Types of Metamorphism

EENS 212 Petrology Prof. Stephen A. Nelson

Types of Metamorphism

This document last updated on 01-Mar-2007

Metamorphism is defined as follows:

The mineralogical and structural adjustment of solid rocks to physical and

chemical conditions that have been imposed at depths below the near surface
zones of weathering and diagenesis and which differ from conditions under
which the rocks in question originated.

The word "Metamorphism" comes from the Greek: meta = change, morph = form, so
metamorphism means to change form. In geology this refers to the changes in mineral
assemblage and texture that result from subjecting a rock to conditions such pressures,
temperatures, and chemical environments different from those under which the rock originally
formed.

z Note that Diagenesis is also a change in form that occurs in sedimentary rocks. In
geology, however, we restrict diagenetic processes to those which occur at temperatures
below 200oC and pressures below about 300 MPa (MPa stands for Mega Pascals), this is
equivalent to about 3 kilobars of pressure (1kb = 100 MPa).

z Metamorphism, therefore occurs at temperatures and pressures higher than 200oC and
300 MPa. Rocks can be subjected to these higher temperatures and pressures as they are
buried deeper in the Earth. Such burial usually takes place as a result of tectonic
processes such as continental collisions or subduction.

z The upper limit of metamorphism occurs at the pressure and temperature where melting
of the rock in question begins. Once melting begins, the process changes to an igneous
process rather than a metamorphic process.

Grade of Metamorphism

As the temperature and/or pressure increases on a body of rock we say the rock undergoes
prograde metamorphism or that the grade of metamorphism increases. Metamorphic grade is
a general term for describing the relative temperature and pressure conditions under which
metamorphic rocks form.

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 Types of Metamorphism

z Low-grade metamorphism takes place

at temperatures between about 200 to
320oC, and relatively low pressure.
Low grade metamorphic rocks are
generally characterized by an
abundance of hydrous minerals. With
increasing grade of metamorphism,
the hydrous minerals begin to react
with other minerals and/or break
down to less hydrous minerals.
z High-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures greater than 320oC and relatively
high pressure. As grade of metamorphism increases, hydrous minerals become less
hydrous, by losing H2O, and non-hydrous minerals become more common.
Types of Metamorphism

Contact Metamorphism
Contact metamorphism occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions and results from high
temperatures associated with the igneous intrusion.
Since only a small area surrounding the
intrusion is heated by the magma,
metamorphism is restricted to the zone
surrounding the intrusion, called a
metamorphic or contact aureole.
Outside of the contact aureole, the
rocks are not affected by the intrusive
event. The grade of metamorphism
increases in all directions toward the
intrusion. Because the temperature
contrast between the surrounding rock
and the intruded magma is larger at
shallow levels in the crust where
pressure is low, contact metamorphism
is often referred to as high temperature,
low pressure metamorphism. The rock
produced is often a fine-grained rock
that shows no foliation, called a
hornfels.

Regional Metamorphism
Regional metamorphism occurs over large areas and generally does not show any relationship
to igneous bodies. Most regional metamorphism is accompanied by deformation under non-
hydrostatic or differential stress conditions. Thus, regional metamorphism usually results in
forming metamorphic rocks that are strongly foliated, such as slates, schists, and gniesses. The
differential stress usually results from tectonic forces that produce compressional stresses in the
rocks, such as when two continental masses collide. Thus, regionally metamorphosed rocks
occur in the cores of fold/thrust mountain belts or in eroded mountain ranges. Compressive
stresses result in folding of rock and thickening of the crust, which tends to push rocks to
deeper levels where they are subjected to higher temperatures and pressures.

