Cleanroom Air Design Manual

HIGH PERFORMANCE
CLEANROOMS
A Design Guidelines Sourcebook
January 2006
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction........................................................................................2
1. Air Change Rates ..........................................................................3
2. Demand Controlled Filtration ..........................................................8
3. Dual Temperature Chilled Water Loops ..........................................12
4. Exhaust Optimization....................................................................16
5. Fan-Filter Units ............................................................................20
6. Low Pressure Drop Air Systems ......................................................25
7. Minienvironments ........................................................................30
8. Recirculation Air System Types ......................................................35
9. Vacuum Pump Optimization ..........................................................40
10. Waterside Free Cooling ..............................................................43
1
INTRODUCTION
Cleanroom design is a challenging field dominated by the need for high reliability,
maintenance of strict space cleanliness requirements, life safety, and narrow temperature
and humidity control bands. By necessity, efficiency is a lower priority in design. But there
are a number of design approaches that have been shown to meet all the requirements of a
cleanroom facility robustly while minimizing power consumption and cost. The Cleanroom
Design Guidelines describe a number of successful and efficient design practices specifically
appropriate for cleanroom facilities.
Based on actual measurement of operating cleanroom facilities and input from cleanroom
designers, owners and operators, the Cleanroom Design Guidelines offer many successful
design approaches that apply to most cleanroom facilities. No single recommendation can be
appropriate for every cleanroom facility, but baseline measurement has clearly shown large
efficiency differences between design solutions that support identical cleanroom conditions.
The Design Guidelines are not universal rules, but offer recommendations to the cleanroom
designer who has little time or budget to evaluate the wide range of efficiency options suitable
for and proven in cleanroom facilities.
While cleanroom design is a relatively mature industrial field, the low emphasis on energy
efficiency and a conservative tendency on the part of designers to re-use proven designs
regardless of their efficiency (often their efficiency was never measured) still results in
needlessly inefficient designs. The Cleanroom Design Guidelines help identify more efficient
design approaches, allowing at least a high level consideration of efficiency to be included in,
and impact, a design process typically compressed by budget and schedule constraints.
2
3
1. AIR CHANGE RATES
Recirculation air change rates (ACRs) are an
important factor in contamination control in
a cleanroom and are the single largest factor
in determining fan and motor sizing for a
recirculation air handling system. Air handler
sizing and air path design directly impacts the
capital costs and configuration of a building.
Many air change rate recommendations were
developed decades ago with little scientific
research to back them up. The recommended design ranges for ISO Class 5 (Class 100)
cleanroom ACRs are from 250 to 700 air changes per hour (see Figure 2). Higher ACRs equate
to higher airflows and more energy use, and dont always achieve the desired cleanliness. Both
new and existing systems can benefit from optimized air change rates. Frequently this equates
to lower air change rates.
Benchmarking has shown that most facilities are operated at or below the low range of
recommended ACRs. A Sematech study has also verified that lowered air change rates in
cleanrooms are adequate in maintaining cleanliness. The actual operating ACRs documented
for ten ISO Class 5 cleanrooms was between 94 and 276 air changes per hour.
PRINCIPLES
Lower air change rates result in smaller fans, which reduce both the initial investment and
construction cost.
Fan power is proportional to the cube of air change rates or airflow. A reduction in the air
change rate by 30% results in a power reduction of approximately 66%.
Lower airflow may improve the actual cleanliness by minimizing turbulence.
APPROACH
Designers and cleanroom operators have a variety of sources to choose from when looking
for ACR recommendations. Recommendations are not based on scientific findings and
consequently there is no clear consensus on an optimum ACR. For this reason, many of
the established guidelines are outdated.
There are several conflicting sets of recommendations on cleanroom airflow. Articles in
Cleanrooms magazine
1
have explored the different ways of measuring or describing airflow
and have discussed the Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST; Rolling
Meadows, Ill.) recommendations; however, few industry observers have examined actual
practices and the relationship on construction and energy costs.
FIGURE 1
DUCTED HIGH EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE
AIR (HEPA) FILTERS IN CLEANROOM
INTERSTITIAL SPACE
4
There is no agreement on a recommended ACR rate. Most sources suggest a range of rates,
while these ranges tend to be wide and do not provide clear guidance to designers who need to
select a set ACR value to specify equipment sizes. Figure 1 shows the result of a comparative
review of recommended ACRs.
Using better air change rate practices will allow designers to lower construction costs as well
as reduced energy costs while maintaining the high level of air cleanliness that is required
in cleanroom facilities.
Cleanrooms Magazine
3
pointed out that many of the recommended ACRs are based on
relatively low-efficiency filters that were prevalent in the mid 1990s. For example, todays
widely-used 99.99 percent efficient filters are three times more effective at filtering out 0.3
micron particles than the 99.97 percent filters that were common in the mid 1990s.
Ultra-low penetration air (ULPA) filters are even more efficient than those of the mid 1990s.
The high end of that range is almost three times the rate at the low end, yet the impact of this
difference on fan sizing and motor horsepower is radically greater. According to the fan affinity
laws, the power difference is close to the cube of the flow or air change rate difference. For
example, a 50 percent reduction in flow will result in a reduction of power by approximately a
factor of eight or 87.5 percent. Due to filter dynamics, the cube law does not apply exactly and,
typically, the reduction is between a cube and a square relationship.
Even relatively modest reductions of 10 percent to 20 percent in ACR provide significant
benefits. A 20 percent decrease in ACR will enable close to a 50 percent reduction in fan size.
The energy savings opportunities are comparable to the potential fan size reductions.
FIGURE 2
RECOMMENDED AIR CHANGE RATES FOR
ISO CLASS 5 (CLASS 100)
CLEANROOMS
2
5
ACR reductions may also be possible when cleanrooms are unoccupied for a length of time.
In most cleanrooms, human occupants are the primary source of contamination. Once a
cleanroom is vacated, lower air changes per hour to maintain cleanliness are possible
allowing for setback of the air handling systems. Setback of the air handling system fans
can be achieved by manual setback, timed setback, use of occupancy sensors, or by
monitoring particle counts and controlling airflow based upon actual cleanliness levels.
It is a common misconception that making a cleanroom more efficient will drive up
construction costs. However, well-planned ACR reductions can reduce both construction
and energy costs. This is a true win-win situation, which decreases the amount of work the
mechanical system has to perform and offers high leverage for downsizing equipment.
Biotechnology and pharmaceutical cleanrooms are designed to meet current Good
Manufacturing Practices (cGMPs). Traditionally, high air change rates were followed without
challenge because they had been previously accepted by regulators. As new information
becomes available (such as case studies showing acceptable performance at lower airflows)
the current Good Manufacturing Practice should be able to reflect use of lower airflow.
Best practice for ACRs is to design new facilities at the lower end of the recommended ACR
range. Once the facility is built, monitoring and controlling based upon particle counts
can be used to further reduce ACRs. Variable speed drives (VSDs) should be used on all
recirculation air systems allowing for air flow adjustments to optimize airflow or account for
filter loading. Existing systems should be adjusted to run at the lower end of the recommend
ACR range through careful monitoring of impact on the cleanroom process(es). Where VSDs
are not already present, they can be added and provide excellent payback if coupled with
modest turndowns.
BENCHMARKING FINDINGS/CASE STUDIES
The data from the cleanroom energy benchmarking study
4
conducted by Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory suggests that air change rates can be lower than what is currently
recommended by several sources (see Figure 3). The benchmarking data suggests that an
ISO Class 5 facility could be operated with an air change rate of around 200 air changes
per hour and still provide the cleanliness classification required. It can be concluded that
rarely is more than 300 ACR required.
While the recommended design ranges for ACRs are from 250 to 700 air changes per hour,
the actual operating ACRs ranged from 90 to 625
2
. All of these cleanrooms were certified
and performing at ISO Class 5 conditions. This shows that cleanroom operators can use ACRs
that are far lower than what is recommended without compromising either production or
cleanliness requirements.
This is often done to lower energy costs. However, these facilities did not take advantage of the
fan sizing reduction opportunities during construction. As a result, most of the fan systems
were operating at very low variable speed drive speeds.
6
Fortunately, a growing body of data, case studies and research are available that document
success. In a study by International Sematech (Austin, Texas)
5
, no noticeable increase of
particle concentrations was found when air change rates were lowered by 20 percent in ISO
Class 4 cleanrooms. Also, a study at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT;
Cambridge, Mass.)
6
found that in a raised-floor-type cleanroom with a small decrease in air
velocity, such facilities will decrease particle deposition and maintain air uni-directionality.
Other success has been noted by cleanroom operators at Sandia National Laboratories
(Albuquerque, N.M.). Sandia National Laboratories has successfully reduced air change rates
in their state-of-the-art ISO Class 4 and 5 cleanrooms. This is especially significant since
Sandia pioneered laminar flow cleanrooms in the early 1960s.
RELATED CHAPTERS
Low Pressure Drop Air Systems
Demand Controlled Filtration
Fan-filter Units
Recirculation Air Handling Systems
Minienvironments
REFERENCES
1) Fitzpatrick, Mike and Goldstein, Ken, Cleanroom Airflow Measurement: Velocity, Air
Changes Per Hour Or Percent Filter Coverage? Cleanrooms Magazine, May 2002; and
Fitzpatrick and Goldstein, Cleanroom Airflows Part II: The Messy Details, Cleanrooms
Magazine, July 2002.
