the organization highly specialized
with numerous individuals only responsible for a limited number of assigned
tasks? Network analysis of trafcking organizations also studies the nature of
underlying social relationshipsor the degree to which members of the orga-
nization are related to one anotherthrough friendship, familial, or ethnic
ties. Can the organizations be described as ethnically homogenous or hetero-
geneous? Are members of the organization related to one another through
family or tribal ties?
Clearly, the relationship between members and the division of tasks
within trafcking organizations varies. The Sneep case (see case 5.4) was run
by two Turkish brothers, who were assisted by their mother and sister. Other
members in the criminal organization were Dutch, German, and Polish. In
another case in the Netherlands, three suspects came from Azerbaijan, two
each from Lithuania, Morocco, and the Netherlands, and one each from Latvia
and Russia. Police in another case in the Netherlands identied seven Estonian
suspects, ve of whom were related. They were assisted by two Dutch mem-
bers of the organization.
103
Trafcking as a Business Model
Human trafcking is driven by prot. Similar to legitimate businesses, traf-
ckers look at market forces and adapt their methodology according to the
environments in which they work and the markets that exist for forced
labor.
104
Louise Shelley, an expert on international organized crime, has com-
pared trafcking with business models, arguing that certain ethnic or national
groups are more closely associated with a particular type of business model.
Each of the ve models reects the market forces, geographic positions and
limitations, and historical and cultural inuences of the group.
105
These
groups can be characterized by the types of people they transport, the reasons
for transportation (smuggling versus trafcking), use of force or violence,
human rights abuses, and the investment of prots generated from trafcking.
The regions represented include Africa, China, Latin America, and the former
Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc.
Natural Resource Model: Post-Soviet Organized Crime
The Natural Resource model is involved almost solely in the trafcking of
women. Rather than functioning as an integrated business, criminals involved
in post-Soviet organized crime focus on short-term prots rather than long-
term durability of the business. The emphasis is not on the maximization of
prots. Women are sold as commoditiesas if they were a readily available
natural resource (such as timber). The business focuses on the recruitment of
women who are then sold into prostitution to intermediaries who deliver them to
the markets to serve clients. The women are frequently sold off to nearby
trade partners (usually the most proximate crime group). Prots made are not
repatriated or used for development but generally are disposed of through con-
spicuous consumption or are sometimes used to purchase other commodities
with a rapid turnover. British law enforcement, for instance, found that the prof-
its from trafcking women were used to buy cars for sale in the Baltics or rubber
boots for sale in Ukraine.
Trade and Development Model: Chinese and Chinese-Thai Trafckers
The Trade and Development model is designed for maximum, long-term prot
and operates as a structured business that is integrated from start to nish,
controlling the process from recruitment to transportation and exploitation.
Chinese and Chinese-Thai trafcking is most applicable to the smuggling of
men; however, conscated ship logs show that as much as 10 percent of the
human trade includes women who may be forced to work in brothels. The
Chinese smuggling and trafcking operations differ based on the destination
country to which individuals are brought. The vast majority is smuggled to
the United States and after having paid off enormous debts, individuals are
free to leave. Prosecutors in Italy, however, report that individuals remain
enslaved in that country because they cannot be absorbed into the legitimate
Italian economy and repay their debt. It appears that operations to the United
States are smuggling operations, whereas those to Italy (and perhaps other
European destinations) involve trafcking.
Supermarket Model: Low-Cost and High-Volume U.S.-Mexican Trade
This Supermarket model, based on large-scale supply and existing demand,
aims at maximizing prots by moving the largest number of people. In order
to do this, the price for the trip must be kept low. U.S.-Mexican smugglers
may charge as little as several hundred dollars for the trip to entice large
numbers of people to make use of their services. In most cases the smuggler
releases the illegal migrants after having gotten them (safely) across the
U.S.-Mexican bordersometimes with fatal results.
106
While this low-cost,
high-volume model is most applicable to the smuggling of illegal migrants, it
is also applicable to the trafcking of persons. The low cost of the transporta-
tion gives the impression that a debt can be easily repaid and increases the
number of willing participants. Trafcked women can be brought across the
border in the same transport as smuggled men.
The trade in women is part of a much larger trade that involves moving
large numbers of people across the border at low cost. This trade may require
multiple attempts because 1.8 million individuals were arrested on the border
in 2000. There have been cases reported of Mexican trafckers forcing a
group of deaf individuals to peddle goods and, in the Cadena case,
107
young
Mexican girls were forced into brothels. Because there is little prot to be
made in each individual transported, smugglers and trafckers are not neces-
sarily interested in the safe delivery of their passengers, which often results
in violations of human rights, inhumane practices, and fatalities in crossing
the desert.
Corruption and payoffs of local border ofcials facilitate smuggling and
trafcking operations. In the Cadena case of young women trafcked to the
southeastern United States, millions of dollars of prots were invested in land
and farms in Mexico.
Violent Entrepreneur Model: Balkan Crime Groups
The Violent Entrepreneur model is opportunistic and highly protable. Balkan
crime groups, which trade in women, run an integrated business and serve as
middlemen for the groups from Eastern Europe. Crime groups from the for-
mer Eastern Europe and Soviet Union sell women to Balkan traders who force
these women into prostitution in destination countries, predominantly in West-
ern Europe. These groups control women from their base in the Balkans
through their exploitation in Western European brothels. This is an opportun-
istic model in both the source and destination countries.
Violence and force is an underlying and integral aspect of this model.
Balkan criminals are involved in signicant violations of human rights and
high levels of violence against trafcked women. Women suffer terrible physi-
cal abuse at the hands of their trafckers and threats are made to harm family
members at home. Violence is used against law enforcement ofcials who
seek to investigate these crimes. Force is also used by the Balkan crime
groups against established crime groups to conquer the sex markets in Great
Britain and continental Europe. The Balkan crime groups have been known to
have links with top-level law enforcement personnel in the home country,
which hinders a successful international investigation.
The control of many victims in the highly protable Western European
sex markets generates high levels of prots for the trafckers. These prots
appear to be used to nance investments in property and trade businesses
overseas and at home, as well as to invest in other illicit activities at home.
Traditional Slavery with Modern Technology Model: Trafcking Out of Nigeria
and West Africa
Since the late 1990s, there has been an increased awareness of trafcking of
young women and girls from Nigeria and other West African nations for the
purpose of exploitation in the Western European sex industry. By combining
traditional slavery with modern technology, Nigerian organized crime groups
have emerged as multifaceted crime groups. The trade in women for forced
prostitution is just one of numerous criminal activities in which these crime
Table 5.1 Characteristics of Trafficking Crime Groups as Businesses
Business Model and
Crime Group Victims Modus Operandi Violence
Human Rights
Violations Prot
Natural Resource
Model : Post-Soviet
Organized Crime
Women recruited and
trafcked for prostitution
Women are recruited
in source country and
then sold off to inter-
mediaries
Violence occurs Very signicant viola-
tions of human rights
Short term
Trade and Develop-
ment Model : Chi-
nese and Chinese-
Thai Trafckers
Smuggling and trafck-
ing of men for labor
exploitation and to a
lesser extent trafcking
women for prostitution
Structured business
integrated from start
to nish
Violence is known to
occur when debts
have not been paid
Less signicant viola-
tions of human rights
Maximum, long-term
prot
Supermarket Model :
Low-Cost and
High-Volume
U.S.Mexican Trade
Smuggling of both men
and women; trafcking
of women for forced
prostitution
Move large numbers
of persons while
keeping costs low
Not characteristic of
this group; although
human rights viola-
tions are reported
Signicant violations
of human rights
Maximizes prot
Violent Entrepre-
neur Model : Balkan
Crime Groups
Women trafcked for
prostitution
Serve as middlemen
for crime groups from
Eastern Europe; con-
trol women from base
in Balkans through
exploitation in broth-
els in Western Europe
High level of violence
used against victims
Very signicant viola-
tions of human rights;
reliance on violence
at all stages of opera-
tion makes it the most
signicant violator of
human rights
Opportunistic and
highly protable
Traditional Slavery
with Modern
Technology Model :
Trafcking Out of
Nigeria and West
Africa
Trafcking of young
women and girls for
prostitution to destina-
tions in Western
Europe; regional traf-
cking of children for
labor exploitation
Use of contracts and
voodoo practices to
bind victims to traf-
ckers and force
compliance
Willing to use physi-
cal violence against
victims
Signicant violations
of human rights
Multifaceted crime
groups; trade in
women and girls
generates signicant
prots
Source: Information taken fromShelley (2003).
groups are involved. In addition to their willingness to use physical violence
against their victims, trafckers often use voodoo practices as a form of psy-
chological violence to frighten victims into compliance.
Human rights violations are signicant. Children (young women) are
often transported to Western European countries and abandoned. Women who
are forced to work in prostitution are forced into the most dangerous type of
prostitution as streetwalkers. The trade resembles traditional slavery that has
been modernized to meet the needs and challenges of the global age. Using
the modern transport links of present-day Nigeria, they are very effective
because they combine the best of both modern and older worlds by allying
sophisticated forms of modern technology to tribal customs.
108
This activity generates signicant nancial prots. Small amounts of the
prots are occasionally returned to family members of the girls and women,
while some prots are passed on to the local operations of the crime groups.
It is believed that much of the prots are invested in other illicit activities and
are laundered.
If we compare the crime groups as business models, we see that they dif-
fer in terms of the victims they recruit and exploit, their modus operandi or
method of operation, the willingness to use violence, human rights abuses,
and the prots generated from the trafcking practice. This comparison is por-
trayed in table 5.1.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Trafckers, their organizations, and methods of operation differ as much as
the victims and the markets in which they are exploited. It is important to
identify recruiters and how they work in order to design successful prevention
programs. The notion that recruiters are dark, swarthy men in dingy rooms
promising young women successful jobs in foreign countries must be exposed
for the myth that it is. A trafcker can (knowingly or unknowingly) be a per-
sons neighbor, relative, or high school friend.
The exposure of international trafcking networks demands that govern-
ments and law enforcement agencies initiate international cooperative relation-
ships to unmask trafcking practices in source, transit, and destination countries.
Chapter 9 deals more fully with the issue of measuresincluding international
legal instruments, law enforcement cooperation, and civil society programs. For
now, we turn our attention to trafcking patterns around the world.
6
Regional Trafcking Patterns
GLOBALIZATION AND HUMAN trafcking have resulted in many different patterns
of movement and exploitation. In 20062007, Dominican women were traf-
cked to Montenegro for commercial sexual exploitation, while Russian stu-
dents were trafcked to the United States for labor exploitation and forced to
sell ice cream. Zambian girls were trafcked to Ireland and Kenyan women
were trafcked to Mexico for commercial sexual exploitation. Vietnamese
children were trafcked to the United Kingdom for forced involvement in
drug smuggling and Filipino women were trafcked to Côte dIvoire for com-
mercial sexual exploitation. While Thai men were trafcked to the United
States for labor exploitation and debt bondage, Chinese women were traf-
cked to Afghanistan for commercial sexual exploitation. Children in Burma
*
were trafcked into armed conict.
1
Traditional destination countries such as Australia, Canada, Japan, the
United States, and countries in Western Europe receive much attention and
frequently link the practice of human trafcking to the exploitation of women
and children in the sex industry. A closer study of human trafcking in these
and other parts of the world indicates a more nuanced picture.
International trafcking has received widespread coverage, in part,
because destination countries have recognized the need to work together with
source and transit countries to stem the tide of current and future victims,
while at the same time working together to repatriate those exploited and to
aid in their reintegration. The problem of internal trafcking, however, is one
that is often overlooked and possibly more difcult to identify. This practice
may be completely underestimated and deserves attention if countries are to
offer the most basic human rights protection to their citizens.
According to the United Nations Ofce on Drugs and Crime (UNODC),
trafcking is reported from 127 countries with exploitation occurring in 137
countries.
2
The latest U.S. annual Trafcking in Persons Report describes traf-
cking practices from, to, or through 170 countries.
3
Using their own data-
base, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) examined data and
research on human trafcking around the world. The majority of studies were
*Burma, ofcially the Union of Myanmar, will be referred to in this report as both Burma and
Myanmar.
conducted in European countries (44 percent), followed by the Asia-Pacic
(25 percent), Africa (13 percent), the Americas (7 percent), and the Middle East
(1 percent).
4
More information is known or made publicly available on certain
regions, which says nothing about the level of trafcking in other parts of the
world. It could simply be a lack of awareness or neglect of the problem in those
countries.
5
The IOMs global case management trafcking database, which at
the time contained information on 5,233 individual trafcking victims from
more than 50 source and 78 destination countries, showed that the largest source
countries are Moldova, Romania, Mali, Ukraine, Belarus, Bulgaria, Uzbekistan,
Colombia, and the Kyrgyz Republic.
6
UNODC adds to this list Albania, China,
Lithuania, Nigeria, the Russian Federation, and Thailand as source countries
with a serious trafcking problem. Countries identied by the United Nations as
major destination countries are Belgium, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Japan,
the Netherlands, Thailand, Turkey, and the United States.
7
The UNODC study, Trafcking in Persons, Global Patterns, identied
the regions of Central and Southeastern Europe, the Commonwealth of Inde-
pendent States, Western Africa, and Southeast Asia as the most commonly
reported regions of origin for human trafcking. Destination regions are coun-
tries in Western Europe, North America, and Asia, in particular in Western
Asia and Turkey.
8
This chapter takes a closer look at differing trafcking patterns in various
regions and subregions of the world, highlighting subregions that are particu-
larly prone to trafcking as well as specic countries that have been identied
as either important sources or destinations for trafcking. Beginning with traf-
cking patterns in Africa, chapter 6 continues with patterns of trafcking in
Asia and the Pacic, the Commonwealth of Independent States, Europe, Latin
America and the Caribbean, the Middle East, North America, and Oceania.
Within each region, there are subregional difference in terms of the serious-
ness of the problem as well as the victims and markets of exploitation. Coun-
tries within subregions that are particularly problematic may be given special
attention. For a complete list of countries and the patterns of trafcking linked
to these countries, see appendix 2. Individual stories provide a human side to
the statistics and trafcking patterns that form the basis for this chapter.
AFRICA
Within Africa there are subregional differences in human trafcking. Africa can
be seen as comprising Western Africa, Eastern Africa, Central Africa, Southern
Africa, and Northern Africa. Within these subregions, Western and Central
Africa have received the most attention as a major source and destination area
(to include intraregional trafcking), while Southern Africa serves predomi-
nantly as a destination subregion. Northern Africa is an origin and transit area
for persons from Sub-Saharan Africa on their way to Western Europe.
9
Western and Central Africa
Trafcking patterns of Western and Central Africa are similar. Western Africa
comprises the following countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte dIvoire, The
Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger,
Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. Countries in Central Africa are
Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. The gure for child traf-
cking in these two subregions is estimated at between 200,000 and 300,000
children.
10
The number of countries reporting trafcking in children is twice
the number of countries reporting trafcking in women.
11
Furthermore, traf-
cking is recognized as a problem in more than 70 percent of the countries in
Central and Western Africa and almost 90 percent of the countries in Africa.
12
Countries in the region most heavily affected by trafcking are Benin,
Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte dIvoire, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Niger,
Nigeria, and Togo. Internal trafcking from rural areas to metropolitan areas
occurs in almost all of the countries.
13
The second major trafcking pattern
involves transborder trafcking ows with respect to the exploitation of chil-
dren for (predominantly) the labor market. While this pattern of trafcking is
largely intraregional, children have been sent as far away as Europe and the
Middle East. Male children are trafcked predominantly for labor on coffee or
cocoa plantations, into mines, or in the shing industry, while female children
are trafcked for work as market vendors or domestic servants.
14
In countries
torn by conict, children are abducted by militias
15
and forced to either ght
or provide sexual services to soldiers. Children are also forced into soliciting
and begging.
16
Intraregional trafcking appears to be the most dominant traf-
cking pattern in Africa, with large scale ows in the Western and Central
African region.
17
The third trafcking pattern in Western and Central Africa
involves the trafcking of adult women for exploitation in two different sec-
tors. The rst entails trafcking for the purpose of forced domestic service;
the second example involves the trafcking and sexual exploitation of young
women, as is seen in the trafcking of Nigerians to destinations in Western
Europe and the Middle East.
18
The following gures, the tip of the iceberg,
are an indication of trafcking of persons in West Africa (see table 6.1). The
repatriated children were identied, rescued, and returned home. Many others
are not so fortunate.
In Western and Central Africa children are trafcked not only into com-
mercial labor exploitation and domestic servitude, but also as beggars and to
labor in rock quarries and mines (in Côte dIvoire, the Democratic Republic
of Congo, Niger, and Nigeria), and on farms (Côte dIvoire, Ghana, Mali, and
Nigeria).
19
In 2002, a study of child labor on cocoa farms in West Africa (in
Cameroon, Côte dIvoire, Ghana, and Nigeria) estimated that 284,000 children
had been either trafcked to work on the farms, or were working in unpro-
tected, hazardous conditions.
20
REGIONAL TRAFFICKING PATTERNS 79
African children have been reportedly trafcked and exploited in situa-
tions of armed conict, in Angola, Burundi, Côte dIvoire, the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Liberia, Somalia, Sudan, and Uganda.
21
In 2006, children
were still trafcked into armed conict areas in the Democratic Republic
of Congo.
22
Table 6.1 Statistics on Trafficking in Persons in West Africa
Country Number of Repatriated Persons
Benin 200 children repatriated from Nigeria between September and
October 2003
Mali More than 600 child trafcked victims repatriated from Côte
dIvoire (20002003)
Mauritania 256 camel-riding children reintegrated into their family in
2004
Togo 2,458 children victims of trafcking repatriated (20022004)
Nigeria 10,703 victims of trafcking repatriated (2003)
Nigeria 50,000 girls as sex workers in Italy (NAPTIP 2005)
Note: NAPTIP = National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafc in Persons and Other Related Matters
(Nigeria).
Source: UNODC (2008d, box 1, 17).
Case 6.1. An Orphan Is Promised a Bicycle
Selom S., 13 years old, became an orphan but continued living with his older and two
younger brothers. Selom was approached by an older man and asked if he wanted to
go to Nigeria, promised that he would learn a trade, be given a bicycle, a radio, and
batteries. Selom met the man at night at Balanka, a village near the Benin border.
There were many other boys waiting, like Selom, to go to Nigeria. The children trav-
eled by truck and at the Togo-Benin border they had to get out and cross the border
by foot. The three-day journey proceeded with the children packed into the truck and
without enough food to go around.
Selom was forced to work on a farm from 5:00 A.M. to 6:00 P.M. every day and
all wages that he would have made were kept by the trafcker to pay for the trip to
Nigeria. He worked and slept outside in makeshift huts and was injured while using
a machete.
After 11 months, Selom was allowed to leave Nigeria. For his work, he was given
the amount of $9.00which he had to share with ve other boysand a bicycle. He
was told to ride the bike back to Togo. The money earned was spent paying bribes to
soldiers and bandits. Selom made it back to Togo after a four-day trip where he con-
tinued living and working with his older brother.
23
Eastern Africa
This region, comprising the countries of Burundi, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Rwanda, Somalia,
Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, experiences intraregional as well as
transnational trafcking. Internal trafcking has been described as endemic
and affects mainly women and children, and to a lesser extent, men.
24
Children, usually between the ages of 13 and 18 (many of which are HIV
orphans), fall victim to trafcking by relatives or persons they know. Internal
trafckingfrom rural to urban areasaffects children and women who are
forced into commercial sex work and exploitative domestic service. The mar-
kets into which victims in this region are forced to work varies. In addition to
domestic service and prostitution, girls are also trafcked for forced marriage,
while young boys are forced to work in agriculture (shing, livestock, farm-
ing, and plantations). Adult men are trafcked into criminal activities, manual
and agricultural labor, and construction.
25
Victims trafcked abroad are usu-
ally sent to other African countries, Europe, and the Middle East mainly for
sexual exploitation and domestic work.
Thousands of Ethiopian girls were said to be trafcked as domestic serv-
ants to Lebanon and other destinations in the Middle East.
26
In Sierra Leone,
the United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) found that trafcking of both
young female and male children was an issue of concern. Trafcking occurred
both internally (from rural to urban areas) and abroad for the purpose of labor
(domestic work, shing, agriculture, trading, and mining), sexual exploitation
(marriage and prostitution), and for petty crime (begging) and child soldiering.
Adults, too, were trafcked for various reasons within and outside of the coun-
try.
27
This pattern repeats itself across Eastern Africa.
International organizations estimate that between 25,000 and 30,000 chil-
dren, both boys and girls, have been abducted or recruited by rebel forces and
forced to work as child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya,
Rwanda, Sudan, and Tanzania.
28
Uganda has witnessed an increasing number
of passport applications, mostly by foreigners for fostered children.
In Kenya, evidence exists of child trafcking for exploitation in the sex
industry, particularly in the coastal areas of the country. A report by UNICEF indi-
cates that 30 percent of 12- to 18-year-old girlsapproximately 15,000 children
are involved in the child sex tourism business. There is evidence that these children
have been trafcked internally. Children have reportedly been trafcked in Kenya
for domestic service.
29
IOM cites a study of human trafcking in Kenya that found
43 percent of the victims interviewed were men.
30
Southern Africa
Southern Africa comprises the countries of Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa,
and Swaziland, but only South Africa has gained attention in this region with
respect to human trafcking. South Africa serves as a destination for children
and women trafcked from more than 10 countries in Africa, predominantly
from Eastern and Southern Africa.
31
Women are trafcked for commercial
sexual exploitation to South Africa from countries in Africa and as far away
as Europe and Southeast Asia.
32
IOM identied nine different trafcking pat-
terns in, to, and from South Africa. Some of these included the trafcking of
women for commercial sexual exploitation from as far away as South Asia
and Eastern Europe. Women were trafcked from refugee-producing countries
to South Africa; children were trafcked from Lesotho to towns in the eastern
Free State of South Africa; women and girls were trafcked from Mozambi-
que to Gauteng and Kwa-Zulu Natal ; women were trafcked from Malawi
to Northern Europe; male and female children were trafcked from Malawi to
Northern Europe; women and girls were trafcked overland from Malawi
to South Africa; and women were trafcked to South Africa from Thailand,
China, and countries in Eastern Europe.
33
Anecdotal evidence exists of the trafcking of men within Africa, in par-
ticular in Eastern and Southern Africa. Trafcking ows from the countries in
Eastern Africa and the Horn of Africa to South Africa. IOM has documented
cases of men having been trafcked from Tanzania to South Africa and forced
into criminal activities.
Northern Africa
This region comprises the countries of Algeria, the Arab Republic of Egypt,
Libya, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia. Less research has been conducted on
Northern Africa than on other regions of the continent. In spite of the geo-
graphic obstaclethe Sahara Desertcases of trafcking are reported from
other subregions in Africa to the north. Victims are moved by boat along the
western Africa coast or overland across the desert.
34
The region serves pre-
dominantly as a transit region for both trafcked and smuggled persons.
ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
Although it is not possible to provide exact gures, a number of studies on traf-
cking in the region point to Asia as one of the geographic areas most heavily
affected by trafcking. UNICEF reports that in the last 30 years, trafcking in
women and children for sexual exploitation alone has victimized more than 30
million people in Asia.
35
IOM estimates that 200,000 to 250,000 women and
children are trafcked every year in Asia,
36
while the U.S. Department of State
suggests that 150,000 South Asians are trafcked every year.
37
Trafcking patterns differ within Asian subregions. Trafcking, particu-
larly in South Asia (Southeastern and South-Central Asia) appears to be an
intraregional phenomenon. The United Nations reports that trafcking within
countries in the region is even more prevalent than trafcking between
countries. Exploitation takes on various forms, but trafcking for sexual
exploitation appears to be the most common form of trafcking.
38
Southern Asia (Southeastern and South-Central Asia)
Southeastern Asia comprises the countries Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, East
Timor, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand,
and Vietnam. South-Central Asian nations are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
An expert from IOM estimated that nearly one-third of the global trade in
women and children are trafcked from Southeastern Asia, stating that about
50,000 women and children were trafcked annually to the United States from
other countries, approximately 60 percent of which originate from South Asia.
39
Estimates based on data or reports provided by law enforcement agencies or non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) indicate that hundreds of thousands of
women and children have been or are vulnerable to being trafcked from South
Asia.
40
Within South Asia, (China), India, Pakistan, and Thailand are considered
major countries of origin for trafcking. Other source countries within the region
are Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philip-
pines, and Vietnam. When victims are trafcked out of the region, they are often
trafcked to Israel, Japan, and Turkey. The region also serves as a destination for
victims from the Commonwealth of Independent States.
41
Southeastern Asia: The Mekong Subregion
The Mekong subregion, a subregion within Southeastern Asia (comprising Cam-
bodia, China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam) is an area heavily
affected by human trafcking, with extensive intraregional trafcking occurring
around Thailand. Thailand serves as a source, transit, and destination country
for trafcking in the subregion. Thailand attracts children trafcked from Cam-
bodia and forced to sell owers on the streets, as well as children and adults
trafcked from Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar who are forced to work in
brothels, factories, and homes, or on shing boats. It is estimated that thousands
of Uzbek women have been trafcked into Thailands sex industry.
42
Vietnam-
ese women who marry Taiwanese men have found themselves trafcked into
brothels, while Vietnamese, Myanmar, and Chinese boys are sold for adoption
within China to couples looking for a son.
43
Cambodias sex trade, while dif-
cult to quantify, often involves young children, with a third of the sex workers
in Phnom Penh estimated to be under the age of 18. International organizations
such as End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and the Trafcking of Chil-
dren (ECPAT), Save the Children, and UNICEF estimate that between 50,000
to 100,000 women and children are involved.
44
With respect to child trafcking in the region, UNICEF reports that most
trafcking in Southeastern Asia and the Pacic involves child trafcking for
prostitution.
46
Girls are also recruited as domestic servants and mail-order
brides, while other children are trafcked into the agricultural and industrial
sectors. Research on the trafcking of women and children in and from Indone-
sia found that they were trafcked for domestic and sex work; migrant work in
restaurants, plantations, and factories; servile marriage; and child labor.
47
South-Central Asia
Within South-Central Asia, India and Pakistan serve as the major destination
points for children and women trafcked from Bangladesh and Nepal, the
major countries of origin in South-Central Asia. India and Pakistan also serve
as transit countries for trafcking to the Middle East.
48
Exploitation occurs in
the sex industry as well as other labor markets.
49
An alarming trend is
reported in South-Central Asia: girls trafcked into the sex trade are increas-
ingly younger. The average age of girls trafcked into India from Nepal has
decreased from 1416 years to 1014 years, with girls as young as 89 years
being sold at auctions in Mumbai and other Indian cities. It is estimated by
police that more than 15,000 children and women are taken out of Bangladesh
every year; NGOs estimate that between 160,000 and 250,000 Nepalese girls
and women are forced to work in Indias brothels.
50
Young girls from Paki-
stan and Sri Lanka are also trafcked into Indian brothels.
51
Internal trafcking is a problem in India. According to a 2005 report of
the Indian National Human Rights Commission, trafcking from neighboring
countries such as Nepal and Bangladesh accounts for about 10 percent of
Indias trafcking into brothels, while 89 percent of the crime takes place
internally.
52
Trafcking for the purpose of forced marriage and organ trans-
plant has also been reported in India.
53
Trafcking is only a part of the extensive child labor problem in the
region of South Asia. Children are often sold to pay off a debt and thus are
placed in debt bondage. Children are trafcked into sex work, but also into
garment and carpet factories, construction projects, and begging.
54
Case 6.2. A Girl Is Sold by Her Parents to a Brothel
In Cambodia, ve-year-old Srey was sold by her parents to a brothel. She was prob-
ably sold for somewhere between $10 and $100. The child was drugged to gain her
compliance and passed from one customer to the next. This small child suffered
months of abuse from pimps and sex tourists. At the age of six, Srey was rescued from
the life of a sex slave by a former prostitute who runs victim shelters for Cambodias
rescued children. Somaly Mam, who runs the shelter, describes Srey as timid, quiet
and damaged. The child was diagnosed as HIV positive and suffering from pneumo-
nia and tuberculosis. Other children at the shelter with Srey may be even more trauma-
tized. One child who had been imprisoned for two years in a cage where she was
repeatedly raped is suffering from profound psychological trauma.
45
While the trafcking of women and girls for commercial exploitation in
Nepal occurs both within the country and to Indian brothels, there are signs
that men and boys are being trafcked to work in households, factories, and
agriculture, and also for the purpose of organ transplants.
55
In Sri Lanka, chil-
dren are trafcked for the purpose of commercial sex and domestic work, and
also as child soldiers. Between the beginning of 2002 and the end of 2007,
UNICEF reported the 6,248 cases of child recruitment by the Liberation
Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE).
56
Eastern Asia
The countries of China, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of
China, the Macau Special Administrative Region of China, Taiwan, North
Korea, Japan, Mongolia, and South Korea together form the region of Eastern
Asia. Within this region, China and Japan serve as countries deserving
special attention.
Japan serves as a destination country not only for victims trafcked from
the region (China, Korea, Thailand, and the Philippines), but also in increasing
numbers from Colombia
57
and other Latin American countries. Women are traf-
cked predominantly for sex work in the entertainment industry in Japan.
58
Japans sex industryhostess bars, strip clubs, sex shops, mail-order video ser-
vices, and escort servicesalso exploits trafcked women from China, South
Korea, and countries in Southeast Asia and Eastern Europe. Internal trafcking
of women and girls occurs for the purpose of sexual exploitation.
59
The Peoples Republic of China is plagued by internal trafcking of men,
women, and children for labor and sexual exploitation. Trafcking occurs
from poor provinces to the more prosperous ones along the east coast.
60
It is
estimated that between 10,000 and 20,000 victims are trafcked within China
each year. The U.S. Department of State reports that in poor rural areas,
women are sold as wives to unmarried men and kidnapped children have been
sold illegally to childless couples. NGOs in China have reported that children
in rural areas have been trafcked and forced to work in factories or under
the control of local gangs where they have been forced to work as petty
thieves, beggars, and prostitutes.
61
Men, too have been trafcked into labor
exploitation in factories and mines.
COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES
With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS) was formed in 1991. Countries in this region are Armenia, Azerbai-
jan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. A number of countries in the CIS have
been identied as high-trafcking source areas. According to the United
Nations, victims of CIS countries are trafcked out of the region, mainly into
countries in North America and Western Europe, but also to countries in Central
and Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, and Turkey. The same study identied
Belarus, Moldova, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine as countries with a
particularly serious trafcking problem.
63
While most of the research on traf-
cked victims from the CIS, in particular the Russian Federation, Moldova, and
Ukraine, focus on transnational trafcking for sexual exploitation, Russian
experts argue that the extent of intraregional trafcking is many times greater
than the trafcking of CIS citizens outside the region. There are indications
that intraregional human trafcking for the purpose of labor exploitation dwarfs
trafcking for sexual exploitation, although the latter also occurs.
64
Russia,
which had long served as a source country for the recruitment of trafcked
women into the European Union, now serves as a destination country for per-
sons trafcked from other CIS countries and as a transit for those on their way
to Western Europe.
65
Increasing numbers of women from poor neighboring
countries, in particular, Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine, but also from Kyrgyz-
stan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, are trafcked to Russia and forced into prosti-
tution in Moscow and other cities.
66
Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia serve as
a major source and transit area for the trafcking of women to North America,
Europe, and the Middle East.
Internal trafcking in Russia occurs and affects both men and women.
While women are trafcked throughout the country and forced into domestic
labor or prostitution, men are trafcked into construction work and agricul-
ture. Destination countries for trafcked persons include Germany, Greece,
Israel, Portugal, and the United States. Anti-Slavery International reports that
Case 6.3. Teenagers and Men Are Forced to Work in Kilns
China was shaken by a scandal involving the imprisonment and forced labor of teen-
agers and men forced to work in brutal, furnace-like brick kilns. Heng Tinghan was
accused of exploiting workers in a kiln in a county in the northern province of Shanxi.
One worker, a mentally handicapped man, died after being beaten by one of Hengs
helpers. Heng had cheated or coerced the workers to the site from March 2006 (until
their rescue in June 2007), forcing them to work 16-hour days and live mostly off
steamed bread.
Heng was one of a number of persons accused of exploitation and mistreatment
of workers. Police in Shanxi and Henan freed 568 people, including 22 minors, from
kilns and other work sites. Chinese state television reported that owners of the primi-
tive brick-making operations used erce dogs and beatings to deter escape from the
prison-like setting. When interviewed, the kiln owner denied having anything to do
with the death of his disabled employee and remarked, I felt it was a fairly small
thing, just hitting and swearing at the workers and not giving them wages.
62
in the far-eastern part of the country, Russian women are trafcked to China,
Japan, and Thailand.
68
Children trafcked internally and from Moldova and
the Ukraine often are brought to Moscow or St. Petersburg and forced into
begging or prostitution.
69
The trafcking of victims from Moldova focuses mainly on children and
young women trafcked for sexual exploitation. Moldovan victims are traf-
cked predominantly to the Balkans (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the
Autonomous Province of Kosovo, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Mac-
edonia), Western Europe, Israel, Russia, Turkey, and the United Arab Emi-
rates.
70
Moldovan men have been trafcked for their kidneys.
71
In Tajikistan,
women are trafcked for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation to the
Middle East (Kuwait, Iran, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates). Male vic-
tims are trafcked to Russia and are exploited primarily in the agricultural
and construction industries. Internal trafcking of both male and female chil-
dren occurs for forced labor, including begging.
72
Case 6.4. A Young Woman Is Forced into Prostitution
Maryam, a 17-year old from Kazakhstan, left home to seek employment as a shop
assistant in a store in a Russian city. Her parents were paid $300, she was given a false
passport, and she was taken by a man to Samara in central Russia. Instead of a shop,
Maryam was placed in a guarded and locked cell with barred windows and a metal
door. Refusing to work as a prostitute, she was starved, raped, and beaten into submis-
sion. It took ve days to break her down and force her to comply.
67
Case 6.5. A Young Man Is Exploited in Portugal
In 2001, 27-year-old Sergey from Perm in Russia responded to an advertisement in a
local newspaper for a job in construction work in Spain. The job agency promised a
salary of US$1,200 per month, six times more than Sergeys monthly salary of $200 in
Perm. Sergeys application was accepted and the agency paid for his plane ticket to
Madrid on the condition that the money would be paid back when Sergey started work.
Upon arrival, Sergey was met by someone from the agency who took his passport,
brought him to Portugal, and forced him to work on a construction site for several
months without pay. Sergey was held captive behind a barbed-wire fence. He nally
managed to escape and begged his way to Germany. Because he had no passport,
Sergey was arrested by the German authorities who, according to Sergey, beat him
and took away what little money he had before deporting him to Russia. Sergey is
back home but traumatized by his experience. He reportedly is suffering from psycho-
logical problems and was unable to work for several months.
73
EUROPE
Much of the trafcking in Europe has focused on the trafcking of women
and children for commercial sexual exploitation. Trafcking occurs in an east-
to-west and south-to-north direction. Much attention has been give to the sub-
regions of Central (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia)
and Southeastern Europe (comprising the countries of Albania, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, FYR Macedonia, Moldova,
74
Monte-
negro, Romania, and Serbia). These two subregions have been identied as
origin, transit, and destination areas, with intraregional trafcking occurring as
well. When women outside of the region are trafcked to Central and South-
eastern Europe, they are generally reported to be trafcked from the former
Commonwealth of Independent States. Central Europe serves as a major
transit (for victims from the Balkans and Eastern Europe on their way to
Western Europe) area and secondary destination area. The sex markets in
Western and Southern Europe (predominantly in Belgium, Germany, Greece,
Italy, and the Netherlands) serve largely as a trafcking destination for women
from Central and Southeastern Europe and from destinations as far away as
the Commonwealth of Independent States, Africa, Latin America and the
Caribbean,
75
and South-Eastern Asia. The Southern European countries
(Andorra, Italy, Malta, Portugal, San Marino, and Spain) serve as a major transit
and destination area for victims coming mainly from the Balkans,
76
Latin
America, and Western Africa. Trafcking ows to countries in Northern Europe
(Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) indicate that trafcking is mainly intraregional
with the Nordic countries serving as a destination area and the Baltic countries
(Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) and Northwestern Russia serving as source and
secondary destination areas.
77
The United Kingdoms Threat Assessment of Serious Organised Crime
has, over the years, identied a number of different routes into Europe. While
the routes appear to uctuate, the organization has identied a number of dif-
ferent nexus points and broad routes into the European Union. There are
six main routesused for both trafcking and the smuggling of migrants into
the Europe. These are (1) from Russia (nexus point : Moscow) through the
Baltic States to the Czech Republic and Poland; (2) from Ukraine (nexus
point : Kiev) to Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, and Slovenia;
(3) from Turkey (nexus point : Istanbul) to the Balkans (Belgrade and Sara-
jevo are nexus points) and on to either Greece or Italy (nexus point : Rome);
(4) from Turkey to northern Cyprus, then on to the European Union via
Romania and Bulgaria; (5) from Libya (nexus point : Tripoli) to Greece or
Italy; or from Somalia via the Suez Canal to Greece or Italy; and (6) from
West Africa to Spain.
78
Estimates of trafcked victims vary by region. The variance in the esti-
mates is huge, ranging from 5,000 to 150,000 victims trafcked to Western
Europe; a few thousand up to 100,000 in Central Europe; from tens of
thousands to more than 100,000 in Eastern Europe; and from tens of thou-
sands to 200,000 in the Balkans and Eastern Mediterranean. Other ranges for
the estimates are smaller (from 10,000 to up to 50,000 in Southern Europe).
79
Yet other sources place the numbers much higher at 500,000 women and chil-
dren trafcked annually to Western Europe from the following regions: from
200,000 women and children from Eastern Europe; 120,000 from and through
the Balkans; and 80,000 from the CIS countries. Approximately 200,000 chil-
dren and women are trafcked through the Balkans each year.
80
According to the European police organization, Europol, the European
Union has witnessed an increase in the number of victims trafcked into the
European Union over the last ve years. Victims come predominantly from
the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Central and Southeastern Europe (Bulgaria,
Moldova, and Romania) and to a lesser extent from the far East, West Africa
(in particular, Nigeria), and Latin America. Germany, Lithuania, and Poland
have been identied as emerging source countries with victims trafcked into
Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, and the
United Kingdom.
81
The following sections will provide a more detailed picture of trafcking
patterns within various subregions throughout Europe.
Northern Europe
Trafcking in Northern Europe (Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania,
Norway, and Sweden) tends to be intraregional with the Baltic countries of
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania serving as sources, and the Scandinavian coun-
tries serving as destinations for women trafcked into prostitution. Women from
Latvia and Lithuania are trafcked predominantly to Denmark, Germany, and
Sweden, while women from northwestern Russia and Estonia are trafcked to
Finland, Norway, and Western Europe. The Baltic countries themselves are des-
tinations for persons trafcked from the CIS countries, Russia, and Ukraine.
82
While researchers report that the number of foreign women in prostitution has
increased since the Baltic countries joined the European Union, the number of
cases of coerced prostitution reported to the police remained almost non-
existent. Most of the prostitutes working in the Nordic countries work at the
same time as prostitutes in their home countries.
83
The number of minors traf-
cked into prostitution in the Baltic countries is considerable and is almost non-
existent in the Nordic countries. UNICEF reports that 20 percent to 50 percent
of the prostitutes in Lithuania are believed to be minors. Children as young as
10 have been used to make pornographic movies and 11 year olds have been
known to work in prostitution.
84
Southeastern Europe
This region comprises the countries of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Croatia, FYR Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, and the
Autonomous Region of Kosovo. Three patterns emerge: one comprises intrare-
gional trafcking; the second involves the trafcking of women from Southeast-
ern Europe (SEE) to destinations in Western Europe and beyond; the third
pattern involves the trafcking of women from Moldova, Russia, and Ukraine
into the region. The major source countries in the region are Albania, Bulgaria,
and Romania; the major destinations are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, FYR
Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro, and the Autonomous Region of Kosovo.
Trafcking occurs almost exclusively for the purpose of prostitution. Women
trafcked out of the region are sent to Greece and Turkey,
85
while Albanians are
often trafcked to Italy and destinations in Western Europe.
86
Between January
2000 and June 2003, the IOM assisted 4,072 victims, the majority of whom
(70 percent) were from this region. The largest single group was Albanians
(43 percent), followed by Moldavians (22 percent), Romanians (15 percent),
Bulgarians (7 percent), Ukrainians (6 percent), and Kosovars (5 percent).
87
While SEE was previously a major center of human trafcking, a follow-
up study conducted by three international organizations found that the number
of those identied as victimseither through immigration services, bar raids, or
those returning home and seeking assistancehas been in decline.
88
A study of
trafcking in the region suggested that while the number of identied trafcked
victims may be in decline, in reality, the number is increasing but has become
less visible. Rather than nding trafcked women in bars and public brothels,
trafckers have changed their modus operandi and have brought women into
the private domain, where they work out of apartments or via the Internet and
phone. Furthermore, new trends were identied involving the emergence of
organ trafcking in the region as well as corruption of diplomatic and govern-
ment ofcials to facilitate the crime.
89
Trafcking routes throughout the region
are in constant ux adapting to changes by law enforcement. In Albania, for
instance, when the police clamped down on smuggling routes to Italy, new
routes opened to ll the void. Victims of trafcking increasingly are using valid
documents to travel directly to their destination country, which is due, in part,
to the relaxation of visa regulations for EU Member States and candidate coun-
tries for accession to the European Union.
90
Central Europe
The Central European countries of the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slo-
vakia, and Slovenia serve as an important transit area for trafcked victims
from the East into Western Europe. The area also serves as a destination
region for women trafcked into prostitution from Southeastern Europe and
the CIS countries. Women from Central Europe are trafcked into prostitution
in Austria, Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands. The number of women
from this region being trafcked into Western Europe has been declining over
the past years; however, the number of women trafcked through and into the
area has not decreased.
91
The Czech Republic serves mainly as a transit point for women trafcked
into prostitution in Western European countries. It is a destination country for
women and men trafcked from Belarus, China, Moldova, Ukraine, and Viet-
nam for labor exploitation. Roma women are trafcked internally and interna-
tionally for the purpose of sexual exploitation.
92
Southern Europe
This region, comprising the countries of Andora, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portu-
gal, San Marino, and Spain, is a major transit and destination area for traf-
cked victims. Italy, in particular, is one of the foremost destinations for
young women trafcked from West Africa, especially from Nigeria. Women
are brought to Spain and Portugal from Latin America (in particular Brazil,
Colombia, and the Dominican Republic) and are forced into prostitution.
93
A
similar pattern of exploitation can be seen in Greece, Italy, Portugal, and
Spain where women from Latin America, Eastern Europe, and West Africa
are trafcked into commercial prostitution and men are trafcked into labor
exploitation in the agricultural industry (Spain) and the construction industry
(Portugal). In Greece, most Albanian children are trafcked for forced labor,
forced begging, and petty crimes, although some are trafcked for sexual
exploitation. In Italy, the country has witnessed an increase in Romanian
minors forced into sexual exploitation and in Roma children forced to beg.
94
Western Europe
The countries in Western Europe (Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Ice-
land, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United
Kingdom) serve as transit or destinations for trafcked victims from around
the globe. It has been designated the most important destination area in
Europe for prostitution-related trafcking, where most victims come from
Central and Southeastern Europe, the CIS countries, and the Baltic countries
(Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), as well as from Latin America, Africa, and
Southeastern Asia.
95
Almost all of the countries in Western Europe have taken
signicant action to combat trafcking.
