International Journal of Innovative Research in Advanced Engineering (IJIRAE) ISSN: 2349-2163

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Nuclear Waste: Introduction to its Management
Snehjit J . Kumbhar

Piyush K. J aybhaye
Civil Department& Mumbai University Electrical Department &Mumbai University


Abstract Nuclear waste is a waste product containing radioactive decay material. It is usually the product of a
nuclear process such as nuclear fission, though industries not directly connected to the nuclear power industry may
also produce radioactive waste. Radioactivity diminishes over time, so in principle the waste needs to be isolated for a
period of time until it no longer poses a hazard. The main approaches to managing radioactive waste to date have
been segregation and storage for short-lived wastes, near-surface disposal for low and some intermediate level wastes,
and deep burial or transmutation for the long-lived, high-level wastes. The main objective in managing and disposing
of radioactive (or other) waste is to protect people and the environment. This study initially focused on how nuclear
power affects the surrounding environment. Also this paper presents various types of waste generation, storage and
transportation. Finally this paper demonstrates that the treatment options for nuclear waste.

Keywords nuclear, radioactive, environment, treatment, management;

I. INTRODUCTION
RADIOACTIVE WASTES ARE THE LEFTOVERS FROM THE USE OF NUCLEAR MATERIALS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF
ELECTRICITY, DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT DISEASE, AND OTHER PURPOSES. THE MATERIALS ARE EITHER NATURALLY
OCCURRING OR MAN-MADE. CERTAIN KINDS OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS, AND THE WASTES PRODUCED FROM USING
THESE MATERIALS, ARE SUBJ ECT TO REGULATORY CONTROL BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OR THE STATES. NUCLEAR
HERE IS THE TRUTH ABOUT NUCLEAR POWER AND SEVEN REASONS WHY NUCLEAR POWER IS BAD FOR THE ENVIRONMENT
AND FOR THE NATION.
Nuclear power is extremely costly. Building or restarting the number of nuclear power plants that the
industry is pushing for would cost trillions of dollars. For example, there was an estimate created by the
Florida Power and Light Company to create a new reactor plant with a price tag of between $12 and
$18 billion dollars for a single project. This sticker shock would be passed on to consumers already
struggling in a weak economy.

Nuclear Power will not reduce our Dependency on Middle East Oil Supplies: One of the arguments
used to support nuclear power is that it will reduce our oil use. This is simply not true because most of
the oil that we use is for gas in our automobiles and nuclear power has nothing to do with that since it is
producing electricity not fuel.

Nuclear Power Contaminates Water Supplies: Cases of water contamination with radioactive
substances has occurred around over a dozen different nuclear sites around the country. The process of
mining materials used in nuclear power plants such as uranium and titanium run a very high risk of
water contamination to nearby rivers and streams as well as ground water supplies.

There is No Safe Way to Mine, Store, or Process Nuclear Materials: Even though energy moguls claim
that nuclear energy is safe, the truth is that there is no guaranteed safe means for containment of
nuclear materials. The risk of an accident and exposure increase exponentially through each step in the
process of mining, transportation, storage, refinement, and use or nuclear power which then leaves you
with enormous amounts of nuclear waste that must be contained and disposed of. Every step of this
process carries great risk for the environment and the community.

Nuclear Power Will Not Reduce Carbon Emissions: While the plant itself at the point of producing
energy may not be emitting as much carbon pollution as a coal plant, it does create equal or greater
amounts of carbon emissions during the entire process leading up to that point.
Exposure to the Radioactive Material Can Be Deadly, Causing Health Problems and Cancer: Through
the history of nuclear disasters we have had a living lab to see the numbers of deaths caused by nuclear
power plants along with infertility, health problems, and deadly cancers among people in communities
even far away from the original site.
Viable Sources of Clean Renewable Energy Already Exist: We already have the technology available
for clean and renewable forms of safe energy that have lower costs than nuclear power including wind
and solar which could create thousands of new jobs, boost the economy, and give us a safer solution for
the future.
International Journal of Innovative Research in Advanced Engineering (IJIRAE) ISSN: 2349-2163
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II. TYPES OF NUCLEAR WASTE