FIGURE 3
MEASURED AIR CHANGE
RATES FOR ISO CLASS 5
(CLASS 100) CLEANROOMS
7
2) Sources:
1. IEST Considerations in Cleanroom Design (IEST RP-CC012.1)
2. Raymond Schneider, Practical Cleanroom Design
3. Cleanrooms equipment supplier
4. Faulkner, Fisk and Walton, Energy Management in Semiconductor
Cleanrooms
5. California-based designer and cleanrooms instructor
6. Federal Standard 209B (superceded by ISO/DIS 14644)
7. National Environment Balancing Bureau, Procedural Standards for Certified
Testing of Cleanrooms, 1996
3) Jaisinghani, Raj, New Ways of Thinking About Air Handling, Cleanrooms
Magazine, January 2001.
4) http://ateam.lbl.gov/cleanroom/benchmarking/index.htm.
5) Huang, Tom, Tool and Fab Energy Reduction, Spring 2000 Northwest
Microelectronics Workshop, Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance.
6) Vazquez, Maribel and Glicksman, Leon, On the Study of Altering Air Velocities in
Operational Cleanrooms, 1999 International Conference on Advanced Technologies
and Practices for Contamination Control.
RESOURCES
IEST-RP-CC012.1, Considerations in Cleanroom Design, The Institute of
Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST), 1993.
Rumsey Peter, An Examination of ACRs: An Opportunity to Reduce Energy and
Construction Costs, Cleanrooms Magazine, January 2003.
Xu, Tim, Considerations for Efficient Airflow Design in Cleanrooms, Journal of the
IEST, Volume 47, 2004.
Xu, Tim, Performance Evaluation of Cleanroom Environmental Systems,
Journal of the IEST, Volume 46, August 2003.
Schneider, R., Designing Cleanroom HVAC Systems, ASHRAE Journal V.43, No. 8,
pp. 39-46, August 2001.
ISO/DIS 14644-1, Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments. Part 1:
Classification of air cleanliness, International Organization for Standardization,
1999.
ISO/DIS 14644-2, Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments. Part 2:
Testing and monitoring to prove continued compliance to ISO/DIS 14644-1,
International Organization for Standardization, 2000.
National Environment Balancing Bureau, Procedural Standards for Certified
Testing of Cleanrooms, 1996.
8
2. DEMAND CONTROLLED FILTRATION
Recirculation air flow in cleanrooms has traditionally been determined through various
methods. There are several published recommended ranges of airflow which present differing
recommendations including ASHRAE Applications Handbook chapter 16 (table 2), IEST
Recommended Practice 012.1, and ISO 14644-4 Annex B, however, these and other sources
provide conflicting recommended ranges of air change rates and the range of values is very
broad. Air change rates have been determined based upon historical rules of thumb, that
which was previously successful for similar contamination control situations, or pure
guesswork.
Contamination control is the primary consideration in cleanroom design, however the
relationship between contamination control and airflow is not well understood. Contaminants
such as particles or microbes are primarily introduced to cleanrooms by people although
processes in cleanrooms may also introduce contamination. During periods of inactivity or
when people are not present, it is possible to reduce airflow and maintain cleanliness
conditions. Reducing airflow by use of variable speed fans which are normally a feature of
recirculation systems is an energy efficiency measure that can save a lot of energy. Even small
reductions in airflow can save significant amounts of energy due to the approximately cube
relationship between airflow and fan energy. In some situations airflow reduction may be
limited by the cooling that the airflow provides to a process, however in many cases airflows
can readily be reduced.
There are several methods of controlling airflow in order to achieve demand controlled
filtration. These range from simple use of timers to sophisticated particle monitoring and
control. As shown below airflow reduction did not necessarily increase particle counts during
an LBNL pilot study.
FIGURE 1
PILOT STUDY AIRFLOW REDUCTION
AND PARTICLE COUNTS
1
9
PRINCIPLES
Reduce recirculated airflow in cleanroom when it is unlikely that particles will be generated
Optimize airflow for best contamination control by real time particle monitoring and
automatic control of the recirculation system
APPROACH
Recirculation air flow can be determined based upon whatever criteria the cleanroom owner
and designer are comfortable with. This may involve selecting design values from published
recommended values such as IEST Recommended Practice 012.1, or ISO- 14644-4 prior
corporate recommendations, or other design guidance. Generally, airflow values from the low
end of the recommended ranges will yield acceptable contamination control. Using this design
airflow, the recirculation system can be designed including sizing of fans, motors, ductwork,
and return air paths. In addition, variable speed fans and a control mechanism must be
provided. This design condition will consider the maximum airflow as a worst case
requirement for the cleanroom and will allow the airflow to be reduced when appropriate.
Recirculation airflow can be controlled in various ways:
Use of timers or scheduling software to lower airflow at certain times when the cleanroom is
unoccupied and with minimal process activity. This generally would be a step change
reduction in airflow when the room is expected to be unoccupied and increased back to
higher airflow before room is reoccupied.
Use of occupancy sensors to lower airflow whenever people are not present in the cleanroom.
Placement and time delay of sensors needs to be such as to sense when people have exited or
are about to enter the space.
Use of particle counters to control airflow in the room based upon real-time cleanliness
monitoring. In this scheme, particle counters will be deployed to monitor the various sizes
of particles of concern for a given cleanrooms contamination control problem. The number
and placement of counters will need to be determined through interaction with process
engineers and may involve some experimentation. An output signal from the particle
counters can directly control recirculation fan speed.
System pressurization is an important factor in implementing an airflow reduction strategy.
Its important to note that the makeup air system and exhaust systems will continue to operate
at their normal levels. This is usually necessary for safety considerations although there may
be certain types of cleanrooms where these systems airflow could be reduced as well. A review
of system effects should be performed to ensure that desired pressurization levels can be
achieved with any reduction of cleanroom airflow.
Consideration of process equipment heat loads may limit the amount of airflow reduction.
Airflow could be separately controlled to provide adequate airflow for heat removal, or simply
set to always provide adequate airflow.
10
The figure above shows the reduction in fan power for a cleanroom where a timer was used to
set back airflow when the cleanroom was unoccupied at night and on weekends. The air
change rate was reduced from 594 ACH to 371 ACH to achieve this reduction. Another case
study showed similar reduction in fan power as shown in Figure 3 below.
FIGURE 2
MEASURED RECIRCULATION
AIR HANDLER POWER REDUCTION
2
FIGURE 3
FAN-FILTERED RECIRCULATION FAN
POWER REDUCTION IN FACILITY K
3
11
RELATED CHAPTERS
Recirculation Air System Types
Fan-filter Units
Air Change Rates
REFERENCES
1) LBNL/Rumsey Engineers Cleanroom Benchmarking Study
2) ibid
3) ibid
RESOURCES
Tschudi, William; Faulkner, David; Hebert, Allan; Energy Efficiency Strategies for
Cleanrooms Without Compromising Environmental Conditions ASHRAE Symposium,
June 2005.
Xu, Tim, Performance Evaluation of Cleanroom Environmental Systems, Journal of the
IEST, Volume 46, August 2003.
Jaisinghani, Raj, New ways of thinking about air handling, Cleanrooms magazine,
January 2001.
Faulkner, D., Fisk, W. J., and Walton, T.. Energy Savings in Cleanrooms From
Demand-controlled Filtration. LBNL-38869.
12
3. DUAL TEMPERATURE CHILLED WATER LOOPS
Chiller energy can account for
10 to 20% of total cleanroom
energy use. The majority of annual
chilled water use goes to medium
temperature chilled water
requirements 55F for sensible
cooling and 60 to 70F for process
cooling loads. When outside air
temperatures are cool and
humidity is low (i.e., no
low-temperature water is needed
for dehumidification), 100% of
the chilled water is for medium
temperature loop uses.
Standard cleanroom chiller plant design provides chilled water at temperatures of 39 to 42F.
While this temperature is needed for dehumidification, the low setpoint imposes an efficiency
penalty on the chillers. Typically, heat exchangers and/or mixing loops are used to convert the
low temperature, energy intensive chilled water into warmer chilled water temperatures for
sensible or process cooling loads.
Chiller efficiency is a function of the chilled water supply temperature. All other things equal,
higher chilled water temperatures result in improved chiller efficiency. For example, by
dedicating a chiller in a dual chiller plant to provide chilled water at 55F, 20 to 40% of
chiller energy and peak power can be saved when compared to both chillers operating at 42F.
PRINCIPLES
Chiller work is proportional to the vapor pressure work of the compressor this work is
lowered if chilled water temperatures are raised and/or condenser water temperatures are
lowered.
Because of less compressor work, medium temperature chillers have smaller compressors
and are thus lower in cost on a dollars per ton and electrical infrastructure basis as com-
pared to chillers delivering standard lower chilled water temperatures.
The majority of cleanroom chilled water requirements are best served by medium tempera-
ture, 55 to 70F chilled water.
FIGURE 1
TYPICAL CENTRIFUGAL CHILLER UNIT
FIGURE 2
CHILLER EFFICIENCY
13
APPROACH
Cleanroom facilities usually have a number of medium temperature loops required by the
industrial processes. Recirculation cooling may be supplied by coils that use mixing stations
to supply a non-condensing 55F water temperature and a process cooling water loop would
utilize a heat-exchanger to create water between 60 and 70F. Energy savings are realized not
by creating medium temperature demands, but by designing a system that creates medium
temperature water directly without wasting energy intensive low temperature water.