96
Case 6.6. An Italian Work Camp
After having paid up to C 900 to recruiters who advertised in local newspapers, 119
Poles were brought and forced to work in labor camps near Puglia in the south of
Italy. Many were reportedly attacked by dogs, beaten with metal rods, and raped. Sev-
eral people committed suicide in the camps. Italian police report that hundreds of Pol-
ish citizens had been exploited over a two-year period. Twenty-seven arrest warrants
were issued in Italy and Poland and more were expected.
97
Before 2005, trafcking in human beings was viewed by many countries
in Western Europe as an offense involving exploitation only in the commer-
cial sex industry. In spite of changes to legislation providing for a broader
denition of human trafcking, most statistics involving trafcked victims still
describe women or children exploited in the sex industry, although a growing
number of organizations are dealing with male victims being exploited in vari-
ous industries. Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands issue annual reports
on the state of trafcking in their respective countries.
98
Austria is a transit and destination country for women trafcked from
Eastern and Southeastern Europe, the Dominican Republic, and Nigeria for
forced labor and commercial sexual exploitation. Roma girls are trafcked to
Austria from Bulgaria for sexual exploitation and forced petty theft. Approxi-
mately two-thirds of those assisted were victims of sexual exploitation and
one-third were victims of forced labor.
99
In Belgium, girls and women are trafcked for sexual exploitation primar-
ily from Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Nigeria, and the Peoples Republic of
China. Male victims are trafcked to Belgium for exploitative labor in bars,
construction sites, restaurants, and sweatshops. Trafckers also force victims
to beg in Belgium.
100
In 2006, shelters providing assistance to victims
reported an increase in male victims and victims trafcked for forced labor
almost solely due to the signicant increase in the number of Brazilian men
being exploited in the construction business.
101
Women and girls are trafcked to France for forced labor and commercial
sexual exploitation. Source countries are Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, and the
African nations of Cameroon, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone. Women and girls
from China are also trafcked to France. In 2006, the percentage of women
trafcked from Eastern Europe declined, whereas the percentage of women
from Africa, South America, and Asia increased. It is estimated that one-fth
of involuntary domestic servitude cases in France involve abusive employers
who are diplomats. They enjoy diplomatic immunity.
102
Germany has witnessed internal trafcking of women forced into prostitu-
tion and German victims represent the largest victim group. The number of
registered victims increased between 2005 (642) and 2006 (775) but decreased
in 2007 (689) with the largest number of victims coming from Europe
(Germany, Bulgaria, Romania, the Czech Republic and Poland, Russia, and
Hungary), followed by a much smaller percentage from Asia, Africa, and
the Americas.
103
The Netherlands serves as a source, transit, and destination country. The
number of victims who were registered in the Netherlands continued to
increase over the past three years. The majority of victims are girls and
women forced into commercial sexual exploitation, while men are exploited
in restaurants and in the agricultural sector. Dutch victims represent the larg-
est group, followed by Nigerians, Bulgarians, Romanians, and Chinese. Of the
579 registered victims, 30 were male, mainly from India, China, Bangladesh,
Nigeria, Turkey, and the Congo.
105
Belgium, France, and the Netherlands,
while serving as destination countries, are also transit areas for people being
moved to the United Kingdom.
The United Kingdom is primarily a destination country for trafcked vic-
tims originating from Eastern Europe (in particular, Russia and Ukraine), the
Baltic States (Lithuania), the Balkans (Albania), or from the far East, espe-
cially China, Malaysia, and Thailand.
106
Victims from Eastern and Central
Africa, Nigeria, and Ghana have also been identied. Women, children, and
men are trafcked into the country for sexual exploitation and for forced labor
in agriculture, construction, domestic servitude, food processing, and restau-
rants. Trafcking for illicit activities such as street theft has been reported.
Children, particularly from West Africa, have reportedly been trafcked to the
United Kingdom for forced labor in cannabis factories. Afghan minors may
be trafcked for forced manual labor.
107
LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
Latin America is one of the most under-researched and underfunded regions
in the world when it comes to people trafcking.
108
Reports from the region
indicate that women and children make up the largest group of victims of traf-
cking for sexual and labor exploitation. Within the region, trafcking occurs
from poor nations to more afuent ones. The International Labour Organiza-
tion (ILO) estimates that 1.3 million people suffer in situations of forced labor
in Latin America20 percent (250,000) of these are trafcked.
109
Case 6.7. A Girl Is Sold by Her Sister
Maria grew up in the countryside of an Eastern European country. She was the product
of an alcoholic father who constantly beat the children. Poorly educated, Maria was
sold to an unknown man by her sister when she was only 13 years old. She was taken
by boat to Italy and there was sold again to another man who raped and beat her. The
police rescued Maria and she was eventually returned to her family, only to be sold
four days laterthis time by her father. Again she was taken to Italy, imprisoned for
seven months and made to drink vinegar. After being smuggled into the United King-
dom, she was forced to work for ve years as a prostitute, seeing 65 to 70 customers a
day. Maria, 24 years old, has been raped, beaten, sold, cut with knives and threat-
ened. She was nally able to escape and went to the police who brought her to a
shelter. My trafckers threatened to kill me, and they threatened to take my sister too
and do the same to her. I was beaten often, very badly. I have scars from it now,
especially from my broken arm. I have been raped many times. I will never forget
what they did to me.
104
Latin America and the Caribbean countries serve mainly as an origin and
destination for intraregional trafcking and as a source region for trafcking
to the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. Both intraregional and traf-
cking to other parts of the world involve trafcking for the purpose of labor
and sexual exploitation. Women and children are reportedly trafcked within
Latin America and the Caribbean countries as well as between cities that
serve as tourism sites within individual countries in the region.
110
While the majority of studies focus on trafcking for commercial sexual
exploitation and child sex tourism, the United Nations reports that exploitation
in forced labor is becoming more of a problem and that, in some countries of
the region, child soldiers increasingly are used in armed conicts. Drug gangs
are also known to trafc children into urban warfare and forced begging.
Slave labor in the mining sectors and agriculture often involves men; when
women are trafcked into slave labor it is often as sex slaves or domestic
servants in the cities.
111
A literature review of trafcking in persons in Latin America and the
Caribbean found that trafcking for prostitution and domestic servitude was a
problem in Argentina, Brazil, El Salvador, Guatemala, Guyana, Jamaica,
Mexico, and Paraguay. The use of children for child soldiers was reported in
Colombia, but also documented in El Salvador, Ecuador, Honduras, Paraguay,
Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru.
112
Much of the research in the region into child trafcking has focused on
the abuse of children in the commercial sex industry; however, child trafck-
ing takes on other forms of exploitation as well. Whereas adult women are
often trafcked internationally, children tend to be trafcked and exploited
within their cities or countries of origin, often by child sex tourists.
The region can be further divided into three subregionsSouth America,
Central America, and the Caribbean. Brazil and Colombia (South America),
Guatemala and Mexico (Central America), and the Dominican Republic (the
Caribbean) are seen to have a signicant trafcking problem.
113
Central America
In a study of trafcking in women and children for sexual exploitation in Bel-
ize, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,
Nicaragua, and Panama, extensive intraregional trafcking with trafcking of
Central American and Caribbean women was reported to destinations as far
away as the United States, Europe, and Israel. A large number of women from
the region work in the sex industries in the United States, Europe, and
Japanalthough the percentage of trafcked victims is not known.
A report to the U.S. Congress found that border crossings throughout
Central America and Mexico, in particular, the Mexico-Guatemala border,
have become the newest trafcking focal points. Women who are unable to
enter the United States end up being forced into prostitution in Mexico.
Mexico serves as a source, transit, and destination country for persons traf-
cked in the Central America subregion or on to the United States. Victims
are trafcked internally and are lured from rural areas to urban, tourist, and
border areas for forced prostitution. Children are used by sex tourists in bor-
der towns and tourist destinations in the country.
114
Costa Rica was reported to be a destination country for women trafcked
from Eastern Europe and Thailand.
115
Trafcking of women for domestic
labor has been reported in Argentina, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Haiti, Nicaragua, and Paraguay.
116
Child sexual exploitation is linked to the sex tourism industry often found
in coastal resorts.
117
The NGO Casa Alianza estimates that 2,000 girls are
prostituted in San Jose, Costa Rica, which serves as a sex tourist destination
country for children and young adults trafcked from Colombia, the Domini-
can Republic, and the Philippines.
118
Police in Guatemala City report that the
citys 600 brothels are home to 2,000 children from El Salvador, Guatemala,
and Honduras.
119
South America
Major recruitment and source countries within the region are Brazil, Colom-
bia, Surinam, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Latin America and Caribbean women
are often trafcked to the United States, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal,
and Spain.
120
Early estimates placed 45,00050,000 Colombians and 75,000
Brazilian women working in the sex industry in Europe. Another estimate
placed 1,700 trafcked women from primarily Brazil, Colombia, and Peru in
Japan.
121
International trafcking may be more visible than intraregional traf-
cking, which also occurs. Women trafcked from the Andes or countries in
the Caribbean, in particular the Dominican Republic, are trafcked to Argen-
tina and Brazil. Many trafcked Colombian women are forced to work in
prostitution in Panama.
Countries that stand out in the region as particularly serious are Brazil
and Colombia. Brazil accounts for 15 percent of women trafcked in South
America. A large majority come from the northern part of the country, which
shares borders with seven countries.
122
Colombia is one the regions major
countries of origin for girls and women trafcked for the purpose of sexual
exploitation. Colombian girls and women are trafcked throughout Latin
America and the Caribbean to the United States, Western Europe, East Asia,
and the Middle East. Internal trafcking, in particular from rural to urban
areas, involves the sexual exploitation of children and women. Colombian
men are trafcked for forced labor.
123
Labor exploitation, while receiving less attention than the trafcking of
women and children for sexual exploitation, is also a serious problem in South
America. The U.S. government estimates that 25,000 Brazilian victims, the
majority of whom are men, are trafcked within the country for forced labor
within the agricultural sector.
125
The gold-mining and mahogany industries in
the Peruvian Amazonian region exploit 33,000 workers.
126
Child prostitution is a major problem in Brazil, where an estimated half
million children work as prostitutes and many are later sold to the gold mines
of the Amazon.
127
A link was discovered between trafckers and those
arranging sex tours in northeastern Brazil.
128
More than half of the 241 traf-
cking routes in 20 states of Brazil lead to international destinations. The
majority of these routes originate in the poorest regions of the country, the
north and northeastern states.
129
Other trafcking patterns involving the illegal adoption of children have
been found in Bolivia and Guatemala. Some 23,400 girls and young children
were victims of illegal adoptions in Guatemala in the last decade, while in
Bolivia, only 18 percent of the children who disappeared in 2005 and 2006
were found by National Police.
130
In Colombia, children are kidnapped and
forced to become child soldiers.
131
The Caribbean
The growing sex industry in the Caribbean islands has contributed to the prob-
lem of trafcking in that area.
132
Outside of the commercial sex market, labor
exploitation also occurs. Fifty thousand women from the Dominican Republic
are reported to be working in the sex industry in Europe.
133
Haitians are trafcked and exploited in the sugarcane elds of the Domini-
can Republic. In Haiti, internal child trafcking occurs for restavek or domes-
tic servitude. Restavek affects the lives of 173,000 children in the country.
134
THE MIDDLE EAST
135
Few studies have been conducted on human trafcking to the Middle East
(comprising the countries of Bahrain, Cyprus, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait,
Lebanon, the Occupied Palestinian Territories, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
Case 6.8. A Man Is Exploited in Brazil in the Brick Kilns
Benito, in an attempt to support his nine-year-old daughter, followed his brother 500
miles to the brick kilns at Transcameta in the Amazon region of Brazil. He left with
the promise of adequate wages. Upon arrival and after working, he was told that he
would be charged for room and board and food costs. He was denied a salary, but his
debt for these unforeseen costs increased, making it impossible for him to quit his job
and return to his daughter. Benito was forced to work six days a week and had to live
on the camp in a shack lacking ventilation, running water, or electricity. For months
he was not paid for his work and was afraid to leave for fear of not being paid at all.
Benito contracted malaria.
124
Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and the Republic of Yemen). The
U.S. Department of State rates many of the countries in the Middle East as
those with the worst records of human trafcking to include Bahrain, Kuwait,
Oman, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia.
136
A common pattern in this region involves the voluntary and often legal
ow of people from Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern and Southeastern Asian
countries migrating to countries in the Middle East to ll positions as low-
skilled laborers or domestic servants. Upon arrival, many nd themselves in
situations of exploitation and involuntary servitude. Their movements are
restricted, salaries are not forthcoming, documents are often seized, and workers
may face physical and sexual abuse. Maids who have escaped such situations
sometimes nd themselves trafcked into commercial sexual exploitation.
137
Countries within the region serve as destinations for people, predominantly
women and children, trafcked from Africa, the CIS countries, and Southeast-
ern Asia. Reports surface of women exploited as domestic workers or in the
sex trade. Sri Lankan domestic workers have been trafcked to Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait, Lebanon, and the United Arab Emirates.
138
Women from Azerbaijan,
Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and other coun-
tries in the CIS represent the majority of sex workers in the United Arab Emi-
rates. Bahrain and Saudi Arabia serve as destinations to women trafcked from
Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, and Sudan. Nigerian and Senegalese women are traf-
cked to Lebanon and Saudi Arabia, and through Egypt and other North Afri-
can countries into Western Europe. The region serves as transit region for
people trafcked to other Gulf countries or on to Europe.
139
In 2006, Israel was named one of the main destinations in the world for
trafcked women by the United Nations. Most victims trafcked into commer-
cial sexual exploitation come from Belarus, Moldova, Russia, Ukraine, and
Uzbekistan.
140
Another trafcking crime linked to Israel or Israelis is the traf-
cking in human organs.
141
A pattern of trafcking unique to the Middle East was the use of small
children, some as young as four years old, to serve as camel jockeys in Qatar
Case 6.9. A Woman Is Beaten by Her Employer
Kumari Indunil, age 23, a trafcked domestic worker in Kuwait was forced to work as
much as 20 hours a day with no free time off. When she asked her employee for time
to rest, she was told, You have come to work; you are like my shoes, and you have
to work tirelessly. Conditions declined and her employees refused to pay her salary
and refused to return her to the employment agency in Kuwait. The employers hus-
band began beating her and pulling her hair. He went to the kitchen and took a knife
and told me he would kill me, cut me up into little pieces, and put the little pieces of
me in the cupboard.
142
and the United Arab Emirates. These small children from Sudan, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, and India were at times abducted or sold by their parents and forced
to work as jockeys in camel races. This occurred as late as 2005.
143
NORTH AMERICA (THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA)
Evidence of trafcking has been found in numerous states in the United
States.
144
Between 1990 and 2000, at least 38 separate instances of trafcking
into the United States were documented that together involved at least 5,500
women.
145
Trafcking occurs for the purpose of sexual exploitation as well as
for labor exploitation. Cases in the United States document persons trafcked
for sweatshop labor and domestic servitude, while young children are also
kidnapped and sold for adoption. Law enforcement in the United States docu-
ments a signicant domestic problem involving trafcking in children for the
purpose of commercial sexual exploitation.
146
The U.S. Department of State suggests that a relatively equal number
of trafcked women come from four main areas: Asia, Central and South
America, Russia and the newly independent states, and Eastern Europe.
147
Cases of trafcking have been documented from Russia and Ukraine; from
Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand; from Brazil, Costa Rica, and Puerto
Rico; and from Cameroon, China, the Czech Republic, and India. In Los
Angeles alone, trafcking instances have involved women from Burma, Cam-
bodia, Canada, China, the Czech Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Indonesia,
Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru, the Philippines, Romania, Russia, Thailand,
and Vietnam.
148
The Federal Bureau of Investigation reports that the majority of victims
of human trafcking in the United States are young girls and women from
Asian and Central American countries who are forced into domestic servitude
or service in the commercial sex industry. When boys and men are trafcked,
they are found to be exploited in the restaurant, migrant farming, and other
service-related industries. An increasing number of young men are being
forced into the commercial sex industry as well.
149
Not all trafcked victims in the United States are foreign nationals.
American citizens and legal resident aliens are also trafcked. At the time
(2008), the U.S. State Department estimated between 14,500 and 17,500 for-
eign nationals being trafcked into the United States each year, the number of
U.S. citizens trafcked within the United States was estimated at between
100,000 and 300,000, and according to a trafcking expert, most of these
young sex workers were teenage runaways.
150
These American children are at
risk of becoming victims of commercial sexual exploitation.
151
According to
one organization, [e]vidence suggests that children under the age of 18 now
constitute the largest group of trafcking victims in the United States.
152
In
what has been the largest nationwide operation ever to rescue children
trafcked into prostitution and identify the networks that trafc them, Opera-
tion Cross-Country was a ve-day action involving 350 local, state, and fed-
eral enforcement agencies in 16 cities, resulting in the recovery of 21 children
and the arrest of 389 people.
153
To date, the Innocence Lost National Initia-
tive has rescued more than 575 child victims of prostitution.
154
Underage girls and womenmostly runaways, homeless, or those in low-
paying jobswere invited to work in Don Arthur Websters Anchorage,
Alaska, alleged escort services. They were, in fact, forced into prostitution.
His youngest victim was 13 at the time that she was recruited and worked for
Webster for two years. Webster controlled the women by rst getting them
addicted to crack cocaine, then conning them to a small closet for days at a
time and subjecting them to beatings, threats of severe bodily harm, and other
forms of violence.
155
It is impossible to determine the actual number of persons trafcked into
the United States, or the number of U.S. citizens trafcked within the United
States, but in scal year 2007, the U.S. government did supply 303 certica-
tion letters
156
to victims in 29 states, as well as Washington, D.C., and Saipan,
Northern Mariana Islands.
157
Between 2001 and 2007, 1,379 certication let-
ters were issued (1,248 to adults and 131 to children). Certied victims came
from more than fty countries from the Americas (41 percent of the victims
were from Latin America and the Caribbean), Asia (41 percent of the victims
originated in Asia), Africa, and Europe. The top ve countries of origin were
Thailand, Mexico, Guatemala, the Philippines, and Chinaconstituting
slightly more than half (52.7 percent) of all victims certied.
Cases range from those involving individual victims to caseloads involv-
ing numerous victims in a single setting.
158
Case 6.10. Small and Large Trafcking Operations
A couple in Texas smuggled a 12-year-old girl from Mexico under the pretense of
using her as a babysitter. She ended up becoming their domestic slave, deprived of
school and having to sleep on the oor. The child was told she could not return to
Mexico and was physically abused by the wife. Only after the local sheriff responded
to a call involving a drug overdose was the child found and rescued. After pleading
guilty, the couple were sentenced to 33 and 84 months in prison and ordered to pay
$28,822 restitution to the victim.
159
In another case, defendants running karaoke bars in Saipan worked with recruiters
and brokers to bring Chinese women to the Northern Mariana Islands under the pre-
tense of working in restaurants. Instead, the women were saddled with large debts,
forced into prostitution, physically threatened, and subjected to violence. The two
defendants were sentenced to 33 and 78 months in prison, ordered to pay restitution of
$22,200 and $25,200 to two victims, and ned an additional $55,000.
160
The U.S.-Canada border is increasingly becoming an entry point for crim-
inal networks involved in sex trafcking.
161
Canada serves predominantly as a
destination country for foreign-born women and children. Children and
women are mostly trafcked from Asia (the Republic of Korea, Thailand,
Cambodia, Malaysia, and Vietnam) and Eastern Europe (Romania, Hungary,
and Russia), although victims from Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa,
and the Middle East have also been identied. Vancouver and Western
Canada are the destination points for Asian victims; Latin American and Eastern
European victims are trafcked more often to Toronto and Eastern Canada.
162
Toronto and Vancouver are emerging as hubs for trafcked persons in the inter-
national sex industry. Girls from the former Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania,
and countries in South America, and Asia are brought to Toronto to work in
clubs as exotic dancers.
163
National Royal Canadian Mounted Police investigators estimated as many
as 800 to 1,200 trafcking victims in Canada, while some activists have put
the number as high as 15,000. In addition to foreign victims, Canadian women
are also trafcked within the country and exploited in the commercial sex
industry. Aboriginal girls and women living in poverty are high-risk persons.
According to the president of the Union of British Colombia Indian Chiefs,
3,000 or more aboriginal women are missing in Canada who may have fallen
victim to trafcking either in or outside of the country.
164
The U.S. Department of State has also identied Canada as a transit
country for South Korean women brought into the United States, where they
are exploited in the sex industry.
165
OCEANIA
The major destination countries in the region are Australia and New Zealand.
Victims trafcked into Oceania, are reported to be trafcked predominantly
from Southeastern Asia. Australia is a destination country for women trafcked
predominantly into commercial sexual exploitation from Indonesia, Malaysia,
Thailand, Vietnam, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the Philippines.
166
The
U.S. Department of State also reports that many trafcked women end up in
forced prostitution in Australia after having traveled freely to the country to
work in both legal and illegal brothels. Reports have also surfaced of men and
women from China, India, Ireland, the Republic of Korea, and the Philippines
migrating temporarily to work in Australia, but then these individuals
are exploited.
167
In New Zealand, internal trafcking of women for commercial sexual
exploitation has been reported. It also serves as a destination country for
women from China, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and other Asian countries.
168
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Human trafcking occurs within every region of the world and affects men,
women, and children. The prior emphasis in Western Europe on human traf-
cking for sexual exploitation is slowly changing to include investigations
into labor exploitationsomething that has been at the forefront of human
trafcking studies in other parts of the world. Studies in Southeastern Europe
and the United Kingdom indicate that trafcking patterns alter when the
necessity arises to establish new routes. Reports emerging from Germany and
the Netherlands with respect to trafcked victims show that, from year to
year, the number and percentage of victims of different nationalities increases
or decreases. Trafcking patterns, like the criminals and the organizations
with which they are involved, are in a constant state of ux.
Trafcking patterns and markets of exploitation will change based on the
demand for labor in the destination countries and the availability of potential
victims in a given place in a source country. New opportunities or situations
will arise that create a market for trafcked personsthe subject of the next
two chapters.
7
Hidden Forms of Human Trafcking
SO MUCH ATTENTION has been directed toward international trafcking of women
and children for the purpose of sexual exploitation and other forms of forced
labor that additional forms of trafcking, although they do occur, have been
overlooked. It is unclear whether they occur less frequently than other forms
of trafcking, or whether they simply have received less attention. This chapter
begins with an exploration of child trafcking in armed conicts, followed by
organ trafcking, trafcking for forced marriages, and illegal adoptions.
CHILD SOLDIERS
The United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) denes a child soldier as
[A]ny childboy or girlunder 18 years of age, who is part of any kind of regu-
lar or irregular armed force or armed group in any capacity and anyone
accompanying such groups other than family members. It includes girls and boys
recruited for forced sexual purposes and/or forced marriage.
1
Kidnapping and forced or illicit recruitment of children for use in armed conicts
are estimated to affect around 300,000 children in conicts throughout the world.
The trafcking of children for use in armed conicts can take place within a
country or transborder. According to the United Nations, there are indications that
cross-border trafcking of child soldiers is increasing in West and Central Africa
as a result of elaborate international organized criminal networks.
2
The problem of trafcking of child soldiers is most extreme in Africa
(Angola, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte dIvoire, Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mozambique, Rwanda, Sierra
Leone, Somalia, Sudan, and Uganda), but countries in Asia (Afghanistan,
India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand)
the Middle East (Iraq and the Occupied Palestinian Territories), and Latin
America (Colombia) also have been affected.
3
The use of children in govern-
ment, paramilitary, or rebel armies extends beyond the task of carrying weap-
ons and ghting and includes use in other services. Children serve not only as
soldiers but also as spies, cooks, porters, sexual slaves, and human land mine
detectors.
4
Children have been reported to ght on the front lines, have been
sent into mineelds ahead of adult soldiers, and have even been used for sui-
cide missions.
5
Young children, ages seven and eight, are recruited or kid-
napped to begin serving their military apprenticeships as messengers or carrying
food or ammunition as porters.
6
Most child soldiers are between the ages of
14 and 18; however, children as young as nine have been used in combat.
Geographic Distribution of Child Soldiers
Africa
In Africa, 100,000 child soldiers are currently active in Burundi, Chad, the
Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea, Rwanda, Sudan, Somalia, and
Uganda.
7
The 20-year war in Uganda between the Ugandan government and
the Lords Resistance Army (LRA) claimed more than 20,000 child soldiers,
8
many of whom were kidnapped. In the rst half of 2007, the LRA forcibly
recruited children from Southern Sudan. Up to 2,000 women and children are
believed to remain in LRA camps.
9
Thousands of young child refugees who have survived the war in Darfur
are being abducted and sold as child soldiers to militias operating in the vicin-
ity of the refugee camps. Boys, mostly between the ages of 9 and 15 have
been taken forcibly from their families in refugee camps in Chad and are
being trafcked to militias. The rebel group, the Justice and Equality Move-
ment, which is ghting the Khartoum government, is the main offender, but
opposing rebels and the Chadian army are also involved.
10
Asia
Children are serving in armies in Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Myanmar, Sri
Lanka, Indonesia, and the Philippines.
11
Some of the most egregious offenses
involved the government of Myanmar whose army regularly uses children to
ght ethnic armed groups and regularly recruits children ages 12 to 18. The
Myanmar army is believed to be using thousands of children.
12
In Sri Lanka, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) or Tamil
Tigers reportedly recruited 6,248 children (including 2,469 girls) between
January 2002 and December 2007. The TMVP/Karuna faction, allegedly sup-
ported by the government of Sri Lanka, is suspected of having recruited 453
children (including one girl), between April 2004 and December 2007. The
United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) suspects the numbers to be sig-
nicantly higher. Between January 2006 and June 2007, more than 1,100
mainly Tamil civilians, including children, have disappeared or been
abducted.
13
The Tamil Tiger rebels are believed to have thousands of chil-
dren in their ranks.
14
The United Nations reports the recruitment of children in Pakistan from
religious schools (madrassas), by militant groups to carry out suicide
bombings. The district coordinator of Pakistans Child Rights Committee
(CRC) reports that about 25 to 30 madrassa students, between the ages of
7 and 15, have been used by leaders of extremist outts in the district of Swat
to carry out attacks. Six others students from another madrassa were appre-
hended by the police for their alleged involvement in an attempted suicide
attack. A 12-year-old child was forced to wear a suicide bomb jacket with
instructions to blow up the district court. He, along with the other children
arrested, are now being held in jail.
15
The Taliban is reported to have used child soldiers in Afghanistan as sui-
cide bombers. They have further forcibly and voluntarily recruited children in
the southern provinces and parts of Pakistan.
16
Latin America
In one of the longest-running battles between government and armed opposi-
tion forces, lasting 50 years, children in Colombia have been driven by rural
poverty to voluntarily join and have been forcibly recruited and used by both
the rebel National Liberation Army (ELN) and the Revolutionary Armed
Forces of Colombia (FARC). The children were forced to lay mines, carry
explosives, work as guides and messengers, and ght in combat. Female chil-
dren were subjected to rape, abortion, and other forms of sexual abuse. The
children were further exploited by government forces that used surrendered
and captured child soldiers to gather intelligence for opposition forces.
17
Middle East
Child soldiers are reportedly deployed in Israel, Iraq, and the Occupied Pales-
tinian Territories. The NGO War Child reports that children in these areas
are encouraged to commit suicide attacks or are used as a human shield.
18
Voluntary or Coerced Recruitment of Child Soldiers
While large numbers of children have been forcibly abducted in some coun-
tries, not all children have been kidnapped or fraudulently recruited. Some
children join rebel forces voluntarily as a means of survival in a country or
region affected by poverty and lack of education or job prospects. Children
may voluntarily join armed groups because of social or economic pressure, or
in the belief that the group will provide them with security or food.
19
Children
may voluntarily join rebel forces to avenge the death of their family members
killed by armed groups or government forces.
20
A study of child soldiers in Chad found that some children join the rebel
FUC (United Front for Change) voluntarily, but Human Rights Watch ques-
tions whether the decision was made freely given the lack of options. Most
children come from villages characterized by poverty; they are uneducated
and voluntarily join the army to escape difcult home environments. Their
HIDDEN FORMS OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING 105
country was characterized by violence, which led the children to believe that
they were safer with the rebel forces than remaining unarmed in their villages.
A brigadier general of the Chadian National Army reported that boys between
the ages of 12 and 15 were obliged to join.
They are called bandios and their job is to make tea, nd water, collect rewood,
mind the goats. It is forced recruitment. They dont want to join, but they are
obliged to. Their parents dont want their children to join the army, because they
know they are going to die. But they have no choice.
21
A study of child soldiers carried out in Colombia by the NGO War Child
identied a number of reasons why children voluntarily join militias, which
include cultural, ideological, socioeconomic, protection, and revenge. A love
of weapons and the status and power that carrying a weapon brings in a cul-
ture that values manliness drives some children into the ranks of armed
groups. For others, their ideological convictions are the driving force. Joining
a militia may mean they believe they are ghting against social injustice or
for the rights of a minority group. Poverty and lack of education or job perspec-
tives forces some children to join armed groups. The nal motivations were pro-
tection and revenge. The study found that less than 15 percent of child soldiers
were forcefully recruited to the FARC, ELN, or paramilitary troops, although
this number differed for the various armed militias. Fourteen percent of the chil-
dren who had worked with the paramilitaries had been abducted, while for the
FARC it was 12.5 percent and for the ELN it was only 8 percent. The main
reason for joining the groups differed: children joined paramilitary groups
(25 percent) because they provided work opportunities (socioeconomic reasons)
and joined both the FARC (24 percent) and the ELN (40 percent) out of ideolog-
ical conviction. The second most important reason for joining the FARC and
ELN was a love of weapons (cultural reasons) followed closely by lack of
options and availability of work, while for the paramilitaries, the second most
important reason was lack of options (socioeconomic reasons).
22
Psychological Manipulation of Children
Human Rights Watch, which has interviewed child soldiers in Angola, Burma,
Burundi, Chad, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Lebanon,
Liberia, Nepal, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Sudan, and Uganda reports that chil-
dren typically make obedient soldiers. They are physically vulnerable and eas-
ily intimidated. To prove their allegiance to the armed forces, children are
sometimes forced to commit atrocities against their own family or neighbors.
These practices help ensure that the child is stigmatized and unable to return
to his or her home community.
23
Stories have surfaced of the manipulation of children by supplying them
with drugs, some of which reportedly make them fearless. The United Nations
reports that others are given drugs and alcohol to agitate them, notating that
this make[s] it easier to break down their psychological barriers to ghting
or committing atrocities.
24
At the same time, children are trained to obey
orders to kill and maim. Failure to do so may result in their own death.
25
One
16-year-old child soldier described his experience:
The rst time I went into battle I was afraid. But after two or three days they
forced us to start using cocaine, and then I lost my fear. When I was taking drugs,
I never felt bad on the front. Human blood was the rst thing I would have every
morning. It was my coffee in the morning every morning.
26
Ishmael Beah, the former child soldier from Sierra Leone, was a 12-year-
old boy when rebels killed his parents and brother and most of the residents of
his village. He was forced to ght with rebels as a child soldier until he was
rescued by government soldiers who fed him, protected him, and gave him
an AK47. Ishmael was told to ght for the army or be killed by the rebels. He
was then 13 years old. Ishmael and other child soldiers were given marijuana
and a drug known as brown-brown
27
a mixture of cocaine and gun powder
used to enhance the effect of the marijuana. Under the inuence of the drug,
Ishmael reports that he was not afraid to kill or be killed. In addition to the
drugs, the children were shown movies praising the use of violence, such as
Rambo, while being told that they were ghting for their country.
28
Female Victims
According to UNICEF, the risk of exploitation, abuse, and sexual violence of
women and children increases during armed conicts. Girls have reported vol-
untarily enlisting in armies to escape domestic servitude, sexual abuse, and vi-
olence at home.
29
The role of female children used in armies is particularly
grim. According to one expert, nearly one-third of child soldiers are girls who
face danger from sexually transmitted diseases (including HIV/AIDS),
unwanted pregnancies, and complications or death during childbirth. If they
are able to survive with their child, the child is often rejected or faces dis-
crimination in their local villages.
30
Girls are further subjected to social stig-
matization, human trafcking, and prostitution.
31
Girls reportedly have been abducted and served in armed conicts in El
Salvador, Ethiopia, and Uganda. Almost a third of the child soldiers in these
countries are girls who are enslaved, raped, and given to military
commanders as wives.
32
Unlike boys, who may join rebel armies willingly,
most girls in armed conicts are abducted or recruited by coercion. This was
particularly true in Angola, Sierra Leone, and Uganda. Girls predominantly
serve in rebel or government-opposition armies.
33
Given the nature of their systematic sexual abuse and possible health
problems, female child soldiers require special care, which is not always pro-
vided during their reintegration phase.
The Psychological and Physical Impact on Child Soldiers
Child soldiers are subjected to brutal initiation, cruel training regimes, hard
labor, punishment rituals, and torture. In addition to ill treatment and sexual
abuse, child soldiers have often been traumatized by the violence they have
seen or in which they have been forced to partake, sometimes against their
own families or community. They are threatened with violence or killed if
they attempt to escape.
34
Child soldiers are often wounded or suffer from
multiple traumas and psychological scarring. Their personal development is
often irreparably damaged.
35
During and even after their involvement as child soldiers, many children
report psychosocial disturbances. These range from nightmares, anger, and
aggression that is difcult to control, to substance abuse and antisocial behav-
ior.
36
As a result of this behavior, many former child soldiers are rejected by
their families and communities and have difculties adjusting to civilian life.
Even after having been removed from the armed forces, ex-child soldiers are
more at risk of abuse, in particular sexual abuse.
37
A study of 301 child soldiers in Uganda who had been kidnapped by the
LRA found that almost all the children had experienced several traumatic
events: 233 children (77 percent) saw someone being killed, 118 children (39
percent) were forced to kill someone, 190 (63 percent) had to loot and burn
the houses of civilians, 193 (64 percent) were forced to ght, 21 of the 53
girls (39% percent) interviewed were sexually abused or given to one or more
Case 7.1. A Teenage Girl Is Abducted and Exposed to Violence
Sixteen-year-old Susan, abducted by the Lords Resistance Army in Uganda, reported
the following:
38
One boy tried to escape, but he was caught. They made him eat a mouthful of red
pepper, and ve people were beating him. His hands were tied, and then they
made us, the other new captives, kill him with a stick. I felt sick. I knew this boy
from before. We were from the same village. I refused to kill him and they told
me they would shoot me. They pointed a gun at me, so I had to do it. The boy
was asking me, Why are you doing this? I said I had no choice. After we
killed him, they made us smear his blood on our arms. I felt dizzy. There was
another dead body nearby, and I could smell the body. I felt so sick. They said
we had to do this so we would not fear death and so we would not try to escape.
I feel so bad about the things that I did. It disturbs me so muchthat I
inicted death on other people. When I go home I must do some traditional
rites because I have killed. I must perform these rites and cleanse myself. I still
dream about the boy from my village who I killed. I see him in my dreams, and
he is talking to me and saying I killed him for nothing, and I am crying.
soldiers as a wife, and half of those girls gave birth to one or more children
in captivity. The children were diagnosed with showing a high rate of post-
traumatic stress reactions.
39
Former child soldiers are at high risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. The
children have been taught to be disinhibited to violent and sexual behavior
while serving in the army and they have difculties adjusting once released.
The United Nations reports that once demobilized, former child soldiers are
often poor, lack family ties, and nd themselves in a new worldone in
which they nd it difcult to adjust. Their coping mechanisms put them
at high risk. In Sierra Leone, former child soldiers turned increasingly to
illegal intravenous drugs. Former child soldiers from Uganda have been
found to resort to brewing or abusing alcohol and turning to sex work to
support themselves.
40
The Fate of Child Soldiers
With the end of conicts in the countries of Burundi, Côte dIvoire, Guinea,
and Liberia, the large-scale recruitment and deployment of children into gov-
ernment armies ceased. So, too, did the use of child soldiers in Indonesia and
Nepal.
41
Between 2004 and 2007, the world has witnessed a decrease in the
number of conicts involving children from 27 in 2004 to 17 in 2007.
42
Whether children join armies voluntarily or not, the U.N. Trafcking Pro-
tocol views this as trafcking regardless of the conditions under which the
children were recruitedeven where there is no use of fraud or deception.
Children fail to understand the consequences of their actions and their rights
to health, safety, free movement, and association. All children under the age
of 18, regardless of why or how they joined the armed forces with which they
worked or fought, are victims of trafcking.
Because child soldiers have often committed such atrocities, questions
arise in their villages and countries concerning their degree of responsibility.
They are often treated as criminals rather than victims of trafcking, and the
U.N. Trafcking Protocol calls for special protection for trafcked victims.
Campaigns
43
to disarm, demobilize, and reintegrate child soldiers are under
way in many postconict countries. Once a child has escaped or been dis-
charged from an armed group, the childs identity has to be established. The
childs needs are determined and future plans of action for the child are
mapped out (demobilization). The reintegration phase is a long-term and most
difcult process involving assistance in helping the children resume life in
their community, or in an alternative community if the child soldiers are
rejected by their communities. If reunication with the parents is desirable
and possible, this occurs. UNICEF and other organizations that work with
demobilized child soldiers provide education, training, and in some cases, psy-
chosocial support. The needs, often medical, of female child soldiers are dif-
ferent and these children require special care.
Between 2001 and 2006, UNICEF disarmed and demobilized 20,000 children
from the former rebel forces of the Sudan Peoples Liberation Army (SPLA) and
returned them to their families. At the time, UNICEF reported approximately
2,000 more children involved in the armed conict, of which, a signicant minor-
ity were girls.
44
During the demobilization of Maoist soldiers in Nepal in January
2007, the U.N. team found 2,973 minors.
45
The United Nations also reports the
successful demobilization of child soldiers from Côte dIvoire.
46
ORGAN TRAFFICKING
Organ trafcking is perhaps the least-proled form of human trafcking.
There has been almost no empirical research, but individual stories and inves-
tigations of illegally harvested organs surface on a regular basis. Urban
legends exist of children being kidnapped and killed for their organs, but there
is little empirical evidence to support these claims. In 2006, the United
Nations came to the conclusion that it was impossible to provide any estima-
tion on the scope of organ trafcking. The topic was not a priority nor had it
received close scrutiny from the United Nations member states. Most cases
included in the report involved the illegal removal and trafcking of organs or
tissue from deceased persons.
47
With the improvement of health care in many parts of the industrial
world, life expectancy has increased resulting in a larger population of older
people. At the same time, medical and technological developments have
facilitated the transplantation of organs, which has become a rather routine
procedure. This would normally not present a problem, except for the fact that
demand far exceeds the supply, and the shortage is acute. Between 1990 and
2003, kidney donations in the United States increased only 33 percent, but
people awaiting a kidney for transplant increased by 236 percent.
48
The
chronic shortage in Europe means that between 15 percent and 30 percent of
European patients will die while waiting for a kidney transplant, which aver-
ages about three years. By 2010, the wait for a new kidney is expected to
increase to 10 years.
49
The shortage in organs is due, in part, to religious beliefs that the body
should be buried intact and in part to a fear of hospitals intentionally allowing
patients to die to harvest their organs for paying patients. Waiting times for
an organ from a cadaver, usually a kidney (which accounts for the most sales
of organs throughout the world), varies from one country to the next. In Brit-
ain and the United States, the average wait is two to three years. In Singapore,
the wait is six to eight years. In the Gulf States and Asia, the wait is even lon-
ger. This long wait has led many in need of a kidney to try to obtain one from
a live donor.
50
While organs harvested from deceased donors are packed on ice and
transported around the world by plane, the harvesting of organs from live
donors generally involves the travel of both donor and recipient to the place
where the transplant will occur. The discussion around the phenomenon is not
about the trafcking of organs per se, but the trafcking of human beings for
the purpose of organ removal. This is considered human trafcking even when
donors often agree to voluntarily sell their organs. Both deceit concerning
payment and the medical risks involved in the operation often occur, so
donors are unable to make an informed decision.
Patterns of Organ Trafcking
In the 1990s, most recipients of kidneys were Asians who traveled to China
or India to purchase an organ or were residents of the Gulf States who trav-
eled to India. The market has expanded, and while India remains a popular
destination for both purchase and transplant, buyers come from Indias middle
class and from around the world and now include the United States, Canada,
England, and the countries in the Middle East.
51
One of the worlds leading
experts on human trafcking for organ transplant, Dr. Nancy Scheper-Hughes,
describes it as a trade that can bring together parties from three of more
Table 7.1 Organ Donor and Recipient Nations
Common Countries of Origin
for Those Selling Kidneys
Common Countries of Origin for
Those Buying Kidneys
Bolivia Australia
Brazil Canada
China Hong Kong, China
Colombia Israel
Arab Republic of Egypt Italy
India Japan
Islamic Republic of Iran Malaysia
Iraq Oman
Israel Saudi Arabia
Moldova Republic of Korea
Nigeria Taiwan, China
Pakistan United States
Peru
Philippines
Romania
Turkey
Source: Information taken from Scheper-Hughes (2003, 2005a) and modied with data from Saletan
(2007) and Shimazono (2007).
countriesthe donors and recipients often come from different countries,
while the transplantation may occur in yet a third country. The trade in kid-
neys from live donors generally ows from poor, underdeveloped countries to
rich, developed ones, creating both organ-donor and organ-recipient nations.
52
Regional Patterns
The Middle East
For the past two decades, organized programs have taken wealthy patients
from the Middle East (Israel, Kuwait, Oman, and Saudi Arabia) rst to India
and then to Turkey, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and later Iraq for trans-
plants. This pattern was later followed by trips to the Russian Federation,
Romania, Moldova, and Georgia, and within the last decade to Brazil and
South Africa. Another popular route brought Israeli kidney recipients by plane
to Turkey where kidney sellers from rural Romania or Moldova were
matched. The operation was performed by Israeli and Turkish doctors.
53
Wealthy Palestinians travel to Iraq where poor Arabs coming from Jordan sell
their kidneys.
54
Donors sell their kidneys in Iran, Iraq, and India.
55
East and Southeast Asia
In the Peoples Republic of China, organs of executed prisoners have been
removed by the state and used for transplant. Reports have surfaced of cases
in which organs have been sold abroad for the prot of illegal brokers. An in-
dependent investigation into organ harvesting of Falun Gong members in
China came to the conclusion that
[T]he government of China and its agencies in numerous parts of the country, in
particular hospitals but also detention centers and peoples courts, since 1999
have put to death a large but unknown number of Falun Gong prisoners of con-
science. Their vital organs, including kidneys, livers, corneas and hearts, were
seized involuntarily for sale at high prices, sometimes to foreigners.
56
Organs harvested in China are used by wealthy recipients from Hong Kong,
China; the Republic of Korea; Japan; Malaysia; Singapore; and Taiwan,
China. This practice of using organs of executed prisoners also occurs
in Singapore.
Organ transplants have surged in the Philippines with foreign recipients
coming from Japan, Europe, and the Middle East to purchase kidneys from
poor Philippine donors. In 2007, about half of the transplant operations in the
Philippines involved foreign recipients.
57
Donors have had kidneys removed
and they were not paid.
58
According to the International Organization for
Migration (IOM), organ trafcking is on the rise in Southeast Asia, particu-
larly in China and other impoverished countries such as Cambodia, Indonesia,
Laos, the Philippines, and Vietnam.
59
South Asia
Research has shown that India is the place for kidney and cornea transplants.
