Induction cooker 1

Induction cooker
An induction cooker uses induction heating for cooking. Unlike other
forms of cooking, heat is generated directly in the pot or pan (cooking
vessel), as opposed to being generated in the stovetop by electrical
coils or burning gas. To be used on an induction cooker, a cooking
vessel must be made of a ferromagnetic metal.
In an induction cooker, a coil of copper wire is placed underneath the
cooking pot. An alternating electric current flows through the coil,
which produces an oscillating magnetic field. This field induces an
electric current in the pot. Current flowing in the metal pot produces Induction stove (top view)
resistive heating which heats the food. While the current is large, it is
produced by a low voltage.

An induction cooker is faster and more energy-efficient than a

traditional electric hob. It allows instant control of cooking energy
similar to gas burners. Because induction heats the cooking vessel
itself, the possibility of burn injury is significantly less than with other
methods; the surface of the cook top is only heated from contact with
the vessel. There are no flames or red-hot electric heating elements as
found in traditional cooking equipment. The induction effect does not
heat the air around the vessel, resulting in further energy efficiencies;
some air is blown through the cooktop to cool the electronics, but this Inside an induction stove showing the litz wire
air emerges only a little warmer than ambient temperature. coil.

Induced current can heat any type of metal, but the magnetic properties
of a steel vessel concentrate the current in a thin layer near the surface, which makes the heating effect stronger.
Practical induction cookers are designed for ferromagnetic pots; users are advised to use only pots on which a
magnet will stick. Non-ferrous metals have a skin depth that is too thick, lowering the resistance seen by the induced
current and so making such metals unusable on an induction hob.[1]
Since heat is being generated by an induced electric current, the unit can detect whether cookware is present (or
whether its contents have boiled dry) by monitoring how much power is being absorbed. That allows such functions
as keeping a pot at minimal boil or automatically turning an element off when cookware is removed from it.

Benefits
This form of flameless cooking has certain advantages over
conventional gas flame and electric cookers, as it provides rapid
heating, improved thermal efficiency, and greater heat consistency, yet
with precise control similar to gas.[2] In situations in which a hotplate Induction stove (side view)
would typically be dangerous or illegal, an induction plate is ideal, as it
creates no heat itself.

The time to boil a certain amount of water is inversely proportional to the power; a 3,600-watt induction element is
three times as fast as a 1,200-watt element. The actual time depends upon the amount of water but it is typically a
few minutes. Heating is much faster without water, e.g., for stir-frying — a thin pan containing three tablespoons of
oil may heat up to stir-fry temperature in as little as ten seconds.
Induction cooker 2

Induction cookers are safer to use than conventional cookers because there are no open flames and the element itself
reaches only the temperature of the cooking vessel; only the pan generates heat. Induction cookers are easy to clean
because the cooking surface is flat and smooth, even though it may have several heating zones. Since the cooking
surface is not directly heated, spilled food does not burn on the surface.
Because the cook top is shallow compared to a gas-fired or electrical coil cooktop, wheelchair access can be
improved (the user's legs can be below the counter height and the user's arms can reach over the top).[3]

Limitations
Cookware must be compatible with induction heating; glass and
ceramics are unusable, as are solid copper or solid aluminum
cookware. Although special and costly hobs are available for use with
round-bottom woks, with standard induction hobs, cookware must
have a flat bottom since the magnetic field drops rapidly with distance
from the surface. Induction rings are a metal plate that heat up a
non-ferrous pot by contact, but these sacrifice much of the power and
efficiency of direct use of induction in a compatible cooking vessel. An induction cooktop boiling water through
several thicknesses of newsprint. The paper is
Manufacturers advise consumers that the glass ceramic top can be undamaged since heat is produced only in the
damaged by impact. Aluminum foil can melt onto the top and cause bottom of the pot.
permanent damage or cracking of the top.

A small amount of noise is generated by an internal cooling fan. Audible noise may be produced by cookware
exposed to high magnetic fields, especially at high power or if the cookware has loose parts. A very few persons may
detect a whistle or whine sound from the cookware, or from the power electronic devices. Some cooking techniques
available when cooking over a flame are not applicable. Persons with implanted cardiac pacemakers or other
electronic medical implants may be advised by their doctors to avoid proximity to induction cooktops and other
sources of magnetic fields.[3] Radio receivers near the unit may pick up some electromagnetic interference.

Economic and environmental considerations

According to the U.S. Department of Energy, the efficiency of energy transfer for an induction hob is 84%, versus
71% for a smooth-top non-induction electrical unit, for an approximate 13% saving in energy for the same amount of
heat transfer.[4]
Energy efficiency is the ratio between energy delivered to the food and that consumed by the cooker. Efficiency can
be considered from the "customer side" of the energy meter, or from an overall perspective including generating and
transmission losses. Cooking with gas has an energy efficiency of about 40% at the customer's meter (energy
purchased vs. energy deposited in food), plus distribution losses leading to an overall efficiency of around 38%.[5]
Induction cooking deposits about 84% of the purchased energy into food, but sources of electricity have varying
efficiencies in converting fuel energy to electrical energy. If natural-gas fired electrical generation is the source of
electric power, overall efficiency (and CO2) generation would be comparable to direct use of natural gas for heating.
Other electric cookers have lower efficiency of converting purchased energy into usable heat in the food, and so
would have a lower overall efficiency and higher environmental effect. The environmental impact of electricity from
other sources (nuclear, wind, hydroelectric, solar etc.) varies (the impact of construction, maintenance etc. should be
taken into account for all power sources for the most meaningful comparison). Assessing the life-cycle
environmental impact of various cooking methods requires thoughtful analysis for specific cases.
Induction cooker 3