A. Exempt waste & very low level waste
Exempt waste and very low level waste (VLLW) contains radioactive materials at a level which is not considered
harmful to people or the surrounding environment. It consists mainly of demolished material (such as concrete, plaster,
bricks, metal, valves, piping etc) produced during rehabilitation or dismantling operations on nuclear industrial sites.
Other industries, such as food processing, chemical, steel etc also produce VLLW as a result of the concentration of
natural radioactivity present in certain minerals used in their manufacturing processes (see also information page
on Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials). The waste is therefore disposed of with domestic refuse, although
countries such as France are currently developing facilities to store VLLW in specifically designed VLLW disposal
facilities.
B. Low-level waste
Low-level waste (LLW) is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. It comprises paper,
rags, tools, clothing, and filters etc, which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. It does not require
shielding during handling and transport and is suitable for shallow land burial. To reduce its volume, it is often
compacted or incinerated before disposal. It comprises some 90% of the volume but only 1% of the radioactivity of all
radioactive waste.
C. Intermediate-level waste
Intermediate-level waste (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity and some requires shielding. It typically
comprises resins, chemical sludges and metal fuel cladding, as well as contaminated materials from reactor
decommissioning. Smaller items and any non-solids may be solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal. It makes up
some 7% of the volume and has 4% of the radioactivity of all waste.
D. High-level waste
High-level waste (HLW) arises from the 'burning' of uranium fuel in a nuclear reactor. HLW contains the fission
products and transuranic elements generated in the reactor core. It is highly radioactive and hot, so requires cooling and
shielding. It can be considered as the 'ash' from 'burning' uranium. HLW accounts for over 95% of the total radioactivity
produced in the process of electricity generation. There are two distinct kinds of HLW:
Used fuel itself.
Separated waste from reprocessing the used fuel (as described in section on Managing HLW from used
fuel below).

III. STORAGE & TRANSPORTATION
The production of waste from nuclear power, its storage and handling are the great concern to public. There are three
levels of nuclear waste, low activity or low level, intermediate activity or intermediate level and high activity or high
level wastes.
A. STORAGE LOW LEVEL WASTE
Low level waste includes materials that are used to handle nuclear material such as radiation suits and laboratory
equipment. They are normally stored for up to 15 years in secure storage and then, after careful packaging they can be
disposed of as normal waste.
However, there is disagreement over the way the waste is disposed. For example, The British and Irish Governments do
not agree on the disposal of low level radioactive material in the Irish Sea.


Fig. 1 Storage of low level waste
B. STORAGE INTERMEDIATE LEVEL WASTE
These are much bulkier materials and are characterised by low heat emission. They contain metal fuel cladding, chemical
sludges and other radioactive wastes. The waste is first encased in resin or concrete and sealed in steel drums. The
drums are then packed into concrete casks and placed in concrete trenches up to 18 metres deep. When completely filled
the trenches are covered with a concrete slab, a layer of compacted clay and a reinforced concrete intrusion shield and a
final layer of clay. Deep disposal of intermediate wastes also takes place, storing the wastes in a suitable geological
formation at a depth of at least 100 metres
International Journal of Innovative Research in Advanced Engineering (IJIRAE) ISSN: 2349-2163
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Fig. 2 Storage of Intermediate waste
C. STORAGE HIGH LEVEL WASTE
High level waste is extremely radioactive and remains in this state for thousands of years. Safe and stable storage of this
type of waste is of great concern. Modern storage methods include the use of glass vitrification. This involves combining
the radioactive liquid waste with glass to form a solid compound. Because of the solid nature of the waste it is much less
likely to contaminate the surrounding area. Unlike liquid waste, it cannot leak into the ground if the stainless steel
container it is in becomes faulty. In theory, the highly radioactive waste can be stored indefinitely in deep stable
formations such as caves and caverns.

D. TRANSPORTATION OF NUCLEAR WASTE
Section 2 of the Nuclear Energy Act (990/1987) defines the transport of nuclear materials and nuclear waste as the use of
nuclear energy, thus constituting operations subject to licence. Furthermore, the requirements for export and import
licences laid down in the Nuclear Energy Act shall be taken into consideration in international transports. The Nuclear
Liability Act (484/1972) is also applied to the transport of nuclear materials and nuclear waste. Council Directive
92/3/Euratom contains regulations for transports of radioactive waste (including nuclear waste) between the Member
States of the EU and across the EU borders. Council Regulation 1493/93/Euratom contains regulations for transports of
radioactive materials between the Member States of the EU. Guide ST 5.4 deals with the advance description,
notification and approval procedures required by the above regulations. Guide YVL 6.21 issued by the Radiation and
Nuclear Safety Authority deals with the physical protection of the transports of nuclear fuel. An international agreement
named The Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (IAEA INFCIRC/274) has been concluded to
protect nuclear materials from illegal acts. The IAEA has issued a recommendation for the security arrangements of
nuclear facilities named The Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (INFCIRC/225), and it is applied to transports as
well.
The regulations concerning the transport of dangerous goods require that the following requirements be fulfilled:
The competence of the transport staff and the transport equipment meet the requirements laid down in the
regulations for the transport of dangerous goods.
The transport documents have been drawn up and the radioactive material has been packed in accordance with the
transport mode-specific regulations for dangerous goods.
The package used for transport has been fitted with labels, and the package design is approved (when this is
required) by the Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority or another authority that complies with the same regulations.
The advance notification to be supplied to the Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority has been given. (The
regulations require an advance notification when the activity of the transported material exceeds the value of 3000 A1
or the value of 3000 A2 and whenever the activity exceeds 1000 TBq.)
Furthermore, the rules and regulations concerning the use of nuclear energy or radiation require the following:
A license approved by the Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority for the transport of nuclear material or nuclear
waste;
Sufficient security and emergency arrangements;
Arrangement of the liability for nuclear damage;
An import and/or export license for nuclear material or nuclear waste for transports across Finnish borders
(including transit);
An advance description from the authority of the receiving country for transports of radioactive material within the
EU;
For transports of radioactive waste, an approval by the competent authorities of the country of origin and the
receiving country of the waste as well as of the transit countries.