Cleanroom facilities typically need low temperature water only to handle peak outside air
loads. Peak loads by definition occur 2 to 5% of the time in a year. For example, an outdoor
air drybulb (DB) temperature of 95F is used for design conditions, but 24-hour operating
conditions may be at an average outside air temperature of 70F DB. Typically, make up air
conditioning accounts for 2530% of the chilled water load, while recirculation air and
process cooling loads account for 6070%. See Figure 3.
Chiller efficiency is directly impacted by the chilled water supply temperature chillers
operate most efficiently when the temperature lift (the difference in temperature between the
evaporator and the condenser) is minimized. The magnitude of the lift is proportional to the
difference between the chilled water supply temperature and condenser water supply
temperature. The lift is reduced if either the condenser water supply temperature is reduced
or if the chilled water supply temperature is increased. Therefore, if the medium temperature
water loads can be served by a chiller operating at the required medium supply temperature,
the chiller energy required will be reduced significantly over a low temperature chiller with
mixing loop or heat-exchanger.
FIGURE 3
COMPARISON OF DESIGN VERSUS
ACTUAL OPERATING CHILLED WATER
LOADS FOR A 13,000 SF
CLEANROOM FACILITY
14
Figure 4 compares the chiller operating curves of the same chiller at two different chilled
water supply temperatures with a constant condenser water supply temperature. The entire
operating range of the chiller with 60F chilled water temperature is vastly more efficient than
the chiller operating at 42F as shown in Figure 4. The energy savings of the chiller operating
at 60F are 40% over the entire load range. In a well-configured and controlled system, there
will also be condenser pump and tower savings (both first-cost and operating cost), since the
more-efficient chiller has less total heat to reject.
A common first-cost challenge is economically providing redundancy. While the savings
possible from implementing a medium temperature chiller loop can usually justify additional
backup equipment, careful plant layout and design can allow the same chiller to provide
backup to the low temperature and the medium temperature loop providing redundancy at
about the same cost as a standard single temperature plant. The redundant chiller should be
sized and piped to provide either low temperature or medium temperature water (see Figure 5)
as required. Selecting the backup chiller without a variable frequency drive (VFD) can help to
lower the initial cost. However, the decision to select a variable frequency driven chiller as the
backup should be based on the anticipated runtime of the chiller, and whether or not the
chiller needs to be rotated into the normal operating schedule.
A medium temperature loop also greatly expands the potential for free cooling, which is when
the cooling tower is utilized to produce chilled water. Cooling towers sized for an approach
temperature of 5 to 8F can be utilized to produce chilled water at 55F for much of the year,
particularly at night in moderate and dry climate zones such as in California and Arizona.
There is better system redundancy in a dual temperature chilled water loop system as
compared to a low temperature chilled water loop system that provides cooling for sensible
and process loads. Failures can be caused by controls of the temperature loops, automated
valves and fouling of the heat exchangers, which exist in greater abundance in a low
temperature chilled water loop system.
FIGURE 4
COMPARISON OF LOW TEMPERATURE
AND MEDIUM TEMPERATURE
WATER-COOLED CHILLERS
15
A dual temperature chilled water loop system was measured at a 4,200 sf cleanroom facility
(referred to as Facility G) in a recent benchmarking study. The medium temperature loop was
providing 1,300 tons of cooling to sensible cooling air handler coils and process cooling at a
water supply temperature of 48F. The low temperature loop was providing 1,200 tons of
cooling to the makeup air handlers at a water supply temperature of 42F.
The medium temperature water-cooled chillers and the low temperature water-cooled chillers
had an operating efficiency of 0.57 kW/ton and 0.66 kW/ton, respectively. The medium
temperature chillers were running at about 14% better in efficiency due to a chilled water
temperature difference of only 6F.
In a pilot project for a multiple cleanroom building campus, implementation of a dual
temperature chilled water system was analyzed. The cleanroom facility required 3,900 tons of
cooling: 2,370 tons of makeup air cooling, and 1,530 tons of sensible and process cooling. By
providing 42F temperature water for low temperature use and 55F for medium temperature
use, approximately $1,000,000 would be saved per year (electricity rate of $0.13/kWh).
The cost of implementing this was $2,000,000 with a payback of only 2 years.
RELATED CHAPTERS
Waterside Free Cooling
REFERENCES
2) The chiller efficiency reported is based on manufacturers simulated data of the same
chiller. The water-cooled chiller was simulated running at 100% full load and had a
condenser water supply temperature 70F in both cases.
RESOURCES
http://hightech.lbl.gov/cleanrooms.html
FIGURE 5
CONFIGURATION OF CHILLERS
FOR A DUAL TEMPERATURE
CHILLED WATER LOOP SYSTEM
16
4. EXHAUST OPTIMIZATION
Exhaust airflow rates are typically
dictated by process equipment exhaust
specifications. Equipment manufacturers
suggested exhaust quantities have been
found to be overstated. For example, a
recent study by International Sematech
found that exhaust airflows could be
reduced in four devices typically found in
semiconductor cleanrooms: wet benches,
gas cabinets, ion implanters and vertical
furnaces. The results of the study reported
that a reduction of total exhaust airflow
by 28% exists among the four devices
tested. The same study, which measured
fume capture and containment
effectiveness, found one piece of
equipment where an increased
exhaust rate was required to maintain
safe containment.
PRINCIPLES
All air exhausted from a cleanroom has to be replaced by conditioned and filtered makeup air.
For a cleanroom facility operating 24 hours a day, costs for exhaust air range from
$3 to $5 per cubic feet per minute (cfm) annually.
Building and fire codes require minimum amounts of exhaust for some types of cleanrooms.
For example, the Uniform Building Codes H6 classification, which covers many common
semiconductor cleanroom spaces, requires a minimum of 1 cfm per square foot (sf) of
outside air.
APPROACH
Exhaust systems are provided for a variety of reasons. In most industrial cleanrooms, exhaust
design is driven by the need to protect occupants from hazardous fumes generated by or in
process equipment, or to remove heat generated by equipment located in the workspace.
The first type of exhaust system usually involves the use of fume hoods, wet benches, or
equipment-integrated process equipment fume capture systems. The fundamental approach to
exhaust optimization must be to verify and improve the safety of workers in the cleanroom.
FIGURE 1
CHEMICAL EXHAUST STACK
17
Often, manufacturer recommendations for exhaust airflow rates are significantly overstated
and/or based on a crude face velocity approach to estimating exhaust rates required for
containment. Good practice suggests using direct measurements of the containment to set
the exhaust rate. Methods such as tracer gas testing verify and document a safe operating
condition, resulting in safer use. Studies indicate that proper optimization typically lowers
overall facility exhaust flow rates, resulting in energy savings in addition to the safety benefits.
Conditioning makeup air for a cleanroom is expensive. Makeup air goes through several
processes before it can be delivered to a cleanroom. Dependent on the space setpoints and the
outside climate, the air has to be filtered, heated, cooled, pressurized by a fan, dehumidified
and/or humidified. Each CFM of makeup air also results in a CFM of exhaust, which may
require treatment before being released. The $3 to $5/cfm energy cost estimate for exhaust air
takes into consideration energy for exhaust/scrubber fans and makeup air. Actual annual
energy costs vary depending on climate, utility costs, and the efficiency of the air handling
systems.
Following are examples of devices found in a cleanroom that can be targeted to reduce the
amount of energy-intensive make-up/exhaust air required. In these examples, most of the
recommendations require operating the devices below the levels found in the Environmental,
Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines for Semiconductor Manufacturing Equipment. In all
cases, proper measurement of the equipment under its actual operating conditions is required
to ensure and enhance operator safety. Case studies have shown that worker safety can typically
be verified at rates of exhaust below manufacturers standard ratings. This highlights that
industry guidance and regulatory rules of thumb may be able to be relaxed provided there is
adequate alternative scientific evaluation.
WET BENCHES
Wet benches are stations for wet etching and cleaning of wafers and devices. Products are
automatically processed by being dipped and agitated inside a bath. Exhaust air travels across
the surface of the bath to pull away toxic gases generated at the bench. Many wet bench
manufacturers use a general standard of 135180 standard cfm (scfm) of exhaust per linear
foot of wet bench. The EHS guidelines recommend maintaining a wet bench face velocity
between 40100 feet per minute (fpm).
GAS CABINETS
Gas cabinets are designed to maintain a face velocity across the access window, similar to
that of a fume hood. A static pressure sensor typically maintains the face velocity to ensure
a safe working environment. A baffled bypass that allows for a fixed amount of airflow to be
exhausted is also a component of a gas cabinet.
A reduction in energy consumption of a gas cabinet can be achieved by eliminating the bypass
airways and actively controlling the airflow via a damper based on a static pressure sensor.
Once the door is opened on a gas cabinet, the exhaust flow would be increased to what would
be required to provide the adequate face velocity. Similarly, when the door on the cabinet is
19
closed the exhaust flow would be reduced to maintain a fixed volume of airflow corresponding
to a static pressure setpoint via a volume damper.
ION IMPLANTERS
Ion implanters typically consist of enclosures for gas delivery systems and mechanical
equipment. Exhaust for the gas delivery systems is provided for safety. Exhaust is provided
for mechanical equipment, such as a vacuum pump, and electrical devices for heat removal.