Those looking to purchase a kidney come from the Middle East (Bahrain, Ku-
wait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates), Malaysia, Singa-
pore, Canada, and the United States. Donors tend to be concentrated in the
states of Andhar Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Punjab. There are
accounts of laborers in Punjab who have been deceived and even forced into
selling a kidney. According to the Voluntary Health Association of India, it is
estimated that about 2,000 Indians sell a kidney every year.
60
Forty percent of people in some villages in Pakistan are turning up with
only one kidney. According to the World Health Organization, the number of
donations from unrelated Pakistanis is increasing dramatically. The majority
of those receiving the organs are foreigners. In 2003, the Sind Institute for
Urology and Transplantation (SIUT), in Karachi estimated that around 2,000
kidney transplants were performed each year in Pakistan. Almost two-thirds
of these were performed on foreign patients and 80 percent were from unre-
lated donors.
61
In Nepal, laborers have had kidneys removed and the promised payment
was withheld.
62
The same pattern is occurring in the Philippines.
63
The Philip-
pines National Bureau of Investigation reports that organ trafcking now
involves children who are kidnapped or sold by their parents for their organs,
which are purchased by Middle Eastern nationals.
64
North America: The United States
Organ donors and sellers meet in the United States where transplants occur in
some of the nest hospitals in the world operating on a dont ask, dont tell
policy. The donors come from seller countries such as India, Nigeria, the
Philippines, or Russia.
65
There are reports of Russians and other Eastern
Europeans being trafcked to the United States and forced at gunpoint to sell
their kidney.
66
Europe
A report by the Council of Europe on organ trafcking identies Europeans
poorest countries as donor countries: Bulgaria, Estonia, Georgia, Moldova,
Romania, Russia, and Ukraine. The trade has been linked to organized crime.
One trafcking network was found to link Israel, Moldova, Turkey, and
Ukraine. Buyers and sellers come together in Turkey for transplantation. Tur-
key serves as a hub for transplant tourism.
67
Latin America
Brazil, and to a lesser extent Colombia, are the countries most often affected
by international trafcking for organ transplant. Brazilian kidney sellers are
matched with predominantly Israeli buyers for operations that are performed
in South Africa.
68
The World Health Organization reports that Colombia is
now becoming a destination for U.S. tourists seeking an organ transplant and
other cheap operations. Kidneys and livers can be purchased through several
Web sites.
69
Africa
South Africa is the second transplant tourism hub, which attracts donors from
countries as widespread as Brazil, Moldova, Nigeria, and Romania. Recipients
come from Botswana, Israel, Mauritius, and Namibia.
70
There have been inci-
dental reports of children being kidnapped and killed for their organs to be
used in traditional medical practices in South Africa, and media reports have
linked the trafcking of West African children to Europe for use in ritual
killings for their body parts. The practice has been documented in Nigeria
as well.
71
Individuals and Organizations Involved in Organ Trafcking
This crime, unlike other forms of trafcking, cannot take place without the
complicity of professional medical staff operating in hospitals or private clin-
ics. These doctors knowingly remove healthy organs from individuals not
related to the recipients. In addition to the donor and seller, which will be dis-
cussed in a later section, a number of brokers and agents are involved. These
have been identied as, but are not limited to the following:
72
Kidney hunters or brokers (to recruit donors locally or internationally
from among vulnerable and marginalized populations)
Medical directors of transplant units
Hospital and medical staff
Technicians in blood and tissue laboratories
Dual surgical teams working in tandem
Nephrologists
Postoperative nurses
Others who may knowingly or unknowingly be involved include:
Travel agents and tour operators to organize travel, passports, and visas
Medical insurance agents
Religious organizations and charitable trusts, which sometimes call upon
organ brokers
Patient advocacy organizations, which sometimes call upon organ brokers
The most important link between donor and recipient is the organ broker.
These often-unscrupulous individuals have no link to the medical eld and are
reported to be recruited from bars, ea markets, army barracks, jails and pris-
ons, unemployment ofces, and shopping malls.
73
Organ brokers can scour
slum areas in poor countries looking for suitable donors, as was the case in
the Philippines. Police near Manila raided a house and freed nine men who
were being held by a gang that had lured them with the promise of good jobs.
Instead, they forced them to agree to donate a kidney.
74
For those looking to purchase a kidney, it is as simple as logging onto
the Web sites of such dubious organizations as www.Liver4You.org. For
between $85,000 and $115,000, a buyer can purchase a new kidney and pay
for the operation in Manila, the Philippines. Liver transplants are more expen-
sive, currently costing $130,000.
75
The organ seller often receives no more
than a few thousand dollars of this fee.
In what the Indians called the mother of all scandals in human organ
trafcking in India, police arrested middlemen, donors, and several doctors,
including a transplant surgeon, as well as the principal of the Government
Medical College. Police estimate that between 1997 and 2002, $31.4 million
dollars changed hands between the donors, middlemen, and doctors. The
organ sellers, poor migrant laborers from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar states were
paid between $525 and $1,050, while the recipients were charged between
$104,600 and $209,200.
76
According to the United Nations, corruption is an integral element in
organ trafcking and transplantation.
77
It may be as benign as allowing
wealthy patients to climb to the top of waiting lists for organ transplants, or
may be as insidious as protecting illegal practices. Not more than six years af-
ter the rst organ trafcking scandal in India, the Indian Government uncov-
ered yet another organ trafcking operation, this time with suspected links to
the police. The scale of the operation was unprecedented and involved
about 500 patients and no less than three private hospitals, 10 pathology clin-
ics, ve diagnostic centers, 20 paramedics, ve nurses, and four doctors.
Additionally, guards were paid to watch and intimidate workers held in safe-
houses. These unsuspecting individuals thought they were accepting a job.
Instead, they were drugged or forced, sometimes at gunpoint, to forfeit a kid-
ney. The police are suspected of tipping off the main suspect before a police
raid on at least one occasion, and in spite of an investigative program into the
doctors illegal kidney trafcking, the suspect was allowed to continue operat-
ing. One of Indias leading newspapers has made accusations of the nexus
between the organ traders and the police.
78
The Donors and Recipients in the Organ Trafcking Trade
There are about 6,000 international kidney transactions a year.
79
While the pro-
cedure remains fairly consistent, the donors and recipients vary from one coun-
try to the next and even between regions within particular countries. There are,
however, some general trends. Organs are supplied by desperately poor people
in poor countries to donors in more afuent ones. Donors are generally minor-
ities and recipients of the organs are white or Middle Eastern. Donors may be
males or females, but most recipients are male; rarely are women the recipients
of purchased organs.
80
Donors are young; recipients generally older.
In the state of Tamil Nadu, India, almost three-quarters (71 percent) of
the 305 respondents in a study of kidney sellers were women. Sixty percent
of the women and almost all of the men were street vendors or laborers. Two
of the participants reported that they were forced to sell a kidney by their hus-
band.
81
Other studies have found that many organ sellers in India are women,
and in some cases the kidney may be sold to pay for the dowry for a daugh-
ters wedding. In the State of Punjab, India, it is generally poor young men
(laborers) between the age of 18 and 30 who agree to sell a kidney.
82
In Nigeria, kidney sellers are usually poor, single women,
83
while in Mol-
dova, kidney sellers are poor, young men from rural areas between the ages of
18 and 28. Most of these men were deceived or coerced in selling their kidney.
While they were paid between $2,500 and $3,000 to sell their kidney, recipients
were required to pay between $100,000 and $200,000 for the operation.
84
Consent, Deception, Coercion, and Exploitation in the
Procurement of Body Parts
Not all donors consent to sell their organs. Persons can be kidnapped, killed,
or sold for their organs. The United Nations reported that [a]s regards traf-
cking in children for the purpose of organ removal, although there is no con-
clusive evidence, a number of reports indicate that many abducted or missing
children have subsequently been found dead, their bodies mutilated and cer-
tain organs removed.
85
This is often associated with the African traditional
Table 7.2 Demographic Data on Organ Sellers in Different Countries
Country (State) Gender Age Income Education Occupation
Moldova Male 1828 Low Poor Laborer
Philippines Male 29 Annual family
income $480
7 years N.A.
Nigeria Female N.A. Very low annual
income
N.A. N.A.
India (Punjab) Male 1830 N.A. N.A. Laborer
India
(Tamil Nadu)
Female 71%
Male 29%
35 Annual family
income $420;
71% below
poverty line
2.7 years N.A.
Note: N.A. = not available.
Sources: Data for this table were compiled from Scheper-Hughes (2003, 2005b), Goyal et al. (2002),
GTZ (2004), and the Council of Europe (2003).
practice of magical medicine in which certain body parts are sold and used by
deviant practitioners to increase health, fertility, wealth, or inuence of a pay-
ing client.
86
Another method of obtaining an organ is through deception or coercion. A
person is told that he will be donating blood and is then coerced into selling a
kidney. Cases of persons admitted into the hospital in Argentina, Brazil, and
India for an accident or unrelated illness have reportedly had a kidney removed
without their consent
87
Laudiceia da Silva entered a S~ao Paulo, Brazil, hospital
in June 1997 to have an ovarian cyst removed. The womans family doctor
discovered during a routine follow-up examination, that she was missing a kid-
ney. The hospital later told da Silva that her missing kidney was embedded
in the large mass that had accumulated around her ovarian cyst and that the
diseased ovary and the kidney had been discarded. No medical records were
produced.
88
A leading expert on organ trafcking documented an asylum for
mentally ill persons in Argentina in which the director exploited his patients
by providing blood, corneas and kidneys to area hospitals.
89
In other cases, people are promised jobs in a foreign country. Once there,
the job fails to materialize, and the victim, who has been kept in a safe-house,
is now psychologically or physically threatened into offering up a kidney. In
one case, Vladimir, a 19-year-old boy from Mingir, a small village in central
Moldova, was lured from his home by a former prostitute-turned-kidney broker
who promised him a good job in a dry cleaning store in Istanbul. Nina, the kid-
ney broker, arranged the papers and after a 17-hour bus ride to Istanbul, Vladi-
mir was locked in a hotel room for a week. When Nina appeared again, it was
to tell Vladimir that he would have to start selling blood and after a match
was made, he would sell his best and strongest kidney for $2,700 minus his
rent and food.
90
The young victim was frightened and felt he had no choice
but to cooperate, which was the only way he could get home.
The most common form of trafcking in organs involves cases in which
the donor and recipient agree to the sale.
91
While donors may initially consent
to selling a kidney, buyers exploit their desperation, poverty, and ignorance.
The organ trafcking expert, Scheper-Hughes, identied a case in Tel Aviv
where a mentally decient criminal sold a kidney to his lawyer who then paid
the man half of what was promised. In another case in Canada, a man
received a kidney from his Filipino domestic worker. He justied this don-
ation using the argument that Filipinos are a people who are anxious to
please their bosses.
92
Kidneys vary according to their abundance and bring their donors differ-
ent amounts, depending on where the donor is living. According to one
expert, an African or an Indian kidney may bring the donor as little as
$1,000. A Filipino kidney is worth slightly more and could bring the donor
$1,300; a Moldovan or Romanian kidney is worth $2,700; and an urban Peru-
vian or a Turkish kidney can command up to $10,000 or more. Sellers in the
United States can receive up to $30,000.
93
This is just the offering price and
the actual price paid to a donor can decrease dramatically depending upon
supply of the organ. Alberty da Silva, an over-30 semiliterate Brazilian la-
borer and slum dweller in Recife, Brazil, was approached by an organ broker.
He was initially offered $10,000 for a kidney$200 upfront and the remain-
der payable after the surgery. Alberty was told he would be own to South
Africa, given a good hotel, and receive the best medical care at a private
luxury hospital. A little sightseeing tour would round out his trip. This unsus-
pecting victim was told that only one kidney works, while the other one
sleeps, and that the doctor would remove his sleepy kidney and leave him
with the good one. By the time the preoperative medical testing had been
completed and a passport and visa had been obtained for Alberty, the offer to
purchase his kidney had dropped to $6,000. So many people had signed up to
donate a kidney that, within a six-month period, the price being offered for a
kidney had dropped to $1,000 and the list of those waiting to sell a kidney
was still long.
94
It is not clear how much money is being earned by the illegal organ
brokers. In one case, an American was told that the operation would cost her
$65,000, which would include her and her donors travel to Durban, South
Africa. The operation would be carried out in a private transplant clinic in a
ve star hospital and a $6,000 payment would be made to her donor, Alberty
da Silva. In the world of transplant tourism, this is considered a bargain.
95
Case 7.2. A Kidney Ring in Israel
John Allan (formerly Mohammad Gheit), 59, and Hassan Zakhalka, 32, persuaded
developmentally challenged or mentally ill Arabs from the Galilee and central Israel to
sell a kidney. By placing ads in the newspaper offering money for organ donation, the
pair was able to identify potential donors. They gave false information and pressured
and threatened the donors to give up their kidney. Following the surgery, the organ
brokers refused to pay the donors as promised.
A 32-year-old single mother from an Arab village in Israel initially agreed to
undergo the operation that, she was told, was a simple procedure allowing her to be
fully functional after two days. When the woman changed her mind, the brokers threat-
ened to report her to the police for her agreement to participate in the illegal activity
of organ selling. As was the case with the other victims, the woman was own to
Ukraine where the surgery was performed. Upon her return to Israel, the brokers
refused to pay the promised $7,000.
The two brokers were part of a criminal ring that included an Israeli surgeon. The
surgeon sold the illegally obtained kidneys for between $125,000 and $135,000, paying
the brokers $10,000 dollars.
The two brokers were convicted in a Haifa court of organ trafcking. The surgeon
is awaiting extradition from Ukraine.
96
Exploitation extends beyond the mere fact that donors are not adequately
advised of the risks or compensated for the loss of a kidney. Victims of organ
trafcking may be promised complete postoperative medical care, but this
rarely happens. Organs Watch,
97
which carried out research on organ trafck-
ing in countries around the world, found that none of the donors interviewed
in Brazil, Manila, Moldova, and Turkey had been treated by a doctor a year
after the operation, despite frequent complaints of weakness and pain. Some
had even been turned away from the same hospitals that had performed the
surgery. In one case, a kidney seller was given a prescription medicine for the
pain, but was unable to pay for the prescription of painkillers and antibiotics.
Others interviewed also reported being fearful of not being able to pay for
medication if they needed it.
98
Economic, Physical, and Psychological Consequences to Organ Donors
Studies on those who have been trafcked for their organs, including those
who willingly sold their organs, show that the quality of the life of these
patients is not better off than before the operation. The consequences can be
dire and individuals suffer economically, physically, and psychologically.
In a study of 305 Indians who sold a kidney in Chennai, India, an average
of six years before the survey, doctors found that 96 percent of the sellers sold
their kidney to escape debt. The sellers received, on average, $1,070, which
was spent repaying debts, on food, and on clothing. The average family
income declined after the operation, families were still in debt, and the num-
ber who now lived below the poverty line had increased.
99
Further studies on
kidney sellers in Iran, India, Moldova, and the Philippines indicate that donors
experience unemployment, reduced income, and economic hardship. Due to
the fact that they are unable to sustain the heavy demands placed on them af-
ter the operation, those previously involved in agriculture or construction work
nd themselves unemployed. In Moldova, kidney sellers reported having to
spend their earnings to hire laborers to compensate for the heavy agricultural
work they could not do.
100
Victims are exposed to serious consequences to their health either during
or after the operation. One criminal gang in the Philippines was dismantled
when the police raided apartments where, under poor hygienic conditions, sur-
gical operations were being carried out to remove kidneys. The local media
reported that persons have died under such circumstances.
101
If patients sur-
vive the operation, they often face dire health problems. The physical health
of kidney sellers often deteriorates after the operation, with patients complain-
ing of chronic pain, weakness, and ill health. This was reported in 86 percent
of the patients interviewed in India.
102
Health problems plagued patients in
the Philippines and Eastern Europe, where donors suffered from hypertension
and kidney insufciency. In many of the cases investigated, few of the donors
in Brazil, Manila, Moldova, or Turkey had seen a doctor or received
postoperative health carea year after the operation. Patients were either
refused medical care or were unable to pay for the services.
104
Police in
Pujab, India, reported that donors were not provided proper postoperative care,
were thrown out of the hospital one week after the surgery, and were threat-
ened with imprisonment for participating in illegal organ transplants. Six per-
sons died as a result of the transplants.
105
Health authorities in the Philippines
report that because of the lack of postoperative treatment for poor patients,
many donors develop health problems such as high blood pressure and urinary
tract infections.
106
Donors also suffer psychologically as a consequence of the transplant.
Reports of a sense of worthlessness, serious depression, social isolation, and
family problems are not uncommon. In Moldova, sellers are excommunicated
from the local Orthodox church, their chances of marriage are nonexistent,
and many are alienated from their families. There are reports of kidney sellers
disappearing from their families and one committed suicide. Fear of being la-
beled disabled or weak results in male kidney donors from seeking follow-up
medical care.
107
Finding Solutions
The problem is a complex one that needs to address medical, ethical, and
legal issues. A number of governments have experimented with legislation
prohibiting the sale of organs. In Great Britain, for instance, the Human Organ
Transplants Act 1989 prohibits commercial transactions in human organs and
establishes general guidelines, such as placing restriction on the transplanta-
tion of organs between persons who are not genetically related.
108
India, too,
has legislation. The 1994 Transplantation of Human Organs Act prohibits
commercial dealings in human organs and restricts live donations to relatives.
A loophole in the law, however, allows for live donors to provide organs to
unrelated persons on the basis of affection or attachment toward the
Case 7.3. A Kidney Donor Falls Ill
Seeing how another villager bought a car with the money he had been paid for selling
his kidney, Niculae Bardan agreed to the same. He was trafcked from Mingir, Mol-
dova, to Instanbul in 2000 at the age of 22. Niculae was paid $3,000 for his kidney
from which he had to pay $100 in travel expenses and a $100 to each of the female
brokersone on Mingir and the other in Istanbul, leaving him with $2,700. Four years
later, Niculae was suffering from high blood pressure and was in constant pain and
unable to work. His doctor diagnosed him with the early stages of kidney failure stat-
ing, If he does not get immediate treatment, he will lose his only kidney and he
wont live to see his children leave primary school.
103
recipient when approved by an authorization committee.
109
In the Philip-
pines, the government has introduced a permanent ban on organ transplants
for foreigners in the country (unless the donor is a blood relative) and restricts
the number of transplants to be carried out on foreigners to 10 percent.
110
Iran
is the only country that regulates the sale of organs from live donors, but due
to its lack of transparency and regulation (no medical registry of paid donors
and no medical accountability, mandatory reporting of mishaps, or seller fol-
low up), it has been argued that illegal trafcking of organs in the country
has not been eradicated but simply become ofcial policy.
111
While these laws may prohibit their citizens from purchasing or selling an
organ on the black market, it does nothing to address the displacement effect
that occurs or the problems of organ shortages. When Indias Transplantation
of Human Organs Act went into effect in 1994, Malaysian transplant patients
immediately found a new destination in China.
112
According to the Council of
Europe, there are 120,000 patients on chronic dialysis treatment and nearly
40,000 patients waiting for kidney transplants. Fifteen to 30 percent of these
people will die due to a shortage of organs.
113
In the Netherlands in 2007, 152
patients died while waiting for a suitable organ for transplant.
114
Two approaches to meet the demand can be taken. One would be to
increase the number of cadaver donors. This could be done by implementing
a presumed consent or opt-in system (the Dutch refer to it as donor-
unless-you-say-no approach) meaning that a person is automatically presumed
to be an organ donor upon death unless the person species that he or she
refuses to be a donor (this or similar systems are in place in Belgium, Spain,
South Africa, and Singapore). The presumed consent system in Spain has
resulted in 31.5 donors per million population compared with 21.2 in the
United States, 16.9 in France, and 16.7 in Portugal.
115
Organizations (such as
the Multi Organ Harvesting Aid Network Foundation [MOHAN]) can provide
predeath counseling to family members that could increase the donation of
cadaver organs.
116
The second approach involves transparency and regulating
the system using live donors so that impoverished donors can provide their
organs in exchange for money, but at the same time be aware of their rights
and receive excellent postoperative care.
117
It is essential, in addition to pun-
ishing those criminals that ply the trade, to protect the vulnerable victims.
FORCED MARRIAGE AND MAIL-ORDER BRIDES
A number of factors combine to result in the selling of women as brides. De-
mographic inequality in certain parts of the world creates a gender imbalance
with men seeking wives outside of their community. This situation can be
found in China where the situation may have been caused or exacerbated by
the one-child-per-family policy. Chinese families, preferring a male child to
carry on the family name and inheritance, may abandon or abort female
fetuses or put the child up for adoption to foreigners.
118
By 2020, predictions
are that there will be a surplus of 40 million men in China looking for wives.
With lower social and economic status males unable to compete for suitable
mates, they must nd alternative means of nding a bride.
119
They may resort
to purchasing their partner, which fuels the bride-selling market.
Other men in destination countries may seek something new and differ-
ent. They may be looking to meet a bride who is exotic, traditional, or sub-
missive. Research on men in the United States who use mail-order companies
to meet their brides indicates that they want women who are traditional.
Others report that they want women who they can mold or control.
120
At the same time, women often see foreign marriage as a way out of pov-
erty. In Vietnam, overseas marriage is seen by some women as a way to end
poverty and in some rural areas the practice is widespread.
121
According to
the U.N. Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, trafcking accounts
for 30 to 90 percent of marriages in some Chinese villages.
122
From the slums of South American cities to rural villages in Asia, traf-
ckers have used offers of marriage to recruit women for forced labor and the
sex trade. Vulnerable and impoverished women have been recruited through
direct offers of marriage and, after having married, have been delivered to a
sweatshop or brothel by the trafcker husband. He is then rewarded for
having delivered the victim.
The mail-order bride industry is a business and, as a business, the central
concern is the customers (male client) satisfaction. The bride represents noth-
ing more than a commodity. While protective mechanisms are in place in
many businesses to safeguard the potential husband, the potential bride is at
risk and is often in a vulnerable condition before and after the marriage takes
place. These vulnerabilities are in the economic, informational, cultural, and
legal spheres. Women are often not provided with as much information about
their future husbands as the husbands are able to obtain about their future
wives. Not all organizations provide background checks on potential hus-
bands. Women often come from economically deprived areas and may be
willing to take more risks for the promise of a more secure future. Once
the wife immigrates, she is often isolated socially and may not speak the lan-
guage of her new husband and host country. Lastly, the new wife is subject to
the immigration laws of the new country.
123
The Source and Destination Country of Brides and Their Husbands
The pattern may differ per country. In the United States, the international
mail-order bride trade follows traditional trafcking patterns. Brides tradition-
ally come from Asia (specically China, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet-
nam), Latin America (in particular Brazil, Colombia, and Costa Rica), Eastern
Europe, and the former Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (Russia
and Ukraine); the clients generally come from the Western Hemisphere
(including Europe and North America). Male clients are generally from Can-
ada, Europe (often Germany, Norway, and Sweden), Japan, and the United
States. In 2002, 18,621 ancees were given permanent residence status in the
United States. The majority (9,358) came from Asia (2,418 from Vietnam,
2,392 from the Philippines, and 1,361 from China) followed by 4,739 from
Europe (1,476 from Russia and 861 from Ukraine); 966 came from South
America (346 from Brazil, 301 from Colombia).
124
The practice of selling women from Mongolia, Vietnam, and other poor
countries in Southeast Asia as commodities to single men in Japan, Malaysia,
the Republic of Korea, and Taiwan, China, is not uncommon. International mar-
riage specialists advertise on billboards in the Republic of Korea: Vietnam-
eseThey Dont Run Away!
125
Tours are organized for men to visit source
countries, or in some cases, prospective brides are exhibited like goods at trade
shows. The U.S. Department of State reports that NGOs and governments in
the region are reporting an increased number of brokered international mar-
riages. International marriages rose threefold to 43,121 between 2002 and 2007,
72 percent of which involved men from the Republic of Korean marrying
women from Mongolia, Vietnam, and other Southeast Asian countries. More
than 20,000 women between 2004 and 2007 married men in Taiwan, many of
whom were introduced through marriage brokers based in Taiwan and who
worked together with recruiters in southern Vietnam.
126
Forced Marriage as a Form of Trafcking
Not all women willingly enter into brokered marriages. In Afghanistan, it has
been reported that men whose opium crops have failed or been destroyed, and
who are unable to repay loans to drug warlords, give their young daughters
away in marriage as payment for debt. Research carried out by an Afghani
schoolteacher and local television reporter found that opium weddings are
not uncommon in parts of Afghanistan. In two of Nangarhars districts, she
interviewed more than 100 families and found approximately half the
Case 7.4. A Daughter Is Used to Pay Off a Debt
Sayed Shah borrowed $2,000 from a local drug trafcker, promising to repay him with
24 kilos of opium after the harvest. The government of Afghanistan eradicated the
opium crops in Laghman destroying Shahs entire two and a half acres of poppies.
Unable to repay the loan, Sayed Shah ed with his wife and 10 children to Jalalabad,
in the neighboring Nangarhar province. The drug trafcker found Shah and demanded
payment. Shah took his case before the tribal council begging for leniency. Instead, the
elders informed him he would have to give his 9- or 10-year-old daughter, Khalida, in
marriage, as payment for the debt to the 45-year-old trafcker.
127
weddings were arranged as repayment for opium debt. Girls tend to be young
teenagers, often promised to older men. Among the new brides were children
as young as ve who are used as domestic servants in their in-laws home
until they are old enough to consummate the marriage. The researcher docu-
mented cases of suicide.
128
The mail-order bride or bride for purchase industry spans the globe.
While not new, its growth can be attributed, in part, to the use of the Internet,
a topic covered in more depth in the following chapter.
Exploitation of Purchased Wives
The woman is not necessarily and, in most cases, probably not a trafcked vic-
tim in an arranged marriage. Women may be marrying for love or money or a
spouse visa, which in many countries is easier to obtain than other types of
visas. In a study carried out for the United Nations on the trafcking of Filipi-
nos, 5 of 20 trafcked women who went to Japan did so on a spouse visa.
These visas provide more long-term protection to women seeking to enter a
country and work. Four of the ve women knew their marriage was a sham.
129
Brokered marriages are not per se trafcking in human beings. Even if
the wife is abused by a husband who has purchased her, this does not neces-
sarily constitute human trafcking. If, however, the husband marries a partner
for the purpose of exploiting her, this is human trafcking.
Exploitation of trafcked women takes on many forms. Trafckers pre-
tend to be husbands, and then import and marry their wives only to force
them into commercial prostitution. Others force their wives into exploitative
domestic or farm work. Husbands can work as members of trafcking rings
or as individuals who feel that they are entitled to exploit their wife. In the
United States, a man pled guilty to having forced his Ukrainian mail-order
wife to hold several jobs and to having sexually abused her young daugh-
ter.
130
Police in Taiwan, China, broke up a trafcking ring that had brought
Indonesian women into the country with legal but fraudulent marriages
arranged through brokers, only to exploit them in factory work.
131
Case 7.5. Women Promised Husbands are Sold to Brokers
Between April 2005 and June 2006, a gang of six people trafcked 126 women from
Vietnam to Malaysia. The women were promised husbands, but instead, they were sold
to a broker in Malaysia for between US$1,500 and $2,000. The price varied depending
upon their looks and age. Once in Malaysia, the women were sold in bars to mostly
disabled or elderly men for as much as $6,300. The judge handed down a 12-year sen-
tence to the female ringleader for human trafcking. Her Taiwanese husband and the
other four suspects were sentenced to up to 10 years.
132
Addressing the Problem
A number of countries, including the United States, have passed legislation in
an attempt to protect women and regulate the international dating-service/
mail-order bride market. In 2006, the highly controversial International Mar-
riage Broker Regulation Act (IMBRA), attached to the Violence Against
Women Act, was passed into law and upheld by a federal judge in 2007.
IMBRA requires men using international marriage agencies to submit to a
background check by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, which
ensures that there is no history of (family) violence and that applicants have
not submitted multiple applications.
133
Information on the applicants back-
ground must be submitted to the woman in her local language. Larger, well-
established legitimate Internet dating sites in the United States must comply.
Others may operate illicitly.
In 2004, the government of Taiwan enhanced interview requirements.
This and other eligibility restrictions resulted in a sharp decline of the total
number of visas issued to potential spouses from Vietnam. The country began
to more closely monitor existing international marriage broker companies and
barred the registration of new ones.
134
Republic Act No. 6955 (Mail Order
Brides) came into law in 1990 in the Philippines to prohibit the practice of
matching Filipino women for marriage to foreign nationals on a mail order
basis and other similar practices including the advertisement, publication,
printing or distribution of brochures, iers and other propaganda materi-
als.
135
Personally introducing Filipino women for a fee is also outlawed. The
U.S. government reports that the Republic of Korea has established a program
of action to assist foreign brides in the country, but little has thus far been
done to regulate the activities of marriage brokers.
136
It is impossible to diminish the demand for such broker services, but safe-
guards can be put into place to ensure that international marriages are legiti-
mate and that vulnerable women are protected.
TRAFFICKING FOR ILLEGAL ADOPTIONS
International adoptions, like international marriages, do not necessarily
involve human trafcking practices. Unless the child is adopted for the pur-
pose of exploitation, the practice is not a form of human trafcking. What is
disconcerting, however, is that organized criminal groups and corruption are
often involved in the process of providing babies from developing countries
for international adoption to Western couples. Furthermore, there are indica-
tions that not all of these children were voluntarily put up for adoption by
their biological parent(s).
137
According to Europol, there are indicators of a global child trafcking
market which agencies estimate involved more than 1 million children and is
worth 1 billion Euro a year.
138
Bulgarian gangs were involved in the illegal
adoption market ; investigations into illegal adoptions were carried out in
France, Italy, and Portugal. In 2005, Europol reported that Russian ofcials
had also begun looking into combating the illegal adoption of Russian chil-
dren.
The U.N. Inter-Agency Project on Human Trafcking in the Mekong sub-
region reports that Cambodian babies are abducted and sold to unsuspecting
couples in the United States who pay a $20,000 adoption fee. This fee has in
part fueled the demand for nonorphaned babies and is used to pay bribes in
the country.
139
Dutch journalists traveled to the Chinese province of Hunan in 2008 to
investigate allegations that children had been forcibly removed from their
families and illegally adopted out to Chinese and foreign couples, among
them, Dutch. In Hunan, one of the poorest provinces in China, journalists
uncovered a number of unethical and illegal practices. In two families, the
child was removed because the parents were not married and were too poor to
pay the ne. In another case, one twin was taken from the family because the
twins violated the strictly enforced one child per family policy. The parents
were told that the children were placed in the Shaoyang orphanage and that
the children had been put up for adoptionwithout the parents knowledge or
permission. Government ofcials offered illegally seized children to the or-
phanage that made the highest bid. Children generally sold for between
$400 and $600. A number of directors of orphanages were convicted in 2005,
and the government acknowledged the illicit practice of seizing and selling
babies, but it still denies the extent of the practice.
140
Guatemala, too, has been touched by allegations of illegal adoptions. In
May 2008, police raided a home searching for a kidnapped child, but instead
found nine other children ranging in age from 7 to 12 months. The suspect,
who was unable to identify the childrens biological mothers, is the sister of a
congressman who also serves as president of a congressional committee on
minors and family affairs. The attorney general pledged a full review of all of
the countrys 2,286 international adoptions while the countrys adoption sys-
tem, plagued by corruption and fraud, will be overhauled.
141
Allegations of baby-selling, fraud, and corruption have surfaced in Viet-
nam. With 42 U.S. adoption agencies working in Vietnam, competition is
intense and parents pay up to $25,000 for a child. According to a report
released by the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi, illicit practices involved a mother who
was pressured to give up her baby when she could not pay the inated hospital
bills and other mothers who were pressured by orphanages to sell their children
for about $450 (a years salary). At the same time, agencies were paying or-
phanage directors $10,000 per referral or taking them to the United States on
shopping sprees or junkets to guarantee a steady ow of babies.
142
In 2007, U.S. adoption visas were issued for 5,453 Chinese, 4,728 Guate-
malan, and 2,310 Russian children.
143
In the case of illegal adoptions, the
demand creates the supply. The danger of a market demanding more and
more children for international adoption creates the possibility of illicit prac-
tices, corruption, and the involvement of organized criminal groups in provid-
ing these babies. In areas of countries in which births are not registered,
parents are poor and unaware of their rights, and government ofcials are
corrupt, the practice of putting children up for adoption is particularly suscep-
tible to abuse.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
This chapter has examined a number of different practices, which may or may
not qualify as human trafcking. If we return to the denition put forth in the
U.N. Trafcking Protocol, only the recruitment and use of child soldiers
under any and all conditionswould qualify as human trafcking.
In the case of organ trafcking, when the organ is obtained through fraud,
deceit, threat, or use of force, the practice constitutes human trafcking. This
is not always a straightforward situation, when, in poverty stricken areas, per-
sons agree to voluntarily sell a kidney for a mere $2,000. The deception is
related to a lack of information concerning the consequences of kidney dona-
tion, but not the sale itself. The situation becomes even more complex when
the kidney broker and doctor argue that the kidney was purchased not for
the exploitation of the donor but for improvement in the health of the recipi-
ent. After all, the donation of an organ is per se not illegal. The donation of
an organ to a stranger for money is a crime in many countries, however, and
obtaining a donation through deceit, coercion, or violence is at best unethical
and immoral, and at worst illegal. This chapter has clearly identied cases
and countries in which this practice has been documented and in some areas
the practice is widespread.
More likely than not, international marriages and adoptions arranged
through brokers and agencies are for legitimate purposes. The argument that
Chinese ofcials gave one family in Hunanthat their child had been put up
for international adoption and was much better off with the new, wealthy fam-
ilymay be true for the child, but not for the biological parents who wanted
to raise that child. As such, this is not human trafcking, but qualies as per-
haps one of the most egregious human rights violations imaginable. The inclu-
sion of illegal adoptions in this chapter highlighted the involvement of
international markets dealing in the buying and selling of human beings facili-
tated by organized criminals and government corruption.
With respect to mail-order brides, adult women should have the right to
seek a better future in another country and adult men wishing to acquire such
a spouse should have the right to meet one through whatever means available.
With an industry wide open to abuse, some regulation is necessary; at a mini-
mum, those spouses who nd themselves trafcked and exploited by their
husband must be aware of their rights and must be offered legal protection in
the destination country.
The next chapter looks at new opportunities for trafcking in human
beings. In particular, the use of the Internet is closely related to the practice
of mail-order brides. Other opportunities arise out of natural disasters, war,
and sporting events.
8
New Opportunities for Trafcking
THIS CHAPTER EXAMINES situations or developments that provide new opportuni-
ties for human trafcking. The information provided in this chapter is topi-
cally related to some of the themes addressed in the previous chapter. The
rise of Internet accessibility has resulted in the rapid growth of the mail-order
bride market and the spread of child pornography. Natural disasters and wars
can facilitate the illegal trade in or adoption of children, or their abduction or
recruitment into armed militias. Globalization and increased travel have given
rise to child sex tourism. We begin with a discussion of the Internets role in
trafcking, followed by an examination of child sex tourism and the link
between trafcking and peacekeeping forces, natural disasters, and interna-
tional sporting events. The discussion will focus on concrete cases in which
either trafcking has been suspected or discovered.
USE OF THE INTERNET
Online advertising for dating, escort services, and mail-order brides provides
access to an audience larger than most newspapers reach. In Israel, a 2004
court ruling convicted the publishing corporations and directors of three
major newspapers for publishing advertisements in their newspapers relat-
ing to the provision of prostitution services. From that point on, Israeli
newspapers refused to print advertisements offering sexual services,
1
pushing
the entire market onto the Internet. Internet advertising is not only cheap,
but it reaches a broader audience, making sex for hire more accessible
and discrete.
2
As of March 2008, there were more than 1.4 billion (1,407,724,920)
Internet users worldwide. The majority are in Asia (37.6 percent), followed by
Europe (27.1 percent), North America (17.5 percent), Latin/America and the
Caribbean (9.8 percent), Africa (3.6 percent), the Middle East (3.0 percent),
and Oceania and Australia (1.4 percent).
3
New technologies have expanded
opportunities for traditional crime to evolve. The Internet offers both sellers
and consumers of sex and pornography new opportunities to nd customers
and market and deliver women and children into situations of trafcking.
Because of its anonymity and the huge number of persons that can be reached
through the Internet, it has become a perfect tool to acquire girlfriends and
wives, to establish contact with children for the purpose of sex, and to buy,
sell, or trade child pornography.
Recruitment and Advertising Sexual Services via the Internet
The recruitment of trafcked victims via the Internet has created a new
means to obtain victims. Rather than using dating, marriage, or employment
agencies, trafckers can now post free advertisements on the Internet. The
two most common means of Internet recruitment for trafcking are through
advertisements for dating, escort, marriage, or employment agencies, and
in chatrooms.
4
In a report on Internet recruitment carried out for the Council of Europe
in 2007, a simple Google search turned up 128,000 suspect Internet sites
advertising modeling, dating, escort, and marriage services. What made the
sites suspect is the fact that women came from poor and often rural areas in
countries known as sources for human trafcking, or marriage sites used
subtle, but often blatant sexualized photographs of the women to appeal
to men.
5
This is not clear proof of trafcking, but trafcked victims may be
hidden among the more legitimate offers on such sites. In 2006 in Greece,
police ofcers from the Computer Crime Unit found a Web site offering the
sexual services of famous models. The ofcers ordered the services of a
model for C
450 and encountered a woman from an Eastern European

country who claimed to have been trafcked. She and another trafcked vic-
tim had spent three weeks traveling around European capitals for the Internet
modeling service and had earned C
60,000. Interpol was notied, the head

of the network was nally caught and charged with trafcking, and the Inter-
net site was taken ofine.
6
Case 8.1. A Finnish Prostitution Ring
In 2006, Finnish police broke up a prostitution ring running between Estonia and Fin-
land. The two leaders of the trafcking network, already in prison in Estonia, were
placing ads on Estonias most popular Internet site and using mobile phones to recruit
women. Advertising for sexual services is prohibited in Finland so the site was estab-
lished in the Netherlands where such activity was not banned. Between October 2005
and March 2006, 15 Estonian women, one of them mentally handicapped, were
brought into Finland and forced into prostitution. The women were forced to hand over
most of their earningsthe handicapped woman was given nothing for her workand
threatened with violence.
7
Mail-Order Brides and Dating Services
A Google search of mail-order brides yields 921,000 hits.
8
Among some of these
sites are advertisements for combined services such as dating. The majority of
women proled on these sites are Eastern Europeanpredominantly Russian and
UkrainianAsian, and Latina women. Some Internet sites offer tours to meet the
prospective bride. A Council of Europe report draws a distinction between mail-
order bride sites, referring to them as slaves who can be purchased online by
credit card, and online marriage agencies that are offering sexual services.
9
A Foreign Affair (at www.loveme.com) boasts on its Internet site that it
is not a Mail Order Bride company, but the largest and most respected
International Introduction and Singles Tour Company in the industry. The
company offers an 11-day tour to a single Russian city for a mere $4,100 and
a three-city eight-day tour for about $7,400.
10
Trips generally include airfare
and accommodation, as well as social events designed to allow the customer
contact with as many women as possible. The site boasts Meet 500 to 2,000
Beautiful Foreign Women During Our Romance Tours! There are as many
as 2,000 foreign women for 12 Western male clients. These trips may serve
as an opportunity to meet a bride or as a front for a high-scale prostitution
ring.
11
Internet sites specialize in everything from disabled Russian women
12
to vulnerable women and underage children.
13
The Internet dating and mail-order bride Web sites are largely unregu-
latedalthough regulations are in place for bringing such a bride into the
United States and other countries. Low overhead and startup costs combined
with the increased use of the Internet and an endless source of foreign women
seeking a more stable economic future has created a massive growth in Inter-
net dating and marriage broker services. As if selling a product, many online
mail-order bride Web sites have taken a Web-based merchandising approach
to their matchmaking, one in which the male clients are taken through a proc-
ess of Browse, Select, Proceed to Checkout. One researcher found that
[t]oday, any man with Internet access, an electronic photo (even ten years
old) and a credit card number can shop.
14
That many of these online agencies are selling sexual contacts with the
women they advertise in sexually provocative poses and scantily clad clothing
is undeniable. But to what degree are these agencies linked to human trafck-
ing? In her testimony before the U.S. Senate, one expert reported that workers
in the St. Petersburg (the Russian Federation) Psychological Crisis Center for
Women had heard of Russian women being recruited by marriage agencies
and then trafcked into prostitution. This same pattern was conrmed by non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) operating in countries of the former
Soviet Union. With agencies maintaining a database with extensive informa-
tion on single womenand their familieswho have expressed a desire to go
abroad, it is easy to imagine how these agencies could use that information to
coerce women into prostitution and thus be involved in trafcking.
15
NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR TRAFFICKING 131
Escort Services
While many of the services may be legitimate, other popular websites are
used to promote the sale of trafcked victims. The Polaris Project reports that
a popular online marketing and sales Web site in the United States is being
used to sell trafcked victims under the guise of legal escort services. Law
enforcement in Boston, Massachusetts, arrested a man and his niece and
charged them with plotting to sell teenagers as young as 13 to predators from
Massachusetts to New York. In Chicago, two women were charged with forc-
ing girls as young as 14 to prostitute themselves to as many as 12 clients a
day. Both of these cases involved advertising on the Web site Craigslist. Law
enforcement in the United States report that a spike in online Craigslist ads,
and how sex trafcking has moved online lately.
17
Trafcking and Child Pornography
The demand for child pornography is enormous. According to the interna-
tional police agency, Interpol, one company in the United States which oper-
ated for ve months selling access to child pornography sites at $29.95 each,
grossed $5.5 million in ve months of operation.
18
Law enforcement and
researchers believe the production and trade in child pornography is increasing
and the increase is related to growing use of the Internet.
19
An international
investigation exposed a highly sophisticated operation that was digitally trad-
ing more than 400,000 photos of children to members worldwide. Twenty-two
men were arrested in Australia, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the
United States and about 20 victims were identied and rescued.
20
The Internet can be used either to recruit victims or to distribute child
pornographic materials. Trafckers who recruit and use victims for pornogra-
phy via Web sites may differ from trafckers who use the Internet to recruit
women via escort services, dating or marriage sites, or employment sites. In
these later cases, there must be a personal contact between the trafcker, and
the victim and the victim is often moved within the country or to a foreign
Case 8.2. An Israeli Escort Service
Tal Zohar, set up the Escort Plus Web site in Israel featuring details of women
offering sex for money. Zohar earned a commission on each so-called sale. In 2001,
he began traveling to European countries to hire young women to work in Israel via
his Web site. He purchased two Ukrainian and two Moldavian women. In addition to
purchasing women to work for his virtual brothel, Zohar did not pay the victims the
wages that they should have earned. Zohar, convicted of human trafcking, pimping,
and exploitation, was sentenced to ve years in prison plus a suspended sentence.
16
country for the purpose of sexual exploitation. In the case of trafcking for
pornography via the Internet, the victim does not even have to leave his or
her home, and in fact, may be unaware of the sexual exploitation.
21
The U.S. government denes child pornography as imagery depicting a
minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct, including various forms of sexual
activity such as masturbation, intercourse, or lascivious exhibition of the geni-
tals. The possession, distribution, and manufacture of these images is illegal.
Pornographic pictures of children can be made easily through the Internet with-
out the childs knowledge. Grooming is the term given to those who seek
contact with childrenusually in chatroomswith the intent to sexually abuse
them onlineby having them perform sexual acts while the predator watches
or records the acts via webcamor ofinein which case the predator seeks
personal contact with the child for the purpose of a sexual encounter.
