Teori 2

April 1999 11-1 EPA Guidance Manual
Turbidity Provisions
Source: GLI, undated.
Figure 11-1. Scattered Light at 90
11. BASIC TURBIDIMETER DESIGN AND
CONCEPTS
11.1 Introduction
Turbidity is described in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater Method 2130B (EPA Method 180.1) for turbidity measurement as, an
expression of the optical property that causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather
than transmitted in straight lines through the sample (Standard Methods, 1995). This
chapter includes a detailed summary of the
various types of instruments used to measure
turbidity and includes descriptions of the
physical properties associated with the
measurements of turbidity and design
configurations.
As shown in Figure 11-1, modern
turbidimeters use the technique of
nephelometry, which measures the amount of
light scattered at right angels to an incident
light beam by particles present in a fluid
sample. In general, all modern turbidimeters
utilize the nephelometric measurement
principals, but instrument manufacturers have
developed several different meter designs
and measurement configurations.
11.2 Turbidimeter Measuring Principles
As light passes through absolutely pure water, the light beams travel along relatively
undisturbed paths. However, some distortion occurs as light is scattered by molecules
present in the pure fluid. As shown in Figure 11-1, when light passes through a fluid
containing suspended solids, the light beam interacts with the particles, and the particles
absorb the light energy and re-radiate light in all directions.
Particle size, configuration, color, and refractive index determine the spatial distribution of
the scattered light intensity around the particle. As shown in Figure 11-2, particles much
smaller than the wavelength of the incident light, which is typically expressed in
nanometers (nm), scatter light of approximately equal intensity in all directions. However,
particles larger than the wavelength of the incident light, form a spectral pattern that
results in greater light scattering in the forward direction (away from the incident light)
than in the other directions. This scattering pattern and intensity of the light beam
transmitted through the sample can also be affected by the particles absorbing certain
wavelengths of the transmitted light (Sadar, 1996).
11. BASIC TURBIDIMETER DESIGN AND CONCEPTS
EPA Guidance Manual 11-2 April 1999
Source: Sadar, 1996.
Figure 11-2. Angular Patterns of
Scattered Light from Particles of
Different Sizes
Since the light scattered in the
forward direction is variable
depending on particle size, the
measurement of the light
transmitted through the sample
yields variable results. In addition,
the change in transmitted light is
very slight and difficult to
distinguish from electronic noise
when measuring low turbidities.
High turbidity samples are also
difficult to measure using
transmitted light due to multiple
scatter of the light by many
particles in the fluid. To solve
these problems, turbidimeters
primarily measure the scatter of
light at a 90 degree angle to the
incident beam and relate this
reading to turbidity. This angle is considered very sensitive to light scatter by particles in
the sample. As described later in this chapter, additional light sensors are also sometimes
added to detect light scattered at other angles in order to improve the instrument range
and remove errors introduced by natural colors and lamp variability.
11.2.1 Light Source
The basic turbidimeter instrument contains a light source, sample container or cell, and
photodetectors to sense the scattered light. The most common light source used is the
tungsten filament lamp. The spectral output (band of wavelength light produced) of these
lamps is generally characterized by color temperature, which is the temperature that a
black body radiator must be operated to produce a certain color. The tungsten filament
lamps are incandescent lamps and are termed polychromatic, since they have a fairly
wide spectral band that includes many different wavelengths of light, or colors. The
presence of the various wavelengths can cause interference in the turbidity measurements
as natural color and natural organic matter in the sample can absorb some specific
wavelengths of light and reduce the intensity of the scattered light (King, 1991).
The tungsten filament lamp is also highly dependent on the voltage of the lamp power
supply. The voltage applied to the lamp determines the spectral output characteristics
produced, making a stable power supplies a necessity. In addition, as with any
incandescent lamp, the output from the lamp decays with time as the lamp slowly burns
out, making recalibration of the instrument a frequent and necessary requirement.
To overcome some of the incandescent lamp limitations, some turbidimeter designs utilize
monochromatic light sources, such as light emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, mercury lamps,
and various lamp filter combinations. Monochromatic light has a very narrow band of
light wavelengths (only a few colors). By selecting light wavelengths that are not
normally absorbed by organic matter, the monochromatic light source can be less
susceptible to interference by sample color. However, some of these alternate light
sources respond differently to particle size, and are not as sensitive to small sized particles
as the tungsten filament lamp.
11.2.2 Sample Volume
Grab samples are typically introduced into bench top turbidimeter instruments through a
transparent sample cell made of glass. These samples cells, or cuvettes, are usually about
30 milliliters in capacity. Some on-line turbidimeters utilize the glass sample cell, but most
designs use a flow-through chamber with the light source located outside the sample.