International Journal of Innovative Research in Advanced Engineering (IJIRAE) ISSN: 2349-2163
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Fig. 3 Transportation of Nuclear waste
The transport of nuclear material or nuclear waste shall not begin without a transport plan approved by the
Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority. However, a transport plan is not required for such nuclear materials or
nuclear wastes that have been exempted from a licence for the transport.
In the transport plan, the licence-holder shall explain in which way the requirements stated in Section 4.2 above
are fulfilled. The plan consists of a report to be submitted to the Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority for
approval together with appendices to be included for information. The documentation supplied for information
includes, for instance, frequently changing data such as schedules and contact information on the persons
involved in the transport.
The decision of approval for the transport plan may include conditions, which may relate, for instance, to the
transport routes or to the handling of packagings. Outside nuclear facilities, the packages of nuclear materials
and nuclear waste can be handled in the same way as normal goods, unless otherwise required by the licences
and approvals for the transport. The equipment used for handling packages shall be overhauled and inspected
appropriately.
The application for the approval of a transport plan shall contain the following information:
the name and address of the consignor and the consignee;
general information on the package, the number and issuer of the approval certificate, description of the
packaging and contents, the permitted number of packages, the estimated transport index and the criticality
safety index, and the estimated class;
general information on the transport, such as the transport mode, the means of transport, alternative routes, the
carrier, and potential stops and temporary storages;
a list of the documents accompanying the transport;
information on potential exclusive use of the means of transport;
special safety measures (speed limits, restrictions on other traffic, special equipment);
a reference to a separately approved physical protection plan for the transport and, if necessary, an emergency
plan in case of an accident;
a description of any necessary special arrangements (or a reference to a separate approval certificate concerning
them);
a description of the nuclear liability insurance;
Transport equipment and special equipment used for the transport, also including communication and radiation
control equipment.
IV. TREATMENT OF NUCLEAR WASTE
A. VITRIFICATION
Long term storage of radioactive waste requires stabilization of the waste into a form which will neither react nor
degrade for extended periods of time. One way to do this is through vitrification. Currently at Sell afield the high-level
waste (PUREX first cycle raffinate) is mixed with sugar and then calcined. Calcination involves passing the waste
through a heated, rotating tube. The purposes of calcination are to evaporate the water from the waste, and de-nitrate the
fission products to assist the stability of the glass produced. The 'calcine' generated is fed continuously into an induction
heated furnace with fragmented glass. The resulting glass is a new substance in which the waste products are bonded into
the glass matrix when it solidifies. This product, as a melt, is poured into stainless steel cylindrical containers
("cylinders") in a batch process. When cooled, the fluid solidifies ("vitrifies") into the glass. Such glass, after being
formed, is highly resistant to water. After filling a cylinder, a seal is welded onto the cylinder. The cylinder is then
washed. After being inspected for external contamination, the steel cylinder is stored, usually in an underground
repository. In this form, the waste products are expected to be immobilized for thousands of years. The glass inside a
cylinder is usually a black glossy substance. All this work (in the United Kingdom) is done using hot cell systems. The
sugar is added to control the ruthenium chemistry and to stop the formation of the volatile RuO
4
containing radioactive
ruthenium isotopes. In the West, the glass is normally a borosilicate glass (similar to Pyrex), while in the
former Soviet bloc it is normal to use a phosphate glass. The amount of fission products in the glass must be limited
because some (palladium, the other Pt group metals, and tellurium) tend to form metallic phases which separate from the
International Journal of Innovative Research in Advanced Engineering (IJIRAE) ISSN: 2349-2163
Volume 1 Issue 5 (June 2014) http://ijirae.com