The television reality show NBC Dateline ran a series of undercover sting
operations in various cities portraying adult men who had been chatting online
with an individual who they thought was a minor. These men showed up at
the home of the minorwho was, in fact, an adult volunteer working for the
Internet watchdog agency Perverted Justiceanticipating a sexual liaison,
only to be taped by hidden cameras. Some of the men had sent suggestive or
explicitly sexual material to the child, prepping him or her for the encoun-
ter. A number of persons were arrested and prosecuted.
22
The buying and selling of child pornography, while illegal, does not consti-
tute human trafcking; however, the production of child pornography may con-
stitute trafcking in situations in which a child or young person is purchased or
recruited for the purpose of exploitation. Many of the children used in porno-
graphic pictures have been subjected to rape or other forms of sexual violence.
The production of child pornography has been directly linked to the sexual ex-
ploitation of children. In a study of U.S. offenders arrested for having sex or
intending to have sex with minors in foreign countries, 21 of the 50 offenders
were found to be in possession of child pornography. Some of the pictures were
produced by the perpetrator during the molestation of the child.
23
Child Sex Tourism
International tourism has grown sevenfold since the 1960s providing economic
support to developing countries. With the growth in tourism, comes the poten-
tial for a growth in child sex tourism. The International Labour Organization
(ILO) reports that 2 to 14 percent of the gross domestic product of Thailand,
the Philippines, Malaysia, and India is generated from sex tourism.
24
The
crime typically is fueled by the ease of travel, poverty in the destination coun-
try, the Internet, weak laws, and government corruption.
25
Child sex tourism is tourism with the primary purpose of consummating
a commercial sexual relationship with a person under the age of 18. It is an
act involving mostly men from Western countries exploiting the poverty
and vulnerability of childrenusually in developing nations. Although the
child is abused in his home country or city and thus does not t the pattern
of trafcking to which we have become so accustomedthat is, foreign
women or children being imported into a country for the purpose of forced
prostitutionchild sex tourism does represent a form of sexual exploitation
that falls under the U.N. denition of trafcking. It is the recruitment or pur-
chase of a child for the purpose of exploitation. A report examining child sex
tourism in the United States found that it occurs in tourist cities as well, such
as Las Vegas.
26
Patterns of Child Sex Tourism
The U.S. Department of Justice reports that Asian countries, in particular
India, the Philippines, and Thailand, have long been the preferred destinations
for child sex tourists. These predators, however, are spreading out to destina-
tions in Central America and Mexico as well.
27
Tourist destinations in Africa
are hotbeds for child sex tourismfor example, in Kenya, where it is reported
that along the Kenyan coast, child sex tourism has become rampant with
between 10,000 and 15,000 girls being prostituted.
28
Sex tourists generally do not travel far to exploit children. U.S. and Cana-
dian child sex tourists are traveling closer to home and countries in Central
and Latin America are becoming preferred destinations. Among countries in
this region, Costa Rica and Mexico are popular destinations and to a lesser
extent Brazil and the Dominican Republic. Europeans prefer African countries
such as Cameroon, The Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, and South
Africa. Child sex tourists from Asian countries tend to remain in the region,
but they have been arrested in other countries as well.
29
According to Australian National Police, Australian child sex tourists typ-
ically visit Southeast Asia, in particular Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thai-
land. Their victims are generally between the ages of 5 and 18 years and both
boys and girls are targeted. Australian police report that the Internet is
increasingly being used as a source of information to assist predators in their
travel plans. The use of pedophile-friendly travel agencies also assists child
sex tourists in organizing their trips.
30
The nonprot organization End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography,
and the Trafcking of Children (ECPAT), reports that child sex tourism is
particularly prevalent in Central and South America and Asia, with Costa
Rica, Cambodia, and Thailand being some of the most popular sex tourist des-
tinations for child sex tourism.
31
Table 8.1 portrays established or emerging
major child sex tourist destinations identied by the organization and in
research carried out by the Protection Project.
32
ECPAT estimates that more than 1 million children worldwide are drawn
annually into the sex trade.
33
In Thailand, an estimated 22,500 40,000 chil-
dren are exploited in the commercial sex industry, between 60,000 75,000
children are victims in the Philippines, and as many as 30,000 children are
exploited in the child sex tourism industry in Mexico.
34
Situational child sex tourists generally travel to another country for a
short period of time and return home. If the opportunity arises, they will have
sex with a child. Preferential child sex tourists travel to a country with the
sole purpose of abusing children and may even take up residence in the coun-
try.
35
This trend was noted in Southeast Asia
36
where child sex offenders,
rather than short-term visitors, tend to be more long-term residents of the
region and may be working there as well. Exploiters are inltrating more iso-
lated communities and are taking on jobs that bring them into contact with
childrenas teachers, aid workers, or tutors, occupations which give them
unrestricted access to children.
37
The same pattern is being reported in Central
America and Africa. In Kenya, reports have surfaced of children being abused
by expatriates who are setting up charitable organizations to help them.
38
Table 8.1 Major Known and Emerging Destinations of Child Sex Tourism
by Region and Country
Region Country
Africa Cameroon, The Gambia, Kenya, Senegal, South
Africa
Southeast Asia Bali (Indonesia), Cambodia, Laos, Philippines,
Thailand, Vietnam
Central and South America Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic,
Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico
Northern Russia, Eastern
and Southeastern Europe
Romania, Moldova
Source: Information from Protection Project (2007).
Case 8.3. A School Teachers Young Victims
In June 2006, a U.S. citizen was arrested in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, for allegedly tor-
turing and raping a 20-year-old woman and at least three young girls between the ages
of 9 and 11. The 53-year-old offender, Michael Joseph Pepe, was a school teacher.
The offender bought one of the children from her mother for $300; the other two
girls he rented from their mother for $30 a month.
39
The children were brought from
the countryside to Pepes house so he could torture them while raping them. While he
did this, he lmed the acts. Police conscated items, including the rope used to bind
the victims, and hundreds of pornographic pictures of young girls. They suspect that
there were other victims of Pepe.
40
The Perpetrators and Victims
On this trip, Ive had sex with a 14 year-old girl in Mexico and a 15 year-old
in Colombia. Im helping them nancially. If they dont have sex with me, they
may not have enough food. If someone has a problem with me doing this, let
UNICEF feed them. These are the words of a retired U.S. school teacher.
41
Although most perpetrators of this crime are males, the U.S. Department
of State reports that wealthier women are also becoming perpetrators by trav-
eling to countries in Africa such as The Gambia and Kenya and paying for
sex with young males.
42
The difference, however, is that while women may
be feeding prostitution by purchasing the sexual services and companionship
of young males, and while these boys may be under the age of 18, they are
not extremely young children.
Because of the clandestine nature of child sex tourism and the fact that
most perpetrators escape criminal liability in the countries in which they per-
petrate their crimes,
43
limited data are available on the offenders and victims.
Data provided by arresting agencies on 50 U.S. child sex tourists shows that
49 of the 50 perpetrators were male, and two-thirds of the offenders were
between the ages of 40 and 59. Where data were available regarding the gen-
der of the victims, 61 percent of the offenders intended to or actually engaged
in sex with young boys. The researchers argue that men seeking sexual con-
tact with boys may be easier to detect and therefore more likely to be
arrested. Whereas sexual contact with girls can be arranged through prostitu-
tion channels, men seeking contact with boys must approach them directly,
and often in public places.
44
Data provided on child sex tourism in a limited number of countries in
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region on the national-
ity of offenders and the age and gender of victims paint the following picture:
Of the 30 offenders arrested in Cambodia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet-
nam, all were male and eight offenders were from the United States, seven
from Germany, four from Australia and England, three from Italy, two from
China, and one each from Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, Korea, and India.
Where age of the offender was available, the majority of offenders were
between the ages of 40 and 49 years.
45
With respect to the age and gender of the child victims, table 8.2 provides
a distribution, based on information provided by Cambodia, Myanmar, the
Philippines, and Thailand. Female children were the victims more often than
male children, and very young children, between the ages of 6 and 11, are the
largest single group of those exploited.
Whats Being Done about Child Sex Tourism?
In addition to such international instruments as the U.N. Convention on the
Rights of the Child and its optional protocols, which specically require mem-
ber states to combat child sex tourism, a number of countries have passed
legislation allowing for the prosecution of their citizens who travel abroad and
engage in illicit sexual relations with children. The U.S. PROTECT (Prosecu-
torial Remedies and Other Tools to End the Exploitation of Children Today)
Act of 2003, punishes anyone who travels with intent to engage in illicit
sexual conduct or those who engage in illicit sexual conduct in foreign pla-
ces. This covers interstate travel within the United States.
46
Similarly,
Australia has passed the Crimes (Child Sex Tourism) Amendment Act 1994
No. 105, punishing its citizens for having sexual relations with a child under
the age of 16 outside of the territory
47
and under the U.K. Sexual Offences
Act, 2003, Article 72, persons can be prosecuted for a crime that is viewed as
a criminal offence in both countries.
48
More than 30 countries have passed
some type of extraterritorial legislation allowing the country to prosecute its
own nationals for sexual offenses that have been committed against children
in another country.
49
On April 21, 2004, a campaign called the Code of Conduct for the Pro-
tection of Children from Sexual Commercial Exploitation in Travel and Tour-
ism was launched. The Code is a joint effort by international organizations,
NGOs, and the travel industry to create more awareness and to identify and
report suspected abusers.
50
Other international initiatives to end child sex tour-
ism include national awareness campaigns (Brazil) ; a lm on the dangers of
child sex tourism, which is shown to children in schools (Madagascar) ; and
the in-ight videos highlighting the crime and penalties for child prostitution,
shown on Air France ights.
51
TRAFFICKING, THE MILITARY, AND PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS
Trafcking During Times of War and Civil Unrest
It is impossible to document the degree to which trafcking increases during
times of war or armed conict, but anecdotal evidence supports the allegation.
Table 8.2 Age and Gender of Victims of Alleged Traveling Child Sex Offenders
Arrested in 2006
Age-Group
Number of
Males
Number of
Females Total Percentage
611 years 17 15 32 39%
1215 years 8 17 25 30.5%
1617 years 11 14 25 30.5%
Total 36 46 82 100%
Percentage 44% 56% 100%
Source: The table is a composite of information gleaned from the tables in Child Wise (2007) in the
sections on Cambodia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Thailand.
This is due, in part, to the collapse of state institutions and border controls,
and an increase in lawlessnessall factors that increase the risk of trafcking
in persons, in particular, women and children.
According to the United Nations, the breakdown of law and order com-
bined with the increased demand for sexual services by members of the mili-
tary or ghting factions can lead to a situation in which a conict area
becomes a destination for human trafcking. Organized criminal groups take
advantage of the chaotic conditions to run trafcking operations knowing that
the chances of detection are minimized.
52
Forms of trafcking vary according
to the nature of the armed conict and the specic political and economic
factors on the ground. A common thread, however, is that women and chil-
dren, who constitute the majority of internally displaced persons, are the most
vulnerable to trafckers.
53
The link between prostitution and the military is well documented. Mili-
tary servicemen deployed far from home have been a long-standing source
of demand for sexual services from local populations. American soldiers,
during the Vietnam War, used military-inspected and certied prostitutes dur-
ing rest and recreation breaks in Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines.
54
U.S. military stationed in South Korea drew entertainers from Southeast
Asia.
55
According to one expert, the U.S. military deployed abroad in combat
and peacekeeping operations may be one of the largest sources of demand
for sexual services around the world, some of which would likely be provided
by trafcked women.
56
Postwar Trafcking
To support countries trying to stabilize and rebuild after war, international as-
sistance initiatives provide monitoring, maintenance, establishment of peace,
and prevention of resurgent violent conict. Peacekeeping operations support
and monitor the building of peace, whereas peace enforcement operations cre-
ate conditions of peace but are allowed to use force. Both of these are forms
of Peace Support Operations (PSOs).
57
United Nations staff make up a small
minority of peacekeeping missions. The majority of soldiers serving in these
missions are on loan from troop-contributing countries. These troops are
members of their own military and the United Nations has no disciplinary
authority over them.
58
According to the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research
Institute (UNICRI), the links between human trafcking and peace support
operations are threefold. First, the international community is the only or pri-
mary source of law enforcement, therefore the primary authority for combat-
ing human trafcking. Second, in most PSO situations, staff are paid a wage
much higher than that earned by the communities they serve. This advantage
may make them the primary source of demand for domestic labor and
trafcked persons in brothels. Last, members of PSOs have been directly
implicated in human trafcking.
59
The United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) has
recognized that these operations trigger human trafcking rings in the
regions in which they operate because of the mass inux of a relatively weal-
thy, predominantly male peacekeeper population potentially interested in pur-
chasing sexual and other services from trafcked women and girls.
60
U.N. observer, peacekeeping, stabilization, or disengagement forces are
currently serving in the following countries:
Africa: Chad and the Central African Republic, Côte dIvoire, Darfur, the
Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Liberia, Sudan, and
Western Sahara
Europe: Cyprus, Georgia, and Kosovo
Americas: Haiti
Asia-Pacic: East Timor, India, and Pakistan
Middle East : Lebanon, the Golan Heights, and the Middle East
61
Although most of the deployed soldiers serve without incident, there have been
documented cases or allegations of peacekeeping troops from Cambodia, East
Timor, Morocco, Nepal, Pakistan, South Africa, Tunisia, Uruguay, and countries
in West Africa involved in allegations of pedophilia, prostitution, and rape, while
commanders failed to investigate or protect whistleblowers.
62
The arrival of
peacekeepers in postconict countries was found to be responsible for the rise in
child prostitution,
63
and the reestablishment of international peacekeeping opera-
tions in East Timor in 2006 is thought to be the impetus for the reopening of busi-
nesses suspected of involvement in sex trafcking.
64
The 50,000 peacekeepers that were deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina in
the early 1990s were directly responsible for the trafcking in women for pros-
titution, which sprang up overnight outside the gates of the U.N. compounds.
According to a regional human rights ofcer in Bosnia after the war, [t]he sex
slave trade in Bosnia largely exists because of the U.N. peacekeeping operation.
Without the peacekeeping presence, there would have been little or no forced
prostitution in Bosnia.
65
Investigations were carried out to determine the
involvement of U.N. policing ofcials involvement in the sex slave trade in
Bosnia and enough evidence was found to justify a full-scale criminal investiga-
tion into the matter. In addition to visiting brothels where trafcked women
were kept, cases were reported of members of the Stabilization Force (SFOR)
and International Police Task Force members involved in the actual trafcking
of women. In three cases, International Police Task Force monitors purchased
women and their passports from trafckers and brothel owners.
66
By patronizing brothels in which trafcked victims were held or purchas-
ing them directly from brothel owners, military and civilian contractors oper-
ating under U.N. impunity abused the human rights of their trafcked victims
and further supported organized crime, which ran the brothels and trafcked
the women. Revenues generated through trafcking are used to corrupt law
enforcement and to invest in the further growth of the trade.
67
The Washington-based Center for Strategic and International Studies, in
its report Barracks and Brothels, wrote,
The United Nations has an especially troubling track record of peacekeeper
involvement in trafcking as well as in other forms of sexual exploitation in con-
ict and post-conict regions. Yet decision makers at the UN seem to fear that
creating a taboo against trafcking for peacekeepers will negatively affect the
UNs ability to attract peacekeepers.
68
Finding Solutions
After a 2004 U.N. Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) investiga-
tion into the misconduct of U.N. peacekeepers in the Congo, the seriousness
of the situation was nally recognized. Since mid-2005, the United Nations
has provided training on prevention of sexual abuse for all peacekeeping per-
sonnel on arrival in a mission. The DPKO has developed a wide range of
training materials. Strategies have been developed and expanded to prevent
trafcking and provide protection to victims of sexual abuse by U.N. peace-
keeping personnel.
69
An Anti-Trafcking Focal Point or special investigative
unit has been established in some missions. In Kosovo in 2000, a Trafcking
and Prostitution Investigation Unit was established with UNMIK (United
Nations Mission in Kosovo) police, and a female trafcking ofcer was
appointed to the U.N. Civilian Police in the Liberian PSO. This trafcking of-
cer, along with her team, raided nightclubs in the area and rescued girls and
women who had been trafcked.
70
The DPKO has encouraged personnel to
report violations and now systematically monitors and records complaints.
71
In 2007, additional measures were adopted by the United Nations to prevent
military and civilian personnel in peacekeeping and humanitarian missions from
engaging in abuse and sexual exploitation. Measures are aimed at prevention,
victim assistance, and investigation. In 2007, allegations of sexual conduct and
abuse were levied against Moroccan peacekeepers at the U.N. mission in Côte
dIvoire and against peacekeepers in missions in Haiti and the Democratic
Republic of Congo. The United Nations. registered 127 allegations of sexual mis-
conduct, a decrease from the 357 allegations in 2006. By the end of 2007, the
United Nations had investigated 123 cases and had repatriated 114 personnel.
72
UNICRI has developed a predeployment, in-service training program for
international law enforcement personnel deployed, or to be deployed, in PSOs in
the Balkan area.
73
The purpose of the training is to raise awareness of all aspects
of human trafcking. Participants are taught how to identify and protect trafcked
victims, while learning how to counter the activities of organized criminal net-
works through reactive and proactive investigations and disruptive police actions.
Other international entities such as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organi-
zation) and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE),
have adopted policies condemning trafcking and have implemented measures
to ensure that members participating in missions are not involved in the abuse.
NATO requires member states to take a variety of actions to reduce human
trafcking, including the following: provisions that prohibit contractors from
engaging or facilitating human trafcking; training of all personnel taking part
in NATO-led operations; committing to evaluate implementation of their
efforts; and ratication of the U.N. Trafcking Convention.
74
In 2004, the U.S. Department of Defense implemented a zero-tolerance
policy regarding sex trafcking and activitiessuch as prostitutionthat may
contribute to trafcking. Since the end of 2006, patronizing a prostitute is a
criminal charge under the Uniform Code of Military Justice. An antitrafcking
program was developed by U.S. Forces in Korea focusing on awareness, vic-
tim identication, demand reduction, and cooperation with local authorities.
Considered a model approach, it now serves as the basis for NATOs training
modules.
75
Antitrafcking training (available online
76
) is now mandatory for
all U.S. service members and military police are receiving specialized training
to assist them in recognizing and identifying possible trafcking situations
and victims, especially overseas.
77
Forty-ve other countries provide antitrafcking, sexual exploitation, or
human rights training to personnel being sent to PSOs.
78
Training is provided
either by the government or in conjunction with international organizations,
such as the International Organization for Migration (IOM).
OTHER OPPORTUNITIES
Sporting Events
Fears of an increase in forced prostitution during the World Soccer Cup in
Germany in 2006 were raised in international media before the games. Esti-
mates of 40,000 foreign prostitutes, among them trafcked victims being
forced into prostitution directly before and during the World Cup, led the
IOM to conduct research into the possible link between human trafcking and
the World Cup and other major sporting events. Their results with respect to
the Germany World Cup were inconclusive, but what was evident is that the
gure of 40,000 prostitutes to provide sexual services to the fans of the games
was unrealistic and unfounded hype.
79
The fact that this gure of 40,000
was only hype may be attributable to a large-scale awareness-raising cam-
paign, NGO hotlines, and extra police operations and patrols at the borders.
80
To prevent this occurrence at the European Football Championships in
June 2008, media campaigns were launched in Switzerland. The threat of traf-
cking at such major sporting events is being taken seriously by host
countries preparing for the 2010 Olympics in Vancouver and the 2012 Olym-
pics in London.
81
Natural Disasters
Natural disasters, along with wars and HIV/AIDS, make orphans of children,
which increases their dependency on others and the risk that they will fall
prey to trafckers. Following the tsunami on December 26, 2004, that
destroyed much of the coastal areas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and
India, the United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) reported cases of child
trafcking out of Aceh province in Indonesia. The pattern was similar in
Myanmar when cyclone Nargis hit the country on May 2, 2008, and left hun-
dreds if not thousands of children orphans. A child protection ofcer from
UNICEF reported evidence of child trafckers attempting to lure orphaned
children from a shelter in Rangoon.
82
Countries were quick to respond. In the case of the 2004 tsunami, fearing
that the chaos and breakdown in social control would facilitate child trafcking,
Indonesia (followed by Thailand) increased monitoring of children, prohibiting
the removal of children from the region unless accompanied by a veriable
family member. Furthermore, countries banned the foreign adoption of such
children in the immediate wake of the disaster.
83
In Myanmar, police inter-
vened and arrested suspected child trafckers. Aid organizations are alert to the
dangers and are pressing governments in such situations to respond rapidly.
Concluding Remarks
This chapter examined new opportunities for human trafcking. Unlike mate-
rial addressed in previous chapters, this one examined a number of gray
areasInternet dating services, escort services, and marriage bureauswhich
may be legitimate but also are areas in which trafcking can thrive. The issue
of child sex tourism and the production of child pornography is more straight-
forward. Clearly, most countries have laws that would allow for the prosecu-
tion of offenders who sexually abuse children. By classifying such acts as
trafcking, governments in the destination countries are able to prosecute the
parent for selling the child, a facilitator for procuring the child, or the taxi
driver for transporting the child to the abuser, if such acts were knowingly
done to exploit the child.
Peace support operations have, in the past, supported the local prostitution
market, and in the case of the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, PSOs were
believed to be directly responsible for women being trafcked into prostitu-
tion. The military and international organizations are sensitized to the issue
and have taken measures to ensure that human trafcking is no longer tied to
military and peacekeeping deployments. The predicted increase in trafcked
victims and prostitution during the 2006 World Soccer Cup never material-
ized. Whether the international media acted irresponsibly or whether measures
taken by the German government, law enforcement agencies, and NGOs
accounted for the absence of trafcking during this major sporting event is
difcult to determine. It appears that preparatory actions both before and
during this sporting event, as well as immediately after the natural disasters
in the Indonesia, Thailand, and Burma, may have prevented the trafcking
of victims.
The following chapter will explore measures that have been taken by vari-
ous actors in the eld to win the battle against this modern-day form of slavery.
9
Ending Human Trafcking
Every man is guilty of the good he did not do.
Voltaire (November 21, 1694May 30, 1778)
ENDING HUMAN TRAFFICKING, forced labor, and slavery are high on the agendas
of many governments and their enforcement branches as well as local and
international human rights organizations. The battle is a long, difcult one, in
part, because the success stories in terms of the number of victims rescued
and the number of offenders prosecuted remains small, compared with the
estimates of the number of people trafcked.
A $15 million dollar grant on behalf of the United Arab Emirates Gen-
eral Shaikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi,
helped launch a united global initiative against human trafcking in March
2007. Launched as UN.GIFT (United Nations Global Initiative to Fight
Human Trafcking), the program is managed by the United Nations Ofce on
Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in collaboration with the International Labour
Organization (ILO), the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the
United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF), the Ofce of the High Commis-
sioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), and the Organization for Security
and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). Operating under the principle that human
trafcking is a crime of such magnitude and atrocity that it cannot be dealt with
successfully by any government alone, the program calls for stakeholders
governments, business, academia, civil society, and the mediato work together to
creative effective tools to ght human trafcking.
1
The Vienna Forum to Fight
Human Trafcking, held in Vienna, Austria, from February 1315, 2008, brought
together representatives from government bodies, international and local nongo-
vernmental organizations (NGOs), researchers, the private sector, and religious
organizations from 116 countries. Its mission was to raise awareness on all forms
and dimensions of trafcking, facilitate cooperation, and forge new partnerships
among participants and to provide suggestions on innovative measures and direc-
tions for future actions.
2
At the international level, a number of organizations are active, often in
collaboration with local NGOs or government authorities in conducting
research; organizing prevention campaigns; offering training to NGOs, police,
prosecutors, and judges; assisting in the development of legislation or national
action plans; or providing protection and assistance to trafcked victims.
Among these organizations are the Free the Slaves, ILO, IOM, the Interna-
tional Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD), La Strada, the
Ofce of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), OSCE, the
United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
UNICEF, the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), UNODC, Terre
des Hommes, and Save the Children.
3
Some organizations such as the OSCE
and the United Nations Ofce for the Commission on Human Rights
(UNOHCHR), have appointed a special representative or rapporteur to combat
trafcking in human beings.
At the national level, a variety of specialized institutions have been estab-
lished within countries to address the problem of trafcking. These institutions
can take the form of national rapporteurs (as in the Netherlands) or ofces
such as the Ofce to Monitor and Combat Trafcking in Persons (in the
United States), interministerial or interagency coordination (such as Nigerias
National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafc in Persons and Other Related
MattersNAPTIP), or bodies that coordinate the provision of services to traf-
cked victims (as the Trafcking Watch Group in the Philippines). In some
countries, special law enforcement and prosecutorial units have been estab-
lished. For those countries that have not yet developed the much-needed ex-
pertise to deal with the problem, a number of training manuals and projects
have been developed to provide practical help to governments, policymakers,
police, prosecutors and judges, NGOs, and others.
The antitrafcking literature has generally discussed the three Ps: preven-
tion, prosecution, and protection. A suggestion was made at the Vienna Forum
to include a fourth Ppartnership. It is impossible to discuss the myriad of
antitrafcking projects implemented worldwide. This chapter instead looks at
some of the broader measures taken to address the problem within the areas
of prevention, law enforcement and prosecution, victim protection, and assis-
tance and goes beyond those topics to also examine data collection efforts,
regional and international instruments, and legislation and national action
plans aimed at eradicating trafcking. A number of specic projects will pro-
vide examples of the measures being implemented. The chapter closes with
comments on more permanent solutions.
PREVENTION
Governments, international, and grassroots organizations alike are actively
involved in raising awareness among vulnerable populations and citizens at
large to prevent initial victimization of those at risk or to increase the
reporting of suspected cases of trafcking. One example of this international
initiative is Stop the Trafk, a global nongovernmental movement against
human trafcking. The movement has more than 1,000 member organiza-
tions in 50 countries, most of them at the grassroots level. Member organiza-
tions engage in raising awareness and educating communities about human
trafcking. Prevention campaigns are often initiated in countries from which
people are trafcked, but should also be aimed at raising awareness in desti-
nation countries.
Awareness Raising
Awareness raising campaigns include everything from radio and television
ads to education programs at schools, to posters at airports providing tele-
phone hotline numbers for incoming passengers to call should they become
victims of trafcking. It is essential that awareness-raising campaigns target
the groups at risk (as well as their family members) and accurately portray
the recruitment methods of the trafckers and the markets into which vic-
tims from that country or region are trafcked. Because so many young Al-
banian women were seduced with marriage proposals and trafcked into
prostitution in Italy, the Albania IOMs television antitrafcking announce-
ment showed a young girl in a wedding dress, smiling, holding money in
her hands. She was repeatedly slapped across the face by a male wearing a
suit, who, each time he hit her, took some of her money until she was left
empty handed, make-up smeared, the smile gone and a tear running down
her face.
4
Among some of the more far-reaching media campaigns was a trafcking
documentary MTV EXIT (Music Televisions End Exploitation and Trafck-
ing) aired by MTV. In 2006, MTV launched its Pan-European Campaign No
Exploitation and Trafcking
5
and later the program was introduced across
the South Asia and the Asia-Pacic regions. The campaign is a youth-
focused pan-regional initiative created to raise awareness and increase preven-
tion of human trafcking
6
and portrays stories of victims trafcked into
prostitution, domestic servitude, and forced labor. The documentaries in Asia
premiered in September 2007, followed by a series of public service
announcements and ctional short lms in 2007 and 2008. A multilanguage
Web site was launched (www.mtvexit.org) and the campaign included live
awareness and prevention events.
7
Numerous lms and documentaries have
been produced and distributed worldwide in different languages.
8
National hotlines have been introduced in numerous countries. The
launch of such hotlines is generally combined with awareness-raising cam-
paigns. In the United States, a toll-free number is run by the Covenant House,
sponsored by the Department of Health and Human Services in collaboration
with the Department of Justice. Victims of trafcking can be instantly
referred to a prescreened aid organization in the victims area.
9
In January
2006, the Dutch Crime Stoppers organization, Meld Misdaad Anoniem,
launched a campaign to raise awareness of trafcking among clients of
ENDING HUMAN TRAFFICKING 147
prostitutes, taxi drivers, store owners, and local residents to help them recog-
nize the signs of sexual exploitation. People are encouraged to report sus-
pected cases or victims to the police or anonymously to the Crime Stoppers
number. In the year of the campaign, 120 tips came in to the organization
concerning forced prostitution.
10
An antitrafcking hotline launched by the
Interior Ministry in Azerbaijan in 2006 services both trafcked victims who
may be seeking counseling or legal advice, as well as the public, which may
want to report human trafcking and other crimes.
11
Some hotlines inform
individuals of the danger of illegal or unregulated migration. The Serbian
NGO ASTRA runs a hotline that people can call to request assistance, report
incidents, or receive information on the authenticity of travel, job, or study
offers. The hotline has received more than 7,500 calls over the last six
yearsmore than half of them over the past two years, the majority of which
were from victims of human trafcking.
12
Some prevention campaigns do not have the luxury of in-depth, prelaunch
preparation. During the emergency evacuation of foreigners when armed con-
ict escalated in Lebanon in mid-2006, some 300,000 domestic workers from
Ethiopia, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines were left behind. Knowing that this
group was particularly vulnerable, and becoming aware that trafckers were
targeting this group, UNODC put together an emergency information cam-
paign within days. The 12,000 pages of information in various languages were
distributed in shelters, churches, embassies, shops, and markets and included
the number of a telephone hotline run by the NGO Caritas Migrant, which
could provide assistance and support.
13
More Permanent Prevention Measures
It is essential that prevention campaigns are aimed at the target group. Not all
persons, even from poor communities, are equally susceptible to being traf-
cked. Risk assessment of the most vulnerable persons within a community or
society is essential to prevent trafcking. Research needs to identify what fac-
tors promote trafckingwhether it is an ethnic minority identity (Roma chil-
dren are at high risk of trafcking and being forced into begging and
stealing), life experience (runaway child victims of domestic violence and
domestic sexual violence are at high risk of being trafcked into prostitution),
or a simple general lack of education and job skills. Migrants or those plan-
ning to migrate must be aware of their rights and how to verify the veracity
of job or marriage offers.
Because many of those trafcked are from poorer countries or are the
most disadvantaged and marginalized in a society, it is important to pro-
mote income-generating activities and opportunities. Education opportunities
and job training skills are important, but in addition to skills, individuals
must be provided with the tools to ply their trade. Microcredit loans may
assist trafcked victims or those at risk to start a small business and
generate enough income to allow them to remain in their village or city.
Strengthening social protection systems for high-risk children can prevent
their victimization. In parts of Southeastern Europe, multidisciplinary
teams of professionals (such as social and health workers and law enforce-
ment ofcials) help identify high-risk children and implement measures to
protect them.
14
It is essential that governments, in countries to which victims are likely
to be trafcked, regulate the labor market and areas into which victims may
be trafcked. This regulation demands looking beyond the traditional brothels,
nightclubs, karaoke bars, and massage parlors into more nontraditional mar-
kets such as the construction, agricultural, shing, hotel, and restaurant indus-
tries. It also demands that publicity campaigns draw the attention of citizens
who may see signs of trafcking in their surroundings and ensure that they
know which agencies or organizations to contact in such cases.
Unlikely Allies: The Private Sector
According to the U.S. Department of State, in 2007, forced labor was
involved in the production of pig iron made in Brazil ; bricks made in India,
China, and Pakistan; shrimp processed in Thailand and Bangladesh; par-
boiled rice made in India; sugar cane harvested for ethanol production in
Brazil ; cotton harvested in Uzbekistan; clothing made in Bangladesh, India,
Jordan, and Malaysia; and cocoa harvested in Ghana and Côte dIvoire.
15
The private sector cannot escape its responsibility in preventing human
trafcking and has either conformed to the pressure of NGOs or has, in some
cases, taken the lead itself to nd solutions. Better supply chain management
of goods, to ensure that they are not produced with slave labor, could eradi-
cate trafcking in all industries. A number of public-private initiatives have
been launched around the world aimed at sharing experiences and raising
awareness of the private sectors ability to prevent and ght human trafck-
ing. Among others, was the Global 1000 Initiative launched in Geneva on
December 6, 2006. The senior vice president of corporate affairs of Manpower,
Inc. sent an invitation to the chief executive ofcers of the 1,000 biggest
corporations worldwide to join in the End Human Trafcking Now! campaign.
The idea was to get the companies to encourage other companies with which
they work to monitor the supply chain and ensure that nowhere in this chain are
humans trafcked and exploited.
16
Thousands of children have been working as slaves on cocoa farms in
Côte dIvoire, which is the worlds largest cocoa producer.
17
To ensure that
chocolate is child-slave-free, major players in the food industry in October
2007 initiated a program for a more sustainable cocoa supply chain in Côte
dIvoire aimed at improving environmental and social practices. A draft farm-
level certication code, developed by local stakeholders (government depart-
ments, NGOs, and farmers) is being tested in pilot projects in the country.
Independent certiers are being trained and the program, which has also been
launched in Ghana, is expected to expand to other West African nations.
18
The British Biscuit, Cake, Chocolate, and Confectionery Association, which
opposes the use of trafcked persons in the production of cacao, reports that
U.K. manufacturers were spending about $12 million dollars annually to de-
velop monitoring and certication schemes.
19
The United Kingdoms Bettys &
Taylors of Harrogate, a traditional family business specializing in coffees and
teas, has trained their buyers as social auditors, visiting farms that grow tea and
coffee purchased by the company, to ensure that workers throughout their
supply chain are fairly treated.
Microsoft, together with the Canadian police and international law
enforcement has developed the Child Exploitation Tracking System (CETS) to
help ght child exploitation online and has provided training for law enforce-
ment.
20
Through Microsofts Unlimited Potential Program in Asia, the organi-
zation awarded grants to projects in communities where trafcking is
concentrated. Local NGOs, through the program, established 135 community
technology centers where the ICT (information and communication technol-
ogy) curriculum has been adapted to the local enterprise. The program has
been used as a rehabilitative tool for trafcked victims as well as for others in
the community who may have turned to illegal migration had they been
denied opportunities at home.
21
The nancial sector can be instrumental in the ght against trafcking
and exploitation. Investigators at the International Centre for Missing and
Exploited Children (ICMEC) identied 70,000 customers using their credit
cards and paying $29.95 per month to access graphic images of small children
being sexually assaulted. Determined to eradicate the problem, the ICMEC
teamed up with the U.S. National Center for Missing and Exploited Children
and 30 major online companies
22
and nancial institutions to form the Finan-
cial Coalition against Child Pornography. The Coalition was launched on
March 15, 2006. Members of the Coalition cover 90 percent of the credit card
industry. The aim of the group is to shut down the payment accounts being
used by traders and purchasers of child pornography and thus shut down
the operations.
23
Unlikely Allies: Religious Institutions
Faith-based groups and institutions can be instrumental in addressing the issue
and raising awareness of human trafcking, pressuring governments to pass
and enforce laws against human trafcking, and to protect and assist trafcked
victims. In some communities, religious institutions are one of the most inu-
ential social institutions. Recognizing this, IOM has launched a training course
for religious leaders across Ukraine. Those who are trained, train other reli-
gious leaders to conduct prevention activities in their communities. Trainers
from various faiths across the country have participated.
24
In Moldova, the IOM launched the Inter-Denominational Coalition for the
Prevention of Trafcking in Human Beings, involving religious institutions
representing the majority of faiths in the country. More than 650 religious
leaders, including monks, have participated. Seminars offered to religious
leaders teach them how to become active in prevention activities within their
communities, alerting them to the risks of trafcking and encouraging a tol-
erant attitude toward victims among lay and religious communitiesnot
always a simple task when many of the child and women victims have been
forced to work in prostitution. Once victims have been returned to Moldova,
priests have been instrumental in granting protection and support and assisting
in victims reintegration back into society.
25
The Church of Bangladesh, through its social development program and
commitment by its parishioners, is actively involved in raising awareness
among vulnerable people and in the community at large on the dangers of
trafcking. At the same time, it provides support to former trafcked
women.
26
The Catholic Diocesan Development and Welfare Society in India
established a Catholic rehabilitation center, the Bal Vikas Ashram, for child
slave victims in Uttar Pradesh, India. In Rome, Sister Eugenia Bonetti, coor-
dinates the work of 250 religious nuns from 70 different world congrega-
tions. Her full-time work involves helping young trafcked women forced
into prostitution regain their independence. Across countries in South America
and the Caribbean (including Bolivia, Colombia, Peru, and the Dominican
Republic), India, and Japan, the Sisters of Adoration, Slaves of the Blessed
Sacrament and of Charity operate missions to provide support to victims of
sex trafcking.
27
LAW ENFORCEMENT AND PROSECUTION
Law Enforcement Investigations and Arrests
The job of law enforcement is made particularly difcult due to the fact that
victims seldom cooperate with investigations. This forces the police to rely on
other means to secure evidence against the trafckers. Telephone taps are
becoming more difcult as criminals dispose of or rotate telephones and num-
bers and interpreters often are needed to translate telephone taps. A successful
investigation demands a coordinated approach among local, regional, or inter-
national partners and often involves months of investigative work. In the
Netherlands, it took 35 detectives from the national police, three from the
Social Intelligence and Investigative Service, four detectives involved in
the investigation of the networks nancial structure, the military police, assis-
tance from the regional police departments, cooperation with the German
police, and 26,000 telephone taps to arrest the members of the trafcking net-
work in the investigation known as Sneep.
28
In the United States, in the summer of 2005, the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) began its Human Trafcking Initiative. Field ofces par-
ticipate in antitrafcking task forces and have established and maintained
relationships with community organizations and local NGOs. In addition to
determining the existence and scope of the trafcking problem in their
region, ofcers conduct victim-centered investigations. Arrests increased dra-
matically since the creation of the initiative. The FBIs Innocence Lost Pro-
ject targets sex trafcking within the United States, often involving U.S.
citizen or lawful permanent resident children, while the Immigration and Cus-
toms Enforcements Operation Predator is a comprehensive initiative aimed
at safeguarding children from human trafckers, Internet child pornographers,
foreign national sex offenders, and international sex tourists.
29
Table 9.1 pro-
vides information on cases open or investigated and the number of arrests by
these agencies and operations.
Law Enforcement Training
To strengthen the law enforcement response to trafcking, a number of (inter-
national) organizations have developed training manuals or modules. UNODC
has developed a Toolkit to Combat Trafcking in Persons, providing practi-
cal help to governments, policymakers, police, NGOs, and others through
best practices.
30
The United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
together with the ICMPD has developed a comprehensive training scheme tar-
geting specic groups, using their Law Enforcement Manual for Combating
Trafcking in Human Beings.
31
The OSCE, spanning 56 countries from
North America and Europe to Central Asia, provides law enforcement assess-
ment needs and training. The Government of India, in conjunction with
Table 9.1 Investigations and Arrests by U.S. Law Enforcement Agencies
and Initiatives, 20052007
Organization
2005 2006 2007
Investigations Arrests Investigations Arrests Investigations Arrests
FBI 146 51 126 142 120 155
Project
Innocence
Lost
71 382 103 157 125 308
ICE 322 186 299 184 348 164
Operation
Predator
2,380 2,381 1,630
Note: FBI = Federal Bureau of Investigation; ICE = Immigration and Customs Enforcement.
Source: U.S. Department of Justice (2008a).
UNODC, published a Compendium on Best Practices on Anti-Human
Trafcking by Law Enforcement Agencies, outlining best approaches on
investigating and prosecuting trafckers, protecting victims, and prevent-
ing trafcking.
32
Additionally, some departments are looking beyond training police. In
Forth Worth, Texas, code ofcers who inspect property for violations of city
codes have been trained to also look for signs of human trafcking.
33
U.S. Prosecutions
Between 2001 and 2005, a total of 555 suspects were referred to U.S. attor-
neys with human trafcking as the lead charge. The largest group comprised
suspects charged with sale into involuntary servitude (155 or 28 percent), fol-
lowed by forced labor (134 or 24 percent) and sex trafcking of children (129
or 23 percent). Of the 75 defendants convicted, 57 pleaded guilty and 18 were
convicted at trial. The majority (85 percent) were sentenced to prison and the
median sentenced imposed was 70 months.
34
In 2006, federal prosecutors
charged 222 defendants and got 98 convictions.
35
In 2007, 42 antitrafcking task forces were operating throughout the
United States. The Department of Justice introduced a human trafcking pros-
ecution unit within the Civil Rights Division focused solely on prosecuting
human trafcking cases.
36
Global Criminal Justice Data
Currently, reliable data on human trafcking are lacking, in particular, data
related to the response of the criminal justice system. A limited number of
countries provide data on arrests and prosecutions. In its annual report to the
government, the Dutch National Rapporteur provided detailed information on
the (suspected) victims of trafcking, the offenders, as well as police investi-
gations and court outcomes and the legal status of victims.
Germany also provided demographic data on suspects arrested for human
trafcking and the number and outcome of cases that go to trial.
Limited information on individual countries can be obtained from the
U.S. Department of States annual Trafcking in Persons Report. In table 9.2,
information is provided on the number of trafcking prosecutions and convic-
tions worldwide for the years 20032007. Prosecutions have declined, but
convictions (as a percentage of total prosecutions) are on the rise.
Cooperation between Law Enforcement and Civil Society
In 2006, the United Kingdoms law enforcement community and its partners
launched a multiagency operation focused on trafcking for sexual ex-
ploitation. This campaign, known as Pentameter, was a coordinated and
intelligence-led proactive operation and reactive investigation. Police rst
gathered information on businesses and premises where trafcking might take
placebrothels, massage parlors, and saunas. Where intelligence indicated the
presence of possible trafcked victims, reactive teams responded immediately
to rescue the victims. This coordinated effort took place in all 55 police forces
in the United Kingdom.
37
Operation Pentameter resulted in the rescue of 84
women, including a 14-year-old African child. Twelve minors, ages 14 to 17,
were rescued from pimps.
38
The operation led to the arrest of 232 people, and
134 persons were charged.
39
Additionally, police focused on asset recovery.
Police seized well over 300,000 cash.
At the heart of the operation was harm reduction and victim care.
NGO partners, serving on an independent advisory group were instrumental in
informing police on how victims should be treated during that important initial
contact. Police forces inventoried available resources for victim support within
their jurisdiction and worked closely with organizations providing victim sup-
port and assistance.
40
A media campaign was launched to raise awareness
among the general population, and in particular, the users of prostitutes. NGOs
provided police with advice on the media campaign. The success of this opera-
tion has led to similar operations in Ireland, the Netherlands, and Poland.
41
A year later, the United Kingdom launched Pentameter 2, a victim
focused operation aimed at treating victims sensitively and providing a wide
range of assistance from voluntary and statutory agencies. A support staff
member of the NGO, Poppy Project, was assigned to the U.K. Human Traf-
cking Centre to help with victim liaison for the duration of the Pentameter 2
Operation.
42
Pentameter 2 proved to be more successful than its predecessor.
The operation identied 167 victims, 13 of whom were children (the youngest
was 14 years old). The police visited 822 premises (157 massage parlors and
saunas and 582 residential properties) and arrested 528 criminals. More than
500,000 worth of cash was recovered and the police are attempting to seize
further criminal assets believed to be worth several millions of pounds.
43
Table 9.2 Global Criminal Justice Data and Legislation
Year Prosecutions Convictions
New or Amended
Legislation
2003 7,992 2,815 24
2004 6,885 3,025 39
2005 6,618 4,766 41
2006 5,808 3,160 21
2007 5,682 (490)* 3,427 (326) 28
Note: * Numbers in parentheses are those of labor trafcking prosecutions and convictions.