Sample chambers in on-line instruments range from 30 milliliters to over two liters.
11.2.3 Photodetector
In turbidimeters, photodetectors detect the light produced from the interaction of the
incident light and the sample volume and produce an electronic signal that is then
converted to a turbidity value. These detectors can be located in a variety of
configurations depending on the design of the instrument. The four types of detectors
commonly used include photomultiplier tubes, vacuum photodiodes, silicon photodiodes,
and cadmium sulfide photoconductors (Sadar, 1992).
Each of the four types of detectors vary in their response to certain wavelengths of light.
Therefore, if a polychromatic light source is used, the spectral output of the light source
has a direct bearing on the type and design of photodetector selected for an instrument.
The specification of the photodector is not nearly as critical when a monochromatic light
source is used. In general, with the polychromatic tungsten filament lamp as a light
source, the photomultiplier tube and the vacuum photodiode are more sensitive to the
shorter wavelength light in the source, making them more sensitive to the detection of
smaller particles. Conversely, the silicon photodiode is more sensitive to longer
wavelengths in the light source, making it more suited for sensing larger particles. The
sensitivity of the cadmium sulfide photoconductor is between the sensitivity of the
photomultiplier tube and the silicon photodiode.
11.3 Turbidimeter Design Configurations
Several instrument design standards have been developed by various organizations to
attempt to standardize instrument designs and achieve test results that are accurate and
repeatable. These standards govern the design of the various turbidimeter configurations
available today, which include the single beam design, modulated four beam design,
surface scatter design, and transmittance design. Only the single beam design, ratio
design, and modulated four beam design are approved by EPA.
11.3.1 Design Standards
The requirements stated in Standard Methods 2130B (see Appendix D) are similar to the
requirements of EPA Method 180.1 (see Appendix C) for turbidity measurement. The
EPA Method 180.1 lists the following design requirements for turbidimeters:
Light Source: Tungsten-filament lamp operated at a color temperature
between 2200 and 3000 degree K.
Distance traversed by incident light and scattered light within the sample tube
not to exceed 10 cm.
Angle of light acceptance by detector: Centered at 90 degrees to the incident
light path and not to exceed +/- 30 degrees from 90 degrees. The detector, and
filter system if used, shall have a spectral property between 400 and 600 nm
(Standard Methods, 1995).
EPA has recognized one additional standard for turbidimeter design called GLI Method 2.
Like EPA Method 180.1, this standard is applicable for turbidities in the 0 to 40 NTU
range, but may be used for higher turbidities by diluting the sample. The GLI Method 2
standard requires that instruments utilize basic nephelometric concepts, but requires the
use of two light sources with a photodetector located at 90-degrees from each source.
This concept, which is often called a modulated four beam design, pulses the two light
sources on and off and utilizes a portion of the scattered light as a reference signal to
arithmetically cancel errors. A full description of the modulated four beam design is
included later in this Chapter.
The specific apparatus requirements listed in the GLI Method 2 standard are as follows:
The wavelength of the incident radiation shall be 860 nanometers.
The spectral bandwidth of the incident radiation shall be less than or equal to
60 nanometers.
There shall be no divergence from parallelism of the incident radiation and any
convergence shall not exceed 1.5 degrees.
There shall be two light sources and two detectors.
The measuring angle between the optical axis of the incident radiation and that
of the diffused radiation for light pulsed through the sample by either light
source shall be 90 +\- 2.5 degrees.
An additional turbidimeter design standard was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization. ISO 7027 defines the requirements for a turbidimeter
light source with stricter requirements attempting to produce instruments that have good
repeatability and compare well with other instruments. The specification reads:
Any apparatus may be used provided that it complies with the following
requirements:
The wavelength , , of the incident radiation shall be 860 nm;
The spectral bandwidth , , of the incident radiation shall be less than or
equal to 60 nm;
There shall be no divergence from parallelism of the incident radiation and any
convergence shall not exceed 2.5 degrees;
Figure 11-3. Basic Nephelometer
The measuring angle (tolerance on deviation of the optical axis) shall be o +/-
2.5 degrees
The aperture angle,
, should be between 10 and 20 degrees in the water

sample (ISO, 1990).
ISO 7027 requires the use of monochromatic light sources such as tungsten lamps fitted
with monochromators and filters, diodes, or lasers. However, the standard recognizes that
many older instruments have polychromatic light sources, and allows their use for water
treatment monitoring and control, but not for comparison to readings from other
turbidimeters.
