Chapter 2 Fluid Flow Fundamentals 37

Friction Losses
Friction losses are pressure drops that occur due to the friction caused by move-
ment of the fluid through the pipe and restrictions in the pipe such as valves,
elbow, fittings, and the like. Friction losses are dependent upon pipe size, pipe
roughness, flow, viscosity, and Reynolds number, as well as the type, size, and
quantity of elbow, fittings, valves, and the like that comprise the piping system.
Friction losses are normally calculated in order to size the pipe so as to ensure
delivery of the liquid with the available motive pressure. For flowmeter calcula-
tion purposes in the turbulent flow regime, friction losses are proportional to the
square of the flow and are usually calculated at maximum flow and assumed con-
stant. Pressure drops for water service in various pipe sizes are tabulated in Table
2-3 from which pressure drops can be estimated for low viscosity service.
Friction losses can be significant in high viscosity liquid service, since pres-
sure drop is a linear function of viscosity and flow. When it is suspected that the
piping system will not produce enough pressure upstream of the flowmeter to
ensure proper operation of the flowmeter, documents such as Cranes Flow of
Fluids through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe, Technical Paper No. 410 should be
consulted. This paper presents the theory and empirical data necessary to calculate
friction and other piping losses to ensure that there is sufficient pressure for proper
flowmeter operation.
Figure 2-9. Stress versus flow curves.
Previous Page
38 Industrial Flow Measurement
Table 2-3. Flow of Water through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe
Chapter 2 Fluid Flow Fundamentals 39
Table 2-3. Flow of Water through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe (continued)
40 Industrial Flow Measurement
EXAMPLE 2-25
Problem: Calculate friction losses to the inlet of the flowmeter for the water
system shown in Figure 2-10.
Solution: As the water is flowing in the turbulent flow regime, the equivalent
length method of calculating friction losses may be applied. If a pipe elbow is
estimated to be equivalent to 15 feet of straight pipe, the equivalent lengths of
straight pipe in each size are calculated to be:
L
2 in.
= 30 + 50 + 40 + (2 15) = 150 feet
L
3 in.
= 10 feet
The pressure drops per 100 feet of straight pipe can be read from the table for
each pipe size and used to calculate the overall friction losses.
P
2 in.
= 150 ft (7.59 psi/100 ft) = 11.385 psi
P
3 in.
= 10 ft (1.05 psi/100 ft) = 0.105 psi
Total P 11.490 psi
Figure 2-10. Water system.
Chapter 2 Fluid Flow Fundamentals 41
Friction losses in gas service can be significant under certain conditions, but
they are typically neglected for the purpose of flowmeter discussions. Table 2-4 is
included to illustrate the losses that can occur.
Table 2-4. Flow of Air through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe
42 Industrial Flow Measurement
Table 2-4. Flow of Air through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe (continued)
Chapter 2 Fluid Flow Fundamentals 43
Table 2-4. Flow of Air through Schedule 40 Steel Pipe (continued)
EXAMPLE 2-26
Problem: Determine the friction losses associated with 175 feet of straight
2-in. schedule 40 pipe in which 500 scfm of air flows at 150 psi and 90F.
Solution: The friction losses of 500 scfm of air in 100 feet of straight pipe at
60F can be read from the table as 1.55 psi. Pressure and temperature
differences are taken into account as follows:
P
1.55 psi
100 feet
-------------------
100 psi 14.7 psi +
150 psi 14.7 psi +
-------------------------------------------
460F 90F +
460F 60F +
---------------------------------- 175 feet =
1.96 psi =
44 Industrial Flow Measurement
Miscellaneous Hydraulic Phenomena
Upstream Pressure
Most flowmeter applications require the calculation of the upstream or inlet pres-
sure of the flowmeter. This is done by summing applicable pressures related to the
piping configuration. Pressure differences occur due to differences in elevation,
pressure-generating devices (such as pumps), and friction losses.
Vapor Pressure
The vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature can be defined as the pres-
sure at which a liquid and its vapor can exist in equilibrium. An example is that
the vapor pressure of water at 100C is one atmosphere, in that at one atmosphere
both water and water vapor (stream) can exist in equilibrium. When the vapor
pressure of a liquid equals the pressure exerted on the liquid, the liquid is at its
boiling point. Vapor pressure is usually an exponential function of temperature.
EXAMPLE 2-27
Problem: Calculate the upstream pressure of the flowmeter in the piping
system illustrated in Figure 2-10.