Source: U.S. Department of State (2008a, 37).
The U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcements (ICEs) victim-
centered approach to disrupting trafcking places equal value on the identi-
cation and rescue of victims and the arrest and prosecution of trafckers. To
accomplish this rst goal, ICE has more than 300 collateral duty victim/
witness coordinators who work with NGOs to assist in providing services
to victims.
44
Other actions are initiated by NGOs. The NGO Action Pour Les Enfants
(APLE) provided information to police in Cambodia that led to the arrest of
21 child sex offenders. The organization monitors the activities of local police
and judicial ofcials and facilitates the involvement of foreign police.
45
The
Ethiopian NGO, Forum for Street Children, has collaborated with interna-
tional NGOs and local and regional law enforcement to help establish Child
Protection Units within police stations in the capitol and nine towns through-
out the country. The NGO provides training to the police and has rescued
and repatriated more than 1,000 children with their families.
46
The human
rights organization International Justice Mission (IJM), has been working to
free young women from forced prostitution and assist local authorities in
building cases against trafckers in Cambodia, India, the Philippines, and
Thailand. IJM lawyers work to secure conviction and sentencing of trafckers
and ensure that victims get access to aftercare services. The work of the orga-
nization has assisted in the freedom of hundreds of girls and women traf-
cked into the commercial sex trade. In one operation alone, 95 victims
were rescued.
47
What Will Ensure Law Enforcements Success?
Law enforcement ofcers must be taught where to look for and how to iden-
tify victims of trafckingparticularly in areas outside of the commercial
sex industry. More awareness and sensitivity to the trafcking of their own
citizens is needed. Traditionally, in destination countries, law enforcement
has identied foreign women working in prostitution who do not speak the
local language and are not in possession of legitimate identity documents.
Other indicators are necessary to recognize, for instance, American children
and women who have been trafcked into the commercial sex industry or
forced labor within the United States. Appendix 3 provides a list of general
and child trafcking indicators as well as indicators to assist in the identica-
tion of victims who have been trafcked into domestic servitude, labor and
sexual exploitation, begging, and petty crime. Some of these indicators apply
to illegal migrants as well as trafcked victims and whether a person is a
victim of trafcking may be apparent only to personnel from an NGO or
police following an investigation. Below are a number of signs of trafcking
that might be clearly visible to ordinary citizens at their workplace or in
other settings.
It is essential that law enforcement take a human rights approach to deal-
ing with trafcked victims. Until victims feel safe, they will not cooperate
with law enforcement or government ofcials. It is important that during the
interviewing phase, victims understand that they are victims who will be pro-
tected and not criminals who will be deported. When potential victims have
been uncovered during trafcking police raids in the United Kingdom, the
police can use a digital audio player with prerecorded voice les in the lan-
guage of the potential victim. This prerecorded message explains to the victim
exactly what is happening and what the victims can expect from the police in
terms of their rights.
48
Interpreters must be present during interviews so that
victims clearly understand what is happening and, throughout the entire proc-
ess, the safety and rights of victims must be guaranteed. This may mean
Case 9.1. Indicators that a Person May be Trafcked
Adults who are trafcked may exhibit the following characteristics:
Live in groups in the same place where they work and leave those premises infre-
quently, if at all
Be unable to leave their work environment or only under the control or supervision
of their employer
Show fear or anxiety of their employer
Suffer injuries inicted by their employer
Are unable to quit their job or change their accommodation
Live in degraded, unsuitable places, such as in agricultural or industrial buildings
Not know their home or work address
Work excessively long hours over long periods without being allowed to take
days off
Have extremely little or no cash of their own
Be unfamiliar with the local language or, for prostitutes, only know sex-related
words in the local language or the language of their clients
Have limited or no social interaction
Have limited contact with their families, friends, or with people outside of their
immediate work environment
Be unable to communicate freely with others
Children may also exhibit the following characteristics:
Be under the control of persons unrelated to them
Look fearful and behave in a way that does not correspond with behavior typical
of children their age
Have no friends of their own age outside of work
Have no access to education or time for playing
introducing protective measures so that victims do not have to confront their
trafckers in court (screens to separate the victim from the accused or video-
audio testimony from an undisclosed location). An NGO victim liaison contact
person may be useful in supporting the victim throughout the investigation
and trial.
49
VICTIM ASSISTANCE AND PROTECTION
In the Host Country
Victim assistance must be offered in the host (destination) as well as in the
source (home) country of the trafcked person. Victims may suffer severe
trauma upon being rescued, and it is important to provide them with a physi-
cally secure and safe environment to recover. Experts in the eld recommend
that victims be provided a reection period of a minimum one month
and preferably three months in which to heal, consider their options, and if
they so desire, cooperate with law enforcement ofcers in building a case
against their trafckers. During this reection period, victims (some prefer the
word survivors) should be provided with shelter, medical, psychological,
and legal support. Their ability to remain in the country should not be contin-
gent on their cooperation with criminal justice authorities, and victims of
severe forms of trafcking should be granted the right to seek residence in the
host country.
Risk analysis should be conducted to determine whether it is safe to repa-
triate the trafcked victim to his or her home country or community. If this is
not possible, governments should consider granting asylum or special status to
the victim. One of the trafcked Albanian women in an IOM shelter that the
author visited had a price placed on her life for testifying against her traf-
cker. The author was told by an OSCE representative working on her case
that the OSCE was in negotiations with a third country to grant the young
woman asylum.
50
More and more countries are providing civil compensation and remunera-
tion to victims of trafcking. This is an important measure to assist victims in
reclaiming their lives and building their future. Compensation and remuneration
are important measures that should be incorporated in all national legislation.
Upon Returning Home
Most assistance strategies are aimed at safely returning and reintegrating the
trafcked victim into his or her home country or community. This is no easy
task as victims may not wish to return home. Their decision may be inu-
enced by the shame and social stigma of having worked in prostitution, fear
of reprisals from the trafckers, rejection by family members, or lack of
adequate medical and psychosocial services or education and employment
opportunities in the villages from which they came. With young children, the
situation may be complicated by the fact that the child might have initially
left to escape a home lled with sexual or physical violence or because it was
a parent who sold the child into slavery. Returning a child to its parental
home might not be a safe and sustainable option.
Victims of trafcking are highly susceptible to being retrafcked. A study
of girls and women trafcked into commercial sexual exploitation in India
revealed that 10 percent of the 464 victims and 24.2 percent of the survivors
interviewed had been retrafcked.
51
The director of the Vlora Womens shel-
ter in Albania, the Hearth, estimated that 80 percent of the women in the shel-
ter end up retrafcked. According to the Immigration Law Practitioners
Association in the United Kingdom, the question is not whether retrafcking
takes place, but how fast ?
52
Victims return home after weeks, months, or years of having lived in
another city or country and after having been exposed to the most egregious
crimes and human rights violations. They lack the most basic needs. There-
fore, effective reintegration programs must address issues of housing, educa-
tion and job training, employment, mental and physical health, trauma, and
substance abuse, while ensuring the protection and safety of the victim. Any
successful reintegration program must be tailored to the specic needs of the
individual, who should also be able to make decisions regarding the program.
A program can be considered successful when the trafcked victim has
safely reintegrated into the community and is no longer at risk of being retraf-
cked. Experts in the eld who provide assistance to victims of trafcking do
agree that monitoring of repatriated victims is often short lived and thus it is
impossible to determine the long-term efcacy of their efforts.
Data Collection
One of the main obstacles to effective antitrafcking policies is the lack of
accurate and reliable statistical data. Comparative data are almost impossible
because of a lack of common denitions in national legislation or denitions
used by different agencies. Data on trafcking in sectors other than that of
sexual exploitation of children and women is lacking and without coordina-
tion; government agencies and NGOs may be double counting victims. The
Austrian Ministry of the Interior, in collaboration with IOM Vienna, has
launched the project Development of Guidelines for the Collection of Data
on Trafcking in Human Beings, Including Comparable Indicators. Partners
in this endeavor include EUROPOL (the European Law Enforcement Organi-
zation), the Belgian Federal Police, the Ministry of Justice and Law Enforce-
ment of Hungary, the Ministry of the Interior of Italy, the Police of
Luxembourg, the Ministry of Justice of Sweden, and the ICMPD. The project
aims to set the basis for improved data collection by developing guidelines
and assisting Member States of the European Union to enhance their data
collection efforts. The project encourages the collection of data in such a way
as to make them comparable across the European Union, thus allowing for an
improved analysis of trends and well-targeted policy responses.
53
Research is needed on the factors that contribute to trafcking, the methods
used by trafckers to recruit their victims, the relationship between recruiter and
victim, trafcking routes, and methods of manipulation and exploitation. To
launch media campaigns warning of job offers from companies that advertise in
newspapers, when in fact victims are being recruited by family members, rela-
tives, and friends, will have little effect on stemming the tide of trafcking.
Additionally, evaluation research is needed to determine the efcacy of projects
with particular groupsthese include both prevention as well as victim protec-
tion and assistance. Future projects should be evidence-based.
At the national level, such systematic research is being carried out in the
Netherlands. The ofce of the Dutch National Rapporteur reports annually on
victims, offenders, and government responses to trafcking in the Netherlands,
allowing the country to track trends and reveal new patterns in human traf-
cking and, using evidence-based data and research, to identify policy gaps
and make recommendations on how to best approach the problem.
At the international level, IOMs Counter-Trafcking Module (CTM)
databasethe largest database worldwidecontains information to assist in
case management of trafcked victims (both domestic and international). As
of June 1, 2008, the database contained primary data on more than 12,750
registered victims of more than 80 different nationalities trafcked to more
than 90 destination countries.
54
The database contains information provided
by victims themselves on background variables, their experiences, the routes,
and causes of trafcking, the kinds of exploitation, and their trafckers. IOM
has further assisted governments enhance their interagency migration data col-
lection systems.
55
International and Regional Instruments
By 2008, 118 States had ratied the U.N. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and
Punish Trafcking in Persons, making a commitment to incorporate its provi-
sions in their domestic laws and to implement its measures.
56
In addition to
the U.N. Trafcking Protocol, there are a number of other international con-
ventions. These include the ILO Convention 182, Concerning the Prohibition
and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child
Labor; the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on
the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography; the Optional
Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child in Armed Conict ; the
ILO Convention 29, Forced Labor; and the ILO Convention 105, Abolition of
Forced Labor.
The OSCE Action Plan to Combat Trafcking in Human Beings was
designed to assist the 56 participating states comply with their antitrafcking
commitments and obligations. The Plan contains far-reaching, concrete recom-
mendations concerning prevention of human trafcking, investigation, law
enforcement and prosecution, and protection and assistance to victims. Draw-
ing upon best practices of various organizations, the plan covers a broad scope
of antitrafcking activities involving a wide range of actors.
57
On February 1, 2008, the Council of Europe Convention on Action
against Trafcking in Human Beings entered into force. In June of that year,
39 states had signed the Convention and 17 had ratied it.
58
This is the rst
European treaty to address human trafcking mandating governments to pre-
vent trafcking, prosecute criminals, and provide comprehensive support and
assistance to victims. Important is the emphasis on residence permits for vic-
tims not directly based upon their cooperation with law enforcement ofcials.
The provisions in this Convention extend beyond the recommendations of the
U.N. Trafcking Protocol and the U.S. Trafcking Victims Protection Act
(TVPA) minimum standards.
59
Legislation and Comprehensive National Action Plans
Most countries have implemented some form of legislation prohibiting human
trafcking. Since the ratication of the U.N. Trafcking Protocol, at least 70
countries amended their criminal codes making trafcking in persons a spe-
cic offense. At least 38 countries have enacted trafcking legislation that
also provides for measures to protect and assist trafcked victims. Fourteen
countries have comprehensive acts combating child trafcking. In nine coun-
tries, human trafcking is part of the immigration legislation. Twenty-two
other countries are in the process of passing antitrafcking legislation.
60
Now
that most governments have legislation in place, enforcement is essential.
To further the goal of eradicating trafcking and assisting victims, many
countries have launched National Action Plans that encourage collaborative
efforts between government agencies and civil society and foster cooperation
with the international community. The action plans generally involve those
ministries or departments that are most affectedForeign Affairs, Internal
Affairs, Justice, Social or Family Affairs, Immigration, Tourism, Education,
and Labor. Many National Action Plans put forth concrete recommendations
involving training of immigration, law enforcement and criminal justice of-
cials, media and awareness-raising campaigns, and provisions for shelters and
victim support and assistance.
61
Effecting Permanent Change
Many of the projects put forth in this chapter provide limited protection to
persons at risk, potential and trafcked victims. To truly eradicate the problem
of trafcking, governments, donors, civil society, faith-based organizations,
and private industry must invest in long-term sustainable strategies. This
requires changes in economic and social policies and cultural and historical
practices to address structural factors that serve as root causes of migration
and exploitation. According to La Strada International, as long as women
cannot live their lives free from the threat of violence and discrimination and
do not have equal opportunities in the labour market, they will choose to take
on unregulated work opportunities to support themselves and their families,
abroad and at home.
62
This applies not only to women, but also to the most
disadvantaged and marginalized in a society.
Long-term sustainable strategies include the eradication of poverty and
corruption and the provision of education, job, and career opportunities for
the most vulnerable populations in the society. At the same time, governments
and society must ensure gender equality and focus on the reduction of dis-
crimination and violence in the family aimed at women and children.
By reducing the endless supply of exploitable victims, it may also be pos-
sible to affect the demand. Failing to focus on demand reduction addresses
only half of the problem. A more permanent solution is to legally or adminis-
tratively regulate sectors that are known to make use of trafcked victims and
to ensure that slave labor is not involved in the supply chain of goods pur-
chased. Companies that uphold their corporate social responsibility should be
rewarded, while attention should be drawn to others that do not.
International instruments have been ratied and national legislation is in
place in many countries. Where this is not the case, comprehensive antitraf-
cking legislation must be passed. These instruments and laws must then be
turned into commitments and enforced. Partnerships must be strengthened
between countries that are part of the source-transit-destination regional and
international trafcking chain. Just as important, however, is the development
and nurturing of partnerships within a country among government agencies,
civil society, the private sector, the clergy, and the media.
Long-term prevention measures must be combined with effective law
enforcement and justice responses while at the same time taking a human-
rights-based approach to the trafcking problem. As important as it is to wipe
out criminal networks, it is equally important to ensure that victims are
adequately protected and provided legal, medical, and psychosocial support
and the skills to rebuild their lives. Only a merging of these various
approaches will guarantee a humane and effective campaign to eradicate
human trafcking and end human misery.
Appendix 1
Risk Factors of Child Trafcking
INDIVIDUAL RISK FACTORS
General In Transit
Age and sex (i.e., young girls) Traveling alone rather than in group
Marginalized ethnic minority
little access to services
Traveling without money
Traveling unprepared and
uninformed No birth registration/lack of
citizenship Traveling without destination or job
Orphans and runaways Emotionally upset, drugged,
threatened, or constrained Lack of education and skills
Traveling without identication and
registration
Low self-esteem
Traveling illegally
Innocence/naivety/lack of
awareness
Go through nonregistered agency or
smuggler
Consumers, negative peer
pressure
Traveling at night
In-source/Sending Areas At Destination
Difculties in school dropouts Isolation
Experience of family abuse or
violence
No social network
Feeling bored with village/rural
life
Inability to speak the language
City attraction/perception of a
better life
Inability to understand system in
which they live and work
Illegal status
Drug and alcohol dependency
No contact with family
Work in bad conditions may result
in worst forms of child labor
Inability to recognize exploitation/
bondage
FAMILY RISK FACTORS
EXTERNAL AND INSTITUTIONAL
RISK FACTORS
Marginalized ethnic group or
subservient caste
War/armed conict
Poor single parent families
Large youth populations vs. low labor
market absorption capacity
Serious illness (HIV/AIDS)
and death in poor family
Natural disaster (e.g., drought, ooding,
earthquakes)
Power relations with household
often patriarchal fathers
decide (e.g., Latin America,
Africa, South Asia)
Globalization and improved communi-
cation systems
Son/male preference
Absence of fast and transparent
migration/job placement services for
youth (i.e., youth may go illegally)
Domestic violence/sexual abuse Strict migration controls contribute to
pushing movement underground, with
large prots for trafckers
Alcohol and drugs in family
Weak legal framework and enforcement
Past debt/bondage relations in
family
Corruption Traditional attitudes and
practices (e.g., send daughter
to extended family)
Weak education not relevant to labor
market
History of irregular migration
and migration network
(Gender) discrimination in education
and labor market
Shifting social mores, ambiguity in
teens roles
COMMUNITY RISK FACTORS WORKPLACE RISK FACTORS
Youth unemployment Unsupervised hiring of workers
(e.g., in border areas) Location (i.e., close to border
with more prosperous country) Limited reach of labor law
Distance to secondary school
and training centers
Poor labor protection and enforcement
Road connection, exposure to
city
Unregulated information economy and
3-D (dangerous, dirty, and demanding)
jobs with poor working conditions
Quality of village leadership
and community network
Lack of law enforcement, labor inspec-
tion, and protection
Lack of policing, trained
railway staff, border guards
Inability to change employer
Lack of community
entertainment
Male demand for sex with girls and
sex tourism
History of migration
Undercover entertainment (hairdresser,
massage)
Public tolerance of prostitution,
begging, sweatshops
Lack of organization and representation
of workers
164 APPENDIX 1
Appendix 2
Trafcking Patterns by Region,
Subregion, and Country
1
1
Information provided in these tables was taken from the U.S. Department of States Trafcking
in Persons Report 2008 (TIP). Absent in this TIP report and consequently in these tables is any
reference to organ trafcking despite the fact that this form of trafcking has been documented in
numerous countries.
AFRICA
Eastern Africa
Country Internal Trafcking Source (Trafcking to) Destination (Trafcking from)
Burundi Children: child soldiering, domestic
servitude, and commercial sexual
exploitation.
Children to Uganda: agricultural
labor and commercial sexual
exploitation.
Djibouti Girls: prostitution. Women and girls from Ethiopia and
Somalia: domestic servitude or com-
mercial sexual exploitation.
Ethiopia Children and adults: domestic servi-
tude, commercial sexual exploitation,
and forced labor (street vending,
begging, traditional weaving, or
agriculture). Debt bondage.
Women to Lebanon, Saudi Arabia,
and the United Arab Emirates,
Bahrain, Djibouti, Kuwait, Sudan,
Syria, and the Republic of Yemen:
domestic servitude and sexual exploi-
tation. Men to Saudi Arabia and the
Gulf States: low-skilled forced labor.
Kenya Children: domestic servitude, street
vending, agricultural labor, herding,
work as barmaids, and commercial
sexual exploitation. Coastal sex
tourism industry.
Men, women, and children to the
Middle East, other African nations,
Europe, and North America: domestic
servitude, enslavement in massage
parlors and brothels, and forced man-
ual labor, in construction industry.
Nationals to Middle Eastern nations
(Saudi, Arabia, the United Arab
Emirates, and Lebanon) and
Germany.
Foreign women: brothels and
massage parlors. Children from
Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of
Congo, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Soma-
lia. Girls: prostituion or barmaids.
1
6
6
Madagascar Women and children: forced labor
and sexual exploitation. Children:
domestic servitude, commercial sex-
ual exploitation, forced labor, travel-
ing vendors, and mining. Young
women: domestic servitude and sex-
ual exploitation. Young boys and
girls: child sex tourism.
Malawi Debt bondage and forced labor. Chil-
dren: agricultural labor, animal herd-
ing, domestic servitude, commercial
sexual exploitation, and forced me-
nial tasks in small businesses. Adults
and children: labor and commercial
sexual exploitation.
Adults and children to Mozambique,
South Africa, and Zambia: labor and
commercial sexual exploitation.
Women and children from Zambia,
Mozambique, Tanzania, and Somalia:
forced labor and commercial sexual
exploitation.
Mauritius Female children: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Mozambique Children: forced and bonded labor.
Women and girls: domestic servitude
and commercial sexual exploitation.
Women and girls to South Africa:
domestic servitude and commercial
sexual exploitation. Young men and
boys to South Africa: farm work and
mining. Children and adults to
Zambia: agricultural labor.
Women and girls from Zimbabwe:
sexual exploitation and domestic
servitude.
Rwanda Girls: domestic servitude and
Children from Rwandas Eastern
Province to Uganda: work on tea
plantations or use in commercial
sexual exploitation. Children: forced
labor and soldiering in the Demo-
cratic Republic of Congo.
(Continued)
1
6
7
Eastern Africa (Continued )
Somalia*
2
Somali Bantus and Midgaan (tribes):
servitude as domestics, farm laborers,
and herders. Children: child soldiers.
Women and children: sexual exploi-
tation and forced labor.
Women to the Middle East (Iraq,
Lebanon, and Syria) and South
Africa: domestic labor and commer-
cial sexual exploitation. Men to the
Gulf States: labor exploitation as
herdsmen and menial workers. Chil-
dren to Djibouti, Malawi, and Tanza-
nia: commercial sexual exploitation
and exploitative child labor.
Men from Cambodia: long-range
shing boats operating off coast of
Somalia.
Tanzania Boys: forced labor on farms, mines,
and informal business sector. Girls
from rural areas to urban centers
and the island of Zanzibar: domestic
servitude and commercial sexual
exploitation.
Men to South Africa: forced labor.
Girls to Oman, the United Arab
Emirates, and possibly other
European or Middle Eastern
countries: forced domestic labor and
Children from Somalia: labor and
Uganda Children: forced labor and commer-
cial sexual exploitation. Karamojong
women and children forced into
domestic servitude, sexual
exploitation, herding, and begging.
Children to Canada, Egypt, the
United Arab Emirates, and Saudi
Arabia: forced labor and commercial
Pakistani, Indian, and Chinese workers
and Indian children: sexual exploita-
tion. Children from the Democratic
Republic of Congo, Rwanda, and
Burundi: agricultural labor and
Zambia Children: exploitation in prostitution,
agriculture, domestic service, and
shing sectors.
Women to South Africa and to
Europe: sexual exploitation.
Adults and children from Malawian
and Mozambican: forced agricultural
labor.
2
Countries in italics and marked with a * are designated special cases in the TIP report. This special status may be due to a failure to adequately document
a signicant number of trafcking victims within the country, however sources indicate that trafcking may be occurring and may point to trends.
1
6
8
Zimbabwe Rural men, women, and children
to farms: agricultural labor and
domestic servitude, and to cities,
domestic labor and commercial
sexual exploitation. Women and
children: domestic labor and sexual
exploitation.
Women and children to Botswana,
Mozambique, South Africa, and
Zambia: domestic labor and sexual
exploitation. Young men and boys to
South Africa: farmwork. Young
women and girls to South Africa, the
Peoples Republic of China, Egypt, the
United Kingdom, the United States,
and Canada: involuntary domestic
servitude or commercial sexual
exploitation.
South African girls: domestic
servitude.
Central Africa
Angola Women and girls: domestic servitude
and commercial sexual exploitation.
Young men: agricultural or unskilled
labor.
Angolans to South Africa, the Demo-
cratic Republic of Congo, Namibia,
and Portugal. Young men: debt-
bonded agricultural work in Namibia.
Children from Congo to Angola.
Cameroon Girls: domestic servitude and sexual
exploitation. Boys and girls: forced
labor in sweatshops, bars, restaurants,
and on tea and cocoa plantations.
Women to Europe, primarily France,
Germany, and Switzerland: forced
prostition.
Children from Nigeria, Chad, the
Central African Republic, Congo,
Benin, and Niger: forced labor in
agriculture, shing, street vending,
and spare-parts shops.
(Continued)
1
6
9
Central
African
Republic
(C.A.R.)
Children: sexual exploitation, domes-
tic servitude, vending, and forced agri-
cultural, mine, market and restaurant
labor. Children: child soldiers. Men,
women, and children abducted by
rebel groups: forced labor, soldiers,
and sex slaves.
Children to Cameroon, Nigeria, and
the Democratic Republic of Congo:
sexual exploitation, domestic servi-
tude, vending, and forced agricul-
tural, mine, market and restaurant
labor.
Children from Rwanda to the Central
African Republic.
Chad Children: domestic servitude, forced
cattle herding, forced begging, forced
labor in petty commerce, the shing
industry, or commercial sexual
exploitation, and child soldiers.
Chadian rebels recruit children into
the armed forces. Men: forcefully
recruited into Chadian National
Army.
Chadian children to Cameroon, the
Central African Republic,
and Nigeria: cattle herding.
Children from Cameroon and Central
African Republic: sexual exploita-
tion. Sudanese children: child sol-
diers
Congo, the
Democratic
Republic of
the (D.R.C.)
Men, women, and children abducted:
forced laborer (including in mines),
porters, domestics, combatants, and
sex slaves. Congolese miners in debt
bondage. Children: forced prostitution.
Women and children forcibly trans-
ported to Uganda by Ugandan
troops: sex slaves or domestics.
Women and children to South
Africa: sexual exploitation. Girls to
the Republic of Congo: commercial
sexual exploitation. Children
to Uganda: agricultural labor and
Men and boys from Rwanda, Ugan-
dan, and Congolese: fraudulently
conscripted into militias. Children
from Rwandan: forced labor and sol-
diering in the Democratic Republic
of Congo.
Central Africa (Continued )
1
7
0
Congo,
Republic
of the
(R.O.C.)
Girls from rural areas within the
country: commercial sexual exploita-
tion. Boys and girls from rural areas
to larger cities: forced street vending
and domestic servitude.
Children from other African countries
(Benin, Mali, Senegal, Guinea, Togo,
and Cameroon) : domestic servitude,
forced market vending, and forced
labor in the shing industry. Girls
from the Democratic Republic of
Congo: organized prostitution. Chil-
dren from the Democratic Republic
of Congo: forced commercial activ-
ities, such as street vending, domestic
servitude, tailoring, hairdressing, and
food service.
Equatorial
Guinea
Children from Nigeria, Benin, Came-
roon, and Gabon: domestic servitude,
market labor, vending, and possibly
sexual exploitation Women from
Cameroon, Benin, other neighboring
countries, and China: sexual
exploitation.
Gabon Children from Benin, Nigeria, Togo,
and Guinea, Sierra Leone, Burkina
Faso, and Cameroon: forced labor.
Girls: domestic servitude, forced
market vending, forced restaurant
labor, and sexual exploitation. Boys:
forced street hawking and forced
labor in small workshops. Young
men and women from other African
countries: domestic servitude and
(Continued)
1
7
1
Western Africa
Benin Girls: domestic servitude and sexual
exploitation. Boys: plantation and
construction labor, street hawking,
and handicraft activities. Child sex
tourism in northern Benin.
Children from Benin to other African
countries: domestic servitude and
sexual exploitation, plantation and
construction labor, street hawking,
handicraft activities, and forced labor
in mines and stone quarries. Victims
to Nigeria and Gabon, Cameroon,
Togo, Côte dIvoire, Ghana, Congo,
and Guinea-Bissau.
Children from Togo, Niger, and
Burkina Faso to Benin.
Burkina Faso Internal trafcking from rural areas
to urban centers: domestic servitude,
sexual exploitation, forced agricul-
tural labor, and forced labor in gold
mines and stone quarries.
Children to other West African coun-
tries (notably Côte dIvoire, Mali,
Benin, Nigeria, Niger, and Togo):
domestic servitude, sexual exploita-
tion, forced agricultural labor, and
forced labor in gold mines and stone
quarries. Women to Europe: forced
prostitution.
Children from West African countries
to Burkina Faso: domestic servitude,
sexual exploitation, and forced agri-
cultural labor. Women from Nigeria,
Togo, Benin, Ghana, and Niger to
Burkina Faso: forced labor in bars or
Côte dIvoire Women and girls from northern areas
to southern cities: domestic servi-
tude, restaurant labor, and sexual
exploitation. Boys: agricultural and
service labor. Children: child soldiers
(forced labor in a noncombat
capacity).
Women to Europe: sexual
exploitation.
Boys from Ghana, Mali, Burkina
Faso, and Benin: forced agricultural
labor. Boys from Guinea: forced
mining. Boys from Togo: forced
construction labor. Boys from Benin:
forced carpentry work. Boys from
Ghana and Togo: forced labor in
shing industry. Women and girls
1
7
2
from other Western and Central Afri-
can countries: domestic servitude
and forced street vending. Women
and girls from Ghana and Nigeria:
sexual exploitation. Women from
China, Ukraine, the Philippines, and
North Africa: sexual exploitation.
Gambia, The Women and children: domestic
servitude, sexual exploitation, and
sex tourism. Boys: forced begging
by religious teachers and street
vending.
Boys to Senegal : forced begging.
Women and girls to Senegal : domes-
tic servitude and sexual exploitation.
Women and children to Europe.
Women, girls, and boys from Sene-
gal, Mali, Sierra Leone, Liberia,
Ghana, Nigeria, Guinea-Bissau,
Guinea, and Benin: forced begging,
street vending, domestic servitude,
and sexual exploitation. Senegalese
boys: forced begging.
Ghana Boys: forced labor in agriculture and
shing industry, as porters, and street
hawking. Girls: domestic servitude
and sexual exploitation. Women:
commercial sexual exploitation and
child sex tourism.
Children to primarily Côte dIvoire,
Togo, Nigeria, and The Gambia:
forced domestic service labor and
Refugee children from Liberia: com-
mercial sexual exploitation. Children
from Côte dIvoire, Togo, Nigeria,
and The Gambia: labor and sexual
exploitation and domestic servitude.
Guinea Girls: domestic servitude and sexual
exploitation. Boys: forced agricul-
tural labor, forced begging, street
vendors, shoe shiners, and laborers
in gold and diamond mines. Men:
agricultural labor.
Women and girls to Nigeria, Côte
dIvoire, Benin, Senegal, Greece, and
Spain: domestic servitude and sexual
exploitation.
Girls from Mali, Sierra Leone, Nige-
ria, Ghana, Liberia, Senegal, Burkina
Faso, and Guinea-Bissau: domestic
servitude and sexual exploitation.
Chinese women: commercial sexual
exploitation by Chinese men living in
Guinea.
(Continued)
1
7
3
Western Africa (Continued )
Guinea-
Bissau
Children: forced begging and agri-
cultural labor.
Boys to other West African countries
(Senegal): forced begging.
Liberia Victims from rural to urban areas:
domestic servitude, forced street
vending, and sexual exploitation.
Children: forced labor in diamond
mining areas.
Children to Côte dIvoire, Guinea,
and Nigeria: domestic servitude,
street vending, sexual exploitation,
and agricultural labor.
Children from Sierra Leone, Guinea,
and Côte dIvoire: domestic servi-
tude, street vending, sexual exploita-
tion, and agricultural labor.
Mali Women and girls: domestic servitude
and sexual exploitation. Boys: forced
begging and labor in agriculture and
gold mines.
Victims to other West African coun-
tries (Burkina Faso, Côte dIvoire,
Guinea, Senegal, and Mauritania).
Women and girls: domestic servitude
gold mines.
Victims from West African countries
(Burkina Faso, Côte dIvoire, Guinea,
Senegal, and Mauritania). Women
and girls: domestic servitude and
sexual exploitation. Boys: forced
gold mines.
Mauritania Boys (trafcked by religious
teachers): forced begging. Girls:
domestic servitude and sexual
exploitation. Children: forced
agricultural and construction labor,
herding, and forced labor in the
shing industry. Children by street
gang leaders: forced to steal, beg,
and sell drugs.
Boys from Mali and Senegal : (by
religious teachers) forced begging.
Girls from Senegal and Mali : domes-
tic servitude. Women and girls from
Senegal, Mali, Ghana, and Nigeria:
1
7
4
Niger Children (trafcked by religious
teachers): forced begging. Children:
forced labor in gold mines, domestic
servitude, sexual exploitation, agri-
culture, and stone quarries. Children:
commercial sexual exploitation along
the border with Nigeria.
Children to Nigeria and Mali : forced
begging and manual labor. Women
and children to North Africa, the
Middle East, and Europe: domestic
servitude and sexual exploitation.
Women and children from Benin,
Burkina Faso, Gabon, Ghana, Mali,
Nigeria, and Togo: domestic servi-
tude, sexual exploitation, forced labor
in mines and on farms, and as
mechanics and welders.
Nigeria Women and girls: domestic servitude
begging by religious teachers, as well
as forced labor in street vending,
agriculture, mining, stone quarries,
and domestic servitude.
Women, girls, and boys to other
Western and Central African coun-
tries (Gabon, Cameroon, Benin,
Niger, The Gambia, and Ghana):
sexual exploitation, forced labor in
street vending, agriculture, mining,
and domestic servitude. Women and
girls to North Africa, Saudi Arabia,
and Europe (Italy, Spain, the Nether-
lands, Belgium, Austria, Norway, and
Greece): commercial sexual
exploitation. Boys and girls to the
United Kingdom: domestic servitude
and forced labor in restaurants and
shops.
Boys and girls from Benin: forced
labor in granite quarries. Women,
girls, and boys from Western and
Central African countries (Gabon,
Cameroon, Benin, Niger, The
Gambia, and Ghana): forced labor in
street vending, agriculture, mining,
stone quarries, and domestic
servitude.
Senegal Boys (by religious leaders): forced
begging. Women and girls: domestic
servitude and sexual exploitation,
including sex tourism.
Women and girls to neighboring
countries, the Middle East, and
Europe: domestic servitude and pos-
sibly sexual exploitation.
Boys from The Gambia, Mali,
Guinea-Bissau, and Guinea: forced
begging (by religious teachers).
Women and girls from other Western
African countries (Liberia, Ghana,
Sierra Leone, and Nigeria) : sexual
exploitation and sex tourism.
(Continued)
1
7
5
Western Africa (Continued )
Sierra Leone Women and children from rural prov-
inces to towns and mining areas:
domestic servitude, sexual exploita-
tion, and forced labor in diamond
mines, petty trading, petty crime, and
forced begging. Women and
children: forced labor in agriculture
and shing industry.
Women and children to other West-
ern African countries (Guinea, Côte
dIvoire, Liberia, Nigeria, Guinea-
Bissau, and The Gambia): domestic
servitude, sexual exploitation, petty
trading, petty crime, and forced beg-
ging. Women and children to North
Africa, the Middle East, and Western
Europe: domestic servitude and
Children from Nigeria and possibly
from Liberia and Guinea: forced
begging, forced labor in mines and
as porters, and sexual exploitation.
Togo Girls: domestic servitude, as market
vendors, produce porters, and com-
mercial sexual exploitation. Boys:
market labor.
Girls to other African countries
(Benin, Nigeria, Ghana, and Niger):
domestic servitude, as market ven-
dors, produce porters, and commer-
cial sexual exploitation. Boys to
other African countries (Nigeria,
Côte dIvoire, Gabon, and Benin):
forced work in agricultural labor.
Women and girls to Lebanon and
Saudi Arabia: domestic servitude
and sexual exploitation. Women to
Europe, primarily France and
Germany: domestic servitude and
Children from Beninese and
Ghanaian to Togo.
1
7
6
Southern Africa
Botswana* Children: domestic servitude. Debt
bondage.
Nurses and teachers from Zimbabwe:
domestic labor and cattle herding.
Lesotho* Boys: cattle herding and street vend-
ing. Girls: cattle herding, domestic
servitude, or commercial sexual
exploitation.
Women and girls to South Africa:
domestic labor or commercial sexual
exploitation.
Namibia* Children: prostitution, domestic ser-
vitude, forced agricultural labor, cat-
tle herding, and possibly vending.
Children from Zambia and Angola:
domestic servitude, agricultural labor,
and livestock herding.
South Africa Girls: commercial sexual exploitation
and domestic servitude. Boys: street
vending, food service, and agricul-
ture. Child sex tourism.
Women to Ireland, the Middle East,
and the United States: domestic
servitude.
Women and girls from other African
countries: commercial sexual exploi-
tation, domestic servitude, and jobs
in the service sector. Thai, Chinese,
and Eastern European women: debt-
bonded commercial sexual exploita-
tion. Young men and boys from
Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and
Malawi : farm work.
Swaziland* Girls, particularly orphans: commer-
cial sexual exploitation and domestic
servitude. Boys: forced labor in
commercial agriculture and market
vending.
Girls to South Africa and Mozambi-
que: commercial sexual exploitation
and domestic servitude. Women to
South Africa and possibly Mozambi-
que: forced prostitution.
Women from Mozambique: sexual
exploitation. Boys from Mozambi-
que: exploitation in low-skilled man-
ual labor, such as car washing,
livestock herding, and portering.
(Continued)
1
7
7
Northern Africa
Algeria Children: domestic servitude or street
vending.
Egypt, Arab
Republic of
Children: commercial sexual exploita-
tion, domestic servitude and agricul-
tural work. Sex tourism.
Libya Men and women from Sub-Saharan
Africa and Asia: forced labor and
Morocco Girls from rural areas to cities:
involuntary servitude as child maids.
Boys: involuntary servitude as
apprentices in the artisan, construc-
tion, and mechanics industries. Boys
and girls: prostitution and child sex
tourism. Girls and women:
Girls and women to Saudi Arabia,
Qatar, Syria, United Arab Emirates,
Cyprus, and European countries:
Women from Sub-Saharan Africa,
India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and
Pakistan: coerrced into commercial
sexual exploitation. Men: coerced
into involuntary servitude.
Sudan Men, women, and children: forced
labor and sexual exploitation.
Women and girls: domestic
servitude. Chidren: child soldiers.
Women: forced labor and sexual
violence (by armed forces). Women
and children: intertribal abductions
and enslavement.
Women and girls to Middle Eastern
countries (Qatar): domestic servitude.
Children to Uganda and the Demo-
cratic Republic of Congo: child sol-
diers.
Women from Ethiopia: domestic
servitude. Ugandan children: armed
militias.
Tunisia Children: commercial sexual exploitation
and labor exploitation, such as domestic
servitude.
1
7
8
ASIA
Eastern Asia
China,
Peoples
Republic
of China
(P.R.C.)
Majority of trafcking occurs within
the countrys borders.
Chinese citizens to Africa, Asia,
Europe, Latin America, the Middle
East, and North America. Women
to Taiwan, Thailand, Malaysia, and
Japan: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Women and children from Mongolia,
Burma, North Korea, the Russian
Federation, and Vietnam: forced
labor, forced marriage, and
prostitution.
Hong Kong
Special
Administra-
tive Region
of China
Women from Chinese mainland and
Southeast Asia: forced prostitution
and debt bondage. Indonesian
workers: exploitation and involuntary
servitude.
Japan Women and girls: pornography or
prostitution.
Women and children from the
Peoples Republic of China, the
Republic of Korea, Southeast Asia,
Eastern Europe, Russia, and Latin
America: commercial sexual
exploitation and debt bondage. Male
and female migrant workers: forced
labor.
Korea,
Republic
of (South
Korea)
Women and girls: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Women and girls to the United
States, Japan, Hong Kong (China),
Guam, Australia, New Zealand,
Women from Russia, Uzbekistan,
Kazakhstan, Mongolia, the Peoples
Republic of China, North Korea, the
Philippines, Thailand, Cambodia, and
(Continued)
1
7
9
Canada, and Western Europe: com-
mercial sexual exploitation.
other Southeast Asian countries:
sexual exploitation and domestic ser-
vitude. Women from less-developed
Asian countries: recruited for mar-
riage (some subjected to conditions
of sexual exploitation, debt bondage,
and involuntary servitude).
North Korea Women and girls sold as brides in
China and forced into prostitution,
marriage, or exploitative labor
arrangements.
Macao,
Special
Administra-
tive Region
of China
Women and girls from the Chinese
mainland, Mongolia, Russia, the
Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam,
Myanmar, and Central Asia:
Mongolia Children: commercial sexual exploi-
tation. Girls and women: kidnapped
and forced to work in commercial
sex trade. Child sex tourism
increasing.
Women and girls to China, Macau,
Malaysia, and the Republic of Korea:
forced labor and sexual exploitation.
Men to Kazakhstan: labor exploita-
tion. Mongolian women (arranged
marriages with mainly South Kore-
ans): involuntary servitude.
North Korean workers: forced labor.
Eastern Asia (Continued )
1
8
0
Taiwan,
China
Women to Japan, Australia, the
United Kingdom, and the United
States.
Women and girls from the Peoples
Republic of China and Southeast
Asian countries: sexual exploitation
and forced labor. Victims from rural
areas of Vietnam, Thailand, Indone-
sia, and the Philippines: construction,
shing, and manufacturing industries,
or domestic servants. Fraudulent mar-
riages to facilitate labor and sex traf-
cking. Boys: forced prostitution.
Southern Asia
Afghanistan Children: commercial sexual exploita-
tion, forced marriage to settle debts or
disputes, forced begging, debt bond-
age, service as child soldiers, and
other forms of forced labor. Women:
Women and children to Pakistan,
Iran, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and else-
where in the Gulf: commercial sex-
ual exploitation. Men to Iran: forced
labor.
Women and girls from China, Iran,
and Tajikistan: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Bangladesh Girls and boys: commercial sexual
exploitation, bonded labor, and other
forms of forced labor. Some children
sold into bondage by parents. Adults:
commercial sexual exploitation,
domestic servitude, and bonded
labor.
Women and children to India and
Pakistan: sexual exploitation. Men
and women to Saudi Arabia, Bahrain,
Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates,
Qatar, Iraq, Lebanon, and Malaysia:
domestic servants. Men and women
to Malaysia, the Gulf, Jordan, and
Finland: construction sector or gar-
ment industry.
(Continued)
1
8
1
India Men, women, and children: debt
bondage, forced to work in brick
kilns, rice mills, agriculture, and em-
broidery factories. Women and girls:
forced marriage. Children: forced
labor as factory workers, domestic
servants, beggars, agriculture workers,
and used as armed combatants by
some terrorist and insurgent groups.
Women to the Middle East : commer-
cial sexual exploitation. Victims to the
Middle East, Europe, and the United
States: forced labor as domestic serv-
ants and low-skilled laborers.
Women and girls from Nepal and
Bangladesh: commercial sexual ex-
ploitation. Children from Nepal :
forced labor in circus shows.
Iran, Islamic
Republic of
Women: forced prostitution and
forced marriages to settle debts. Chil-
dren: forced marriages, commercial
sexual exploitation, and involuntary
servitude as beggars or laborers.
Women and girls to Pakistan, Tur-
key, Qatar, Kuwait, the United Arab
Emirates, France, Germany, and the
United Kingdom: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Children from Afghanistan: forced
marriages, commercial sexual exploi-
tation, and involuntary servitude as
beggars or laborers.
Nepal Children: commercial sexual exploi-
tation, forced marriage, involuntary
servitude, child soldiers, domestic
servants, and circus entertainment or
factory workers. Child sex tourism.
Children in indentured domestic ser-
vitude. Bonded labor a signicant
problem.
Children to India and the Middle East:
commercial sexual exploitation or forced
marriage, involuntary servitude and as
child soldiers, domestic servants, and cir-
cus entertainment or factory workers.
Women to India and to countries in the
Middle East: commercial sexual exploi-
tation. Men and women to Malaysia,
Israel, the Republic of Korea, the United
States, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab
Emirates, Qatar, and other Gulf States:
forced labor as domestic servants, con-
struction workers, or other low-skill
laborers. Victims to Iraq: forced labor.
Southern Asia (Continued )
1
8
2
Pakistan Women and children: sexual exploi-
tation or domestic servitude to settle
debts and disputes. Bonded labor is a
problem.
Women and men to the Gulf States,
Iran, Turkey, and Greece: involuntary
servitude or debt bondage as domestic
servants or construction workers. Girls
to the Middle East: sexual exploitation.