The tighter definition of the light source in ISO 7027 eliminates many of the variables
inherent to the polychromatic sources used in the other standards. However, ISO 7027
does not eliminate the effects of light source decay or electronic gains and drifts inherent
in monochromatic sources such as LEDs (Lex, 1994). ISO 7027 is not accepted by
EPA for turbidity analysis for compliance with the IESWTR.
11.3.2 Single Beam Design
The single beam design configuration, shown in Figure 11-3, is the most basic turbidimeter
design using only one light source and one photodetector located at 90 degrees from the
incident light. The single beam design is the oldest of the modern nephelometers and
typically is used with a polychromatic tungsten filament lamp. The design is still in wide
used today and yields accurate results for turbidity under 40 NTU, provided that samples
have little natural color. In fact, many on-line instruments in use today still utilize the
single beam design.
The single beam design does, however, have limited accuracy at higher turbidities. As
turbidity increases and the
amount of scattered light
increases, multiple scattering can
occur when light strikes more
than one particle as it reacts with
the sample fluid. The resulting
scattered light intensity reaching
the 90 degree detector can
diminish as the instrument
effectively goes blind. For this
reason, a single beam design
conforming strictly to EPA 180.1
does not typically demonstrate
stable measurement capability at high turbidities and is generally only applicable for
turbidity readings from 0 to 40 NTU.
The design of the single beam instrument is also limited by the need for frequent
recalibration of the instrument due to the decay of the incandescent light source. Because
of the polychromatic nature of the light source, these instruments also can demonstrate
poor performance with samples containing natural color. Since most treated water
samples have low or no color, use of the single beam design is appropriate.
11.3.3 Ratio Design
The ratio turbidimeter design expands upon the single beam concept, but includes
additional photodetectors located at other angles than 90 degrees from the incident light.
As shown in Figure 11-4, the ratio design utilizes a forward scatter detector, a transmitted
light detector, and for very high turbidity applications, a back scatter detector. The signals
Figure 11-4. Ratio Turbidimeter
from each of these detectors are mathematically combined to calculate the turbidity of the
sample. A typical ratio mathematical algorithm is as follows (Standard Methods, 1995):
T= I
90
/ (d
0
* I
t
+ d
1
* I
fs
+ d
2
* I
bs
+ d
3
* I
90
)
Where:
T = Turbidity in NTU
d
0
, d
1
, d
2
, d
3
= Calibration Coefficients
I
90
= 90 Degree Detector Current
I
t
= Transmitted Detector Current
I
fs
= Forward Scatter Detector Current
I
bs
= Back Scatter Detector Current
The use of multiple photodetectors and the ratio algorithm gives the instrument much
better performance with colored samples. The transmitted light and the 90-degree
scattered light are affected almost equally by the color of the sample because they travel
nearly the same distance through the sample volume. When the ratio of the two readings
is taken, the effects of color absorption on the two readings tend to cancel mathematically.
Figure 11-5. Modulated Four-Beam
Turbidimeter
11.3.4 Modulated Four Beam Design
Unlike the single beam and ratio turbidimeters, the modulated four-beam instrument
design utilizes two light sources and two photo detectors. The two sources and the two
detectors are used to the implement theory of ratio measurements to cancel errors. As
shown in Figure 11-5, the light sources and detectors are located at 90 degrees around the
sample volume (Great Lakes Instruments, undated).
This design takes two measurements
every 0.5 seconds. In the first phase, light
from source #1 is pulsed directly into
photodetector #2. Simultaneously,
photodetector #1 measures the light
scattered from this pulse at a 90 degree
angle. In the second phase, light from
source #2 is pulsed directly into
photodetector #1. Simultaneously,
photodetector #2 measures the light
scattered from this pulse at a 90 degree
angle. In both phases, the signal from the
photodetector receiving the direct light
signal is the active signal, while the
signal from photodetector measuring scattered light is called the reference signal. The two
phase measurements provide four measurements from two light sources: two reference
signals and two active signals.
The turbidity of the sample is calculated from the four independent measurements taken
from the two light sources using a mathematical algorithm similar to the algorithm used by
the ratio instrument design. The result is that errors resulting from sample color appear in
both the numerator and denominator of the mathematical algorithm, and the errors are
mathematically canceled.
Like the ratio design, the mathematical algorithm used in the four beam design allows for
more sensitivity in highly turbid samples and extends the range of the instrument to about
100 NTU. The error cancellation achieved by the ratio algorithm also makes the
instrument very accurate in the 0 to 1 NTU range.
