Differential Geometry Final Report

Dierential Geometry: Final Report 13SM1109 Martin Schmidt
Dierential Geometry: Final Report

We x notation.
For f
1
,f
2
: S
1
C, dene f
1
,f
2
:=
_
S
1
f(z)g(z)dz and (f
1
,f
2
):=
1
2
f
1
,f
2
.
Set e
n
:=exp(inx) for nZ.
Exercise. (e
n
,e
m
)=
nm
:=
_
1 m=n
0 m,=n
.
Proof. We have e
n
,e
m
=
_
2
0
exp(imx)exp(inx)dx=
_
2
0
exp(i(mn)x)dx. When m=n,
we have
_
2
0
exp(0)dx=
_
2
0
1dx=2. Hence in this case, (e
n
,e
m
)=1. When m,=n, the inte-
gral evaluates to
_
1
i(mn)
exp(i(mn)x)
_
2
0
=00=0.
Exercise (Cauchy-Schwarz). Let V be an inner product space
1
. Then for all v,uV ,
[v,u[
2
|[v||u|
with equality achieved i v and u are linearly dependent.
Proof. If v =0, v and u are linearly dependent and equality holds. Suppose v ,=0. Set
w:=u
u,v
v,v
v. Then w,v=u
u,v
v,v
v,v=u,v
u,v
v,v
v,v=0 by linearity. Then w and v
are perpendicular. Since u=
u,v
v,v
v+w, they constitute the sides of a right triangle. Hence by
Pythagoras,
|u|
2
=
u,v
v,v
2
|v|
2
+|w|=
[u,v[
2
|v|
2
+|w|
2
[u,v[
2
|v|
2
Then multiplication by |v|
2
and observing the squaring function is monotone gives us the
result.
Lemma. The group algebra construction C[] : AbAlg(C) is from abelian groups to com-
mutative C-algebras is well-dened
2
.
Proof. Given GAb, dene the set C[G] :=: GC[ has nite support. Dene addi-
tion and subtraction pointwise, i.e., for ,C[G],
(+)(g):=(g)+(g) and ()(g):=(g)(g).
Multiplication is dened by convolution, i.e.,
()(g):=
hk=g
(h)(k).
1
over R or C
2
In fact, it is the free construction left adjoint to the forgetful functor U : Alg(C)Ab. However, this
result is beyond the focus of this paper.
Associativity of multiplication is shown. Given ,,C[G],
(())(g)=
hk=g
(h)()(k)
=
hk
=g
(h)
kl=k
(k)(l)
=
hkl=g
(h)(k)(l)
=
l=g
_

hk=h
(h)(k)
_
(l)
=(())(g).
Since the group operation is abelian and C is commutative multiplication is commutative.
We have
()(g)=
kh=g
(k)(h)=
hk=g
(h)(k)=()(g).
Similarly, the distributive law is veried from the distributive law in C. Let ,,C[G],
((+))(g)=
hk=g
(h)((k)+(k))
=
hk=g
(h)(k)+(h)(k)
=
hk=g
(h)(k)+
hk=g
(h)(k)
=(()+())(g).
The unit is 1: GC, 1(g):=
_
1 g =1
0 g ,=1
. Indeed, given C[G],
(1)(g)=
hk=g
1(h)(k)=1g =g.
Given C and C[G], ()(g):=((g)) yields a C-action on C[G] and showing the
C[G] is a commutative C-algebra.
Since the convolution product of group characters is the the same as the product of the group
algebra C[G], we have proved the following.
Exercise. The convolution product is commutative, associative, and distributive.
Proof. The product in an commutative C-algebra is commutative, associative, and distribu-
tive.
Let p be a prime >2. The Legendre symbol for (Z/pZ)
is dened as
_
x
p
_
:=x
p1
2
(mod p).
Exercise. The map
_
p
_
: (Z/pZ)
1, x
_
x
p
_
is an abelian group morphism.
Proof. For any abelian group G and integer n, the map ()
n
: GG, xx
n
is an abelian
group morphism. Indeed, the unit is preserved and xy (xy)
n
=x
n
y
n
since G is abelian.
Therefore ()
p1
2
: (Z/pZ)
(Z/pZ)
is an abelian group morphism. It is left to show

()
p1
2
factors through 1(Z/pZ)
, i.e., the image is contained in 1. Let x

(Z/pZ)
. Then the order of x divides p1 since the order of (Z/pZ)
is p1. So we
have
(x
p1
2
+1)
2
=2x
p1
2
+2=2(x
p1
2
+1)
Hence, in Z/pZ, either x
p1
2
+1=0 implying x
p1
2
=1 or x
p1
2
+1=2 implying x
p1
2
=1.
Cor.
_
p
_
: (Z/pZ)
1 is an epimorphism.
Proof. The kernel of
_
p
_
is a normal subgroup of (Z/pZ) with index 1 or 2. By Lagranges

theorem, the polynomial t
p1
2
1 has at most
p1
2
solutions, i.e. ker
_
p
_
has at most
p1
2
members. Hence ker
_
p
_
must have index 2, i.e., #ker
_
p
_
=
p1
2
. Hence it is an epimor-
phism.
Note that when x
p1
2
=1, x=a
2
for some a(Z/pZ)
and when x
p1
2
=1, for each a
(Z/pZ)
, x,=a
2
. This often is the denition of Legendres symbol which we show is equivalent
to the denition above.
Cor. The set map L: (Z/pZ)
1, x
_
1 a(Z/pZ)
, x=a
2
1 otherwise
is equal to
_
p
_
. In
particular, it is an abelian group morphism.
Proof. There are
p1
2
distinct quadratic residues in (Z/pZ)
. Indeed, suppose x
2
=y
2
. Then
(xy)(x+y)=0. We are in a domain, hence x=y or x=y. Therefore, the solutions to
t
p1
2
1, i.e. ker
_
p
_
, described above consist entirely of quadratic residues. Therefore,
L=
_
p
_
.
Next, let (Z/pZ)
such that log
: (Z/pZ)
Z/(p1)Z is an isomorphism. In class

we discussed the exactness of the following diagram
1
//
((Z/pZ)
)
2

//
log
(Z/pZ)
log
p
)
//
1

=
//
1
1
//
2(Z/(p1)Z)

//
Z/(p1)Z

//
Z/2Z
//
1
where is the unique isomorphism 10 and :=
_
p
_
. For exactness to hold, we

need the following result.
Exercise.
_
p
_
=1.
Proof. The inverse of log
is
: Z/(p1)Z(Z/pZ)
. Since
_
p
_
is an epimorphism, by
composition
_
p
_
: Z/(p1)Z1 is an epimorphism. Hence the image of the generator
1Z/(p1)Z generates 1, i.e.,
_
p
_
=1.

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Dierential Geometry: Final Report 13SM1109 Martin Schmidt

Dierential Geometry: Final Report

is an abelian group morphism. It is left to show

, i.e., the image is contained in 1. Let x

. Then the order of x divides p1 since the order of (Z/pZ)

is a normal subgroup of (Z/pZ) with index 1 or 2. By Lagranges

such that log

Z/(p1)Z is an isomorphism. In class

. For exactness to hold, we

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