Solution: The pressure at the inlet of the flowmeter is calculated in feet of
water column as follows:
The pressure at the inlet to the flowmeter is
30.46 ft WC (12 in./ft WC) (0.03609 psi/in. WC) = 13.19 psi
EXAMPLE 2-28
Problem: Will water at 100C boil at 13.2 psia?
Solution: The vapor pressure of water at 100C is one atmosphere or 14.7
psia. If the water is maintained at a pressure above 14.7 psia, the water will
remain in the liquid state. In this example, the designated pressure is 1.5 psig
vacuum, which is less than the vapor pressure, and the water will boil.
+ 7 ft static pressure at pump inlet
+ 100 ft gain through pump
50 ft loss due to elevation
26.54 ft pipe friction losses (from preceding example,
11.49 p.si 2.31 ft/psi)
30.46 ft pressure at flowmeter inlet
Chapter 2 Fluid Flow Fundamentals 45
Cavitation
When a flowing liquid is depressurized, the local pressure at a restriction of the
pipe (such as a flowmeter, valve, or fitting) can be less than the downstream pres-
sure of the fluid. If this local pressure drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid,
it is possible for the fluid to develop a two-phase flow consisting of vapor cavities
and liquid. Cavitation occurs when the pressure downstream of the restriction is
greater than the vapor pressure and these vapor cavities collapse, generating
intense local shock waves that result in cavitation noise and material damage.
Flashing occurs if the downstream pressure is low enough to result in vapor-
ization of the liquid.
Care should be taken so that the local pressure inside the flowmeter is main-
tained above the vapor pressure of the liquid to avoid flashing and cavitation. This
is usually remedied by increasing the upstream pressure or downstream pressure
sufficiently to eliminate cavitation, or by cooling the liquid in order to lower
vapor pressure sufficiently to eliminate the cavitation.
Saturated Vapor
A saturated vapor is a vapor that is in equilibrium with its liquid, but is totally a
vapor. Saturated vapors at various pressures are shown conceptually on the pres-
sure-temperature diagram in Figure 2-11 by the line between the triple point,
where all three states can exist simultaneously, and the critical point, beyond
which the liquid and vapor states are indiscernible.
Figure 2-11. Pressure-temperature diagram.
46 Industrial Flow Measurement
Superheated Vapor
A superheated vapor is a saturated vapor that has a higher temperature than a satu-
rated vapor at the same pressure. This is usually expressed as degrees of super-
heat, which represents the number of degrees the vapor is above the saturation
temperature at its operating pressure. The higher the degree of superheat, the
closer the vapor behaves as an ideal gas.
EXERCISES
2.1 Convert 100F, 298 K and 500R to degrees centigrade.
2.2 Convert 3 psi vacuum, 100 mm Hg vacuum, 17 psig, 42 feet of water
column, and 15 bar to psia.
2.3 Calculate Reynolds number and the pressure upstream of the flowmeter
illustrated in the figure below. The liquid has a viscosity of 1 cP and a
specific gravity of 1.00. Assume that the heat exchanger is equivalent to
200 feet of straight 6-inch pipe.
EXAMPLE 2-29
Problem: Calculate the degrees superheat of steam at 125C and 1
atmosphere.
Solution: At 1 atmosphere, steam is saturated at 100C, which is its boiling
point at that pressure. The steam is superheated 125 100, or 25C.
Chapter 2 Fluid Flow Fundamentals 47
2.4 Calculate the pressure upstream of the flowmeter illustrated in the figure
below if the viscosity of the liquid is 1 cP and the density is 1.09 g/cm
3
.
Disregard pipe friction losses.
Is the liquid flowing? Why or why not?
2.5 Calculate the specific gravity of the liquid and the pressure upstream of
the flowmeter illustrated in the figure below if the viscosity of the liquid
is 1 cP and the density is 76.75 lb/ft
3
.
Is the liquid flowing? If not, what can be done to make the fluid flow?
2.6 Determine the minimum flow necessary for flow to be in the turbulent
flow regime in a 2-inch pipe filled with a viscosity of 5 cSt.
2.7 Determine the average velocity in a 2-inch schedule 40 pipe in which
80 gpm is flowing.
85
48 Industrial Flow Measurement
2.8 Calculate Reynolds number and flow in standard units of a gas flowing at
28 psig and 90F in a 4-inch schedule 40 pipe at 50 feet per second.
Density at standard conditions is 0.1869 lb/ft
3
and compressibility is
0.987 and 0.955 at standard and operating conditions, respectively.
Assume the viscosity to be 0.017 cP.
2.9 Calculate the flow in standard units of an ideal flowing at 50 psi and 30C
in a 40-inch schedule 80 pipe at 60 feet per second.