Women and children from Bangla-
desh, India, Burma, Afghanistan, Sri
Lanka, Nepal, Azerbaijan, Iran,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgz Republic, Turk-
menistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan:
forced labor.
Sri Lanka Children: commercial sexual exploi-
tation and forced labor; child
soldiers.
Men and women to Kuwait, Jordan,
Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Lebanon, the
United Arab Emirates, Singapore,
Hong Kong (China), Malaysia, and
the Republic of Korea: involuntary
servitude as construction workers,
domestic servants, or garment factory
workers.
Women from Thailand, China,
Russia, and other countries of the
Newly Independent States: commercial
Southeastern Asia
Brunei
Darussalam*
Women: forced prostitution. Men and women from Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Bangla-
desh, the Peoples Republic of China,
and Thailand: involuntary servitude
in domestic or low-skilled labor.
(Continued)
1
8
3
Cambodia Women and girls from rural to urban
areas: forced prostitution. Child sex
tourism.
Women and girls to Thailand and
Malaysia: commercial sexual exploi-
tation. Men to Thailand: shing, con-
struction, and agricultural industries.
Women and girls to Thailand: ex-
ploitative labor as domestics. Chil-
dren to Thailand and Vietnam:
begging, streetwork selling candy,
owers, or shining shoes. Women to
Taiwan: (brokered international mar-
riages), prostitution.
Women and girls from Vietnam:
prostitution.
Indonesia Women and children: domestic servi-
tude, commercial sexual exploitation,
rural agriculture, mining, shing, and
cottage industries. Women and girls:
commercial sexual exploitation
throughout Indonesia. Sex tourism.
Women and girls to Malaysia and
Singapore, Japan: commercial sexual
exploitation. Young girls to Taiwan: as
brides, forced prostitution. Men and
women to Malaysia, Japan, Saudi
Arabia, Iraq, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong
Kong (China), United Arab Emirates,
Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, Syria, France,
Belgium, Germany, and the
Netherlands: forced labor and debt
bondage in construction, agriculture,
manufacturing, and domestic service
sectors. Indonesian migrant workers to
Malaysia and Saudi Arabia: domestic
servitude, commercial sexual exploita-
tion, and forced labor.
Women from the Peoples Republic
of China, Thailand, and Eastern
Europe: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Southeastern Asia (Continued )
1
8
4
Laos Young women and girls: commercial
sexual exploitation in urban areas.
Women and girls to Thailand: com-
mercial sexual exploitation and labor
exploitation as domestics or factory
workers. Subject to bonded labor or
forced prostitution. Men exploited in
Thai shing and construction industry.
Malaysia Women and girls from indigenous
groups and rural areas: labor and
Women, primarily of Chinese ethnic-
ity trafcked abroad: commercial
Men, women, and children from
Indonesia, Nepal, Thailand, the Peo-
ples Republic of China, the Philip-
pines, Burma, Cambodia, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, and Vietnam; involuntary
servitude in the domestic, agricultural,
construction, plantation, and industrial
sectors. Female domestics from Indo-
nesia, Thailand, the Philippines, Cam-
bodia, Vietnam, Burma, Mongolia,
and the Peoples Republic of China
are forced into commercial sexual ex-
ploitation. Burmese refugees vulnera-
ble to forced labor.
Myanmar
(Burma)
Internal trafcking primarily from
villages to urban centers: forced
labor in industrial zones, agricultural
estates, and commercial sexual ex-
ploitation. Urban poor and street chil-
dren: child soldiers.
Women and children to Thailand, Peo-
ples Republic of China, Bangladesh,
India, Pakistan, Malaysia, the Republic
of Korea, and Macau: commercial sex-
ual exploitation, domestic servitude,
and forced labor. Children to Thailand:
hawkers, beggars, work in shops, agri-
culture, sh processing, and small-scale
industries. Women to Malaysia and the
Peoples Republic of China: commer-
cial sexual exploitation. Some women
to China as forced brides.
(Continued)
1
8
5
Philippines Women and children from poor com-
munities to urban areas: commercial
sexual exploitation, forced labor as
domestic servants or factory workers.
Child sex tourism.
Men and women to Bahrain, Canada,
Cyprus, Hong Kong (China), Côte
dIvoire, Japan, Kuwait, Malaysia,
Palau, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singa-
pore, South Africa, Turkey, and the
United Arab Emirates: involuntary
servitude. Women to Japan, Malay-
sia, Singapore, Hong Kong (China),
South Korea, and countries in the
Middle East and Western Europe:
of China, the Republic of Korea,
and Russia: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Singapore Women from India, Thailand, the
Philippines, and the Peoples Repub-
lic of China: sexual servitude.
Thailand Ethnic minorities such as northern
hill tribe peoples at high risk of
trafcking.
Ethnic minorities at high risk of traf-
cking to Bahrain, Australia, South
Africa, Singapore, Malaysia, Japan,
Hong Kong (China), Europe, and the
United States. Men to Taiwan, the
Republic of Korea, Israel, the United
States, and Gulf States: forced labor
and debt bondage.
Women and children from Burma,
Cambodia, Laos, the Peoples Repub-
lic of China, Vietnam, Russia, and
Uzbekistan: commercial sexual ex-
ploitation. Men, women, and children
from Myanmar: forced labor
in agricultural work, factories,
construction, commercial sheries
and sh processing, domestic work,
and begging. Children from Myan-
mar, Laos, and Cambodia: forced
begging and exploitative labor.
Southeastern Asia (Continued )
1
8
6
East Timor Women and children from rural
areas, camps or internally displaced
persons: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Women from Indonesia, the Peoples
Republic of China, Thailand, Malay-
sia, and the Philippines: commercial
Vietnam
(Viet Nam)
Women and children from rural areas
to urban centers: commercial sexual
exploitation and forced labor. Child
sex tourism.
Women and children to the Peoples
Republic of China, Cambodia, Thai-
land, the Republic of Korea, Malay-
sia, Taiwan, and Macau (China) :
sexual exploitation. Women to the
China, Taiwan, and the Republic of
Korea via misrepresented marriages
into commercial sexual exploitation
or forced labor. Men and women to
Malaysia, Taiwan, China, Thailand,
and the Middle East : forced labor or
debt bondage in construction, shing,
or manufacturing sectors.
Cambodian children to urban centers:
forced labor or commercial sexual
exploitation.
COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES
Armenia Women and girls to the United Arab
Emirates and Turkey: commercial
sexual exploitation. Men and women
to Turkey and Russia: forced labor.
(Continued)
1
8
7
Azerbaijan Women and children to Turkey and
the United Arab Emirates: sexual ex-
ploitation. Men and boys to Russia:
forced labor. Men and women to
Iran, Pakistan, the United Arab Emi-
rates, and India: sexual exploitation
and forced labor.
Belarus A small number of victims trafcked
within country.
Men and women to Russia: forced
labor.
Georgia Women and girls: commercial sexual
exploitation. Men: forced labor.
Women and girls to Turkey and the
United Arab Emirates: commercial
sexual exploitation. Men to Turkey,
Russia, Greece, and the Gulf States.
Kazakhstan Men and women: forced labor and
Men and women to the United Arab
Emirates, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Israel,
Greece, Russia, Germany, and the
United States: forced labor and
Women, men and girls from Uzbeki-
stan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and
Ukraine: commercial sexual exploita-
tion and forced labor in the construc-
tion and agricultural industries.
Kyrgyz
Republic
(Kyrgyzstan)
Men and women to Kazakhstan:
forced agricultural labor (mainly in
tobacco elds), to Russia: forced
construction work, and to China:
bonded labor. Women to the United
Arab Emirates, China, Kazakhstan,
the Republic of Korea, Italy, Turkey,
Greece, Cyprus, Thailand, Germany,
and Syria: sexual exploitation.
Men and women from Uzbekistan,
Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan: forced
labor and commercial sexual exploi-
tation.
COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES (Continued )
1
8
8
Moldova Girls and young women from rural
areas to capital : sexual exploitation.
Women to Turkey, Russia, the
United Arab Emirates, Ukraine,
Israel, Cyprus, Greece, Albania,
Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, the
Czech Republic, Italy, France, Portu-
gal, Austria, and other Western Euro-
pean countries. Children to
neighboring countries: forced labor
and begging. Men to Russia: con-
struction, agriculture, and service
sectors.
Russian
Federation
(Russia)
Children: sexual exploitation and
forced begging. Men and women:
sexual exploitation and forced labor,
including work in the construction
industry. Child sex tourism.
Men and women from the Russian
Far East to China, Japan, the Middle
East, and the Republic of Korea:
sexual exploitation, debt bondage,
and forced labor, including in the ag-
ricultural and shing industries.
Women to Turkey, Greece, Germany,
Italy, Spain, Malta, the United States,
Canada, Vietnam, Thailand, Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, Costa Rica, and
the Middle East : sexual exploitation.
Children from Ukraine and Moldova:
sexual exploitation and forced beg-
ging. Men and women from Kyrgyz-
stan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Ukraine,
Moldova, and Belarus: sexual exploi-
tation and forced labor, including
work in the construction industry;
Men from Belarus: forced labor in
the construction, textile, and food
industries.
Tajikistan Boys and girls: forced labor and
forced begging.
Women to the United Arab Emirates,
Turkey, and Russia: commercial sex-
ual exploitation. Women to Pakistan:
sexual exploitation and forced labor.
Men to Russia and Kazakhstan:
forced labor in the construction and
agriculture industries.
(Continued)
1
8
9
Turkmenistan* Women from rural provinces to
larger cities: sexual exploitation and
involuntary servitude.
Women to Turkey, Algeria, Sudan,
Tunisia, the United Kingdom,
Thailand, the United Arab Emirates,
Cyprus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Pakistan, Iran, and Israel : sexual
exploitation. Women to Turkey:
domestic servitude. Men to Turkey:
forced labor in textile sweatshops.
Ukraine Men and women: labor exploitation
in the agriculture and service sectors,
commercial sexual exploitation, and
forced begging. Children: commer-
cial sexual exploitation, forced beg-
ging and involuntary servitude in the
agriculture industry.
Women to Russia, Poland, Turkey,
the Czech Republic, the United Arab
Emirates, Austria, Italy, Portugal,
Germany, Greece, Israel, Spain,
Lebanon, Hungary, Slovak Republic,
Cyprus, United Kingdom, Nether-
lands, Serbia, Argentina, Norway,
and Bahrain. Men to Russia, the
Czech Republic and Poland: in
construction, as laborers, sailors, and
factory and agriculture workers.
Ukrainian children trafcked transna-
tionally: commercial sexual exploita-
tion and forced begging.
A destination for people from neigh-
boring countries: forced labor and
Uzbekistan Men and women: domestic servitude,
forced labor in the agriculture and
construction industries, and commer-
cial sexual exploitation.
Women and girls to the United Arab
Emirates, Kazakhstan, Russia, Thai-
land, Turkey, India, Israel, Malaysia,
the Republic Korea, Japan, and Costa
Rica: commercial sexual exploita-
tion. Men to Kazakhstan and Russia:
forced labor in the construction, cot-
ton, and tobacco industries.
COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES (Continued )
1
9
0
EUROPE
Central Europe
Czech
Republic
Roma women: sexual exploitation. Roma women trafcked abroad:
Women from Russia, Ukraine,
Romania, Belarus, Moldova, Slovakia,
Bulgaria, China, and Vietnam:
commercial sexual exploitation. Men
and women from Ukraine, China,
Vietnam, Moldova, and Belarus:
labor exploitation.
Hungary Roma women and girls: sexual
exploitation.
Women and girls from Slovakia,
Romania, Ukraine, Moldova, Poland,
the Balkans, and China: commercial
Poland Men and women to Italy, Austria,
Germany, Belgium, France, Spain,
Sweden, the Netherlands, and Israel :
forced labor and sexual exploitation.
Women from Ukraine, Moldova,
Romania, Belarus, Lithuania, Russia,
Bulgaria, Cameroon, Somalia,
Uganda, Kenya, Nigeria, and Viet-
nam: commercial sexual exploitation.
Slovak
Republic
(Sovakia)
Roma women and girls: sexual
exploitation.
Women and girls from Moldova,
Ukraine, Bulgaria, the Balkans, the
Baltics, and China: commercial sexual
exploitation. Men from Vietnam:
forced labor.
(Continued)
1
9
1
Slovenia Women: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Women to countries in Western
exploitation.
Ukraine, Slovakia, Romania, Moldova,
Bulgaria, Colombia, the Dominican
Republic, Turkey, Albania, and Monte-
negro: commercial sexual exploitation
and forced labor, including in the con-
struction industry. Disabled men from
Slovakia trafcked to Slovenia: forced
begging.
Southeastern Europe
Albania Women and children: commercial
Albanian victims to Greece, Italy,
Macedonia, and Kosovo, Western
European countries (the United
Kingdom, France, Belgium, Norway,
Germany, and the Netherlands) :
forced labor. Children to Greece:
begging and other forms of child
labor.
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Minors trafcked. Romani children:
forced labor.
Women and girls trafcked to
Western Europe: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Victims from Serbia, Ukraine,
Moldova, Romania, and Russia:
Central Europe (Continued )
1
9
2
Bulgaria Roma children: forced begging and
petty theft. Bulgarian victims:
Roma children to Austria, Italy,
and other West European countries:
forced begging and petty theft.
Croatia Croatian girls and women: sexual
exploitation.
Croatian men: forced labor. Women and girls from Romania,
Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia and Herze-
govina, and other parts of Eastern
Kosovo* Children: forced begging. Victims are young women from East-
ern Europe: commercial sex industry.
Macedonia,
former
Yugoslav
Republic of
Women and children from eastern ru-
ral areas to urban bars in western
Macedonia: commercial sexual ex-
ploitation.
Victims to South Central and West-
ern Europe, including Bosnia, Serbia,
Italy, and Sweden: commercial
Victims primarily from Serbia and
Albania: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Montenegro Children: forced begging.
Romania Men, women, and children: commer-
cial sexual exploitation, forced labor,
and forced begging.
Men, women, and children to Italy,
Spain, Switzerland, the Czech Repub-
lic, Greece, Germany, France, the
Netherlands, Turkey, Austria, and
Israel : commercial sexual exploita-
tion and forced labor in the agricul-
ture, construction, and hotel
industries.
Women from Moldova, Ukraine,
and Russia: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Serbia Women and girls: commercial sexual
exploitation. Children: forced labor
or forced street begging.
Victims from Macedonia, Ukraine,
Moldova, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, Albania,
and the Peoples Republic of China:
(Continued)
1
9
3
Northern Europe
Denmark Women and girls from Russia, Lat-
via, Estonia, Lithuania, Ukraine, the
Czech Republic, Thailand, Nigeria
and other West African countries,
Romania, and Bulgaria: commercial
Estonia Women and girls to Sweden, Finland,
Norway, Denmark, the United King-
dom, Spain, Belgium, Germany, and
the Netherlands: sexual exploitation.
Men, women, and children from Rus-
sia: commercial sexual exploitation
and forced labor.
Finland Women from Russia, China, Estonia,
Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, the Cau-
casus, Lithuania, Latvia, and Thai-
land: sexual exploitation. Men and
women from China, India, Pakistan,
and Bangladesh: forced labor in the
construction industry, restaurants, and
as domestic servants.
Latvia Women and teenage girls: commer-
cial sexual exploitation.
Women to Cyprus, Denmark,
Germany, Greece, Italy, the
Netherlands, Norway, Spain, and the
exploitation. Men and women to the
United Kingdom: forced labor.
Victims from Thailand: forced labor.
1
9
4
Lithuania Women: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Women to the United Kingdom,
Germany, Spain, Italy, Denmark,
Norway, and the Netherlands:
Women from Belarus, Russia (the
Kaliningrad region), and Ukraine:
Norway Women and children fromNigeria, Rus-
sia, Albania, Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania,
Estonia, Brazil, and East Asian nations:
Sweden Women and children fromEstonia, Rus-
sia, Poland, Albania, Slovakia, Nigeria,
Hungary, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedo-
nia, Venezuela, and Thailand: commer-
cial sexual exploitation. Women and
children fromRomania and Bulgaria:
forced begging and petty theft. Boys and
young men fromthe United Kingdom:
forced labor on construction sites and
other forced work (laying asphalt, yard
work, and odd jobs).
Southern Europe
Greece Women from Eastern Europe, the
Balkans, and Africa (Romania, Bul-
garia, Russia, Lithuania, Moldova,
Ukraine, Albania, Nigeria, and
(Continued)
1
9
5
Sudan): commercial sexual exploita-
tion and forced labor. Albanian men:
forced labor. Children from Albania:
forced labor, including forced beg-
ging and petty crimes; some sexual
exploitation. Nigerian victims: sexual
exploitation.
Italy Women and children trafcked from
Nigeria, Romania, Bulgaria,
Moldova, Albania, Ukraine, Russia,
South America, North and East
Africa, the Middle East, China, and
Uzbekistan: sexual exploitation.
Chinese men and women: forced
labor. Victims from Poland,
Romania, Pakistan, Albania, and
Côte dIvoire: forced labor, mostly
in the agriculture sector. Roma
children: sexual exploitation and
forced begging.
Malta Women from Russia, Ukraine,
Romania, and other Eastern
European countries: forced
prostitution.
Southern Europe (Continued )
1
9
6
Portugal Women, men, and children from Bra-
zil, Ukraine, Moldova, Russia, Roma-
nia, and Africa: commercial sexual
exploitation and forced labor. Male
victims from Eastern European coun-
tries: forced labor in farming and con-
struction industries.
Spain Young women from Romania, Russia,
Brazil, Colombia, and Nigeria, other
areas of Latin America, Eastern
Europe, and Africa: sexual exploita-
tion. Men from same countries: forced
labor, usually in agriculture. Chinese
victims: labor exploitation.
Western Europe
Austria Women from Romania, Bulgaria,
Hungary, Moldova, Belarus, Ukraine,
Slovakia, and Nigeria: commercial
Women from Africa: sexual exploita-
tion. Children from Bulgaria and
Romania: forced petty theft and
(Continued)
1
9
7
Belgium Women and girls from Nigeria, Russia,
Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, and the
Peoples Republic of China: sexual
exploitation. Male victims: labor
exploitation in restaurants, bars,
sweatshops, and construction sites.
France Women from Romania, Bulgaria,
Nigeria, Cameroon, other nations in
Eastern Europe, Africa, South Amer-
ica, and Asia: sexual exploitation.
Men from Romania and Bulgaria: sex-
ual exploitation. Young women and
girls also exploited in domestic work.
French Guyana is a destination for
women and children from Brazil:
Germany German nationals: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Men and women primarily from
Central and Eastern Europe (the
Czech Republic, Romania, Poland,
and Russia) and Nigeria: commercial
sexual exploitation and forced labor,
including in the construction indus-
try, in restaurants and ice cream
parlors, and as domestic servants.
Western Europe (Continued )
1
9
8
Ireland Women from Eastern Europe, Nigeria,
other parts of Africa, South America,
and Asia: forced prostitution. Men
and women from Bangladesh,
Pakistan, Egypt, and the Philippines,
South America, Eastern Europe, and
other parts of Asia and Africa: labor
exploitation in domestic labor,
restaurant, and agriculture work.
Luxembourg Women from Bulgaria, Poland, and
Ukraine: commercial sexual exploita-
tion. Women from Africa and Latin
America engaged in prostitution,
possible victims of trafcking.
Netherlands Young women: prostitution. Women and girls from Nigeria,
Bulgaria, China, Sierra Leone, and
Romania and other countries in East-
ern Europe: sexual exploitation and
forced labor. Men from India, China,
Bangladesh, and Turkey: forced
labor and sexual exploitation.
Switzerland Women from Romania, Hungary,
Poland, Bulgaria, Slovakia, the Czech
Republic, Slovenia, Ukraine, Mol-
dova, Brazil, the Dominican Republic,
Thailand, Cambodia, Nigeria, and
Cameroon: commercial sexual exploi-
tation, domestic servitude, and labor
exploitation.
(Continued)
1
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9
United
Kingdom
Minors within the country: commer-
cial sexual and labor exploitation.
Migrant workers from Lithuania,
Russia, Albania, Ukraine, Malaysia,
Thailand, the Peoples Republic of
China, Nigeria, and Ghana: forced
labor in agriculture, construction, food
processing, domestic servitude, and
food service. Women and girls from
above countries: commericial sexual
exploitation.
LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
Caribbean
Bahamas* Haitians: involuntary servitude,
domestic servants, gardeners,
construction workers, and agriculture
laborers. Women and girls from
Jamaica and other countries:
Barbados* Children: prostitution, sex tourism. Men, women, and children: commer-
cial sexual exploitation and forced
labor. Women and girls fromGuyana,
the Dominican Republic, and other
Caribbean islands: sexual exploitation
and domestic servitude. Men from
China, India, and Guyana: forced labor
in construction and other sectors.
Western Europe (Continued )
2
0
0
Cuba Women and children: commercial
sexual exploitation. Children and
adults: forced labor. Sex tourism
destination (also children).
Women to Mexico, the Bahamas, and
Western Europe, the United States:
forced labor, sexual exploitation, and
abuse.
Dominican
Republic
Women, boys, and girls: sexual
exploitation and domestic servitude.
Sex tourism and child sex tourism.
Women to Western Europe, Australia,
Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Panama,
Haiti, and other Caribbean destinations:
prostitution and sexual exploitation.
Haitian nationals: forced labor in the
service, construction, and agriculture
sectors. Haitian children: domestic
servitude.
Haiti* Children: domestic service. Girls:
domestic servitude. Boys: agriculture
servitude. Children: violent criminal
gangs as ghters or thieves.
Haitians to the Dominican Republic,
the Bahamas, the United States, and
other Caribbean nations: forced labor
on sugarcane plantations, and in
agriculture and construction.
Dominican women and girls:
Jamaica Women and girls, and increasingly
boys from rural to urban and tourist
areas: commercial sexual exploita-
tion. Children: domestic servants.
Sex tourism in resort areas.
Women and girls to Canada, the United
States, the Bahamas, and other Carib-
bean destinations: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Women from the Dominican Repub-
lic, Russia, and Eastern Europe:
Central America
Belize Young girls: sexual exploitation
(sugar daddy phenomenonpoor
families push their school-age
daughters to provide sex to wealthy
men in exchange for school fees,
money, and gifts).
Central American men, women, and
children: forced agriculture labor or
prostitution.
(Continued)
2
0
1
Costa Rica Women and children: sexual exploi-
tation. Men, women, and children:
forced labor in shing, construction,
and domestic service. Child sex
tourism.
Women and children to El Salvador,
Guatemala, Japan, and the United
States: sexual exploitation.
Women and girls from Nicaragua,
the Dominican Republic, Colombia,
Panama, Russia, Uzbekistan, and the
Philippines: sexual exploitation.
Young men from Nicaragua and
Chinese nationals: labor exploita-
tion, mostly in agriculture and
construction.
El Salvador Women and girls from rural to urban
areas: sexual exploitation.
Salvadorans to Guatemala, Mexico,
and the United States: commercial
Women and children from Nicaragua
and Honduras: prostitution or domes-
tic servitude. Men and children from
neighboring countries: forced
agriculture labor.
Guatemala Women and children: commercial
sexual exploitation. Men, women,
and children: forced labor. Child sex
tourism. Men and women: exploited
labor in agriculture.
Women and children to Mexico and
the United States: commercial sexual
exploitation. Men, women, and
children to Mexico and the United
States: forced labor. Children in the
Mexican border area: forced labor
and begging.
Victims from El Salvador, Honduras,
and Nicaragua: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Honduras Children from rural to urban areas
and tourist centers: commercial
sexual exploitation and forced labor
for violent criminal gangs.
Women and children to Guatemala,
El Salvador, Mexico, and the United
States: sexual exploitation.
Most foreign victims from neighbor-
ing countries: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Central America (Continued )
2
0
2
Mexico Women, girls, and boys from poor
rural regions to urban, border, and
tourist areas: sexual exploitation. Sex
tourism and child sex tourism. Men
and boys from southern to northern
Mexico: forced labor.
Women and girls by organized crimi-
nal networks to the United States:
commercial sexual exploitation. Men,
women, and boys into the United
States: forced labor, particularly in
agriculture.
Victims from Central America (Gua-
temala, Honduras, and El Salvador):
sexual exploitation. Some Central
American minors fall victim to traf-
ckers, near Guatemalan border. Vic-
tims from South America, the
Caribbean, Eastern Europe, and Asia:
sexual or labor exploitation. Central
Americans, especially Guatemalans:
agriculture servitude and labor
exploitation.
Nicaragua Women and children: commercial
sexual exploitation. Minors:
prostitution and child sex tourism.
Children: forced labor in
construction, agriculture, and the
shing industry, and domestic
servitude. Young males: forced
labor in agriculture and construction
from southern border areas to
Costa Rica.
Women and children to Guatemala
and El Salvador, and in smaller
numbers to Costa Rica, Mexico,
Honduras, Venezuela, Spain, and the
United States: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Panama Women and children: sexual exploita-
tion. Rural children to urban areas:
labor exploitation.
Women to Jamaica and Europe:
Women from Colombia, the
Dominican Republic, and Central
America: involuntary servitude and
forced prostitution.
(Continued)
2
0
3
South America
Argentina Victims from rural to urban areas:
exploitation in prostitution. Child sex
tourism in the triborder area.
Women and girls to neighboring
countries, Mexico, and Western
Women and children from Paraguay,
Brazil, and the Dominican Republic:
Bolivians, Peruvians, and Para-
guayans: forced labor in sweatshops,
agriculture, and as domestic servants.
Chinese migrants: labor exploitation
into Chinese-owned supermarkets.
Bolivia Young women and girls from rural to
urban areas: commercial sexual exploi-
tation. Members of indigenous com-
munities at risk: domestic labor
exploitation, particularly on sugar cane
and Brazil nut plantations. Children:
forced labor in mining, in agriculture,
and as domestic servants.
Bolivians mainly to Argentina,
Brazil, Peru, Chile, Spain, and the
United States: forced labor in sweat-
shops, factories, and agriculture.
Brazil Men: forced labor and exploited on
plantations, growing sugar cane.
Women and children: prostitution.
Child sex tourism.
Women and girls to destinations in
South America, the Caribbean, Western
Europe, Japan, the United States, and
the Middle East: sexual exploitation.
Bolivia, Peru, and the Peoples
Republic of China: forced labor in
factories in major urban areas.
Chile Women and girls: sex trafcking. Chileans to neighboring countries
such as Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia,
in addition to Europe, Japan, and the
United States: sexual and labor
exploitation.
Victims from neighboring countries
and Asian countries such as the Peo-
ples Republic of China: forced pros-
titution. Migrants including children
from Peru and Bolivia: involuntary
servitude in agriculture.
2
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4
Colombia Women and children from rural to
urban areas: commercial sexual
exploitation. Men: forced labor.
Children: child soldiers. Women and
children forced by gangs and organ-
ized criminal networks: commercial
sexual exploitation and compulsory
labor, including forced begging and
servitude in the illegal drug trade.
Sex tourism in coastal cities.
Women and girls to countries
throughout Latin America, the
Caribbean, Western Europe, East
Asia, the Middle East, and North
America, including the United States:
involuntary servitude.
Ecuador Children from coastal and border areas
to urban centers: sexual exploitation.
Children: hazardous forms of labor,
domestic servitude, forced begging,
work in the hospitality and commer-
cial sectors, and hard labor in mines.
Children to neighboring countries
and to European countries, including
Spain and Italy. Women to Colom-
bia, Peru, Venezuela, and Western
Europe, particularly Spain and Italy:
Colombian women and adolescent
girls: sexual exploitation.
Guyana Amerindian girls: sexual exploitation
and domestic servitude near the min-
ing camps and coastal areas. Young
Amerindian men: forced labor condi-
tions in mining and logging camps.
Women and girls to Barbados, Trini-
dad and Tobago, Brazil, Suriname,
and Venezuela: sexual exploitation.
Men and boys to same countries:
labor exploitation in construction and
agriculture.
Women and girls from northern Brazil:
commercial sexual exploitation in the
interior.
Paraguay Adults and children: domestic servi-
tude. Indigenous persons: labor ex-
ploitation. Children from rural to
urban centers: sexual exploitation
and domestic servitude. Underage
males (taxi boys): transgendered
prostitution.
Victims to Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia,
Spain, and Italy. Underage males to
Italy: transgendered prostitution.
Paraguayan and Brazilian women and
girls, and increasingly boys in the
Brazil-Paraguay-Argentina triborder
area: sexual exploitation.
(Continued)
2
0
5
South America (Continued )
Peru Women and children: commercial
sexual exploitation. Children and
adults: forced labor as domestic serv-
ants and in mining, logging, agricul-
ture, shing, and brick-making
sectors. Child sex tourism in the
Amazon region.
Peruvians to Ecuador, Spain, Japan,
Italy, and the United States: sexual
exploitation.
Suriname Girls and boys: sexual exploitation
near gold mines.
Girls and women from Guyana, Bra-
zil, the Dominican Republic, Colom-
bia: commercial sexual exploitation.
Chinese men: debt bondage and
forced labor in supermarkets and the
construction sector. Chinese women:
sexual exploitation. Haitian migrants:
forced labor in agriculture.
Uruguay Women, girls, and boys to border
and tourist areas: sexual exploitation.
Children: domestic and agriculture
servitude in rural areas.
Women to Spain and Italy: sexual
exploitation.
Venezuela Women and girls from poor regions
in the interior to urban and tourist
areas: labor or sexual exploitation.
Children: prostitution and child sex
tourism.
Women and girls to Western Europe
and Mexico and to Caribbean desti-
nations such as Trinidad and Tobago,
Aruba, and the Dominican Republic:
Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, the
Dominican Republic, and the Peo-
ples Republic of China: commercial
2
0
6
MIDDLE EAST (WESTERN ASIA)
Bahrain Men and women from India, Pakistan,
Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Indone-
sia, Thailand, the Philippines, Ethiopia,
and Eritrea. Women from Thailand,
Morocco, Eastern Europe, and Central
Asia: commercial sexual exploitation.
Cyprus Women fromthe Philippines, Russia,
Moldova, Hungary, Ukraine, Greece,
Vietnam, Uzbekistan, the Dominican
Republic, Colombia, Romania, Belarus,
Bulgaria, and the United Kingdom:
Iran, Islamic
Republic of
Women: forced prostitution and
forced marriages. Children: forced
tation and involuntary servitude as
Women and girls to Pakistan, Tur-
key, Qatar, Kuwait, the United Arab
Emirates, France, Germany, and the
exploitation.
Children from Afghanistan: forced
tation, and involuntary servitude as
Iraq Girls: commercial sexual exploita-
tion. Young boys: criminal gangs.
Women: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Women to Syria, Jordan, Kuwait,
Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Turkey,
and Iran: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Men and women from Georgia,
India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Nepal,
Philippines, and Sri Lanka: involun-
tary servitude as construction work-
ers, cleaners, and handymen. Women
from the Philippines and Indonesia:
involuntary servitude as domestic
servants in Kurdish territory.
(Continued)
2
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7
MIDDLE EAST (WESTERN ASIA) (Continued )
Israel Women: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Women to Canada, Ireland, and
England.
Workers from China, Romania,
Jordan, Turkey, Thailand, the Philip-
pines, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and India:
debt bondage and exploitation in the
construction, agriculture, and health
care industries. Women from Russia,
Ukraine, Moldova, Uzbekistan,
Belarus, China, and the Philippines:
sexual exploitation. African asylum
seekers also vulnerable: forced labor
or prostitution.
Jordan Women and men from South and
Southeast Asia: forced labor. Women
from Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indone-
sia, and the Philippines: forced labor
as domestic servants. Men and women
from China, Bangladesh, India, Sri
Lanka, and Vietnam: forced labor in
several factories.
Kuwait Men and women from Bangladesh,
India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Indonesia, and the Philippines:
domestic servants or low-skilled
laborers. Women: commercial sexual
exploitation.
2
0
8
Lebanon Children: commercial sexual exploi-
tation and forced labor in the metal
works, construction, and agriculture
sectors.
Asian and African women: domestic
servitude. Eastern European and
Syrian women: commercial sexual
exploitation. Women from Sri Lanka,
the Philippines, and Ethiopia: forced
labor.
Oman Men and women from India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
the Philippines, and Indonesia:
involuntary servitude as domestic
servants or low-skilled workers.
Women from China, India, the
Philippines, Morocco, and Eastern
exploitation.
Qatar Men and women from India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, the
Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam,
Sri Lanka, Ethiopia, Sudan,
Thailand, Egypt, Syria, Jordan,
and China: involuntary servitude as
laborers and domestic servants.
Women from China, Indonesia,
the Philippines, Morocco, Sri
Lanka, Lebanon, India, Africa,
and Eastern Europe:
prostitution.
(Continued)
2
0
9
MIDDLE EAST (WESTERN ASIA) (Continued )
Saudi Arabia Men and women from Bangladesh,
India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Pakistan, the
Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam,
Kenya, Nigeria, and Ethiopia: invol-
untary servitude as domestic servants
or other low-skilled laborers. Women
from Yemen, Morocco, Pakistan,
Nigeria, Ethiopia, Tajikistan, and
Thailand: comercial sexual exploita-
tion. Children from Nigeria, Yemen,
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Chad, and
Sudan: involuntary servitude as
forced beggars and street vendors.
Syrian Arab
Republic
(Syria)
Iraqi refugee women and children:
Women from Somalia and Eastern
Europe: commercial sexual exploita-
tion. Women from Indonesia, Sri
Lanka, the Philippines, Ethiopia, and
Sierra Leone: involuntary servitude
as domestic servants.
Turkey Women and girls from Moldova,
Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Bulgaria,
Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbeki-
stan, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Roma-
nia: sexual exploitation. Men from
Turkmenistan: forced labor.
2
1
0
United Arab
Emirates
Women from India, Sri Lanka,
Bangladesh, Indonesia, Ethiopia,
Eritrea, and the Philippines: involun-
tary servitude as domestic servants.
Men from India, Sri Lanka, Bangla-
desh, and Pakistan: coercive labor
and debt bondage in the construction
industry. Women from Uzbekistan,
Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine, Russia,
Kazakhstan, Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Uganda,
India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, China,
the Philippines, Iraq, Iran, and Mo-
rocco: commercial sexual exploitation.
Yemen,
Republic of
Children, mostly boys: forced beg-
ging, forced unskilled labor, forced
street vending. Women and girls:
Children across northern border into
Saudi Arabia: forced begging.
Women and girls to Saudi Arabia:
commercial sexual exploitation
Women from Ethiopia, Eritrea,
Somalia, and the Philippines to
Yemen.
NORTH AMERICA
Canada Girls and women, many of whom are
aboriginal : commercial sexual
exploitation.
Women and children primarily from
Asia (Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia,
Vietnam, and the Republic of Korea),
Eastern Europe (Russia and Ukraine),
Africa, and Latin America: sexual
exploitation.
(Continued)
2
1
1
United States
of America
American citizens and legal resi-
dents: sexual servitude and forced
labor.
Men, women, and children from East
Asia, Mexico, and Central America:
sexual and labor exploitation, invol-
untary servitude or debt bondage.
OCEANIA
Australia and New Zealand
Australia Women from Southeast Asia, the
Republic of Korea, Taiwan (China),
and the Peoples Republic of China:
commercial sexual exploitation. Men
and women from India, the Peoples
Republic of China, the Republic of
Korea, the Philippines, and Ireland:
forced labor.
New Zealand Minors: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Women from Malaysia, Hong Kong
(China), the Peoples Republic of
China, and other countries in Asia:
North America (Continued )
2
1
2
Melanesia
Fiji Children: commercial sexual
exploitation.
of China and India: forced labor and
Papua New
Guinea
Women and children: sexual exploi-
tation and involuntary domestic ser-
vitude. Women: sold as brides.
Children: indentured servitude to pay
family debt.
Women and children from Malaysia,
the Philippines, Thailand, and the
Peoples Republic of China:
Solomon
Islands*
Girls and women: commercial sexual
exploitation. Child sex tourism.
Women from Southeast Asian coun-
tries (Indonesia, the Peoples Repub-
lic of China, the Philippines, and
Malaysia): commercial sexual
exploitation.
Micronesia
Kiribati* Girls: commercial sexual
exploitation.
Palau* Women from the Philippines and the
Peoples Republic of China: com-
mercial sexual exploitation in kar-
aoke bars. Men and women from the
Philippines, the Peoples Republic of
China, and Bangladesh: involuntary
servitude as domestics, in agriculture,
or in construction.
2
1
3
Appendix 3
Human Trafcking Indicators
1
Children or adults who have been trafcked into various markets of exploita-
tion exhibit a variety of characteristics.
GENERAL INDICATORS
General indicators include the following:
Have acted on the basis of false promises
Believe that they must work against their will
Be unable to leave their work environment
Show signs that their movements are being controlled
Feel that they cannot leave their situation
Show fear or anxiety
Be subjected to violence or threats of violence against themselves or
against their family members or loved ones
Suffer injuries or impairments typical of certain jobs or control measures
Be distrustful of the authorities
Be threatened with being handed over to the authorities
Be afraid of revealing their immigration status
Have false identity or travel documents
Not be in possession of their passport other travel or identity documents,
as those documents are held by someone else
Be found in or connected to a type of location likely to be used for
exploiting people
Be unfamiliar with the local language
Not know their home or work address
Allow others to speak for them when addressed directly
Act as if they were instructed by someone else
Be forced to work under certain conditions
1
These human trafcking indicators were described in the brochure Human Trafcking Indicators
produced by the United Nations Ofce on Drugs and Crime and distributed at the UN.GIFT Con-
ference, February, 1315, 2008.
Be disciplined through punishment
Be unable to negotiate working conditions
Receive little or no earnings
Have no access to their earnings
Work excessively long hours over long periods
Not have any days off
Live in poor or substandard accommodations
Have no access to medical care
Have limited or no social interaction
Have limited contact with their families or with people outside of their
immediate environment
Be unable to communicate freely with others
Be under the perception that they are bonded by debt
Be in a situation of dependence
Come from a place known to be a source of human trafcking
Have had the fees for their transport to the country of destination paid for
by facilitators, whom they must pay back by working or providing ser-
vices in the destination
CHILDREN
Children may exhibit the following:
Have no access to their parents or guardians
Look intimidated and behave in a way that does not correspond with
behavior typical of children their age
Have no friends of their own age outside of work
Have no access to education
Have no time for playing
Live apart from other children in the family and in substandard accommo-
dations
Eat apart from the other members of the family
Be given only leftovers to eat
Be engaged in work that is not suitable for children
Travel unaccompanied by adults
Travel in groups with persons who are not their relatives
The following may also indicate that children have been trafcked:
The presence of child-sized clothing typically worn for doing manual or
sex work
The presence of toys, beds, and childrens clothing in inappropriate places
such as brothels and factories
The claim made by an adult that he or she has found an unaccompanied child
216 APPENDIX 3
The nding of unaccompanied children carrying telephone numbers for
calling taxis
The discovery of cases involving illegal adoption
DOMESTIC SERVITUDE
Adults and children forced into domestic servitude may exhibit the following:
Live with a family not their own
Not eat with the rest of the family
Have no private space or sleep in a shared or inappropriate space
Be reported missing by their employer even though they are still living in
their employers house
Never or rarely leave the house for social reasons
Never leave the house without their employer
Be subjected to insults, abuse, threats, or violence
SEXUAL EXPLOITATION
Children or adults who are being sexually exploited may exhibit the following:
Be of any age, although the age may vary according to the location and
the market
Move from one brothel to the next or work in various locations
Be escorted whenever they go to and return from work and other outside
activities
Have tattoos or other marks indicating ownership by their exploiters
Work long hours or have few if any days off
Sleep where they work
Live or travel in a group, sometimes with other women who do not speak
the same language
Have very few items of clothing
Have clothes that are mostly the kind typically worn for doing sex work
Only know how to say sex-related words in the local language or in the
language of the client group
Have no cash of their own
Be unable to show an identity document
Do not smile
The following may also indicate sexual exploitation:
Evidence that suspected victims can not refuse or have had unprotected
and/or violent sex
APPENDIX 3 217
Evidence that victim or groups of women or children are under the control
of others
Evidence that a person has been bought and sold
Advertisements for brothels or similar places offering the services of
women of a particular ethnicity or nationality
LABOR EXPLOITATION
Children or adults who are being exploited for their labor may exhibit the
following:
Live in groups in the same place where they work and leave those prem-
ises infrequently, if at all
Live in degraded, unsuitable places, such as in agriculture or industrial
buildings
May not be dressed adequately for the work they do: they may lack pro-
tective equipment or warm clothing
Have no access to their earnings
Have no labor contract
Work excessively long hours
Multiple dependency on their employer for number of services, including
work, transportation, and accommodation
Have no choice of accommodation
Never leave the premises without their employer
Are unable to move freely
Be subject to security measures designed to keep them on the work
premises
Be disciplined through nes
Be subjected to insults, abuse, threats, or violence
Lack basic training
The following may also indicate labor exploitation:
Evidence that workers must pay for tools, food, or accommodation or that
those (unreasonable) costs are being deducted from their wages
Evidence that equipment has been designed or modied so that it can be
operated by children
The employer is unable to show documents required for employing work-
ers (from other countries) or records of wages paid
Lack of health and safety notices, and evidence that labor laws are being
breached
218 APPENDIX 3
BEGGING AND PETTY CRIME
Children or adults who are trafcked for begging or petty crime may exhibit
the following:
Be children, elderly persons, or disabled migrants who tend to be in public
places and on public transport
Be children carrying or selling illicit drugs
Have physical impairments that appear to be the result of mutilation
Be children of the same nationality or ethnicity who move in large groups
with only a few adults
Be unaccompanied minors who have been found by an adult of the
same nationality or ethnicity
Participate in the activities of organized criminal gangs
Be part of large groups of children who have the same adult guardian
Be punished if they do not collect or steal enough
Live with members of their gang or with adults who are not their parents
or family
Travel with members of their gang to the country of destination
Move daily in large groups and over considerable distances
The following might also indicate that people have been trafcked for
begging or for committing petty crimes:
New forms of gang-related crime appear
Evidence that the group of suspected victims has moved over a period of
time, through a number of countries
Evidence that suspected victims have been involved in begging or in com-
mitting petty crimes in another country
APPENDIX 3 219
Notes
Preface
1. Miller, J. R. On-the-Record Brieng by Ambassador John R. Miller, Ambassa-
dor-at-Large on International Slavery, on Release of the Sixth Annual Trafcking in
Persons Report, U. S. Department of State (2006). http://www.state.gov/r/prs/ps/2006/
67559.htm.
2. U.S. Department of State (2008a).
Chapter 1
1. United Nations (2000a).
2. United Nations (2000a).
3. Kovalev (2007).
4. Kelly and Regan (2000); Aronowitz (2001).
5. Ojomo (1999).
6. The interview was held with Anna Yakovleva, a representative of a St. Peters-
burg human rights organization, Stellit, and reported in Kovalev (2007).
7. Weissbrodt and Anti-Slavery International (2002).
8. ILO (2002a, 5).
9. United Nations (2000b).
10. Adnkronosinternational (2006).
11. Wynter (2006).
12. Morgan, Marcus (2007).
13. CNN International (2007b).
14. Rodriguez (2006).
15. All Africa (2006).
16. The victim reports that the group included young Nigerian boys and girls. It is
unclear whether the boys were also being trafcked or whether the criminals were
using the same routes to trafc some and smuggle other persons.