VERTICAL FURNACE
A vertical furnace has multiple locations where exhaust is required. Typically, a vertical
furnace consists of an oven chamber; gas distribution panel (gas jungle); liquid chemical
distribution system; and a material handling chamber for automated wafer loading,
processing, and unloading.
FUME HOODS
Ty p i c a l l y, fume hoods use a variable volume and exhaust system, although low face velocity,
constant volume hoods can offer the same benefits. A 25% reduction in average exhaust airflow
(using a variable air volume system) results in about a 58% reduction in the fan power
required. Significant additional energy savings are realized by a 25% reduction in the air that is
conditioned. Savings from VAV fume hoods are heavily dependent on the fume hood operators
understanding and respecting the benefits of closing the sash when the hood is not in use.
The Berkeley fume hood developed by LBNL also allows for a significant reduction in exhaust
air. Tracer gas testing comparing the LBNL hood to a standard fume hood has shown that
improved containment can be achieved with a 50% reduction in exhaust airflow.
BENCHMARKING FINDINGS/CASE STUDIES)
International Sematech evaluated exhaust flows for four semiconductor process tools a gas
cabinet, an ion implant tool, a wet bench, and a vertical furnace at Hewlett Packards
Corvallis, Oregon site.
1
The Sematech study focused on optimizing exhaust airflows for the
semiconductor process tools while documenting via tracer gas testing no change or an
improvement in worker safety. The four tools combined resulted in an exhaust airflow
reduction of 28%, from 2,994 scfm to 2,146 scfm. At an estimated $4/cfm of exhaust, over
$3,300 of savings could be realized per year. Optimization of exhaust for these types of tools at
a typical semiconductor facility could amount to a savings of more than $33,000 per year.
The wet bench in the study had a width of 35 inches. The recommended exhaust flow based on
manufacturers standards would be 394525 scfm. This particular bench was operating at 574
scfm and 111 fpm. During optimization, the wet bench exhaust airflow was reduced by 54%.
The corresponding face velocity was 66 sfpm, which was well above the face velocity
recommended by the EHS guidelines. Most importantly, the wet bench was able to maintain
the concentration levels of the gases exhausted.
Testing on a gas cabinet showed that the cabinet was already safely operating at a closed access
door flow rate 60% below the manufacturers recommend airflow. The airflow and face velocity
21
of the gas cabinet were only marginally above the limits required by the local codes, so
additional savings were deemed not worth pursuing. Local code and site requirements for face
velocity across an open access window do not prohibit turndown during the most common
closed-window operating condition. The airflow quantity with the access window closed and
the bypass damper closed was expected to be significantly less than when the bypass damper
was opened, yet the position of the bypass damper had a negligible impact on the exhaust flow.
It was discovered that air was being bypassed through gaps between the filter and door, and
also in holes used to route sensor cables and purge lines. With these gaps properly sealed, an
estimated 58% savings in exhaust flow could be achieved by reducing flow further in the
normal, closed operating condition.
The ion implant tool in this test had three locations where exhaust was required.
The manufacturer recommended 500 cfm for each exhaust location. As a result of the tracer
gas testing, the exhaust quantity for the gas cabinet was increased to improve the capture
efficiency of the box in case of a gas leak. Overall, the exhaust airflows were reduced from
1,612 scfm to 1,232 scfm.
Exhaust reductions were made on a vertical furnace to the oven chamber, and gas distribution
panel. The material handling chamber and liquid chemical distribution system were operating
at the correct exhaust quantities; therefore, no changes were made.
REFERENCES
1) Exhaust Optimization Studies on Four Process Tools at Hewlett Packards Corvallis Site,
Technology Transfer #01034098A-TR, International Sematech, 2001.
RESOURCES
Lee, Eng Lock; Rumsey, Peter; Sartor, Dale and Weale, John, Laboratory Low-Pressure Drop
Design, ASHRAE Journal, August 2002.
FIGURE 2
SUMMARY OF INTERNATIONAL SEMATECH
EXHAUST OPTIMIZATION STUDY
20
5. FAN-FILTER UNITS
The HVAC systems in cleanrooms may use 50 percent or more of the total cleanroom energy
use. Fan energy use accounts for a significant portion (e.g., over 50%) of the HVAC energy
use in cleanrooms such as ISO Classes 3, 4, or 5. Three types of air handling systems for
recirculating airflows are commonly used in cleanrooms: 1) fan tower systems with pressurized
plenum, 2) ducted HEPA systems with distributed fans, and 3) systems with fan-filter units
(FFUs). Because energy efficiency of the recirculation systems could vary significantly from
system type to system type, optimizing aerodynamic performance in air recirculation systems
appears to be a useful approach to improve energy efficiency in cleanrooms.
Providing optimal airflows through careful planning, design and operation, including air
change rate, airflow uniformity, and airflow speed, is important for controlling particle
contamination in cleanrooms. In practice, the use of FFUs in the air handling system is
becoming more and more popular because of this type of system may offer a number of
advantages. Often more modular and portable than traditional recirculation airflow systems,
FFUs are easier to install, and can be easily controlled and monitored to maintain filtration
performance. Energy efficiency of air handling systems using fan filter units can, however, be
lower than their counterparts and may vary significantly from system to system because of the
difference in energy performance, airflow paths, and the operating conditions of FFUs.
PRINCIPLES
An FFU usually consists of a small fan, controller, and a HEPA/ULPA filter enclosed in a box,
which fits into common cleanroom ceiling grids, typically 2x4 ft or 4x4 ft. The small fans
force air through filters and thereby consume considerable energy in providing cleanroom
air recirculation.
FIGURE 1
FAN-FILTER UNIT
21
FFU systems are required for many specific applications; however, FFU systems tend to
be less energy-efficient than pressurized plenum systems for recirculating air in a cleanroom
(Figure 2).
APPROACH
Fan power is proportional to the cube of airflow rate or airflow speed. A reduction in the air
change rate by 10% may result in a power reduction of approximately 27%. Providing the
flexibility of speed control for the unit may help to improve energy efficiency of the units in
operation.
Energy efficiency of FFU systems can vary significantly from system to system. There are many
factors contributing to the overall efficiency. These factors include the size and layout of the
overall recirculation systems, the efficiency of individual fans and fan filter units, the
controllability of the airflows, and pressures in the air systems.
FFU applications in recirculation air systems are becoming more popular in cleanrooms and
minienvironments. The energy efficiency and airflow performance of such systems can vary
significantly.
The design and layout of air delivery systems for air cooling has a significant effect on the
overall energy efficiency of the whole air recirculation system using FFUs. In addition, an
important step to improve FFU system efficiency is to use and install energy efficient FFUs in
cleanrooms or minienvironments. Selecting energy efficient FFUs is critical because they tend
to be more efficient under a range of typical operating conditions compared with less efficient
ones. At the same time, it is critical that users understand and optimize the operating
conditions by monitoring and controlling the FFU systems so that maximal energy
efficiency can be achieved while maintaining effective contamination control.
FIGURE 2
ENERGY EFFICIENCY OR AIR
RECIRCULATION SYSTEMS
22
For best practice, users and designers should require certain efficiency criteria for the FFUs
during the planning, designing, and construction process. Owners should require that
suppliers provide energy performance information of the units, along with other performance
data such as particle filtration and noise. The energy performance data should be based upon
a uniform laboratory testing method developed by LBNL and IEST. Using this method, users
may be able to select the units that are more efficient and functional. Figure 3 indicates that
total efficiency of FFUs varied from unit to unit and from operating condition to operating
condition based upon a same test method in laboratory settings. Under certain conditions,
some of the FFUs may or may not be able to perform, i.e., to provide certain pressure rise that
is needed to overcome system resistance. The relative magnitude of performance variations is
so significant that it is important to select an efficient and functional unit based upon the
laboratory testing and design and operating conditions.
The best practice for FFUs is to adopt FFUs with higher efficiency, and optimize the operation
and control of such systems so that maximal efficiency can be achieved. In some industries,
such as biotechnology and pharmaceutical areas, cleanrooms are commonly designed to
follow current good manufacturing practice (cGMP). For example, higher airflow speeds are
recommended (e.g., 90 fpm) for air recirculation in cleanrooms. In these applications, best
practice to lower airflow or air change rates could be feasible but would be challenging. In any
case, improving the efficiency of FFU systems operating at the airflow speeds at the higher level
can result in more energy savings, however. Variable speed drives (VSDs) should be used with
fan filter units to provide flexibility and efficiency.
Effective best practice would be to require provisions of performance data such as power
consumption and airflows from suppliers. The provided information should be based upon a
consistent testing method to allow comparisons of the performance claims. This will help
users to make informed life-cycle cost comparisons.
FIGURE 3
TOTAL EFFICIENCY OF FFUS
TESTED IN LABORATORY
23
Energy efficiency of FFU systems could vary by a factor of three or more depending on the
design of cleanroom systems, operating conditions, and the units (Figure 4). For example, the
benchmarking data suggests that the efficiency of FFU systems in ISO Class 5 facilities could
range from 1276 cfm/kW to 4224 cfm/kW, with all recirculation air systems providing the
required cleanliness levels (Figure 4). In the case of 4224 cfm/kW, sensible cooling coils were
integrated with the FFU recirculation air system, which didnt require additional fans to deliver
the cooled air. The integration of sensible cooling device with the air recirculation system
significantly improved the overall air delivery efficiency of the FFU recirculation system,
compared to separating sensible cooling device that requires additional fans to deliver
cooled airflows as part of air recirculation.