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Cataclastic Metamorphism
Cataclastic metamorphism occurs as a result of mechanical deformation, like when two bodies
of rock slide past one another along a fault zone. Heat is generated by the friction of sliding
along such a shear zone, and the rocks tend to be mechanically deformed, being crushed and
pulverized, due to the shearing. Cataclastic metamorphism is not very common and is
restricted to a narrow zone along which the shearing occurred.
Hydrothermal Metamorphism
Rocks that are altered at high temperatures and moderate pressures by hydrothermal fluids are
hydrothermally metamorphosed. This is common in basaltic rocks that generally lack hydrous
minerals. The hydrothermal metamorphism results in alteration to such Mg-Fe rich hydrous
minerals as talc, chlorite, serpentine, actinolite, tremolite, zeolites, and clay minerals. Rich ore
deposits are often formed as a result of hydrothermal metamorphism.
Burial Metamorphism
When sedimentary rocks are buried to depths of several hundred meters, temperatures greater
than 300oC may develop in the absence of differential stress. New minerals grow, but the rock
does not appear to be metamorphosed. The main minerals produced are often the Zeolites.
Burial metamorphism overlaps, to some extent, with diagenesis, and grades into regional
metamorphism as temperature and pressure increase.

Shock Metamorphism (Impact Metamorphism)

When an extraterrestrial body, such as a meteorite or comet impacts with the Earth or if there is
a very large volcanic explosion, ultrahigh pressures can be generated in the impacted rock.
These ultrahigh pressures can produce minerals that are only stable at very high pressure, such
as the SiO2 polymorphs coesite and stishovite. In addition they can produce textures known as
shock lamellae in mineral grains, and such textures as shatter cones in the impacted rock.

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

Classification of metamorphic rocks is based on mineral assemblage, texture, protolith, and

bulk chemical composition of the rock. Each of these will be discussed in turn, then we will
summarize how metamorphic rocks are classified.

Texture
In metamorphic rocks individual minerals may or may not be bounded by crystal faces. Those
that are bounded by their own crystal faces are termed idioblastic. Those that show none of
their own crystal faces are termed xenoblastic. From examination of metamorphic rocks, it has
been found that metamorphic minerals can be listed in a generalized sequence, known as the
crystalloblastic series, listing minerals in order of their tendency to be idioblastic. In the series,
each mineral tends to develop idioblastic surfaces against any mineral that occurs lower in the
series. This series is listed below:

z rutile, sphene, magnetite

z tourmaline kyanite, staurolite, garnet, andalusite
z epidote, zoisite, lawsonite, forsterite
z pyroxenes, amphiboles, wollastonite
z micas, chlorites, talc, stilpnomelane, prehnite
z dolomite, calcite
z scapolite, cordierite, feldspars
z quartz

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This series can, in a rather general way, enable us to determine the origin of a given rock. For
example a rock that shows euhedral plagioclase crystals in contact with anhedral amphibole,
likely had an igneous protolith, since a metamorphic rock with the same minerals would be
expected to show euhedral amphibole in contact with anhedral plagioclase.

Another aspect of the crystalloblastic series is that minerals high on the list tend to form
porphyroblasts (the metamorphic equivalent of phenocrysts), although K-feldspar (a mineral
that occurs lower in the list) may also form porphyroblasts. Porphyroblasts are often riddled
with inclusions of other minerals that were enveloped during growth of the porphyroblast.
These are said to have a poikioblastic texture.

Most metamorphic textures involve foliation. Foliation is generally caused by a preferred

orientation of sheet silicates. If a rock has a slatey cleavage as its foliation, it is termed a slate,
if it has a phyllitic foliation, it is termed a phyllite, if it has a shistose foliation, it is termed a
schist. A rock that shows a banded texture without a distinct foliation is termed a gneiss. All of
these could be porphyroblastic (i.e. could contain porhyroblasts).

A rock that shows no foliation is called a hornfels if the grain size is small, and a granulite, if
the grain size is large and individual minerals can be easily distinguished with a hand lens.

Protolith
Protolith refers to the original rock, prior to metamorphism. In low grade metamorphic rocks,
original textures are often preserved allowing one to determine the likely protolith. As the
grade of metamorphism increases, original textures are replaced with metamorphic textures and
other clues, such as bulk chemical composition of the rock, are used to determine the protolith.