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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glass. Bulk vitrification uses electrodes to melt soil and wastes, which are then buried underground. In Germany a
vitrification plant is in use; this is treating the waste from a small demonstration reprocessing plant which has since been
closed down.
B. Ion exchange
It is common for medium active wastes in the nuclear industry to be treated with ion exchange or other means to
concentrate the radioactivity into a small volume. The much less radioactive bulk (after treatment) is often then
discharged. For instance, it is possible to use a ferric hydroxide floc to remove radioactive metals from aqueous
mixtures. After the radioisotopes are absorbed onto the ferric hydroxide, the resulting sludge can be placed in a metal
drum before being mixed with cement to form a solid waste form. In order to get better long-term performance
(mechanical stability) from such forms, they may be made from a mixture of fly ash, or blast furnace slag, and Portland
cement, instead of normal concrete (made with Portland cement, gravel and sand).
C. Synroc
The Australian Synroc (synthetic rock) is a more sophisticated way to immobilize such waste, and this process may
eventually come into commercial use for civil wastes (it is currently being developed for US military wastes). Synroc
was invented by the late Prof Ted Ringwood (a geochemist) at the Australian National University. The Synroc
contains pyrochlore and cryptomelane type minerals. The original form of Synroc (Synroc C) was designed for the liquid
high level waste (PUREX raffinate) from a light water reactor. The main minerals in this Synroc are hollandite
(BaAl
2
Ti
6
O
16
), zirconolite (CaZrTi
2
O
7
) and perovskite (CaTiO
3
). The zirconolite and perovskite are hosts for
the actinides. The strontium and barium will be fixed in the perovskite. The caesium will be fixed in the hollandite.

D. Re-use of waste
Another option is to find applications for the isotopes in nuclear waste so as to re-use them. Already, caesium-
137, strontium-90 and a few other isotopes are extracted for certain industrial applications such as food
irradiation and radioisotope thermoelectric generators. While re-use does not eliminate the need to manage radioisotopes,
it reduces the quantity of waste produced. The Nuclear Assisted Hydrocarbon Production Method, Canadian patent
application 2,659,302, is a method for the temporary or permanent storage of nuclear waste materials comprising the
placing of waste materials into one or more repositories or boreholes constructed into an unconventional oil formation.
The thermal flux of the waste materials fracture the formation alters the chemical and/or physical properties of
hydrocarbon material within the subterranean formation to allow removal of the altered material. A mixture of
hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other formation fluids is produced from the formation. The radioactivity of high-level
radioactive waste affords proliferation resistance to plutonium placed in the periphery of the repository or the deepest
portion of a borehole.Breeder reactors can run on U-238 and transuranic elements, which comprise the majority of spent
fuel radioactivity in the 1000-100000 year time span.

E. Space disposal
Space disposal is attractive because it removes nuclear waste from the planet. It has significant disadvantages, such as the
potential for catastrophic failure of a launch vehicle, which could spread radioactive material into the atmosphere and
around the world. A high number of launches would be required because no individual rocket would be able to carry very
much of the material relative to the total amount that needs to be disposed of. This makes the proposal impractical
economically and it increases the risk of at least one or more launch failures. To further complicate matters, international
agreements on the regulation of such a program would need to be established. Costs and inadequate reliability of modern
rocket launch systems for space disposal has been one of the motives for interest in non-rocket space launch systems
such as mass drivers, space elevators, and other proposals.
V. CONCLUSION
We have quite a good mastery of that technology and we are getting better at keeping the genie in the bottle, although
accidents do and will happen. The problem is that as more accidents occur we take the risk of affecting our DNA and
this can affect generations down the line. As computer control systems become more reliable then the theory is that it
will get safer. BUT the biggest problem is the Bi product and how it is used. - The fast breeder reactor produces weapons
grade plutonium. This wouldnt be a problem but humans seem to be hell bent on finding and using ways to destroy other
humans more efficiently. So in the political climate that the world is in at present nuclear energy is not safe, not because
of leaks but because it produces weapons at the same time. Its a bit like giving a baby a gun. We are not yet intelligent
enough as a species to control ourselves when it comes to dealing with conflicts.

References
[1] Natarajan, R., in IANCAS Bull., July 1998, p. 27
[2] Kumra, M. S. and Bansal, N. A., in Facets of Nuclear Science and Technology, Department of Atomic Energy,
Mumbai, 1993.
[3] www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/nsd/tech_asst_guides/TAST0.pdf
[4] INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, Classification of Radioactive Waste, IAEA Safety Standards
Series No. GSG-1, IAEA, Vienna (2009).