On one hand, cleanroom operators may use lower an air change rate (or a lower airflow
speed) than those recommended without compromising either production or cleanliness
requirements; on the other hand, if the whole recirculation air systems can be designed,
installed, and operated with efficient units and control, the energy use for air systems can
be significantly lowered while maintaining effective contamination control. FFU systems
can individually monitor and control the fan operation and are advantageous in efficiently
achieving effective contamination control when coupling with demand control filtration.
FIGURE 4
FFU EFFICIENCY FOR ISO
CLASS 5 CLEANROOMS
2
24
RELATED CHAPTERS
Air Change Rates
Minienvironments
REFERENCES
2) ibid
RESOURCES
Xu, T. 2003. Performance Evaluation of Cleanroom Environmental Systems, Journal of
the IEST, Vol 46: 66 73. The Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST),
5005 Newport Drive, Rolling Meadows, Illinois 60008-3841, USA.
Xu, T. 2004. Efficient Airflow Design for Cleanrooms Improves Business Bottom Lines.
Journal of the IEST, Vol. 47 (1): 24 28, Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology
(IEST), Rolling Meadows, Illinois 60008-3841, USA.
IEST. 1998. Considerations in Cleanroom Design (IEST RP-CC012.1), Institute of
Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST), Rolling Meadows, Illinois 60008-3841,
USA.
Xu, T. 2005. Laboratory Method of Testing Energy Performance of Fan-Filter Units,
Version 1.3 (2005), LBNL 54626.
IEST CC RP36.1 (Draft). Testing Fan Filter Units. Draft Recommended Practice.
The Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST), 5005 Newport Drive,
Rolling Meadows, Illinois 60008-3841, USA.
Xu, T., and M. Jeng. 2004. Laboratory Evaluation of Fan-Filter Units Aerodynamic and
Energy Performance. Journal of the IEST, Vol 47(1): 66 73. The Institute of Environmental
Sciences and Technology (IEST), 5005 Newport Drive, Rolling Meadows, Illinois 60008-
3841, USA.
Gale, S. 2004. FFUs: Setting a course for energy efficiency, Special Report, Cleanroom
Magazine, September 2004,
http://cr.pennnet.com/Articles/Article_Display.cfm?Section=Articles&Subsection=Display&Ar
ticle_ID=211810
25
6. LOW PRESSURE DROP AIR SYSTEMS
Fan energy can account for 20 to 40% of total cleanroom energy use1. Fan energy use is
directly proportional to the pressure drop that the fan is pushing air through. Thus, the more
restrictive the supply system, the higher the pressure drop, and the higher the fan energy use.
Strategies for lowering the pressure drop include lower face velocity air handling units, low
pressure drop filters, optimized design of ducting and air paths, including open plenum and
centralized air handler types of configurations. Low pressure drop designs are applicable to
all fan systems from recirculation air handler systems to makeup air handlers. Other benefits
of low pressure drop systems are less noise, more effective dehumidification, better filter
effectiveness, and in some cases lower total first cost (when avoided electrical and noise
abatement equipment is included in the cost analysis).
FIGURE 1
RECIRCULATION AIR HANDLING SYSTEM
DESIGN SCHEMATIC AT FACILITY C
FIGURE 2
PRESSURE DROP DESIGN TARGETS
26
PRINCIPLES
Air handler system power consumption can be estimated by the equation below.
Note: efficiency is the product of the fan, motor, belt, and, where equipped, variable speed
drive efficiencies.
Pressure drop in a duct or air handler is approximately proportional to the face velocity
squared.
The pressure drop in ductwork is inversely proportional to the fifth power of the duct
diameter. For example, substituting a 16 duct for a 12 duct reduces the pressure drop
by about 75%.
APPROACH
The pressure drop of an air delivery system is the design parameter with the largest impact on
the power required by the system. Reducing pressure drop does not necessarily require new or
innovative equipment or design techniques, it simply requires making lower pressure drop
design a priority and close coordination between the mechanical engineer and the architect.
Most engineers size air handlers with a rule of thumb of 500 fpm. This saves time, but
increases cost of ownership. Below is a table illustrating the typical pressure drops found in
cleanroom recirculation air and makeup air handlers.
The air handler is the single greatest pressure drop item due to the coils and filters it contains.
To reduce the pressure drop, specify a low face velocity unit in the 250 to 450 fpm range.
The fan power requirement decreases approximately as the square of the velocity decrease.
FIGURE 3
TYPICAL RECIRCULATION AIR HANDLER
DESIGN PRESSURE DROPS
FIGURE 4
TYPICAL MAKEUP AIR HANDLER DESIGN
PRESSURE DROPS
27
The standard arguments against reducing the face velocity are usually refuted by a lifecycle
cost analysis that includes the high energy costs of a cleanroom system, the continuous
operation, and the additional first costs associated with supplying electrical, fans, motors,
drives, and silencers to higher pressure drop systems. The need for additional floor space
is a non-issue when rooftop units are used and can be mitigated through close design
coordination with the architect in most cases.
The first cost of the coil is typically only increased slightly, since the coil requires fewer rows
than in a standard air handler as illustrated in the diagram. The amount of actual coil is not
increased so much as it is simply spread out. Additional considerations are that the fan motor
size can be reduced 25 to 50% or more, which means a smaller VFD (variable frequency drive,
also known as a variable speed drive), electrical wiring and circuits; the larger filter surface
area can allow a longer change interval, reducing maintenance requirements and cost.
A full system cost analysis that looks beyond the simple air handler box often finds the cost
premium of a properly sized air handler to be negligible or even negative compared to a
typical 500 fpm face velocity system. In one cleanroom cost analysis, a lower face velocity
rooftop system was found to have a lower first cost as well as a lower operating cost due to the
downsizing of the electrical supply infrastructure that the lower power system allowed.
Lower face velocity reduces the pressure across the filters and the chances of unfiltered air leak-
ing past poor filter rack seals or tears in the media. The use of filters with lower pressure drop,
such as extended surface minipleat media, is frequently a drop-in option to reduce energy
costs. These filters also have a larger surface area and load up much more slowly.
Airflow path layout is an important factor in determining system pressure drop. For example, a
pressurized plenum configuration has lower pressure drop than a ducted HEPA configuration.
A ducted HEPA system has multiple branches tapped from a main duct to connect individual
HEPA filters. Numerous taps and the amount of smaller sized ducting in ducted HEPA systems
result in consistently high pressure drops. A pressurized plenum offers a much larger air path
by eliminating the ducting.
FIGURE 5
LOW FACE VELOCITY CONCEPT
2
28
The recirculation fan system shown above (referred to as Facility C in a recent benchmarking
study) uses VFD controlled vane axial fans to pressurize a large plenum. This design is
inherently low in pressure drop. Air return and supply are both via large plenum chambers,
under the floor and above the ceiling. The large airflow paths mean negligible pressure drops
compared to a ducted supply and/or return system. Multiple large diameter axial vane fans are
controlled by VFDs and provide optimal efficiency at the low design pressure rise of 1 w.g.
The fans run at a low rpm, so no silencers are required to maintain a low noise cleanroom
environment. The only significant pressure drop in the system is through the HEPA filters,
resulting in low required static pressure.
The design power consumption per airflow delivered from the system was 5,000 cfm/kW.
However, the system was measured as performing at an impressive 10,140 cfm/kW. The large
difference is due to the numerous design conservatisms inherent in air movement systems,
such as oversizing for future build out and the use of fully loaded filter conditions. The use of
VFD fans allowed the safety factors included to account for unpredictable system effects to be
converted into ongoing operating savings after construction. The capability to convert design
conservatism and safety factors into operational savings is a hallmark of good low pressure
drop design. Oversizing ducts rather than fans provides a safety factor on the fan size that
lowers operating costs and, in the case of makeup or ducted systems, provides far more
flexibility for future expansions.
The figure above shows the variation in performance between pressurized plenum
recirculation air systems as found in the LBNL Benchmarking project. The worst performer
was the cleanroom in Facility J at 2185 cfm/kW. The best performer was the cleanroom in
Facility C. The best performer saved 78% of the fan energy of the worst performer.
FIGURE 6
MEASURED PRESSURIZED PLENUM
RECIRCULATION AIR HANDLING
PERFORMANCE
3
29
The significant difference is due to the air pressure drop of the recirculation air handling
system. The total operating pressure drop for the recirculation fan system at Facility J was
1.9 inches w.g. as compared to 0.45 inches w.g. for Facility C.
RELATED CHAPTERS
Air Change Rates
Fan-filter Units
REFERENCES
2) Drawing courtesy of Lee Eng Lock, E-Cube, Pte. LTD. (www.eco-web.com)
RESOURCES
Xu, Tengfang, Considerations for Efficient Airflow Design in Cleanrooms, Journal of the
Xu, Tengfang, Performance Evaluation of Cleanroom Environmental Systems, Journal of
the IEST, Volume 46, August 2003.
January 2001.
http://hightech.lbl.gov/
Clean Spaces, Chapter 16, ASHRAE HVAC Applications handbook, 2003.
30
7. MINIENVIROMENTS
Cleanroom air recirculation systems typically account for a significant portion of the HVAC
energy use in cleanrooms. High electric power density is normally required for fans to deliver
large volume of airflows that were designed, supplied, recirculated, and exhausted within a
given time. With the increasing demand for specific contamination control, it is important to
optimize design of clean spaces. Best practice in cleanroom air system design includes right
sizing the systems in cleanrooms and adopting minienvironments. Implementing and
integrating minienvironments in cleanrooms can improve contamination control and save
significant energy.