11.3.5 Surface Scatter Design
As turbidity increases, light scattering intensifies and multiple scattering can occur as light
strikes more than one particle as it interacts with the fluid. Light absorption by particles
can also significantly increase. When particle concentration exceeds a certain point, the
amount of transmitted and scattered light decreases significantly due to multiple scattering
and absorption. This point is known as the optical limit of an instrument.
The surface scatter design utilizes a light beam focused on the sample surface at an acute
angle. As shown in Figure 11-6, light strikes particles in the sample and is scattered
toward a photodetector that is also located above the sample surface. As turbidity
increases, the light beam penetrates less of the sample, thus shortening the light path and
compensating for interference from multiple scattering. The reported range of surface
Source: Hach Corporation, 1995.
Figure 11-6. Surface Scatter Turbidimeter
scatter instruments is about 0 to 9999 NTU,
although these instruments are best suited for
measuring high turbidities such as are present
in raw water and recycle streams (Hach
Corporation, 1995). These designs are not
approved by EPA.
11.3.6 Transmittance Design
Instruments utilizing a transmittance design are
often referred to as turbidimeters, but these
instruments do not measure true turbidity of
water in NTUs. These instruments are better
termed absorptometers as they measure the
amount of light transmitted through a
sample rather than the amount of light
scattered by a sample. Light
transmittance is measured by
introducing a light source to a sample volume and measuring the relative amount of light
transmitted through the sample volume to a photodetector located opposite the light
source. Transmittance values are reported as 0 to 100 percent of the incident light source
transmitted through the sample. The use of absorptometers in water treatment has
generally been restricted to monitoring spent filter backwash water to determine relative
cleanliness of the filter media (Hach Corporation, 1995). These designs are not approved
by EPA.
11.4 Types of Turbidimeters
There are three common types of turbidimeters employed today. These are referred to as
bench top, portable, and on-line instruments. Bench top and portable turbidimeters are
used to analyze grab samples. Bench top units are typically used as stationary laboratory
instruments and are not intended to be portable. On-line instruments are typically installed
in the field and continuously analyze a sample stream spilt off from a unit process.
Measurement with these units requires strict adherence to the manufacturers sampling
procedure to reduce errors from dirty glassware, air bubbles in the sample, and particle
settling.
11.4.1 Bench Top Turbidimeters
Most bench top turbidimeters are designed for
broad applications and have the capability to
measure highly colored samples as well as
samples with high turbidities. The most popular
bench top turbidimeters used today utilize the
ratio design, but may have options for back
scatter detectors or monochromatic light sources.
Many ratio bench top instruments also have the
capability to turn off the ratio calculation so that
measurements can be made using the single beam
design. Older bench top instruments may be of
the single beam design, and some have analog
rather than digital displays. Bench top units
are used exclusively for grab samples and
require the use of glass cuvettes for holding
the sample volume.
11.4.2 Portable Turbidimeters
Portable turbidimeters are similar to the bench top
units, except that they are designed for portable use
and are battery operated. Portable turbidimeters
are available in a variety of designs, including the
single beam and ratio designs. The accuracy of
portable instruments is comparable to the bench top
units, but the resolution of low turbidity reading
may only be 0.01 NTU as compared to the
0.001 NTU resolution of bench top units (Hach
Corporation, 1995).
Portable turbidimeters are designed for use in the field with grab samples. These
instruments are designed to be rugged and capable of withstanding the affects of moving
the instrument as well as variable field conditions. However, since these instruments are
inherently susceptible to damage or disturbance from dropping, abuse, or environmental
conditions such as dust, these units are not appropriate for the process monitoring and
reporting tasks normally accomplished by bench top units or on-line turbidimeters.
However, portable instruments are useful for measuring turbidity at remote locations such
as at sampling points in the watershed upstream of a water treatment plant, or at a remote
raw water intake location. Portable instruments are also useful for conducting special
process studies, such as backwash recycle characterization or distribution system analysis
that may be accomplished more readily and accurately in the field rather than conducting
analysis after transporting a sample to a laboratory.
Figure 11-7. Bench Top Turbidimeter
Figure 11-8. Portable Turbidimeter
11.4.2 On-Line Turbidimeters
The on-line instruments used in the water
treatment industry typically utilize the single
beam or modulated four beam design. On-
line ratio turbidimeters are also available, but
their use has not been as extensive as the
single beam and modulated four beam
designs. On-line surface scatter turbidimeters
are often used for raw water monitoring and
transmittance-type absorptometers have been
used for filter backwash monitoring.
On-line instruments typically sample a side
stream split off from the treatment process.