Bulk Chemical Composition

The mineral assemblage that develops in a metamorphic rock is dependent on

z The pressure and temperature reached during metamorphism

z The composition of any fluid phase present during metamorphism, and

z The bulk chemical composition of the rock.

Just like in igneous rocks, minerals can only form if the necessary chemical constituents are
present in the rock (i.e. the concept of silica saturation and alumina saturation applies to
metamorphic rocks as well). Based on the mineral assemblage present in the rock one can
often estimate the approximate bulk chemical composition of the rock. Some terms that
describe this general bulk chemical composition are as follows:

z Pelitic. These rocks are derivatives of aluminous sedimentary rocks like shales and
mudrocks. Because of their high concentrations of alumina they are recognized by an
abundance of aluminous minerals, like clay minerals, micas, kyanite, sillimanite,
andalusite, and garnet.

z Quartzo-Feldspathic. Rocks that originally contained mostly quartz and feldspar like
granitic rocks and arkosic sandstones will also contain an abundance of quartz and
feldspar as metamorphic rocks, since these minerals are stable over a wide range of
temperature and pressure. Those that exhibit mostly quartz and feldspar with only minor

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amounts of aluminous minerals are termed quartzo-feldspathic.

z Calcareous. Calcareous rocks are calcium rich. They are usually derivatives of
carbonate rocks, although they contain other minerals that result from reaction of the
carbonates with associated siliceous detrital minerals that were present in the rock. At
low grades of metamorphism calcareous rocks are recognized by their abundance of
carbonate minerals like calcite and dolomite. With increasing grade of metamorphism
these are replaced by minerals like brucite, phlogopite (Mg-rich biotite), chlorite, and
tremolite. At even higher grades anhydrous minerals like diopside, forsterite,
wollastonite, grossularite, and calcic plagioclase.

z Basic. Just like in igneous rocks, the general term basic refers to low silica content.
Basic metamorphic rocks are generally derivatives of basic igneous rocks like basalts and
gabbros. They have an abundance of Fe-Mg minerals like biotite, chlorite, and
hornblende, as well as calcic minerals like plagioclase and epidote.

z Magnesian. Rocks that are rich in Mg with relatively less Fe, are termed magnesian.
Such rocks would contain Mg-rich minerals like serpentine, brucite, talc, dolomite, and
tremolite. In general, such rocks usually have an ultrabasic protolith, like peridotite,
dunite, or pyroxenite.

z Ferriginous. Rocks that are rich in Fe with little Mg are termed ferriginous. Such rocks
could be derivatives of Fe-rich cherts or ironstones. They are characterized by an
abundance of Fe-rich minerals like greenalite (Fe-rich serpentine), minnesotaite (Fe-rich
talc), ferroactinolite, ferrocummingtonite, hematite, and magnetite at low grades, and
ferrosilite, fayalite, ferrohedenbergite, and almandine garnet at higher grades.

z Manganiferrous. Rocks that are characterized by the presence of Mn-rich minerals are
termed manganiferrous. They are characterized by such minerals as Stilpnomelane and
spessartine.

Classification
Classification of metamorphic rocks depends on what is visible in the rock and its degree of
metamorphism. Note that classification is generally loose and practical such that names can be
adapted to describe the rock in the most satisfactory way that conveys the important
characteristics. Three kinds of criteria are normally employed. These are:

1. Mineralogical - The most distinguishing minerals are used as a prefix to a textural term.
Thus, a schist containing biotite, garnet, quartz, and feldspar, would be called a biotite-
garnet schist. A gneiss containing hornblende, pyroxene, quartz, and feldspar would be
called a hornblende-pyroxene gneiss. A schist containing porphyroblasts of K-feldspar
would be called a K-spar porphyroblastic schist.

2. Chemical - If the general chemical composition can be determined from the mineral
assemblage, then a chemical name can be employed. For example a schist with a lot of
quartz and feldspar and some garnet and muscovite would be called a garnet-muscovite
quartzo-feldspathic schist. A schist consisting mostly of talc would be called a talc-
magnesian schist.