PRINCIPLES
A minienvironment is a localized environment created by an enclosure to isolate a product or
process from the surrounding environment. The advantages in using minienvironments
include the following:
Minienvironments may create better contamination control and process integration.
Minienvironments may maintain better contamination control by better control of pressure
difference or through use of unidirectional airflows, e.g., cleanliness class upgrade required
for certain process.
Minienvironments may potentially reduce energy costs.
The use of fan filter units (FFU) in minienvironments is common. The energy efficiency
of such air delivery systems can vary significantly because of the difference in energy
performance, airflow paths, and operating conditions. Simply adding minienvironments with
fan filter units in an existing cleanroom will increase power density and energy intensity for
delivering airflow in the space served, if everything else is unchanged. However, by considering
contamination control requirements in the various spaces minienvironments can be integrated
with the surrounding cleanroom to optimize the overall electric power demand for the facility
and to achieve specific cleanliness in each area. In addition, selecting energy efficient
minienvironment systems will further improve the overall energy efficiency of the clean spaces.
APPROACH
Although minienvironments are becoming more popular, their energy and airflow
performance can vary significantly. Owners, designers, suppliers and operators need to
best use resources to determine the adoption of minienvironments, their integration with
surrounding cleanroom spaces, and optimize the design, control, and installation of the
minienvironments. Best practice with regard to improving energy efficient cleanrooms and
minienvironments includes the following:
Determine the cleanliness requirements for contamination control for both
31
minienvironments and the surrounding cleanroom. For example, cleanliness levels do not
need to be more stringent than the process occurring in the cleanroom requires.
Use computation fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling and particle count monitoring or
experiment to assist in the design process.
Determine the airflow velocities as well as air change rates. Using optimal air change
rates will allow designers to lower construction costs as well as to reduce energy costs while
maintaining the high level of air cleanliness that is required in cleanroom facilities. Often
in minievironements, what is needed is a positive pressure relative to the surrounding spaces
and high airflows through the minienvironment are not necessarily required.
Improve efficiency of the minienvironment systems and design, including using
energy-efficient fan filter units and better controls.
Optimize airflow rates of the surrounding cleanroom areas and where possible, reduce
airflow rates whenever feasible.
Performance data from a case study on one minienvironment suggests that within the range
of airflow speeds measured, the electric power density (in W/sf) of a minienvironment
generally increased with the increase of airflow speeds (Figure 1). This trend was affected
by the operating performance of the controller and the airflow rates. For example, the
electric power density reached a maximal value when the airflow speed of the FFU reached
95 fpm, and it decreased with the increase of airflow speeds beyond 95 fpm while inside
its operating range.
FIGURE 1
POWER DENSITY AND AIRFLOW SPEEDS
FOR A MINIENVIRONMENTS UNDER
DIFFERENT OPERATION
32
Performance data from a case study on five operating minienvironments suggests that
within the range of airflow speeds measured (50 fpm?100 fpm), the electric power density
of these minienvironments typically increased with the increase of airflow speeds within each
minienvironment (Figure 2).
Corresponding to the operating airflow speeds that ranged from 50 fpm to 100 fpm, and power
density of the minienvironments ranged from 26 W/sf to 32 W/sf with an average of 28 W/sf
(Figure 3). Lower power density generally indicates better energy performance to achieve the
desired cleanliness within the minienvironments.
Best practice should consider implementing minienvironments in cleanrooms during
planning and design stages of a project, whenever such an option presents a good solution to
contamination control. Because of the much smaller minienvironment volume compared to
that of full-scale cleanrooms (e.g., ballroom), the airflow rate and the electric power required
for a minienvironment can be significantly reduced. Furthermore, lowering electric power
density in cleanrooms, by integrating minienvironments will significantly reduce energy use
for the whole facility. In the case study, power density of air recirculation systems in the ISO
Class 4 cleanroom was measured as 10 W/sf, in which a number of minienvironments were
located (Figure 2). This was lower compared to the group of ISO Cleanliness Class 4
cleanrooms with a range of 16 to 38 W/sf in a previous study
1
. In summary, in order to create
opportunities for a significant overall energy savings, best practice should include measures to
reduce fan power for both minienvironments and the cleanrooms that contain them. Reducing
the fan power density as well as optimizing the floor area of the minienvironments and
cleanrooms will lead to overall energy savings. Specifically, best practice to reduce electric
power density of minienvironments may include the following:
FIGURE 2
POWER DENSITY AND AIRFLOW SPEEDS
FOR VARIOUS MINIENVIRONMENTS INSIDE
A CLEANROOM
33
Optimize (e.g., reduce) the airflow speeds and/or pressure inside the minienvironment.
Improve the energy efficiency of the air systems, e.g., choose an efficient FFU, for the
minienvironment.
In addition, as part of integrating minienvironments to cleanroom spaces, best practice to
reduce overall electric power density is to reduce power density of the primary cleanroom
surrounding the minienvironments. The following enlist some of the best practice approaches:
Optimize airflow rates and air change rates, e.g., reduce airflow speeds in the cleanroom.
Select the right type and size of air handling unit for recirculation.
Optimize exhaust and make up air systems.
Adopt variable speed drive motors in air systems.
Minimize system pressure drop.
RELATED CHAPTERS
Air Change Rates
Fan Filter Units
REFERENCES
1) Xu, T., and M. Jeng. 2004. Laboratory Evaluation of Fan filter Units Aerodynamic and
Energy Performance. Journal of the IEST, Vol 47(1): 66 73. The Institute of Environmental
Sciences and Technology (IEST), Rolling Meadows, Illinois 60008-3841, USA.
RESOURCES
Tannous, G. 1996. Air Flow Simulation in a Minienvironment, Solid State Technology, July
1996, pp. 201-207.
Tannous, G. 1997. Optimization of a minienvironment design using computational fluid
dynamics. Journal of the IEST, Vol. 40 (1): 29 34.
Rothman, L., R. Miller, R. Wang, T. Baechle, S. Silverman; and D. Cooper. 1995. SEMATECH
minienvironment benchmarking project. Journal of the IEST, May/Jun 1995, Vol. 38 (3): 36 41.
Xu, T. 2005. Investigating the Performance of a Minienvironment System. Proceedings of
51st ESTECH Conference, Schaumburg, Illinois, The Institute of Environmental Sciences
and Technology (IEST). LBNL Report, LBNL 56767.
Xu, T. 2005. Opportunities for Sustainable Design and Operation of Clean Spaces: A Case
Study on Minienvironment System Performance. Final Report to California Energy
Commission, LBNL 56312. May 2005.
34
Xu, T. 2005. Energy Implications of Minienvironments in Clean Spaces: A Case Study on
Minienvironment Energy End use and Performance. Final Report to California Energy
Commission, LBNL 57503 (draft).
Xu, T. 2004. Efficient Airflow Design for Cleanrooms Improves Business Bottom Lines.
Journal of the IEST, Vol. 47 (1): 24 28, Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology
(IEST), Rolling Meadows, Illinois 60008-3841, USA.
Gale, S. 2004. FFUs: Setting a course for energy efficiency, Special Report, Cleanroom
Magazine, September 2004,
http://cr.pennnet.com/Articles/Article_Display.cfm?Section=Articles&Subsection=Display&Ar
ticle_ID=211810
The Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST). 1998. IEST RP CC012.1:
Considerations for Cleanroom Design. Handbook of Recommended Practices,
Contamination Control Division. Rolling Meadows, IL 60008-3841, USA.
The Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST). 2002. IEST RP CC028.1:
Minienvironments. Handbook of Recommended Practices, Contamination Control Division.
Rolling Meadows, IL 60008-3841, USA.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 2004. ISO 14644 7, Cleanrooms and
associate controlled environments - Part 7: Separative Devices (clean air hoods, gloveboxes,
isolators and minienvironments). The Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology
(IEST). Rolling Meadows, IL 60008-3841, USA.
35
8. RECIRCULATION AIR SYSTEM TYPES
Recirculation air handler fan energy can account for 10 to 30% of total cleanroom energy use
1
.
There are three fundamental recirculation system configurations: fan filter unit (FFU), ducted
HEPA, and pressurized plenum. The selection of the system configuration is usually dictated by
building configuration, initial investment cost, and constructability.
The LBNL Benchmarking project measured the performance of a number of operating
installations of each air handling configuration and found the pressurized plenum design to
be the most efficient for class 10 and 100 cleanrooms. Pressurized plenum cleanrooms per-
formed the best due to the low pressure drop of the supply and return air paths. Within all
system configurations, a large variation in efficiencies was seen; regardless of the
FIGURE 1
EXAMPLES OF CLEANROOM
CONFIGURATIONS (MUAH-MAKEUP
AIR HANDLER, RCU-RECIRCULATION
AIR UNIT, OSA-OUTSIDE AIR)
FIGURE 2
AVERAGE MEASURED EFFICIENCY OF
RECIRCULATION SYSTEM TYPES
2
36
configuration selected, there are many opportunities to reduce the energy usage by over
50% compared to the average for that system configuration. When determining the
efficiency of a recirculation air system, the fan energy used to provide sensible cooling
also must be considered.
PRINCIPLES
The recirculation system efficiency equation is:
Low fan power consumption is predominantly influenced by low pressure drop
(see Low Pressure Drop Air Systems chapter). All system configurations have been seen to
realize large energy savings from low pressure drop design.