The sample flows through the on-line
instrument for measurement and then is
wasted to a drain or recycled through the
treatment process. Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition (SCADA) instrumentation
and remote telemetry can also be connected to
on-line instruments to collect data for trending
analysis or to control automated treatment actions based on the turbidities measured. The
use of SCADA with turbidity measurement is discussed in Chapter 4.
Typical sample flow rates through on-line instruments range from about 0.1 to 1.0 liter per
minute. Some single beam on-line turbidimeters do not contain a glass sample container.
The light source is located above the sample volume, which has an optically flat surface as
it flows over a weir. The photodetector is submerged within the sample volume and
requires frequent cleaning to prevent fouling. Most on-line four beam instruments used in
the water industry contain a sealed flow-through sample volume with windows at each of
the light sources and photodetectors. These surfaces must also be cleaned frequently to
prevent fouling.
Most on-line instruments contain bubble traps to eliminate air bubbles from the sample
that might interfere with the turbidity readings. Bubble traps are typically baffled
chambers that allow air bubbles to rise to the sample surface prior to the sample entering
the measurement chamber. The volume of the sample chamber varies significantly
between the single beam and four beam design due mostly to the design of the bubble trap.
Single beam devices typically include a bubble trap within the sample chamber, making
the sample volume in excess of two liters. Several other on-line instruments use sample
volumes as small as 30 milliliters.
Figure 11-9. On-Line
Turbidimeter
11.5 References
1. California Department of Health Services. 1996. Particle Counting Guidelines.
California Department of Health Services.
2. GLI (Great Lakes Instruments). undated. Technical Bulletin Number T1 Turbidity
Measurement. Rev. 2-193, Great Lakes Instruments.
3. Hach Corporation. 1995. Excellence in Turbidity Measurement. Hach Corporation.
4. International Organization for Standards (ISO). 1990. International Standard ISO
7027 Water Quality Determination or Turbidity. ISO.
5. King, K. 1991. Four-Beam Turbidimeters for Low NTU Waters. Great Lakes
Instruments.
6. Lex, D. 1994. Turbidity Technology Turns on the High Beams. Intech Engineers
Notebook. 41(6):36
7. Sadar, M.J. 1996. Understanding Turbidity Science. Technical Information Series
Booklet No. 11. Hach Company.
8. Standard Methods. 1995. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, nineteenth edition. America Public Health Association, AWWA, Water
Environment Federation. Franson, M.H., A.D. Eaton, L.S. Clesceri, and A.E.
Greenberg (editors). American Public Health Association, AWWA, and Water
Environment Federation. Port City Press, Baltimore, MD.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
11. BASIC TURBIDIMETER DESIGN AND CONCEPTS............................................................ 1
11.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................... 11-1
11.2 TURBIDIMETER MEASURING PRINCIPLES ................................................................................ 11-1
11.2.1 Light Source................................................................................................................. 11-2
11.2.2 Sample Volume............................................................................................................ 11-3
11.2.3 Photodetector................................................................................................................ 11-3
11.3 TURBIDIMETER DESIGN CONFIGURATIONS ............................................................................. 11-3
11.3.1 Design Standards ......................................................................................................... 11-3
11.3.2 Single Beam Design..................................................................................................... 11-5
11.3.3 Ratio Design................................................................................................................. 11-6
11.3.4 Modulated Four Beam Design ...................................................................................... 11-7
11.3.5 Surface Scatter Design.................................................................................................. 11-7
11.3.6 Transmittance Design................................................................................................... 11-8
11.4 TYPES OF TURBIDIMETERS..................................................................................................... 11-8
11.4.1 Bench Top Turbidimeters ............................................................................................. 11-9
11.4.2 Portable Turbidimeters................................................................................................. 11-9
11.4.3 On-Line Turbidimeters............................................................................................... 11-10
11.5 REFERENCES....................................................................................................................... 11-11
LIST OF FIGURES (manually completed)
Figure 11-1. Scattered Light at 90 11-1
Figure 11-2. Angular Patterns of Scattered Light from Particles of Different Sizes 11-2
Figure 11-3. Basic Nephelometer 11-5
Figure 11-4. Ration Turbidimeter 11-6
Figure 11-5. Modulated Four-Beam Turbidimeter 11-7
Figure 11-6. Surface Scatter Turbidimeter 11-8
Figure 11-7. Bench Top Turbidimeter 11-9
Figure 11-8. Portable Turbidimeter 11-9

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April 1999 11-1 EPA Guidance Manual

, should be between 10 and 20 degrees in the water

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