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3. Protolithic - If a rock has undergone only slight metamorphism such that its original
texture can still be observed then the rock is given a name based on its original name,
with the prefix meta- applied. For example: metabasalt, metagraywacke, meta-andesite,
metagranite.

In addition to these conventions, certain non-foliated rocks with specific chemical

compositions and/or mineral assemblages are given specific names. These are as follows:

z Amphibolites: These are medium to coarse grained, dark colored rocks whose principal
minerals are hornblende and plagioclase. They result from metamorphism of basic
igneous rocks. Foliation is highly variable, but when present the term schist can be
appended to the name (i.e. amphibolite schist).

z Marbles: These are rocks composed mostly of calcite, and less commonly of dolomite.
They result from metamorphism of limestones and dolostones. Some foliation may be
present if the marble contains micas.

z Eclogites: These are medium to coarse grained consisting mostly of garnet and green
clinopyroxene called omphacite, that result from high grade metamorphism of basic
igneous rocks. Eclogites usually do not show foliation.

z Quartzites: Quartz arenites and chert both are composed mostly of SiO2. Since quartz is
stable over a wide range of pressures and temperatures, metamorphism of quartz arenites
and cherts will result only in the recrystallization of quartz forming a hard rock with
interlocking crystals of quartz. Such a rock is called a quartzite.

z Serpentinites: Serpentinites are rocks that consist mostly of serpentine. These form by
hydrothermal metamorphism of ultrabasic igneous rocks.

z Soapstones: Soapstones are rocks that contain an abundance of talc, which gives the rock
a greasy feel, similar to that of soap. Talc is an Mg-rich mineral, and thus soapstones
from ultrabasic igneous protoliths, like peridotites, dunites, and pyroxenites, usually by
hydrothermal alteration.

z Skarns: Skarns are rocks that originate from contact metamorphism of limestones or
dolostones, and show evidence of having exchanged constituents with the intruding
magma. Thus, skarns are generally composed of minerals like calcite and dolomite, from
the original carbonate rock, but contain abundant calcium and magnesium silicate
minerals like andradite, grossularite, epidote, vesuvianite, diopside, and wollastonite that
form by reaction of the original carbonate minerals with silica from the magma. The
chemical exchange is that takes place is called metasomatism.

z Mylonites: Mylonites are cataclastic metamorphic rocks that are produced along shear
zones deep in the crust. They are usually fine-grained, sometimes glassy, that are streaky
or layered, with the layers and streaks having been drawn out by ductile shear.

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Metamorphic Facies

In general, metamorphic rocks do not drastically change chemical composition during

metamorphism, except in the special case where metasomatism is involved (such as in the
production of skarns, as discussed above). The changes in mineral assemblages are due to
changes in the temperature and pressure conditions of metamorphism. Thus, the mineral
assemblages that are observed must be an indication of the temperature and pressure
environment that the rock was subjected to. This pressure and temperature environment is
referred to as Metamorphic Facies. (This is similar to the concept of sedimentary facies, in
that a sedimentary facies is also a set of environmental conditions present during deposition).
The sequence of metamorphic facies observed in any metamorphic terrain, depends on the
geothermal gradient that was present during metamorphism.

A high geothermal gradient

such as the one labeled "A" ,
might be present around an
igneous intrusion, and would
result in metamorphic rocks
belonging to the hornfels
facies. Under a normal to
high geothermal gradient,
such as "B", rocks would
progress from zeolite facies
to greenschist, amphibolite,
and eclogite facies as the
grade of metamorphism (or
depth of burial) increased. If
a low geothermal gradient
was present, such the one
labeled "C" in the diagram,
then rocks would progress
from zeolite facies to
blueschist facies to eclogite
facies.
Thus, if we know the facies of metamorphic rocks in the region, we can determine what the
geothermal gradient must have been like at the time the metamorphism occurred. This
relationship between geothermal gradient and metamorphism will be the central theme of our
discussion of metamorphism.

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