Fan and motor efficiency becomes important only when taken to the extreme of small
motors and fans, such as used in 2 x 4 FFU modules.
APPROACH
Initial investment cost, site limitations imposed by the building layout, long term
maintenance, and energy efficiency all must be considered when evaluating the recirculation
air configuration for a cleanroom facility. Data shows that a pressurized plenum system design
can be the best energy performer of the three fundamental system types, however care must be
taken in the initial design effort to properly implement it. In all systems, low pressure drop
design can yield significant energy savings.
Low pressure drop design is key to an efficient system. The pressure drops in the return air path
as well as through the air handler or fan filter are the main determinants of performance. The
use of deeper filters in air handlers and the ceiling operating at lower face velocities lower the
total pressure drop regardless of the recirculation system type. Deeper filters with lower pressure
drops result in energy savings and can allow the downsizing of fans. Increasing the surface
area of HEPA or ULPA filters in a ceiling also results in energy savings if the face velocity is
then reduced. Utilizing plenum returns typically allows far lower velocities and pressure drops
than ducted systems, regardless of system configuration. A low pressure drop sensible cooling
solution also is critical to maximize system efficiency. Very low face velocity coils with a low
row count were implemented successfully to keep coil pressure drops to 0.20 inches w.g. (water
gauge) or lower in both pressurized plenum and FFU configurations.
Fan and motor efficiency also play a notable secondary role in the total system efficiency.
FFU cleanrooms consist of many small individual fans. Small fans and motors are inherently
inefficient when compared to larger fans, causing poor performance in even some low pressure
drop FFU cleanroom configurations. The use of larger FFU modules, such as 4 by 4, can
allow the use of more efficient fans and result in significantly more efficient systems.
37
Variable flow capability is highly recommended to allow for implementation of active flow
control and/or off hours setback if the space is ever unoccupied (without people in the space,
airflow rates can often be reduced without impacting the cleanliness of the space). Speed
controlled recirculation fans or FFUs can operate the cleanroom at lower HEPA face velocities,
lowering pressure drop and therefore lowering the power cost per cfm. (See Demand Controlled
Filtration chapter).
Another key consideration is cleanroom flexibility. The ability to target specific cleanroom
areas for higher levels of HEPA flow is often desired. For example, providing higher coverage
near the access doors of minienviroments or over aisles. FFUs tend to be favored for their
flexibility, but ducted HEPA systems and pressurized plenums can also provide flexibility,
requiring only the rearrangement of the non-powered filter and blank off panels in the
ceiling grid. FFUs do tend to be able to operate with lower plenum height requirements than
a pressurized plenum or ducted HEPA system, although in bay and chase systems the height
requirements can be equivalent.
FFU and pressurized plenum cleanrooms require sensible cooling to be either provided by
cooling coils located in the recirculation air path, or by air handlers. In many benchmarked
sites, the FFUs were found to be efficient, but the sensible air handler was inefficient, thus
compromising the efficiency of the whole system. The most efficient FFU systems were in
cleanrooms where the coils were large and were in the return air path, providing low pressure
drop cooling that utilized only the FFUs built in fans.
The figure above shows the variation in performance between the three fundamental
recirculation system types in the LBNL Benchmarking project. The FFU cleanrooms were
measured to have similar performance as the ducted HEPA cleanrooms. The most energy
FIGURE 3
MEASURED RECIRCULATION AIR
HANDLING PERFORMANCE FOR ISO
CLASS 4 THROUGH ISO CLASS 7
CLEANROOMS
3
38
efficient systems were the pressurized plenum configured cleanrooms, which had an average
efficiency more than double of the FFU and ducted HEPA cleanrooms. However, the best
FFU arrangement, which utilized plenum return with integrated low face velocity sensible
cooling coils, performed better than some of the pressurized plenum cleanrooms. If a FFU
configuration is dictated by other design factors, careful design can result in a system that is
two to four times more efficient than a typical FFU system.
The layout of the best FFU cleanroom (referred to as facility G) measured in the LBNL
Benchmarking project is shown in Figure 5. The recirculation air handling efficiency for this
4,200 sf cleanroom was 4,224 cfm/kW.
The recirculation fan system measured in a cleanroom referred to as Facility C uses VFD
(variable frequency drive also known as variable speed drive) controlled axial fans to
pressurize a plenum with a raised floor and through-chase return. This design is inherently
low in pressure drop. Air return and supply are both via large plenum chambers, under the
floor and above the ceiling. The large airflow paths mean negligible pressure drops compared
to a ducted supply and/or return system. Multiple large diameter axial vane fans are controlled
by VFDs with a design pressure rise of 1 w.g. At low pressure drops, axial fans are the most
efficient fan type. The only significant pressure drop in the recirculation system is through the
HEPA filters, resulting in low required static pressure. Sensible cooling was done via an air
handler; in this application low loads minimized the fan power penalty incurred by the
relatively high pressure drop sensible cooling air path. Beyond the significant energy savings
of a low pressure drop system, the low pressure drop allowed for a slower, quieter fan selection.
The design power consumption per airflow delivered from the system was 5,000 cfm/kW.
However, the system was actually performing at an impressive 10,140 cfm/kW. The large
difference is due to the numerous design conservatisms inherent in cleanroom systems, such
as oversizing for future build out, the use of fully loaded filter conditions, and estimating
poorly-defined system effects. The use of variable speed drives on all the fans in the system
allowed it to be tuned to the actual operating conditions at balance, realizing significant
efficiency benefits from the built-in surplus capacity.
FIGURE 5
FACILITY G FFU CLEANROOM LAYOUT
AND COOLING COIL IN CLEANROOM
AND INTERSTITIAL SPACE
39
RELATED CHAPTERS
Air Change Rates
Fan-filter Units
Low Pressure Drop Air Systems
REFERENCES
2) ibid
3) ibid
RESOURCES
January 2001.
IEST-RP-CC012.1, Considerations in Cleanroom Design, The Institute of Environmental
Sciences and Technology (IEST), 1993.
http://ateam.lbl.gov/cleanroom/benchmarking/index.htm.
Xu, Tengfang, Considerations for Efficient Airflow Design in Cleanrooms, Journal of the
Xu, Tengfang, Performance Evaluation of Cleanroom Environmental Systems, Journal of
the IEST, Volume 46, August 2003.
FIGURE 6
RECIRCULATION AIR
HANDLING SYSTEM DESIGN
SCHEMATIC AT FACILITY C
40
9. VACUUM PUMP OPTIMIZATION
The use of rotary vane
vacuum pumps to support a
number of different types of
process equipment is
widespread in industry.
Semiconductor cleanroom
facilities, laboratories,
pharmaceutical, and
biotech facilities rely heavily
on the use of vacuum
pumps. Vacuum pumps
typically account for
5-20% of a semiconductor
cleanroom facilitys total electricity consumption
1
. Recent advances in vacuum pump
technology have improved the efficiency of vacuum pumps by 50 to 60%. Through integration
with process controls, further savings are possible through implementation of an idle mode
when vacuum is not needed by the process. Combining best practice technology and design,
such as placing vacuum pumps close to the supported equipment, makes it possible to reduce
vacuum pump energy use by 50 to 90%. Further benefits include less noise, smaller electrical
infrastructure, and smaller central cooling equipment.
PRINCIPLES
Use of high efficiency dry vacuum pumps available on the market today can allow a
50 to 60% reduction in energy over conventional dry vacuum pumps, often through a direct
plug-in replacement.
First cost savings may be realized by reduced electrical and central plant equipment sizing
required by high efficiency dry vacuum pumps.
Turn down of vacuum pumps when the process does not require vacuum, referred to as idle
mode, can save additional energy.
APPROACH
Vacuum pump design has dramatically improved over the last few years. A high efficiency
vacuum pump should be considered during the design phase or when existing vacuum pumps
have reached the end of their life. High efficiency dry vacuum pumps, which use up to 60%
less energy than conventional dry vacuum pumps, are interchangeable with most traditional
pumps and are readily available in todays market. In new construction, the use of high
efficiency pumps throughout the project will not only reduce operating costs, but may yield
first cost savings via downsizing of the central plant equipment and the electrical
FIGURE 5
ROTARY VANE VACUUM
PUMP IN OPERATION
41
infrastructure. In a retrofit situation, the reduction on plant utilities may be able to forestall
costly central plant expansion during minor buildouts.
Variable speed capability in stand-by mode is being integrated into the design of some high
efficiency dry vacuum pumps. To implement idle mode operation, process equipment is being
supplied with the ability to send an idle signal to the vacuum pump.
High efficiency vacuum pumps also offer lower noise and vibration. Vibration is reduced due
to the lower average rotational speeds required of a high efficiency vacuum pump. Noise
levels in high efficiency vacuum pumps have been reduced by up to 65% when compared
to conventional vacuum pumps. Where low noise levels are required in the operator
environment, the lower noise operation combined with a reduced footprint design can allow
the vacuum pump to be located very close to the process, realizing additional energy savings.
Depending on the cleanroom layout, placing the pump closer to the process can require less
piping. A minimal amount of piping both upstream and downstream of the pump results in a
lower amount of work that the pump has to do since there is a lower amount of pressure drop
through the pipe. In addition, the potential for leakage and, in some cases, the total evacuated
volume is reduced.