17. Aronowitz (2001).
18. Aronowitz (2003b).
19. Free the Slaves (2005), citing, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
(2003) and Asian Development Bank, Combating Trafcking in Women and Children in
South Asia: India Country Paper (New Delhi) (Asian Development Bank, July 2002).
20. The problem of internal trafcking is discussed in the following reports: Aro-
nowitz (2006); UNICEF (2003); Innocenti Research Centre/UNICEF (2003, 21).
21. BNRM (2002).
22. Information provided to the author during an interview with IOM Director Mr.
Mauricio Busetti and Deputy Director Ms. Anita Santiago, Tirana, Albania, January
30, 2003.
23. Aronowitz (2003a).
24. Europol (2000).
25. Aronowitz and Peruffo (2003).
27. Okojie et al. (2003, 63).
28. Anderson and OConnel Davidson (2002, 16).
29. Anti-Slavery International (2003); Heyzer (2002).
30. Anti-Slavery International (2003).
31. Gunnatilleke (1996).
33. According to the United Nations, another 1.6 million people have been dis-
placed within Iraq (Walt 2007).
34. Bales (1999a).
35. Bales (1999a).
36. IOM (2000).
37. IOM (2000) links this to use of the local knowledge, key locations, or weak-
nesses in border or migration control, whereas Kelly and Regan (2000) relate this to
the ease in crossing borders.
38. Kelly and Regan (2000).
39. Okojie et al. (2003, 49).
Chapter 2
1. Sections of this chapter correspond to a study prepared for and owned by the
United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (see Aronowitz 2005). The
United Nations has authorized the publication of portions of that study in this book.
2. International Human Rights Law Institute (2002, 6).
3. Dutch women forced into prostitution in the Netherlands are considered victims
of human trafcking and statistics on this group of victims is included in the rapports of
the Dutch National Rapporteur (BNRM, Bureau National Rapporteur Mensenhandel).
4. In July 2003, Nigeria enacted the Trafcking in Persons (Prohibition) Law
Enforcement and Administration Act, making the offense of trafcking in persons a
federal crime. Research conducted in Nigeria within the framework of the United
222 NOTES
Nations Ofce on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) project Measures to combat trafcking
in human beings in Benin, Nigeria and Togo found that one year after the passage of
the law, not one single case of trafcking had been prosecuted under this new law
(Okojie et al. 2003).
5. BNRM (2003).
6. Limanowska (2002).
9. U.S. Department of State (2004, 23).
10. Estimates broken down by geographic region provide the following picture:
3,500 to 5,500 trafcked victims from Europe and Eurasia; 3,500 to 5,500 from Latin
America; 5,000 to 7,000 from East Asia and the Pacic; 200 to 700 from Africa; 200
to 600 from South Asia; 0 to 200 from the Near East (U.S. Mission to the European
Union 2005).
11. Webber and Shirk (2005).
12. Free the Slaves and Human Rights Center (2004).
13. For a description of how these estimates were derived, see the ILO (2005).
14. Forced labor, as different from trafcking, may be perpetrated by the state (as
was the case in Chinese and Russian labor camps). Vulnerable groups such as caste
and tribal minorities in Asia, or indigenous people from Latin America are also at risk
of becoming victims of forced labor (ILO 2005).
15. More on the UNESCO Trafcking Statistics Project can be found at their
Web site http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=1022.
16. Organizations that provide information on trafcked victims and included in
UNESCOs data comparison sheet include the United Nations, UNIFEM, UNICEF,
UNDCP, IOM, the U.S. government, USAID, the FBI, the Protection Project, South
East Asian Womens Conference, and Terre des Hommes. A comparison sheet with
estimates from these various organizations can be downloaded from the UNESCO
Web site at http://www.unescobkk.org/leadmin/user_upload/culture/Trafcking/project/
Graph_Worldwide_Sept_2004.pdf.
17. Makkai (2003).
18. Lehti (2003); Makkai (2003).
19. Lehti (2003).
20. Joint Committee on Human Rights (2006, 29).
21. Polaris Project (2003).
22. Kelly and Regan (2000).
23. Hughes (2002, 7).
24. Lehti and Aromaa (2007).
25. Makkai (2003).
26. UNESCO (2003).
27. Both of these conicting gures can be found in Gupta (n.d.) and Hughes
et al. (1999).
29. The United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafcking in
Persons, Especially Women and Children (2000a), does not require that the exploita-
tion take place but that the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring, or reception
of persons occurs (by means of threat or use of force, coercion, abduction, fraud,
NOTES 223
deception, abuse of power or vulnerability, or giving payments or benets to a person
in control of the victim) for the purpose of exploitation.
30. Nigeria Immigration Service (2004).
31. UNICEF (2003, 19).
32. Netwerk (2005).
34. The T-visa is provided to victims of severe forms of trafcking, allowing them
to remain in the United States. To quality for a T-visa, a victim must meet the follow-
ing criteria (1) be physically present in the United States; (2) have complied with any
reasonable request for assistance to ofcials in the investigation or prosecution of acts
of trafcking (at a minimum, the victim must either report the crime or respond to
inquiries made by investigators or prosecutors), or be under the age of 18; and (3) be
likely to suffer extreme hardship involving unusual and severe harm upon removal.
Webber and Shirk (2005, 8) report that [t]he large discrepancy between the number
of trafcking victims estimated to be present in the United States and the total number
of victims receiving protection under the TVPA is the result of several factors: (1) the
imperfect nature of trafcking estimates; (2) misidentication of victims by law
enforcement ; (3) the conditional nature of victim protections; and (4) overly restrictive
eligibility requirements for the T-visa. For a further discussion on the restrictions of
the T-visa, see Wetmore (2002).
35. The Bundeskriminalamt registered 775 victims in 2006 and 642 in 2005
(BKA 2008).
36. BKA (2004).
37. BNRM (2005). In the Rapporteurs latest report from 2008, the NGO Comen-
sha (the former Foundation against Trafcking in Women) reported 579 (suspected)
victims of trafcking (BNRM 2008).
Chapter 3
1. Anti-Slavery International (2003).
2. Webber and Shirk (2005, 4).[0]
3. Omelaniuk (2005).
4. Omelaniuk (2005); Limanowska (2002, 2005).
5. Dottridge (2002).
6. Dottridge (2002); IOM (2005a).
7. Salt (2000, 35).
8. Escaler (1998, 16).
9. Savona et al. (1995).
10. Transnational Criminal Organizations are dened as those that have a home
base in one state but that operate in one or more host states where there are favorable
market opportunities. The term was coined by Phil Williams (cited in Savona et al.
1995).
12. ONeill Richard (1999).
14. Heyzer (2002).
15. Anderson and OConnel Davidson (2002, 41).
16. Newman (2006, 16).
224 NOTES
17. Goward (2003).
18. Heyzer (2002).
19. Heyzer (2002).
20. Shelley (2006).
21. A report on slavery in the twenty-rst century in the United Kingdom claims
that the U.K. government has tended to address trafcking as an issue of migration
control rather than one of human rights (Craig et al. 2007).
22. Europol (2001).
23. Shelley (2006).
24. See the following reports for more information on the types of crimes into
which trafckers force their victims: Europol (2001); Gunnatilleke (1996); ONeill
Richard (1999); Kendall (1999).
26. See the following reports for the link between human trafcking and other
criminal activities: Savona et al. (1995); Jantsch (1998): Kendall (1999).
28. These include but are not limited to the 1949 U.N. Convention for the Sup-
pression of the Trafc in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others;
The Supplemental Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Insti-
tutions and Practices Similar to Slavery; the ILO Convention 182 Concerning Prohibi-
tion and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour
and the ILO Convention 29 Concerning Forced Labour.
29. Gallagher (2001, 1004).
31. Heyzer (2002, 11).
32. United Nations General Assembly. 1948. The Universal Declaration of Human
Rights. http://www.un.org/overview/rights.html.
33. Descent slavery refers to the form of slavery into which people are born
because they belong to a group discriminated against by their society. The rights of
these persons are ignored and they are treated as property. Department for International
Development (2006).
34. Craig et al. (2007).
35. Bales and Robbins (2001). See also Bales (2004).
36. Bales and Lize (2005, 10).
38. Farrior (1997).
39. Bales (1999b, 102).
Chapter 4
1. The stories of these victims were reported in different sources. For more detail,
see Akofa (2001): U.S. Department of State (2006a): Zakaryan (2007); Pattaya Daily
News (2007); Mayoyo (2007).
3. Prostitution is not an illegal activity in all countries. In the Netherlands, for
example, prostitution by adult women, if voluntary, is not an offense. It is, however, a
criminal offense to live off of the proceeds of a prostitute, thus pimping is illegal.
4. Ateneo Human Rights Center (1999); Ould (1999).
NOTES 225
5. ONeill Richard (1999, 3).
6. Ruggiero (1996, 1997).
7. See Aronowitz (2001) citing Ould (1999).
8. Espino (2006).
9. FBI (2004).
10. Information obtained from an article in the Italian newspaper La Stampa, Sep-
tember 22, 1994 (cited in Ruggiero 1996, 1997).
11. Business Week (2000).
12. American Civil Liberties Union (2007).
13. The Calimlims were convicted by a Milwaukee federal jury of forced labor,
sentenced to four years in prison, and ordered to pay the victim $900,000 in restitution
(see United States v. Calimlim (Wisconsin), cited in U.S. Department of Justice
2007b).
14. Based on the dialect that the child spoke, the police suspected that she came
from Benin and the child was turned over to personnel at the Embassy of Benin for
assistance. Interviews with the child took place at the Embassy of Benin in Lagos,
Nigeria, November 2000.
15. Ruggiero (1996).
16. Pomodoro and Stefanizzi (1996).
17. U.S Department of State (2005).
19. Makkai (2003).
20. Ann Jordan, the director of the Initiative Against Trafcking in Persons, Inter-
national Human Rights Law Group, and currently Initiative Against Trafcking in Per-
sons, Global Rights, in an e-mail to Stop Trafc listserv, May 2003.
21. UNODC (2006a).
22. The data contained in the U.N. Trafcking database were generated largely
from reports produced by different organizations (intergovernmental, NGO, govern-
mental, and research institutes) in different parts of the world. The report registers a
country as a source, transit, or destination if it is mentioned in one of the reports
included in the database. Certain areas of the world (Latin America, the Caribbean,
and the Commonwealth of Independent States are underrepresented). For more on
the data contained in the report, the analysis, and ndings, see UNODC (2006a,
2006b).
23. UNODC (2006a, 2006b).
24. Most of the cases in the database were referrals to IOM by NGOs, law
enforcement agencies, embassies, and international organizations.
26. UNODC (2006a, 2006b).
27. Lagon (2007).
28. Portions of this section correspond to a study prepared for and owned by
the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (see Aronowitz 2005).
The United Nations has authorized the publication of portions of that study in this
book.
29. ILO-IPEC (2003).
30. UNDP (n.d.), Trafcking.
31. Innocenti Research Centre (2003).
226 NOTES
32. ILO (2005).
33. UNDP (n.d.), Trafcking.
34. Okojie et al. (2003); ILO-IPEC (2003); Djisseanou (2003).
35. Heinrich (2007)
36. The study by Girls Power Initiative (2002), an NGO operating in Edo State,
was cited in Okojie (2003, 14).
38. Save the Children (2005).
39. This may be due to the fact that stories abound of children succumbing to
thirst or drowning on long and unsafe voyages to foreign countries. Children being
sent to live or work in a city within their own country are subjected less frequently to
these dangers (Aronowitz 2006).
40. Aronowitz and Peruffo (2003).
41. Akofa (2001).
42. ILO-IPEC (2007).
43. Balch (2006).
44. ILO-IPEC (2007).
45. U.S. Department of State (2008a). In Nigeria, for example, young boys from
the age of ve or six may be entrusted by their families to serve a religious leader, or
marabout. In addition to performing various household tasks, the child is often, as part
of the learning process, forced to beg (Anti-Slavery International 1994).
46. ILO-IPEC (2007).
47. UNICEF (n.d.), Factsheet : Child Trafcking.
48. Surtees (2006).
49. ILO-IPEC (2007).
50. Pattaya Daily News (2007).
51. ILO-IPEC (2007).
52. RTL Nieuws (2007).
53. UNICEF (n.d.), Trafcking Violates the Entire Spectrum of Childrens
Rights.
54. For a description of the dangers to which these children are exposed, see U.S.
Department of State (2005). On May 8, 2005 the United Arab Emirates, in partnership
with UNICEF, established a program to identify child camel jockeys, compensate them
nancially for their work, repatriate them to their countries of origin at the govern-
ments expense, and provide programs for their training and education (see UAE-UNI-
CEF Program 2008).
55. This was told to the author by NGOs working with trafcked child victims in
Togo, Benin, and Nigeria during visits to these countries in September and November
2000.
Rights.
57. U.S. Department of State (2006a, 15).
Rights.
60. Limanowska (2002); International Human Rights Law Institute (2002).
61. Wijers and Lap-Chew (1999).
NOTES 227
62. International Human Rights Law Institute (2002, 40).
63. Vocks and Nijboer (1999, 2000).
64. Because of the large number of victims repatriated to Benin City and the in-
tensive prevention campaigns in the city and nearby areas, it is said to be highly
unlikely that victims are unaware of the work they will be performing when traveling
abroad. This information was provided to the author during a visit to Benin City, Nige-
ria, November 2003. Transcrime also reports that many Nigerian victims trafcked to
Italy know beforehand that they will be working in prostitution but are unaware of the
conditions to which they will be subjected.
65. Mayoyo (2007).
66. Savona et al. (2003, 168).
67. IOM (2007c).
71. CNN International (2007a).
72. These projects are being funded by the U.S. Department of State (U.S. Depart-
ment of Justice 2008a).
73. U.S. Department of Justice (2008a).
74. The Trans Bay Steel Corp. of Napa settled for $1.4 million dollars and Satha-
porn Pornsrisirisak, and a number of other men, were allowed to remain and work in
the U.S. (Napa Valley Register 2006).
75. Baskakova, Tiurukanova, and Abdurazakova (2005).
76. The Nation (2007).
77. Galnor (2007).
78. United States v. Baicu and Baicu (New York), reported in U.S. Department of
Justice (2008a).
80. OSCE (2006).
82. Information provided to the author during trafcking assessments to Nigeria in
November 2000 and 2003.
83. UNDP (n.d.), Trafcking and HIV/AIDS.
84. Personal communication with Ms. Talens and Mr. Murat, June 2, 2007.
85. IOM (n.d.), Human Trafcking in Persons: Moldova.
86. CBC News (2006).
87. AMFAR (n.d.).
88. Zimmerman (2003).
89. At the end of 2005, an estimated 24.5 million people were living with HIV
and approximately 2.7 million additional people were infected with HIV during that
year. In 2006, the AIDS epidemic in Africa claimed the lives of an estimated 2 million
people (UNAIDS 2006).
90. This is also supported by UNIFEM studies in Zimbabwe that show that girls
are increasingly pulled out of school to take on the burden of health care resulting
in a decrease in school enrollment of girls. Of the children removed from school, 70
percent were female children (Fokus n.d.).
91. Djisseanou (2003).
228 NOTES
92. McDonald and Timoshkina (2007).
93. Navis (2008).
94. Brunovskis and Surtees (2007).
Chapter 5
1. BKA (2007, 2008).
2. BNRM (2007).
3. Surtees (2008).
4. Maxwell and Skelly (2006).
5. IOM (2004); Europol (2007).
6. Surtees (2008).
7. Tomiuc (2008).
8. Undercover lm and interview with Chris Rogers on CNN International, aired on 31
January 2008. The video clips can be accessed at http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/world/
2008/01/30/rogers.czech.sex.trafcking.part3.itn.itn?iref=24hours and http://edition.cnn.com/
video/#/video/world/2008/01/30/rogers.czech.sex.trafcking.part3.itn.itn?iref=24hours
9. (USICE 2007a).
10. Kouri (2007); U.S. Department of Justice (2007c); Krikorian (2007).
11. This is particularly true in Italy.
12. See Okojie et al. (2003); Aronowitz and Peruffo (2003).
13. Siegel (2007).
14. BNRM (2008).
15. Kangaspunta (2008).
16. BNRM (2008).
17. BKA (2008).
18. Kangaspunta (2008).
20. This was found in a study conducted by the Albanian Ministry of Public
Order (2003) and cited in Aronowitz (2004).
21. Interview with staff at the Swiss NGO Terre des Hommes, Elbasan, Albania,
February 2003 (Aronowitz 2003b).
22. U.S. Department of State (2005).
23. Aronowitz (2003, a and b).
24. The author of this paper was a member of the delegation. This information
was also provided to Okojie et al. (2003) who carried out research in Nigeria on traf-
cking of women to Italy and other destinations.
25. Aronowitz (2003, a and b).
26. Aronowitz (2005). Stories of children drowning while en route to a destina-
tion country have also been documented by Human Rights Watch. The organization
documented a boat trip from Nigeria to Gabon in which nine Togolese girls drowned
off the coast of Cameroon when their boat capsized. According to a Nigerian newspa-
per, This Day, about 20 percent of children bound for Gabon from Nigeria die in open
seas due to boat mishaps, about 150 children in the year 2001 alone (Human Rights
Watch 2003).
27. Okojie et al. (2003).
NOTES 229
28. The U. S. dollar uctuates against other currencies. Where the original cur-
rency was reported, that is the amount given in the text.
29. Van Dongen (2007a).
30. Police and Italian NGOs in a study of Nigerian women trafcked into Italy
reported that women incur debts ranging from US $50,000 to $60,000 (Aronowitz
2006).
31. Savona et al. (2003, 168).
32. Savona et al. (2003, 168).
33. U.S. Department of State (2006c).
34. Russel (2008).
35. Human Rights Watch (1995, 1).
36. See Karr (2005) who reports on studies conducted by the IOM on women
trafcked from Tajikistan and another on women trafcked from Kosovar as well as a
study by the Coalition Against Trafcking in Women (CATW) of women trafcked to
the United States.
37. Spector (1998).
38. Fidler (1998).
39. Van Dongen (2007a, 2007b). The names Halit and Nejat are ctitious names
used by the newspaper to protect the privacy of the suspects who are identied by the
Public Prosecution Department in press reports as Hasan and Saban B.
40. Van Dongen (2007b).
41. Bovenkerk and Pronk (2007); BNRM (2004).
42. Kristof (2008).
43. Okojie et al. (2003); Aghatise (2005); Skogseth (2006).
44. Aghatise (2005). This may also be an indication of the fact that women are
working as freelance prostitutes rather than as trafcked victims.
45. Surtees (2007a).
46. IOM (2004).
47. Kleemans et al. (1998).
49. Tully (2008).
50. Geest (2007).
51. Undercover lm and interview with Chris Rogers on CNN International,
aired on January 31, 2008. The video clips can be accessed at http://edition.cnn.com/
52. The women were not interviewed; this information was obtained by other
women who were interviewed for the study (Aronowitz 2003b).
54. Council of Europe (2002).
55. Human Rights Watch (2002).
56. Ibid.
57. Radio Free Europe (2006).
58. Aronowitz (2003b), citing Wong and Saat (2002), Coalitions against Traf-
cking in Human Beings in the Philippines: Country Report on Malaysia/Sabah, Uni-
versiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bangi, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, unpublished report
submitted to the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute,
2002.
230 NOTES
60. Van Dongen (2007c); Openbaar Ministerie (2007).
61. These gures are fairly consistent for studies ranging from exploited Mexican
women involved with the Cadena family who were forced to provide sexual services
to 25 to 30 men per night ; Eastern European women forced to have sex with 20 to 30
customers a day in London; Ukrainian women trafcked to Brussels and forced to
have sex with 20 men a day; trafcked women in Tel Aviv reporting having to have
sex with 15 men a day; and studies on Cambodian brothels in which women report
having sex with as many as 15 customers a day (see Karr 2005, 36).
62. Undercover lm and interview with Chris Rogers on CNN International,
aired on January 31, 2008. The video clips can be accessed at http://edition.cnn.com/
and http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/world/2008/01/30/rogers.czech.sex.trafcking.
part3.itn.itn?iref=24hours
63. Pallister (2006); Maxwell and Skelly (2006).
64. Pallister (2006).
65. EITB (2007).
66. Van Dongen (2007a).
67. Tully (2008).
68. Europol (2005).
69. Prots were calculated by taking the total economic value-added minus total
wage payments.
70. Belser (2005).
71. One of the cases mentioned in the ILO report dated back to 1998. If ination
and increased earnings are taken into account, this gure would be higher. For more
see Belser (2005).
72. A group of Pakistanis who had been smuggled from Pakistan via Turkey to
Cairo were joined by a larger group of Sri Lankans. After boarding a ship in Alexan-
dria and reaching the Malta-Sicily Channel, they were to transfer to a smaller ship
one operated by a legitimate shipping company. The ship, which could carry approxi-
mately 100 passengers oundered and sunk, resulting in the death of almost 300 pas-
sengers (Ruggiero 1997).
73. Ruggiero (1996) reports that Albanians wishing to reside in Italy are offered
a package that includes transport and illegal entry into Italy as well as a variety of
job opportunities.
74. Staring et al. (2004); CNN International (2001).
75. Iselin (2003, 5).
76. Vocks and Nijboer (1999).
77. Scholoenhardt (1999).
78. CrimProf Blog (2007).
80. Sentence is pending. The defendant faces a maximum sentence of up to 20
years in prison, a $250,000 ne, and restitution payments (U.S. Department of Justice
2006c).
83. Adamoli et al. (1998); Schloenhardt (1999).
NOTES 231
84. BNRM (2004).
85. Bajrektarevic (2000a, 2000b).
86. Bajrektarevic (2000a, 2000b).
87. Aronowitz (2001); Europol (2007); Schloenhardt (1999).
88. Reporter Chris Rogers identies another function that he calls the gate-
keeper. This individual is responsible for checking the legitimacy of an organization
wishing to do business with the gang selling women. Undercover lm and interview
with Chris Rogers on CNN International, aired on January 31, 2008. The video clips
can be accessed at http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/world/2008/01/30/rogers.czech.
sex.trafcking.part3.itn.itn?iref=24hours
89. Sipaviciene (2000), cited in IOM (2000).
90. Europol (2001).
91. Centre for Equal Opportunity and Opposition to Racism (2005).
92. Van Dongen (2007b).
93. Case 10b describes the organized criminal network involved in human traf-
cking to the Netherlands. For more cases, see Kleemans et al. (1998).
94. Staats courant (2000).
95. Kleemans et al. (2002).
96. Council of Europe (2005, 18). The United Nations Convention Against
Transnational Organized Crime entered into force in September 2003. As of January
2008, 138 member states were parties to the Convention; 147 were signatories. For
more information on the Convention and its Signatories, see the United Nations web-
site at http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CTOC/signatures.html
97. Farr (2005).
98. Glenny (2008).
99. Farr (2005,108,109).
100. Farr (2005) refers to work done on organized criminal groups in Nigeria by
Phil Williams, director of the Center for International Security Studies, University of
Pittsburg.
101. For a more extensive description of the involvement of these organized crime
groups, see chapter 4 in Karr (2005).
102. Staring (2007) refers to DiMaggios study of business organizations.
103. Ibid.
104. Europol (2007).
105. Shelley (2003a) reports that these are ideal types and not every crime group
from a particular region will t a model.
106. Abandoned by smugglers attempting to evade the U.S. Border Patrol, 14
undocumented immigrants died in a remote area of the Arizona desert in 2001 (De-
mocracy Now 2001).
107. Between August 1996 and February 1998, Hugo Cadena-Sosa lured
women and girls from Mexico to Florida promising them good jobs and better lives.
Instead, they were forced into prostitution and held as sexual slaves in brothel
houses in Florida and the Carolinas. The victims were forced to work at the Cade-
nas brothel houses as prostitutes until they paid the Cadena family a $2,000 smug-
gling fee. In some cases, the victims were locked in a room with no windows and
given no money and were threatened with beatings and reprisal attacks against their
families in Mexico. Those who attempted to escape were hunted down, returned to
232 NOTES
the brothels, beaten, and subjected to connement (U.S. Department of Justice
2002).
108. Shelley (2003a), citing Europol (2000), European Union Organised Crime
Situation Report. The report can be downloaded from http://www.europol.eu.int/
index.asp?page=EUOrganisedCrimeSitRep2000.
Chapter 6
2. Countries were examined as source, transit, and origin countries and then
placed on a scale of Very High, High, Medium, Low, and Very Low. Eleven countries
were ranked very high as origin countries (Albania, Belarus, Bulgaria, China, Lithua-
nia, Nigeria, Republic of Moldova, Romania, the Russian Federation, Thailand, and
Ukraine), while 10 ranked very high as destination countries (Belgium, Germany,
Greece, Israel, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Thailand, Turkey, and the United States).
See UNODC (2006a, 2006b).
3. The report proles countries that are origin, transit, or destination countries
determined to have a signicant number of victims of severe forms of trafcking
and places them in Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 2 Watch List, or Tier 3depending upon con-
crete measures governments have taken to ght trafcking. Tier rating is based upon
three criteria: (1) the extent to which the country is a country of origin, transit or
destination for severe forms of trafcking; (2) The extent to which the government of
the country does not comply with the Trafcking Victims Protection Acts minimum
standards including, in particular, the extent of the governments trafcking-related
corruption; and (3) the resources and capabilities of the government to address and
eliminate severe forms of trafcking in persons. (U.S. Department of State (2007,
11). See Appendix 2 of this book and the 2008 report for the most recent descriptions
of the trafcking problem in individual countries.
4. Laczko (2005).
5. This appears to be the case in the Middle East where hundreds of thousands
of migrants work, are abused, and are trafcked. Countries in the region have been
slow to respond to the problem.
7. See UNODC (2006b, appendixes 3 and 4).
8. The United Nations denes Western Asia and Turkey as the region compris-
ing what has been dealt with in this report as the Middle East (UNODC 2006a,
2006b).
9. UNODC (2006, a and b).
10. Human Rights Watch (2003): UNICEF (2001).
11. Innocenti Research Centre/UNICEF (2003).
12. Protection Project (n.d.), Human Rights Report : Nigeria.
15. UNICEF (n.d.), Trafcking Violates the Entire Spectrum of Childrens Rights.
16. ILO (2001b).
NOTES 233
19. UNODC (2008d).
21. Watchlist on Children and Armed Conict (n.d.): United Nations (2005).
22. Watchlist on Children and Armed Conict (2006).
24. UNODC (2008d).
25. UNODC (2008d).
26. Employers seize the girls documents and they are subjected to physical and
sexual abuse (IOM 2002).
27. Surtees (2005).
28. UNODC (2008d, 44), citing studies carried out by UNICEF and the ILO-
IPEC.
29. UNODC (2008d, 44), citing studies by UNICEF and Federation of Kenya
Employers.
30. IOM (2007c).
31. UNICEF (2005).
32. The trafcking is said to be controlled by organized criminal groups from
Bulgaria, China, Nigeria, the Russian Federation, and Thailand (Fitzgibbon 2003), cit-
ing a report by Molo Songolo, Cape Town, South Africa (2000, 1).
33. IOM (2003).
34. UNICEF (2005).
35. Senta (2003), citing a report by UNICEF.
36. Senta (2003), citing IOM, Combating trafcking in South-East Asia (Geneva,
2000).
37. Senta (2003) citing the Congressional Research Service Report : Trafcking
in Women and Children, the US and International Response (U.S. Department of State,
2002b).
39. Senta (2003) citing Mr. Farooq Azam, Chief of Mission/Regional Represen-
tative, IOM Bangkok.
40. UNDP (n.d.).
41. UNODC (2006a, 2006b).
42. Interview with an activist who works with trafcked women in Thailand, in
Tomiuc (2008).
43. UNIAP (n.d.), Human Trafcking in the GMS.
44. Rivers (2007).
45. Rivers (2007).
Rights.
47. Rosenberg (2003).
48. Masud Ali (2005).
49. Senta (2003); UNODC (2008b).
50. UNDP (n.d.), Trafcking: You and Aids.
51. UNODC (2008b).
52. For more information on the girls and women trafcked from Nepal and
Bangladesh, see National Human Rights Commission (2004b).
53. UNODC (2008b).
234 NOTES
Rights.
55. UNODC (2008b), citing Nepal, National Human Rights Commission, Ofce
of National Rapporteur on Trafcking in Women and Children, 2005 National Report :
Trafcking in Person Especially on Women and Children in Nepal (Lalitpur, Nepal,
September 2006), 8.
56. The number of children recruited as child soldiers is thought to be much
higher (Watchlist on Children and Armed Conict 2008).
57. Molina (n.d.).
58. The report by UNODC and UNICRI highlights, in detail, the plight of Filipina
women trafcked to Japan for work in the sex industry (Aronowitz 2003a, 2003b).
59. U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
(2008c).
60. ILO-IPEC (2003).
61. U. S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor
(2008d).
62. CNN International (2007a).
63. UNODC (2006, a and b); Lehti and Aromaa (2007).
64. Baskakova, Tiurukanova, and Abdurazakova (2005, 34).
65. Kovalev (2007).
66. Anti-Slavery International (n.d.), Trafcking in Russia; U.S. Department
of State (2007).
67. Kovalev (2007).
68. Anti-Slavery International (n.d.), Trafcking in Russia; U.S. Department
of State (2007).
70. IOM (n.d.), Human Trafcking in Persons: Moldova.
71. Schepper-Hughes (2004).
72. IOM (2008d).
73. Anti-Slavery International (n.d.), Trafcking in Russia Case Study: Ser-
geys Story.
74. Because of the huge geographic spread of countries formerly categorized as
CIS countries, Moldova and other countries are now frequently included in other geo-
graphic groups. The countries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,
and Uzbekistan are classied by the United Nations as belonging to Central Asia, and
Belarus and Moldova as belonging to Eastern Europe. Limanowska (2002, 2005)
includes Moldova in a study on Southeastern Europe.
75. UNODC (2006a, 2006b).
76. The Western Balkans include the countries of Albania, Bosnia and Herzego-
vina, Croatia, Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia. Bulgaria, Moldova,
Romania, Slovenia, Greece, and Turkey are included in discussions of the Balkan
peninsula.
77. Aronowitz (2005); Lehti and Aromaa (2007).
78. Serious Organised Crime Agency (2006).
79. HEUNI (2003). The report presented by HEUNI used primary data from the
reports of the IOM, STOP, and STOP II research projects (the Stop Programme of the
European Commission funds research projects on trafcking in human beings), reports
NOTES 235
of national and regional research programs, U.S. State Department Human Rights
reports, and national crime and court statistics.
81. Europol (2007).
83. Lehti and Aromaa (2007, 129 and 130). This statement reveals the attitude of
many law enforcement and immigration ofcials in their failure to recognize that
women working as prostitutes in their own countries can be trafcked victims at home
or abroad.
84. UNICEF (n.d.), Child Trafcking: Sexual Exploitation.
89. IOM (2004).
90. For more detail on new travel routes in individual countries in South Eastern
Europe, see Rahmani (2006).
96. The U.S. Department of State (2008a) has placed Austria, Belgium, France,
Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom on Tier 1.
97. Espino (2006); AGI (2006).
98. In Germany, see reports produced by the Federal Criminal Police Ofce
(BKA); in the Netherlands, see reports produced by the Bureau of the National Rap-
porteur on Trafcking in Human Beings (BNRM).
101. Human Rights Without Frontiers International (2008).
103. BKA (2007, 2008).
104. United Kingdom Human Trafcking Centre (2007).
105. BNRM (2008).
106. United Kingdom Human Trafcking Centre (2007); U.S. Department of
State (2007).
108. IADB (2006); Ribando (2007).
109. ILO (2005).
110. Coffey (2004).
111. UNODC (2008c).
112. Coffey (2004).
113. UNODC (2006a).
115. International Human Rights Law Institute (2002).
116. Coffey (2004).
236 NOTES
Rights.
118. Phinney (2001) citing Calcetas-Santos, Report on the mission to Guatemala.
Report of the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child
pornography (United Nations Commission on Human Rights, E/CN.4/ 2000/73/Add.2,
2000) and Dimenstein, Meninas da Noite: a Prostituic~ao de Meninas-escrivas no Bra-
sil, ed.

Atica S.A. (S~ao Paulo, 1992); Center for Reference, Studies, and Action for
Children and Adolescents (CECRIA) (2000), Traco de Mulheres, Criancas, e Adoles-
centes para Fins de Explorac~ao Sexual no Brasil. Brasilia, Brazil.
119. Phinney (2001), citing Pratt, Sex Slavery Racket a Growing Concern in
Latin America, The Christian Science Monitor, January 11, 2001.
120. Coffey (2004); Ribando (2007).
121. It is unclear whether these are all trafcked women or freelance sex workers
and these numbers were not documented by European police ofcials (Ribando 2007).
122. Toneto (2004).
126. ILO (2005).
127. IADB (2006), citing the Brazilian Center for Childhood and Adolescence.
128. Phinney (2001), citing Harris, B., Presentation to the Inter American Com-
mission on Human Rights on the Subject of the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of
Children in Costa Rica, March 3, 2000.
129. IADB (2006), citing the Center for Childhood and Adolescence.
130. IADB (2006), citing a study by the Latin American Institute for Education and
Communication (ILPEC 2006) pertaining to Guatamala and the (IOM/OAS 2004) in Bolivia.
131. IADB (2006), citing a report by the United Nations High Commissioner for
Human Rights (2003).
132. Ribando (2007).
133. It is unclear whether these are all trafcked women or freelance sex workers
and these numbers were not documented by European police ofcials (Ribando 2007).
134. U.S. Department of State (2007); IOM (2008a).
135. These countries (along with Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia) are classied
by UNDP as Western Asia.
136. The U.S. State Department places countries with a signicant trafcking
problem in various tiers. Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia have been
placed in Tier 3, while Cyprus and the United Arab Emirates have been placed on Tier
2 Watch. Countries that fail to make signicant efforts to comply with the minimum
standards eliminating human trafcking receive a Tier 3 rating.
138. Human Rights Watch (2007b) reports that of the more than 660,000 Sri Lan-
kan women who work abroad as domestic workers, nearly 90 percent work in Kuwait,
Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.
139. IOM (2005b).
140. Berg (2007).
141. Osava (2004).
142. Human Rights Watch (2007a).
NOTES 237
143. Since 2005, the government of the United Arab Emirates has worked closely
with UNICEF to repatriate child victims.
144. At the time of the research, trafcking in humans had been identied in more
than 20 states.
145. Coalition against Trafcking in Women (2001).
146. Protection Project (2002).
147. U.S. Department of State, International Narcotics and Law Enforcement,
2000, cited in the Protection Project, country report, United States.
148. McMahon (1999).
149. FBI (2008a).
150. Tully (2008), citing Louise Shelley.
151. Shared Hope International (2007), citing Estes, Richard J., and Neil Alan
Weiner, The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in the U.S., Canada, and
Mexico (University of Pennsylvania School of Social Work: Philadelphia, 2001, re-
vised 2002).
152. Shared Hope International (2007).
153. FBI (2008b).
154. FBI (2008d).
155. FBI (2008a); U.S. Department of Justice (2008b).
156. The Department of Health and Human Services Ofce of Refugee Resettle-
ment issues certications to trafcked victims under the TVPA. Certied victims
are eligible for federally funded services and benets to include medical care, food
stamps, housing, and cash assistance (U.S. Department of Justice 2007b).
157. U.S. Department of Justice (2008a). For comparison, in scal year 2006, the
government supplied 234 certication letters to victims in 20 states and the District of
Colombia, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Guam. The majority of victims were
from El Salvador (28 percent) and Mexico (20 percent) with another 12 percent of the
victims coming from other Latin American countries. Certied victims came from
countries in Africa, Europe, and the Pacic Islands (U.S. Department of Justice
2007a).
158. U.S. Department of Justice (2007a).
159. U.S. v. Maddox and deMaddox (Texas), cited in U.S. Department of Justice
(2007b).
160. United States v. Zheng and Liu (Northern Mariana Islands), cited in U.S.
Department of Justice (2007b).
161. Rayman (2001a).
163. Rayman (2001a, 2001b).
164. Fournier (2008).
165. U.S. State Department (2007).
166. Graycar and McCusker (2007).
Chapter 7
1. This denition is based on the Cape Town Principles, 1997 (UNICEF n.d.,
Factsheet Child Soldiers).
238 NOTES
2. UNODC (2008e).
3. UNICEF (n.d.) Factsheet Child Soldiers; Coalition to Stop the Use of
Child Soldiers (2008).
4. Wessells (2007).
5. Human Rights Watch (n.d.), Facts About Child Soldiers.
6. Valentine (2003).
7. Even though the Democratic Republic of Congo is at peace, UNICEF esti-
mates that 12,000 chidren are still serving as soldiers (War Child 2007).
8. War Child (2007).
9. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2008).
10. Waging Peace (2008); Borger (2008).
11. War Child (2007).
12. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2008); War Child (2007).
13. Watchlist on Children and Armed Conict (2008) citing studies of UNICEF
and Human Rights Watch.
14. War Child (2007).
15. IRIN (2008d).
16. War Child (2007); Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2008).
18. War Child (2007, 300.011)
19. Human Rights Watch (n.d.) Facts About Child Soldiers.
20. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soliders (n.d.), Some Facts; Human
Rights Watch (n.d.), Facts About Child Soldiers.
21. Interview with Brigadier General, Chadian National Army, Human Rights
Watch (2007a, 19).
22. War Child (2007).
23. Human Rights Watch (n.d.), Facts About Child Soldiers.
24. IRIN (2003).
25. Tiefenbrun (2007).
26. United Nations (n.d.), Child Soldiers Stories.
27. Brown-brown is a form of powdered cocaine, cut with gunpowder and com-
monly given to child soldiers in West African armed conicts. The drug is inhaled. It
is reported to have no different effects from regular cocaine, but the addition of gun-
powder largely serves to add to an aura of toughness (Beah 2007).
28. Ishmael was rescued by UNICEF in 1995 when the organization hand-picked
him for rehabilitation. It took medical staff one year to weed him off of the drugs and
hatred. In 1996 Ishmael was invited to speak to the United Nations. He now lives in
the United States. Ishmael was adopted by an American journalist, graduated from the
United Nations High School in 2000, and completed college in New York State (CNN
International 2007c). Ishmael has written about his experience in the book, A Long
Way Gone. See also Beach (2007).
30. Wessells (2007).
31. IRIN (2003).
32. Tiefenbrun (2007).
33. IRIN (2003).
34. IRIN (2003).
NOTES 239
35. U.S. Department of State (2008, 23a).
36. IRIN (2003).
37. IRIN (2008a).
39. Derluyn et al. (2004).
40. IRIN (2008b).
43. On December 18, 2006, the United Nations launched the Integrated Disarma-
ment, Demobilization and Reintegration Standards (IDDRS), a set of policy and guide-
lines for carrying out disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR)
programmes in postconict situations around the world (UNICEF, 2006b).
44. UNICEF (2006a).
45. IRIN (2008c).
46. IRIN (2008a).
48. UN.GIFT (2008a), citing Scheper-Hughes, Nancy, Illegal Organ Trade:
Global Justice and the Trafc in Human Organs (forthcoming).
49. Council of Europe (2003); and Tomiuc (2003a).
50. Rothman and Rothman (2003).
51. Rothman and Rothman (2003).
52. Scheper-Hughes (2004).
55. GTZ (2004).
56. Matas and Kilgour (2007).
57. Paddock (2008).
58. Saletan (2007).
59. Reuters (2007a).
60. Shimazono (2007).
61. Srinivasan (2008).
62. GTZ (2004).
63. Saletan (2007).
64. Gagalac (2008).
65. GTZ (2004); Scheper-Hughes (2003).
68. GTZ (2004).
69. Reuters (2007b).
70. GTZ (2004).
71. GTZ (2004): Scheper-Hughes (1999).
72. UN.GIFT (2008a).
74. Paddock (2008).
75. Information obtained from http://www.liver4you.org/ (accessed June 17,
2008).
76. Kumar (2003).
240 NOTES
77. United Nations (2006b), Economic and Social Council.
78. Gentleman (2008).
79. Information based on the World Health Organization estimates (Saletan
2007).
81. Goyal et al. (2002).
82. GTZ (2004).
85. United Nations (2006b, paragraph 82).
87. GTZ (2004).
88. Scheper-Hughes (2001, 36).
90. Scheper-Hughes (2004, 47).
91. GTZ (2004).
93. These prices were quoted in Scheper-Hughes (2003). A more recent article
from 2008 states that a kidney in Manila sold on the black market brings only $760
(Paddock 2008).
94. Scheper-Hughes (2005a).
95. Scheper-Hughes (2005a).
96. Eyadat (2007).
97. Organs Watch is a human rights oriented documentation center at the Univer-
sity of California, Berkeley, which investigates complaints, conducts research, and
issues reports on the global trade in organs.
98. Schepper-Hughes (2003).
99. Goyal et al. (2002).
101. Paddock (2008).
102. Goyal et al. (2002).
103. Scheper-Hughes (2004, 52); BBC News (2001).
105. Kumar (2003).
106. Paddock (2008).
107. Scheper-Hughes (2003, 2004).
108. Human Organ Transplant Act (1989, Chapter 31).
109. The Transplantation of Human Organs Act (1994, Section 9.3).
110. Paddock (2008).
112. Shimazono (2007).
114. Tomesen (2008).
115. Srinivasan (2008).
116. GTZ (2004).
118. Davis (2006).
NOTES 241
119. Bielke (2004).
120. Scholes and Phataralaoha (n.d.).
121. BBC News (2007b).
122. Omelaniuk (2005), citing Coomaraswamy, Report of the Special Rapporteur
on violence against women: trafcking in women and forced prostitution UNHCR,
Geneva. 2003).
123. Clarke (2004).
124. Clarke (2004).
127. Yousafzai et al. (2008).
128. Yousafzai et al. (2008).
130. Clarke (2004).
132. BBC News (2007a)
133. USCIS (2006).
134. U.S Department of State (2007).
135. Philippine Government (1990).
137. Dottridge (2004).
138. Europol (2005, 16).
139. UNIAP (n.d.).
140. Netwerk (2008).
141. Estrada (2008).
142. IHT (2008).
143. For a full listing of countries of origin for U.S. couples internationally adopt-
ing, see the U.S. Department of State, Immigrant Visas Issued to Orphans Coming to
U.S. at http://travel.state.gov/family/adoption/stats/stats_451.html (2008).
Chapter 8
1. Drob-Hiestien (2004).
2. Ilani (2007).
3. Internet World Stats (2008).
5. Council of Europe (2007, 32).
8. Other experts put the number much higher. According to Europol, a Google
search yields 10.2 million hits on Web sites that offer such services (Council of
Europe 2007). It is probable that Europol conducted the search in the languages of the
member states. It is also possible that these sites are listed more than once.
9. Council of Europe (2007, 40).
10. The tour reservation form with information on tours and prices to various des-
tinations can be accessed at http://www.loveme.com/tour/order/order.shtml.
11. Morgan, Karen (2007).
242 NOTES
12. See Frantanas amputee gallery at http://www.frantana.ru/amp-gallery.html.
13. Testimony of Dr. Donna Hughes before the U.S. Senate on Human Trafck-
ing: Mail Order Bride Abuses (2004).
14. Clark (2004).
15. Testimony of Dr. Donna Hughes before the U.S. Senate on Human Trafck-
ing: Mail Order Bride Abuses (2004).
16. Chon (2007).
17. Ilani (2007).
18. Tomiuc (2003b).
19. Wolak, Finkelhor, and Mitchell (2005).
20. FBI (2008c).
22. In October 2008, Perverted Justice claimed 300 convictions for Internet predators
due to the work of the organization since 2004. See http://www.perverted-justice.com/.