A high efficiency vacuum pump produces less waste heat than a conventional vacuum pump
due to the reduced power consumption, requiring a lower amount of air cooling or process
cooling water (PCW). PCW removes the heat generated by a vacuum pump so that heat is
not introduced into the surrounding environment while maintaining the pump within its
operating temperature range. Whether air or PCW cooled, a reduction in waste heat reduces
the total load on the central cooling system.
Research is currently in progress on process equipment idle mode vacuum setback. Turning
the pump speed down when a particular portion of the process equipment is idle offers a large
opportunity for energy savings. Developing this capability is a joint effort between process
equipment and vacuum pump manufacturers. A robust communication link between the
process equipment and vacuum pump is necessary so that the pump can respond
instantaneously to the demand of the equipment, providing transparent operation.
The LBNL Benchmarking study included power measurements of six dry vacuum pumps
serving a semiconductor wafer etch process tool in operation. The vacuum pumps were the
conventional dry type and were being used as chamber, load lock and transfer pumps.
The data collected showed that the chambers in the process equipment tool oscillated between
being in use (on) and not being in use (off). During this time, the six vacuum pumps
continued to draw a constant amount of power. The particular chamber shown in the graph
below (chamber C) oscillated between on and off approximately every two minutes. A
high efficiency, variable-speed driven pump with idle mode capability would be well tailored to
this application. During the times when the chamber is not in use, the vacuum pump would
42
automatically adjust its speed down since a lowered amount of vacuum pressure is required.
The pump speed would immediately increase speed when the tool called for vacuum to prepare
a chamber. Process throughput would be unaffected.
The 300,000 square foot facility consisting of 100,000 sf of cleanroom space in this study had
approximately 300 conventional vacuum pumps in use. An average consumption of 3 kW was
measured per pump.
The current energy cost of the vacuum pumps is:
300 pumps X 3 kW = 900 kW
900 kW X 8,760 h/yr X 0.10 $/kWh = $788,000 per year
Potential savings of 50% = $394,000 per year
Essentially all power used is removed through the central cooling system as waste heat. A 50%
reduction in vacuum pump power usage would free up over 125 tons of cooling capacity for
additional operational savings, in excess of $100,000 in a baseline California semiconductor
facility, or to support additional facility build-out.
RELATED CHAPTERS
Dual Temperature Chilled Water Loops
Waterside Free Cooling
REFERENCES
1) International Sematech Benchmarking Study
FIGURE 2
OPERATION OF PROCESS TOOL
2
43
10. WATERSIDE FREE COOLING
Free cooling utilizes the
evaporative cooling capacity of
a cooling tower to indirectly
produce chilled water for use
in medium temperature loops,
such as process cooling loops
and sensible cooling loops.
Free cooling is best suited for
climates that have wetbulb
temperatures lower than 55F
for 3,000 or more hours per
year. It is most effectively
applied to serve process and/or
sensible cooling loops that
between 50F70F chilled
water.
PRINCIPLES
Chilled water systems use chillers that typically operate at 0.5 to 0.7 kW/ton in a partial load
regime while free cooling systems typically operate at 0.05 to 0.15 kW/ton.
A flat plate heat exchanger is used to isolate the chilled water loop from the open tower
condenser water. With few exceptions, tower water is not reliably clean enough for use
directly in the cooling loop.
The approach temperature on a cooling tower is critical for best results. A low approach
temperature on the tower is critical to achieve the highest energy savings.
A traditional chiller is used to provide cooling during hot periods and as an always-available
emergency backup. For a portion of the year, free cooling offers a non-compressor based
backup to the traditional chiller.
FIGURE 1
WATERSIDE FREE COOLING
WITH COOLING TOWER
FIGURE 2
FREE COOLING APPLICATION
44
APPROACH
Free cooling operates on the principle that during cool weather conditions, particularly at
night for 24 hour operation facilities, process cooling water can be produced by the cooling
tower alone, bypassing the energy intensive chiller entirely. Free cooling reduces or eliminates
the chillers power consumption while efficiently maintaining strict temperature and humidity
requirements. Free cooling can also offer an additional level of redundancy by providing a
non-compressor cooling solution for portions of the year.
FIGURE 3
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
FOR SAN JOSE, CALIFORNIA
FIGURE 4
FREE COOLING
LOOP SCHEMATIC
45
For application beyond medium temperature loops, use of a chilled water reset is an integral
part of optimizing free cooling. A chilled water reset increases the chilled water supply setpoint
during mild conditions when lower temperature chilled water is not required to meet cooling
needs and, conveniently, when the cooling towers are able to produce the lowest temperature
free cooling water. It is often possible to configure cooling tower systems to isolate an idle tower
during cool (far below design conditions) weather for use as a free cooling tower. A redundant
tower can also be configured to serve free cooling since a free cooling system is inherently
considered to be an intermittent cooling source.
A cooling tower utilized for free cooling should be selected to provide an approach temperature
(Leaving Tower Water Temperature minus Wet Bulb Temperature) between 5 and 8F. A lower
approach temperature generally results in a physically larger tower since more surface area in
the tower is required for the heat rejection process. A variable speed drive (VSD) for the fan
motor should be used in a free cooling tower to minimize on-off cycling and maximize
controllability to maximize energy savings.
Free cooling requires that the cooling tower produce low temperature water, often lower than a
chiller will accept for condenser water. There are two common design approaches to address
this concern. One option is to hydraulically isolate a tower and dedicate it to free cooling only.
This is the best approach, but requires careful piping configuration and control valve
placement and operation. A redundant backup tower can be provided with automatic isolation
valves and used for free cooling use. Since free cooling operates during low temperature
weather conditions, the chilled water plant load is often low enough that even non-backup
towers are available for free cooling use provided the proper automatic valving is implemented.
The other common solution is to share a single condenser water loop and towers between free
cooling and the chillers by running the loop at a low, free cooling temperature and providing a
bypass at the chillers. The chiller-side bypass is used to mix warm condenser water leaving the
chiller with the low temperature condenser water to produce a suitable condenser water supply
temperature. The bypass is controlled in a manner similar to bypasses provided at the cooling
tower to control the minimum condenser water temperature. Locating the bypass at the chiller
end of the loop instead of at the cooling tower brings low temperature water into the main
plant area, in many cases greatly reducing the cost of piping to implement free cooling.
Providing such a bypass mixing valve arrangement also ensures that starting up the chillers
during cold temperatures with a cold tower sump can be done reliably. This approach is
popular in retrofit situations or where the pipe run to the cooling towers is too long to
economically allow a second set of pipes for free cooling. Some efficiency is lost by producing
lower temperature water for the chillers than is used, but typically this is far outweighed by
the reduced chiller compressor energy consumption.
Added costs for a waterside economizer result from controls, heat exchangers, pump, and
piping. In a typical critical facilities installation, no additional cooling tower capacity is
required.
46
Both existing and new cleanroom facilities can benefit from free cooling. Cleanroom facilities
are typically designed to be able to handle a peak load. Peak loads only occur 2 to 5% of
the time in a year. Cooler weather along with lower wetbulb temperatures allow existing
facilities to retrofit chilled water plants to provide free cooling. The common use of medium
temperature process or sensible cooling loops integrates very well with free cooling. Re-piping,
particularly using the chiller-side bypass approach, and/or adding valves and controls is
usually cost effective. New facilities, on the other hand should be designed with the concept in
mind. Added cost for free cooling is minimal and paybacks are short when such a system is
accommodated in the initial design stage.
Figure 5 shows the LBNL Benchmarking project data collected on cooling towers at
participating cleanroom facilities. The efficiency of cooling towers is evaluated by comparing
the cooling tower fan energy to the chilled water system output. The cooling towers were
operating between 0.013 and 0.19 kW per ton with an average efficiency of 0.07 kW/ton.
Chillers typically operate at 0.5 to 0.7 kW/ton in a partial load regime. By using a cooling
tower operating at 0.07 kW/ton for free cooling, approximately 90% of energy can be saved
when the chillers are bypassed entirely.
The implementation of free cooling at Facility C, an 80,000 sf facility consisting of 17,000 sf
of ISO Class 5 and 6 cleanrooms was evaluated in the benchmarking study. The facility had
900 tons of installed cooling capacity and was measured to be operating at an average of
561 tons. With the excess cooling tower capacity, a heat exchanger to isolate the condenser
water from the process cooling loop, a minimal amount of piping and controls would be
required to implement free cooling. An annual energy savings of 1,140 MWh and a payback
of 1.2 years were projected.
RELATED CHAPTERS
Dual Temperature Chilled Water Loops
REFERENCES
FIGURE 5
COOLING TOWER
BENCHMARKED DATA
1
This education product was developed utilizing Energy Design Resources
funding. Energy Design Resources provides information and design tools to
architects, enginers, lighting designers, and building owners and developers.
Energy Design Resources is funded by California utility customers and
administered by Pacific Gas and Electric Company, San Diego Gas and Electric,
Southern California Edison, and Southern California Gas Company, under the
auspices of the California Public Utilities Commission. To learn more about
Energy Design Resources, visit www.energydesignresources.com.
This Design Guidelines Sourcebook was developed by Rumsey Engineers, in part,
based upon work by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory supported by the
California Energy Commission's Public Interest Energy Research program.
The following authors participated in the development of the guide. Rumsey
Engineers: Larry Chu, John Weale, Peter RumseyLawrence Berkeley National
Lab: Bill Tschudi, Steve Greenberg, David Faulkner, Tim Xu, and Dale Sartor.

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