24. U.S. Department of Justice (n.d.), Child Exploitation and Obscenity Section.
26. ECPAT USA, Shared Hope International, The Protection Project (2006).
30. Child Wise Tourism (2007).
31. Song (2005).
32. Information obtained from the Protection Project (2007), citing Luc Ferran,
ECPAT International, presentation at the National Workshop: Child Sex Tourism:
Overview of World Situation, Presentation Phnom Penh, Cambodia (December 7,
2005).
34. Protection Project (2007), citing Luc Ferran, ECPAT International, presenta-
tion at the National Workshop: Child Sex Tourism: Overview of World Situation, Pre-
sentation Phnom Penh, Cambodia (December 7, 2005).
36. This trend was noted in the ASEAN region (Association of Southeast Asian
Nations) comprising Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myan-
mar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
38. Protection Project (2007), citing Luc Ferran, ECPAT International, presenta-
tion at the National Workshop: Child Sex Tourism: Overview of World Situation, Pre-
sentation Phnom Penh, Cambodia (December 7, 2005).
39. Both of the mothers were arrested, as was the woman who found the children
for Pepe and taught them how to have sex.
40. Child Wise Tourism (2007, 13), citing U.S. pedophile arrested for rape, tor-
ture in Cambodia. Tapei Times, Wednesday, June 21, 2006, 4.
43. Svensson (2006).
NOTES 243
46. World Vision (n.d.).
47. Crimes (Child Sex Tourism) Amendment Act 1994 No. 105, 1994, http://www.
comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/Legislation/Act1.nsf/framelodgmentattachments/332EE746136
CDDF6CA256F720018338C.
48. UK Sexual Offences Act, 2003, article 72, http://www.opsi.gov.uk/Acts/
acts2003/ukpga_20030042_en_5#pt1-pb19-l1g72.
49. Svensson (2006).
50. Farrell (2004).
52. UNICRI (2006).
53. UNICRI (2006, 25).
54. Allred (2005, 64).
56. Allred (2005, 65).
57. Johnston (2004).
58. Allred (2006a).
59. UNICRI (n.d.).
60. Johnston (2004, 41).
61. For a complete list of U.N. Missions, see the Web site of the U.N. Department of
Peacekeeping Operations at http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/currentops.shtml#africa
and http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/list/list.pdf.
62. Allred (2006a) citing reports from the following newspapers: Maggie Farley,
150 Cases Found in U.N. Sex Abuse Inquiry in Congo, Los Angeles Times, Home
Edition, November 23,2004; and Colum Lynch, U.N. Sexual Abuse Alleged in
Congo, Washington Post, December 15, 2004.
63. Allred (2006a), citing Graca Machel, The Impact of War on Children: A
Review of Progress Since the 1996 United Nations Report on the Impact of Armed
Conict on Children (New York: Palgrave, 2001).
65. Allred (2006a), quoting David Lamb, U.N. Human Rights Investigator in Bos-
nia during 2000 and 2001.
66. Testimony of Martina Vandenburg of Human Rights Watch (U.S. House Com-
mittee on International Relations 2002).
67. Shelley (2003b).
68. Mendelson (2005, ix).
69. UNDPKO (n.d.), DPKOs Comprehensive Strategy.
70. Johnston (2004).
71. UNDPKO (n.d.), Statistics.
73. The courses involved 35 participants from 17 countries (Austria, the Czech
Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Malta, Poland, Portugal, Roma-
nia, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, the Netherlands, and the United
Kingdom).
74. Allred (2006b).
76. U.S. Department of Defense (n.d.).
244 NOTES
78. As of 2008, these countries included Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium,
Benin, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burundi, Cameroon, Canada, Chile, Croatia, the
Czech Republic, Ethiopia, Fiji, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Malawi, Malaysia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria,
Norway, Philippines, Poland, Romania, Rwanda, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Swe-
den, Switzerland, Tanzania, Togo, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, United States,
and Uruguay (U.S. State Department 2008a).
79. IOM (2007b).
80. Council of the European Union (2007b).
81. IOM (2008c).
82. Brown (2008).
83. Nishiyama (2005).
Chapter 9
1. UN.GIFT (n.d.), About UN.GIFT.
2. UN.GIFT (n.d.), The Vienna Forum.
3. This list is not comprehensive but is a starting point to obtain more informa-
tion on the projects implemented by these and other agencies and organizations.
4. Video viewed by the author at IOM ofce in Tirana, Albania, during a traf-
cking assessment mission in 2003.
5. IOM (n.d.), Support Activities for MTVs No Exit Pan-European Anti-traf-
cking Campaign.
6. MTV Networks in Asia and Pacic and MTV Europe Foundation Launch
Youth-Focused Anti-Human Trafcking Campaign, August 12, 2007; http://human-
trafcking.org.
7. Exchange 4 Media (2007).
8. The lm Human Trafcking was subtitled in French, Portuguese, Mandarin,
Russian, Romanian, Spanish, Thai, Turkish, and Ukrainian. Three documentaries
(Dreams Die Hard, Freedom and Beyond, and The Silent Revolution) produced by the
Washington-based NGO Free the Slaves portray labor trafcking in India and the
United States (Green 2007).
9. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2004).
10. Meld Misdaad Anoniem (n.d.).
11. Business Travelers against Human Trafcking (2006).
12. UN.GIFT (2008d).
13. UNODC (2008a).
14. UN.GIFT (2008b).
16. For other initiatives, see also End Human Trafcking Now! Campaign
(2007).
17. Stop the Trafk (n.d.); U.S. Department of State (2007).
18. Stop the Trafk (n.d.).
19. BBC News (2007b).
20. Information obtained from Microsoft at the UN.GIFT conference, Vienna,
February 1315, 2008 (Kangaspunta 2008).
NOTES 245
21. Microsoft (2007).
22. For a complete list of coalition partners, see the ICMEC Web site at http://
208.254.21.185/missingkids/servlet/PageServlet?LanguageCountry=en_X1&PageId=3064.
23. BBC News (2006).
24. USAID (2008).
25. IOM (2007a).
26. Mackay (2006).
27. Kralis (2006).
28. Van Dongen (2007a). The two Turkish-German brothers were given sentences
of 2.5 and 7.5 years in prison.
29. U.S. Department of Justice (2008b).
30. UNODC (2006c).
31. UNDP (n.d.), Anti-trafcking Manual.
32. UNODC (2007).
33. Miles (2007).
34. U.S. Department of Justice (2006b).
35. CNN (2007).
36. U.S. Department of Justice (2007d).
38. Half of the women were from EU countries. Some voluntarily returned home
without making a complaint ; the others were referred to specialist agencies for the
provision of services (Pallister 2006).
39. Pallister (2006).
40. These include the Salvation Army, the Poppy Project, Eaves Housing, and
CHASTE.
42. ACPO (2007).
43. ACPO (2008).
44. USICE (2007a).
47. IJMs Sex Trafcking Factsheet and Story can be downloaded from http://
www.ijm.org/ourwork/whatwedo. For a more personal account of their work, see Bat-
stone (2007).
48. Information presented at the UN.GIFT workshop Technology and Human
Trafcking, Vienna, February 14, 2008e. See also http://www.ibixtranslate.com/.
49. UN.GIFT (2008c).
50. Meeting with OSCE representative in Tirana, Albania, February 2003.
51. National Human Rights Commission (2004).
52. Information on the Hearth reported in ILPA (2006).
53. Information obtained in an e-mail from IOMs Counter Trafcking Focal Point
and IOMs Development fo Guidelines for the Collection of Data on Trafcking in
Human Beings, Including Comparable Indicators, IOM (2008b) A similar project,
Trafcking in Human Beings: Data Collection and Harmonised Information Manage-
ment Systems-DCIM EU, is being launched by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of
Portugal, in cooperation with ICMPD. The Dutch National Rapporteur as well as the
246 NOTES
Ministries of Interior of the Czech Republic, Poland, and the Slovak Republic are par-
ticipating in the project (project description obtained from ICMPD).
54. IOM (2008c).
55. IOM (n.d.), IOMs Activities on Migration Data: An Overview.
56. For a list of countries signing and ratifying the Protocol, see http://www.unodc.org/
unodc/en/treaties/CTOC/countrylist-trafckingprotocol.html.
57. OSCE (2003).
58. For a list of States that ratied and signed the convention, see the Council of
Europe (http://www.coe.int/t/dg2/trafcking/campaign/default_en.asp).
60. According to Dr. Mattar, only 19 countries have yet to join the international
community in legislating against trafcking in persons (Mattar 2008).
61. For a brief description of the Philippines National Action Plan Against Traf-
cking In Human Beings, launched on October 24, 2001, see UNIS (2001).
62. La Strada International (2008).
NOTES 247
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Index
Abduction (see also kidnapping), 1, 9,
21, 29, 45, 129
Abortion, 48, 59, 105
Accommodation, 37, 58, 68 131, 156
Advertisements, 58, 87, 125, 129, 130,
131; recruitment through, 55
Afghanistan, 39, 77, 83, 103105, 123
Africa, 4, 8, 17, 23, 37, 38, 41, 42, 48,
49, 65, 72, 77, 78, 81, 82, 88, 91, 92,
97, 99, 100, 103, 104, 114, 129, 134,
135, 136, 139; Central Africa, 40, 78,
93, 103, 139; Eastern Africa, 45, 78,
81, 82, 93; Northern Africa, 5, 17, 56,
57, 65, 78, 82, 97; Southern Africa,
78, 81, 82; Western Africa, 7, 13, 36,
38, 40, 41, 55, 57, 60, 71, 74, 75, 78,
79, 80, 88, 89, 91, 93, 103, 139, 150;
Western and Central Africa, 24, 28, 33,
78, 79, 81
Agriculture (agricultural sector,
exploitation in), 3, 25, 26, 32, 35, 36,
41, 45, 47, 81, 84, 85, 86, 87, 9194,
96, 119, 149, 156
AIDS (see also HIV/AIDS), 48, 58;
AIDS and child soldiers 107, 109;
AIDS and sexually transmitted
diseases 38, 48, 107; AIDS orphans
48, 142;
Akofa, Henriette, 41, 47, 66; Albania,
24, 52, 78, 87, 88, 90, 92, 93, 158;
recruitment patterns, 8, 55; victims,
55, 61
Angola, 78, 80, 103, 106, 107
Anti-Slavery International, 3, 86
APLE (Action Pour Les Enfants), 155
Argentina, 41, 94, 95, 117
Armenia, 31, 85, 86
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian
Nations), 136
Asia, 12, 17, 37, 41, 65, 78, 82, 92, 98,
99, 103, 104, 110, 122, 123, 129, 134,
147, 150
Asia and the Pacic, 17, 41, 77, 78, 82,
139, 147; Eastern Asia, 85, 95, 112;
South-Central Asia, 82, 84; Southeast-
ern Asia, 26, 78, 82, 83, 85, 88, 91,
97, 112, 123, 134, 135, 138; The
Mekong Sub-region, 83, 126;
Southern Asia, 24, 28, 42, 82, 83, 84;
Western Asia, 78, 86
Asian organized crime groups, 67;
Chinese triads, 71; Japanese Yakuza, 71
Assistance (to victims), 3, 16, 20, 21, 44,
47, 48, 49, 58, 60, 63, 68, 90, 92, 109,
140, 146, 148, 151, 154, 157158, 159,
160
Asylum, 3, 6, 7, 19, 28, 52, 63, 68, 117,
157
Auctions, girls sold at, 38, 84
Australia, 26, 77, 100, 111, 129, 132,
136, 137
Austria, 61, 66, 89, 90, 91, 92, 136, 145
Bales, Kevin, 28
Bangladesh, 24, 26, 83, 84 92, 98, 149,
151
Beah, Ishmael, 197
Beatings, 58, 99; as a method of
controlling victims, 31, 58, 59, 86
Belarus, 78, 85, 86, 91, 97
Belgium, 18, 63, 66, 78, 8893, 121, 136
Benin, 13 40, 44, 56, 71, 79, 80
Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Mohammed, 145
Bolivia, 96, 111, 151
Bonded labor, 4243
Border controls, 26, 56, 71, 138
Bosnia and Herzegovina, 20, 52, 8790,
139, 142
Brazil, 32, 41, 45, 54, 91, 9498,
111114, 117119, 122123, 134135,
137, 149
Bribes (see also corruption), 43, 131
Brides (see also mail-order brides), 9,
122123; opium brides of Afghanistan,
123
Broker, 42, 114, 117118, 124125, 127,
131
Brothels, 34, 84, 122, 132
Brunei Darussalam, 83
Bulgaria, 24, 5254, 69, 78, 8890, 92,
113
Burkina Faso, 79
Burma (see also Myanmar), 77, 98, 106,
142143; Burmese, 3738
Burundi, 8081, 103104, 106, 109
Business Models, Trafcking groups as,
7276; Natural Resource Model :
Post-Soviet Organized Crime, 7273,
75; Supermarket Model : Low Cost
and High Volume U.S. - Mexican
trade, 7375; Trade and Development
Model : Chinese-Thai Trafckers, 73,
75; Traditional Slavery with Modern
Technology: Trafcking out of Nigeria
and West Africa, 7475; Violent
Entrepreneur Model : Balkan Crime
Groups, 7476
Cadena (trafcking operation), 61, 74
Cambodia, 36, 8384, 98, 100, 112,
134137, 139, 155
Camel jockeys, 42, 80, 9798
Cameroon, 79, 92, 98, 134135
Canada, 17, 26, 4849, 77, 98, 100,
113, 117, 123
Caribbean, 15, 17, 37, 42, 78, 88,
9396, 99100, 129, 151
Center for Strategic and International
Studies, 140
Central Africa, 24, 40, 7879, 93, 103
Central African Republic, 79,
103, 139,
Central America, 15, 9495, 134135
Central and Eastern Europe, 12, 44
Central European countries, 90
CETS (Child Exploitation Tracking
System), 150
Chad, 79, 103106, 139
Child fosterage, 140
Child labor, 2, 28, 40, 41, 79, 84
Child pornography, 132133; as
trafcking, 132; denition, 133;
grooming, 133; measures against,
150
Child prostitution, 96, 99, 137, 139
Child Rights Committee (Pakistan),
105
Child sex tourism, 39, 4142, 81, 94,
133137, 142; ASEAN region, 136;
campaigns and measures against, 137,
154155; destinations, 134135;
legislation to address, 136137;
patterns of, 134135; perpetrators,
136137; victims, 136137
276 INDEX
Child soldiers, 2, 42, 81, 85, 94, 96,
103110; campaigns to disarm,
demobilize and reintegrate, 109; fate
of, 109110; female victims, 107;
geographical distribution, 104105;
Africa, 104; Asia, 104105; Latin
America, 105; Middle East, 105;
psychological manipulation of,
106107; psychological and physical
impact on, 108109; voluntary or
coerced recruitment of, 105106
Children (as victims of trafcking),
3743
China, Peoples Republic of, 12, 24, 42,
45, 5455, 66, 72, 78, 8283, 85, 87,
9193, 98100, 111112, 121124,
126, 136, 149; Chinese workers, 3
CIS (see also Commonwealth of
Independent States), 8586, 8991,
97, 122
Coercion, 23, 78, 10, 29, 207,
116117, 127
Colombia, 75, 91, 9496, 103, 105106,
111, 114, 122123, 135136, 151
Committee Against Modern Day Slavery
(Comite Contre lEsclavage Moderne),
47
Commonwealth of Independent States
(see also CIS), 37, 46, 78, 83, 8588,
122
Congo, Democratic Republic of, 12,
7981, 93, 103104, 106, 139, 140
Control (over victims), 1, 810, 5861;
physical, 3, 60, 7476; provision of
sex services to illegal migrants, 6061;
psychological, 3, 60; punishment, used
to, 58, 108; rotation of victims, 6061;
seizure of documents, 5859; threats
of violence, 5860; use of violence,
5860; use of voodoo or juju, 60
Corruption, 6263; at different levels,
62; passive, 62; proactive, 62
Costa, Antonio Maria, 39
Costa Rica, 39, 9495, 98, 122,
134135
Côte dIvoire, 36, 47, 77, 7980, 103,
109110, 139140, 149
Council of Europe, 62, 113, 116, 121,
130131, 160
Counter Trafcking Module (IOM), 54,
159
Criminal activity, crimes, 910; range of,
in trafcking, 910
Criminal Justice (as a theory to explain
trafcking), 27
Croatia, 8, 8990
Cyprus, 88, 96, 139
Czech Republic, 39, 53, 61, 64, 88,
9092, 98
Dancing, 39; Bachabazi, 39; Launda,
39
Data, 1524, 36, 51, 5455, 62, 77, 83,
111, 116, 136, 145, 153154
Data collection, 158159; at
international level, 159; at national
level, 158
Database, 3637, 54, 7778, 131, 159
Debt bondage (see also bonded labor),
28, 4243, 49, 5758, 77, 84
Deception, in the recruitment of victims,
12, 78, 11, 29 109, 116117, 127
Denmark, 61, 8889
Department of Defense, (U. S.) 141;
measures to prevent trafcking
involving U.S. military, 141
Depression, 47, 120
Developing countries/nations, 11, 2324,
28, 56, 125, 133134
Development, as a theory to explain
trafcking, 24
Discrimination, 11, 28, 40, 4344, 107,
161
Djibouti, 81
Documents (see also identication
papers), 6, 810, 24, 27, 39, 44, 5759,
62, 65, 6870, 90, 9798, 155
Dominican Republic, 32, 39, 77, 91,
9496, 134135, 151
Dowry, 38, 116
DPKO, (Department of Peace Keeping
Operations) 140
Drug; addiction, 48; dealing, 39, 70;
trafcking, 24, 27, 69
INDEX 277
Earnings, of criminals, 6365
East Africa/Eastern Africa, 45, 78,
8182
East Timor, 83, 139
Eastern Asia, 85, 95, 112
Economic conditions, 12
ECPAT (End Child Prostitution, Child
Pornography and the Trafcking of
Children for Sexual Exploitation), 83,
134
Ecuador, 94
Egypt, 82, 97, 111
ELN (National Liberation Army,
Columbia), 105106
El Salvador, 9495, 98, 107
Embassy, 56, 126
Emotional abuse, 42
Emotional dependence, 39
Equatorial Guinea, 79
Escort service, 68, 85, 99, 129130, 132,
142
Estonia, 8889, 91, 113, 130
Ethiopia, 81, 97, 107, 139, 148
EU (European Union), 4, 14, 19, 35, 56,
69, 86, 8890, 158159
Europe, 8893; Central Europe, 70, 88,
90; Northern Europe, 82, 8889;
Southeastern Europe, 20, 41, 43, 52,
62, 78, 86, 8892, 101, 135, 149;
Southern Europe, 8891; Western
Europe, 17, 45, 5657, 7475, 7779,
8695, 97, 101
European Commission, 19
Europol, 9, 64, 6869, 89, 125126,
158
EUrotica, 64
EXIT (End Exploitation and Trafcking,
project), 147
Explosives, 106
Extortion for protection, 27, 69
False pretences, 49, 56, 6263
FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces,
Columbia), 105106
FBI, 33, 98, 152
Feminization, 43; of migration, 43; of
poverty, 43
Fines (in debt bondage situation), 127
Fingerprint recognition, 39
Finland, 65, 89, 130
Florida, 33, 4647, 61, 66,
Flows of trafcking, 79, 82, 88, 112;
relationship between sending and
receiving country 13
Forced labor, 1, 2, 8, 17, 23, 28, 3237,
45, 47, 66, 72, 8687, 9195, 103, 122,
145, 147, 149, 153, 156
Forced marriage, 41, 81, 84, 103,
121125; as a form of trafcking,
123124
Fortress Europe, 23
France, 3, 63, 66, 89, 9193, 121,
126
Free the Slaves, 7, 35, 146
Freelance sex worker, 49, 60
FUC (United Front for Change, Chad),
105
Gabon, 39, 79
Gambia, The, 39, 79, 133, 135136
Gang, 42, 115, 119
Gender discrimination, 28, 40, 44
Georgia, 8788, 97, 112113, 139
Germany, 18, 31, 34, 4445, 52, 61, 63,
69, 78, 8792, 95, 101, 123, 133, 136,
141, 153; Federal Criminal Police
(BKA), 20, 55
Ghana, 39, 60, 71, 79, 93, 133,
149150
Global criminal justice data on
prosecutions, 153154
Globalization, 26, 71, 77, 129; as a
theory to explain trafcking, 26;
facilitates human trafcking and child
sex tourism,
Great Britain (see also United
Kingdom), 39, 71, 74, 120
Greece, 78, 86, 88, 9091, 130
Guards, 32, 38, 57, 6970, 115
Guatemala, 54, 9496, 9899, 126, 135
Guinea, 79, 104, 109
Guinea Bissau, 79, 103
Gulf States, 42, 110111
Guyana, 94
278 INDEX
Haiti, 9596, 139140
Harm to victims, 4748,
HIV/AIDS (see also AIDS), 11, 38, 40,
48, 107, 109, 142
Health problems, 48, 107, 119120
Honduras, 9495, 135
Human Rights, 12, 23, 29, 3032,
72, 7477, 127, 139, 141 156, 158;
trafcking as a violation of,
2728
Human rights activists, 2
Human Rights Watch, 58, 62, 105106
Hungary, 52, 54, 66, 70, 88, 90, 92, 100, 158
ICE (Immigration and Customs
Enforcement), 152, 155
ICMEC (International Centre for
Missing and Exploited Children),
150
ICMPD (International Centre for
Migration Policy Development), 146,
152, 158
ICT (information and communication
technology), 150
Identication papers, 70
IJM (International Justice Mission), 155
Illegal adoptions, trafcking for, 96, 103,
126127
Illiteracy, 43
ILO (International Labor Organization),
3, 17, 2021, 2627, 4041, 65, 93,
133, 145146, 159; child risk factors,
41
IMBRA (International Marriage Broker
Regulation Act), 125
India, 7, 19, 33, 3839, 42, 54, 58, 71,
8384, 92, 98, 100, 103104, 111113,
115117, 119120, 133134, 136, 139,
142, 149, 151152, 155, 158; corrup-
tion, 115; organ trafcking, 113,
115116
Indonesia, 26, 63, 8384, 98, 100,
103104, 109, 112, 134135,
142143
Innocenti Research Centre, 8
International Human Rights Law Institute,
15, 43
International organizations, 4, 1516,
21, 24, 81, 83, 90, 137, 141142,
152
International Police Task Force (IPTF),
20
Internet, 12, 26, 29, 55, 64, 90,
124125, 130134, 142, 152; as a
recruitment and advertising tool,
132; dating services, 131; escort
services, 132; users worldwide,
129
Interpol, 13, 27, 69, 130, 132
IOM (International Organization for
Migration), 4, 8, 18, 20, 47, 8183,
112, 141, 145146; programs, 61, 90,
151; clergy, 150151; data collection,
20, 37, 77, 158
Iran, 54, 83, 87, 111112, 119, 121
Iraq, 12, 96, 103, 105, 111112
Ireland, 69, 77, 91, 100, 154
Isolation, as a control mechanism, 8, 38,
120
Israel 78, 83, 8687, 94, 9697, 105,
111114, 118, 129, 132; organ
trafcking, 118
Italy, 45, 911, 13, 33, 39, 4445, 47,
55, 57, 60, 63, 6566, 71, 73, 78, 80,
8891, 94, 111, 126, 136, 147, 158;
research institute, 8
Jamaica, 94
Japan, 7778, 83, 85, 87, 9495,
111112, 123124, 151; Japanese
Yakuza, 71
Jordan, 58, 96, 112, 148
Justice and Equality Movement, 104
Kazakhstan, 85, 87, 97
Kenya, 44, 81, 97, 134136
Khartoum, 104
Kidnapping (see also Abduction), 2, 10,
55, 103
Kidney(s), 87, 110121, 127
Korea, South, 56, 85, 98, 100, 111112,
123, 125, 136, 138
Korea, North, 3, 85
Kuwait, 26, 33, 87, 9697, 112113
INDEX 279
Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz Republic), 78,
8586, 99
Laos, 83, 98, 112, 135
La Strada, 146, 161
Landmines, 105
Latin America, 17, 65, 7172, 85,
8889, 91, 101, 103, 105, 113, 122,
134
Latin America and the Caribbean, 17, 37,
78, 88, 9396, 99100, 129;
Caribbean, 96
Central America, 9495; South America,
9596; Latvia, 59, 71, 8889, 91
Law Enforcement and Prosecution (as a
measure to ght trafcking), 151153;
cooperation with civil society,
153155; ensuring success,
155157; law enforcement investiga-
tion and arrests, 151152; law
enforcement training, 152153;
prosecutions, 153
League of Nations, 27
Lebanon, 81, 9697, 100, 139, 148
Legal services and assistance, 33, 67
Legislation, 15, 25, 31, 34, 36, 67, 92,
120, 125, 137, 145146, 154, 157158,
160161
Lesotho, 8182
Liberia, 7980, 103, 106, 109, 139140
Libya, 4, 82, 88
Link between sending and receiving
countries, 13
Lithuania, 52, 54, 61, 6465, 69, 72, 78,
8889, 91, 93
Living conditions, 2, 11
Loverboys, 8, 59
LRA (Lords Resistance Army, Uganda),
104, 108
LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam,
Sri Lanka), 85, 104
Luxembourg, 91, 158
Macedonia, Republic of, 52, 65,
8790
Madagascar, 81, 137
Madams, Nigerian, 57
Madrass, 104105; magnitude of trafck-
ing, 1621; estimates, 1819
Maa (see also organized crime groups),
39, 59, 71
Mail-order brides, 35, 41, 84, 122125,
129, 131; addressing the problem,
125; contributing factors, 121122;
exploitation of, 124; source and
destination countries, 122123;
organized tours, 131
Malawi, 8182
Mali, 24, 28, 31, 36, 7980
Malta, 88, 91
Markets, in which victims are trafcked,
3236
Marriage, 3839, 54, 120, 130; agencies/
brokers/bureaus, 131132, 142; as a
recruitment method, 10, 55, 66, 70,
130, 147148; forced/arranged
marriages, 38, 81, 84, 103, 121125
Massage parlours, 16, 49, 60, 61, 149,
150, 154, 165, 166
Mauritania, 28, 79, 80
Mauritius, 81, 114; measurement of
trafcking, 1521; estimates versus
actual numbers, 1819; overstating the
problem, 19; statistics, 1520, 23, 45,
51, 5355, 78, 80, 92; understating the
problem, 20
Measures to ght trafcking, 141142,
145161; data collection, 158159;
prevention (see prevention measures),
160161; international and regional
instruments, 159160; law enforcement
and prosecution, 151157; legislation
and comprehensive national action
plans, 160; prevention, 146151;
victim assistance and protection,
157158
Mexico, 39, 48, 53, 61, 71, 74, 77,
9495, 9899, 134136
Methods of operation (of trafckers),
5176
Middle East, 17, 26, 42, 65, 7879, 81,
84, 8687, 9597, 100, 103, 105,
111113, 129, 139
Migration, 113; illegal migration, 46
280 INDEX
Migrants, 37, 12, 19, 2324, 3033, 38,
52, 54, 58, 6061, 66, 6870, 73, 88,
148, 155
Military, 138141
Mines, 13, 79, 85, 96
Models, 29, 51, 7072, 76, 130
MOHAN (Multi Organ Harvesting
Aid Network Foundation), 121
Moldova, 24, 52, 78, 8591, 97,
111114, 116120, 135, 151
Money laundering, 910, 27, 34, 69
Mongolia, 85, 123
Montenegro, 77, 8990
Morocco, 5, 11, 52, 54, 72, 82, 134, 139
Mozambique, 8182, 103
MTV EXIT, 147
Murat, Joe, 47
Murder, 10, 58
National Agency for the Prohibition
of Trafc in Persons and Other
Related Matters NAPTIP, Nigeria),
80, 146
National Bureau of Investigation
(Philippines), 113
National Rapporteur, 1819, 21, 52, 54,
67, 122, 146, 153, 159
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization), 141
Natural disasters and trafcking, 142
NBC Dateline, 133
Nepal, 24, 42, 8385, 10314, 106,
109110, 113, 139
Netherlands, 8, 13, 1819, 21, 44, 49,
5254, 5961, 63, 6670, 72, 78,
8893, 95, 101, 121, 130, 146, 151,
154, 159; National Rapporteur on
Trafcking in Human Beings, 18, 19,
52, 67
Networks, 24, 27, 30, 5152, 6062,
6569, 71, 76, 99100, 103, 140,
161; trafcking as criminal networks,
7172
New Zealand, 100
NGOs (Non-governmental organizations),
7, 16, 19, 2024, 3940, 44, 47, 51,
55, 58, 8385, 95, 106, 123, 131, 137,
141, 143, 145146, 148150, 152,
154155, 157158
Nicaragua, 9495
Niger, 5, 31, 79
Nigeria, 5, 10, 13, 19, 33, 40, 44, 47,
5456, 60, 7476, 7880, 89, 9193,
111, 113114, 116, 134
North America, 41, 78, 86, 98100, 113,
123, 129, 152
North Carolina, 46
Norway, 8889, 123
Objectication of children, 44
OHCHR (Ofce of the High
Commissioner for Human Rights),
145146
Oceania, 37, 78, 100
Oman, 9697, 111113
Operation Pentameter, 52, 154
Opium wedding, 123124
Organ donors, 111112, 115121;
Economic consequences, to 119120;
Physical consequences to, 119120;
Psychological consequences to,
119120
Organ recipients, 111112, 115116
Organ trafcking, 110121; contributing
factors, 110111; donor countries, 111;
nding solutions to, 120121; individu-
als and organizations involved in,
114115; organ broker, 114115, 118;
patterns of, 111114; Africa, 114; East
and Southeast Asia, 112; Europe,
113; Latin America, 113114;
Middle East, 112; North America, 113;
South Asia, 113; Recipient countries,
111
Organizational structure (of trafckers),
6576; Highly structured criminal
organizations, 6667; individual
trafckers, 6566; isolated criminal
groups, 67; networks, 6566, 7072;
roles within the trafcking
organization, 68; small groups,
6667; soloist operation, 67
Organized Crime, 33, 51, 61, 66, 7075,
113, 140; denition, 70
INDEX 281
Organized crime groups, 7076; Balkan
crime groups, 7475; Chinese triads,
71; Japanese Yakuza, 71; Indian crime
group, 71; Mexican crime groups,
7374; Nigerian and West African
crime groups, 74, 76; post-Soviet
organized crime, 7273
Organs Watch, 119
Orphan, 40, 80
OSCE (Organization for Cooperation and
Security in Europe), 20, 141,
145146, 152, 157, 159
Pakistan, 39, 8384, 98, 104105, 111,
113, 139, 149
Panama, 9495
Paraguay, 41, 9495
Parents, role in trafcking children, 23,
11, 3942, 48, 55, 84, 87, 98, 106107,
109, 113, 126127
Passport (see also documentation and
identication papers), 3, 5, 56, 81, 87,
118
Peace keeping/peace support operations
(see also PSO), 138141; military and
demand for prostitution, 138140;
involvement in/link to trafcking,
138139; post-war trafcking,
138140; solutions to addressing
trafcking among Peace Support ;
operations, 140141; focal points, 141;
NATO, 141; training, 140141; U.S.
Department of Defense, 141
Perspectives on trafcking, 2330; crimi-
nal justice, 27; development, 24; glob-
alization, 26; human rights, 2728;
illegal market, 2425; migration, 23;
slavery, 2829; supply and demand,
2526
Peru, 9495, 98, 111, 151
Philippines, 7, 10, 26, 33, 45, 56,
62, 83, 85, 95, 98100, 103104,
112113, 115116, 119120,
122123, 125, 133138, 146, 148,
155
Private Sector, 145, 149, 161
Process, trafcking as a, 911
Polaris Project, 59, 61, 132
Poland, 52, 55, 69, 8892, 154
Portugal, 8688, 91, 95, 121, 126,
160
Poverty, 5, 12, 24, 29, 3841, 43, 100,
105106, 116117, 119, 122, 127, 133,
161,
Prevention measures to ght trafcking,
146151; awareness raising, 147148;
emergency response, 148; micro credit
loans, 148; more permanent prevention
measures, 148151; national hotlines,
147148; private sector involvement,
149150; religious institutions
involvement, 150151; risk
assessment, 148
Prots, 11, 2425, 34, 6465,
7275, 112; per trafcked victim,
64
Promises, in recruitment practices, 4, 40,
5455, 96, 115
Prosecution, 15, 48, 134, 142, 146,
154155, 160
Prostitutes, 44, 48, 53, 58, 61, 84, 87, 93,
117, 132, 141
Prostitution, 13, 5, 811, 1819, 25, 27,
3132, 3436, 39, 41, 4445, 4749,
5354, 5657, 5961, 6367, 6971,
7376, 81, 8384, 8687, 8992,
9496, 99100, 107, 124, 129,
130131, 134, 136142, 147148, 151,
155, 157
Prostitution carrousels, 60
Protection Project, 134135
PSO (see also Peace keeping/peace
support operations), 140
Punishment, 30, 38, 58, 108
Push and Pull Factors, 1, 1113
Qatar, 9697
Ramos brothers, 33
Rape, 911, 105, 133, 139
Recruitment process, 5556; through the
internet, 130
Relatives, 40, 44, 81, 120, 159
Rent boys, 39
282 INDEX
Repatriation, 20, 78, 157
Reproductive illness, 48
Restavek, 96
Retaliation, 49, 70
Risk factors, child trafcking, 3843
Rogers, Chris, 64
Romania, 2, 24, 31, 46, 52, 5455, 70,
78, 8892, 98, 100, 111114, 117, 135
Russia (also Russian Federation), 3, 12,
18, 53, 59, 64, 72, 78, 8590, 9293,
9798, 100, 112113, 122123, 131,
135
Rwanda, 81, 103104
Saudi Arabia, 13, 26, 9697, 111113
Safe-house, 24, 27, 44, 67, 70, 115, 117
Save the Children, 20, 83, 146
SEE (Southeastern Europe), 90
Senegal, 39, 79, 97, 135
Serbia, 45, 58, 65, 8890, 148
Sex slaves, 2, 44, 61, 94
Sex tourism, 44, 95, 133; child sex
tourism, 39, 42, 81, 94, 129,
133137, 142
Sex trafcking, 15, 41, 43, 54, 61, 71,
100, 132, 139, 141, 151153
Sexual abuse, 40, 97, 105, 107108,
140
Sexually transmitted diseases, 36, 38, 48,
107
SFOR (Stabilization Force), 139
Shelter, 37, 4647, 61, 68, 84, 9293,
142, 148, 157158, 160
Sierra Leone, 79, 92, 103, 106107, 109
Singapore, 83, 110, 112113, 121
SIUT (Sind Institute for Urology and
Transplantation), 113
Slave trade, 2829, 139
Slavery (and slavery-like practices), 13,
1112, 14, 23, 26, 2830, 32, 36,
4143, 46, 49, 5859, 61, 66, 7476,
143, 145, 158
Slovak Republic, 47, 55, 88, 90, 100
Slovenia, 47, 88, 90
Smuggling, 1, 34, 6, 89, 13, 19,
2425, 27, 66, 6975, 88, 90; dened,
34; of migrants, 3, 70, 88; perils, 4
Sneep, case, 64, 6869, 71, 151
Social isolation (as a control
mechanism), 120
Social stigma, 32, 47, 157
Somalia, 8081, 88, 97, 103104
South Africa, 45, 8182, 112, 114, 118,
121, 134135, 139
South Asia, 24, 28, 38, 42, 8284, 113,
147
Southeast Asia, 14, 78, 82, 85, 112, 123,
134136, 138
Southeastern Europe, 20, 41, 43, 52, 62,
78, 86, 8892, 101, 135, 149
Spain, 5, 11, 13, 61, 6364, 8789, 91,
95, 121
SPLA (Sudan Peoples Liberation Army,
Sudan), 110
Sporting events and trafcking,
141142
Sri Lanka, 26, 39, 8385, 103104, 106,
142, 148
Stigma, 32, 4748, 157
Sting operation, 133
Stop the Trafk, 146
Stripping, 44
Sub-Saharan Africa, 17, 48, 65, 78, 97
Sudan, 12, 8082, 9798, 103104, 106,
110, 139
Suriname, 95
Supply and demand, 2526, 29, 67
Swaziland, 81
Sweden, 12, 8889, 123, 158
Switzerland, 91, 136, 141
Syria, 97
T-visa, 20
Taiwan, 29, 55, 83, 85, 100,
111112, 123125
Tajikistan, 8587
Talens, Cristina, 47
Tanzania, 8182
Terre des Hommes, 20, 146
Thailand, 31, 3637, 39, 42, 46, 78,
8283, 85, 87, 93, 95, 98100, 103,
122, 133138, 142143, 149, 155
TMVP/Karuna, 104
Togo, 31, 4041, 47, 57, 66, 7980
INDEX 283
Trafckers, 5176; Albanian, 27, 66, 71;
gender and ethnic background,
5155; maintaining control over
victims, 5861; manipulation of the
system, 6163; Nigerian women as
trafckers, 5255
Trafcking, as a business model,
7276; as a network, 24, 27, 30,
5152, 6062, 6569, 7172, 76,
99100, 103, 140, 161; as a process,
911; estimates, 1619; Happy
trafcking, 53; relationship to their
victims, 55
Trafcking indicators, 125, 155156
Trafcking organizations, 6570;
networks, 6567; individual, 66;
transnational criminal organizations,
6770
Trafcking Watch Group, Philippines,
146
Trans-border trafcking, 1, 79, 38, 79
Transportation (as a phase of
trafcking), 5657; Visa shopping,
56
Transporter, 3, 68, 70
Trauma, 47, 59, 84, 87, 108109, 157,
158
Tunisia, 4, 82, 139
Turkey, 52, 58, 78, 83, 8688, 90, 93, 97,
111113, 119
Turkmenistan, 85
TVPA (Trafcking Victims Protection
Act), 160
U.N. Protocol on Trafcking, 12, 27,
29, 109, 127, 136, 159160
U.N. Protocol on Smuggling, 3
Uganda, 29, 8081, 103104,
106109
Ukraine, 55, 73, 78, 8591, 93,
9798, 113, 118, 122123, 150
Unemployment, 1112, 39, 41, 43, 116,
120
United Arab Emirates, 26, 87, 9798,
113, 145
United Kingdom (see also Great Britain),
13, 18, 20, 53, 58, 61, 6367, 77,
8889, 91, 93, 101, 132, 150, 153154,
156, 158; home Ofce, 18; Joint
Committee on Human Rights, 18
United Nations, 1, 3, 1213, 18, 21, 27,
3637, 40, 55, 78, 82, 86, 94, 97,
103104, 106, 109110, 115116, 124,
138, 140
United Nations Childrens Fund
(UNICEF), 8, 1920, 42, 48, 8183,
85, 89, 103104, 107, 109110, 136,
142, 145146; United Nations
Department for Peacekeeping Opera-
tions (UNDPO), 139; United Nations
Development Fund for Women
(UNIFEM), 146; United Nations
Development Program (UNDP), 38,
152; United Nations Educational,
Scientic and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), 1719, 146; United
Nations Global Initiative to Fight
Trafcking (UN.GIFT), 145; United
Nations Inter-Agency Project on
Human Trafcking in the Mekong
Sub-region
United Nations Interregional Crime and
Justice Research Institute (UNICRI), 7,
10, 138, 140
United Nations Mission in Bosnia and
Herzegovina (UNMIBH), 20; United
Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMK),
140
United Nations Ofce on Drugs and
Crime (UNODC), 36, 39, 43, 55,
7778, 80, 145146, 148, 152153;
United Nations Ofce for the High
Commission on Human Rights
(UNOHCHR), 20, 146; United
Nations Ofce for the High
Commission for Refugees (UNOHCR),
4, 146
United States, 4, 1618, 23, 3336,
4546, 5354, 5861, 63, 6667,
7374, 7778, 83, 86, 9495, 98100,
110111, 113, 117, 121126, 131132,
134, 136137, 146147, 152153, 155;
Citizenship and Immigration services,
125; U.S. Congress, 94; U.S.
284 INDEX
Department of Defense, 141, 152; U.S.
Department of Justice, 32, 34, 4142,
134; U.S. Department of State, 78,
16, 21, 34, 39, 82, 85, 9798, 100,
123, 136, 149, 153154; U.S.
Immigration and Customs Enforcement
(ICE), 155; U.S. Ofce to Monitor and
Combat Trafcking in Persons, 37;
U.S. National Center for Missing and
Exploited Children, 150; U.S. Ofce
of Refugee Resettlement, 20
U.S. PROTECT Act (Prosecutorial Rem-
edies and other Tools to End the
Exploitation of Children Today, 137;
U.S. Senate, 131
Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
28
Uruguay, 95, 139
Uzbekistan, 64, 78, 8586, 97, 149
Venezuela, 96
Victim Assistance and Protection (as a
measure to ght trafcking), 157159;
in the host country, 157; risk analysis,
157; upon returning home, 158159;
reintegration programs, 109, 158; risk
of re-trafcking, 158
Victims, 3147; children, 3743; dis-
abled, 4647, 86, 124, 131; individual
victim, 910; men, 4546; state, the
state as victim, 910; refusal to
recognize themselves as such,
4849; rotation of, 6061, 68;
selling of, 60, 121123, 126127,
142; vulnerable groups, 4647;
women, 4345
Victimization continuum, 23, 44
Vidomegon, 40
Vienna Forum to Fight Human
Trafcking, 145146
Vietnam, 55, 77, 83, 91, 98, 100, 112,
122126, 135136, 138
Violence, 35, 910, 12, 2728, 47, 49,
5760, 69, 99, 106108, 125, 133, 148,
158, 161; as a control mechanism,
810, 39, 58, 99, 108; as deterrence,
58; as punishment, 49, 58; threat of, 3,
28, 58, 108, 130; use of by organized
crime groups, 69, 72, 7476
Violence Against Women Act, U.S., 125
Virgin, 38, 64
Vulnerable victims, 4647; disabled,
4647, 86, 124, 131; drug addicted,
4647; homeless, 46; physically and
mentally impaired, 46; runaways,
9899
Wages, 3, 25, 33, 46, 80, 86, 96, 132
War (trafcking during wartime
situations), 12, 40, 104106, 128,
137139, 142
War Child, 105106
West Africa, 7, 13, 36, 38, 40, 41, 55,
57, 60, 71, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80, 88, 89,
91, 93, 103, 139, 150; organized crime
groups in 7476
Western Europe, 17, 45, 5657, 7475,
7779, 8695, 97, 101
Women (as victims of trafcking),
4345
World Health Organization, 113114
Yemen, 4, 97
Zambia, 77, 81
Zimbabwe, 81
INDEX 285
About the Author
ALEXIS A. ARONOWITZ received her PhD in Criminal Justice from the
University at Albany in New York. She is an Assistant Professor and Academic
Advisor at University College, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and works as
an independent consultant on human trafcking. She has served as a staff
member and consultant on projects in the eld of trafcking in human beings for
the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, the
United Nations Ofce on Drugs and Crime, the United Nations Division for the
Advancement of Women, the International Organization for Migration and other
international organizations. She is also the author/coauthor of three U. N. reports
and numerous book chapters and journals articles on the subject.

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Human Trafcking, Human Misery

150 a week for their security guards.

6,000. Women may be resold numerous times, and in the case

15,000 from one trafcked victim.

120,000 per year per woman. A case in the

450 and encountered a woman from an Eastern European

60,000. Interpol was notied, the head

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