Common usage
Induction equipment may be a built-in hob, part of a range, or a standalone hob unit. Built-in and rangetop units
typically have multiple elements, the equivalent of separate burners on a gas-fueled range. Stand-alone induction
"modules" are usually single-element, or sometimes have dual elements. All such elements share a basic design: an
electromagnet sealed beneath a heat-resisting glass-ceramic sheet that is easily cleaned. The pot is placed on the
ceramic glass surface and begins to heat up, along with its contents.
In Japan, some models of rice cookers are powered by induction. In Hong Kong, power companies list a number of
models.[6] Asian manufacturers have taken the lead in producing inexpensive single-induction-zone hobs; efficient,
low-waste-heat units are advantageous in densely populated cities with little living space per family, as are many
Asian cities. Induction cookers are less frequently used in other parts of the world.
Induction ranges may be applicable in commercial restaurant kitchens. Electric cooking avoids the cost of natural gas
piping and in some jurisdictions may allow simpler ventilation and fire suppression equipment to be installed.[7]
Drawbacks for commercial use include higher initial cost and the requirement for magnetic cookware.

Heat generation
An induction cooker transfers electrical energy by induction from a
coil of wire into a pot made of material which must be electrically
conductive and ferromagnetic. The heat generated is analogous to the
unwanted heat dissipated in an electric transformer; most of the heat is
due to resistive heating like a transformer's copper losses and eddy
currents and the rest is analogous to a transformer's other iron losses.

A coil of wire is mounted under the cooking surface, and a large

alternating current is passed through it. The current creates a changing
magnetic field. When an electrically conductive pot is brought close to
the cooking surface, the magnetic field induces an electrical current,
called an "eddy current", in the pot. The eddy current, flowing through Inside view; the large copper coil forms the
the electrical resistance, causes electrical power to be dissipated as magnetic field, a cooling fan is visible below it,
and main and auxiliary power supplies surround
heat; the pot gets hot and heats its contents by heat conduction.
the coil.

The cooking surface is made of a material which is a poor heat conductor, so only minimal heat is transferred from
the pot to the cooking surface (and thus wasted). In normal operation the cooking surface stays cool enough to touch
without injury after the cooking vessel is removed.
Some energy will be dissipated wastefully by the current flowing through the resistance of the coil; wasted energy is
minimised by the geometry of the design and by the coil having low resistance. The cooking vessel is typically made
from stainless steel or iron, which is much less conductive. The pot is also ferromagnetic. Since the increased
magnetic permeability of the material decreases the skin depth, the resistance will be further increased. The copper
coil, on the other hand, is made from wire known as litz wire, which is a bundle of many tiny wires in parallel. The
coil has many turns, while the bottom of the pot effectively forms a single shorted turn. This forms a transformer that
steps down the voltage and steps up the current. The resistance of the pot, as viewed from the primary coil, appears
larger. That, in turn, means that most of the energy becomes heat in the high-resistance steel, while the driving coil
stays cool.
The reasons iron or steel cookware work on an induction cooker but aluminium or copper do not is because of the
materials' permeability and resistivity.[8] Aluminium or copper cookware is more conductive and the skin depth in
these materials is larger since they are nonmagnetic. That means that the effective resistance of such pots will be
Induction cooker 4

much lower, and so the induction cooker will not work efficiently with such pots. With iron or steel cookware, some
heat is also generated due to the ferromagnetic material's magnetic hysteresis. This is a smaller component of the
total heat generated.[9] The differences in hysteresis losses are a much smaller effect.
The heat that can be produced in a pot is a function of the surface resistance. A higher surface resistance produces
more heat for similar currents. This is a "figure of merit" that can be used to rank the suitability of a material for
induction heating. The surface resistance in a thick metal conductor is proportional to the resistivity divided by the
skin depth. Where the thickness is less than the skin depth, the actual thickness can be used to calculate surface
resistance.[8] Some common materials are listed in this table.

Skin depth at 24 kHz [8]

Material Resistivity Relative Skin Surface resistance, Relative to copper
(10^-6 ohm-inches) permeability depth, 10^-3 ohms/square
inches

1010 carbon steel 9 200 0.004 2.25 56.25

432 Stainless steel 24.5 200 0.007 3.5 87.5

304 Stainless steel 29 1 0.112 0.26 6.5

Aluminum 1.12 1 0.022 0.051 1.28

Copper 0.68 1 0.017 0.04 1

Obtaining the same surface resistance with materials such as copper would require them to be much thinner than is
practical for a cooking vessel; a copper vessel bottom would be 1/56th the thickness of the carbon steel pot.[8] Since
the skin depth is inversely proportional to the square root of the frequency, this suggests that much higher
frequencies (say, several megahertz) would be required to obtain equivalent heating in a copper pot as in an iron pot
at 25 kHz. Such high frequencies are not feasible with inexpensive semiconductors; in 1973 the silicon-controlled
rectifiers used were limited to no more than 40 kHz.[8] Even a thin layer of copper on the bottom of a steel cooking
vessel will shield the steel from the magnetic field and make it unusable for an induction top.[8]
Some additional heat is created by hysteresis losses in the pot due to its
ferromagnetic nature, but this creates less than ten percent of the total
heat generated.[10]

Household foil is much thinner than the skin

depth in aluminum at the frequencies used by an
induction cooker. Here the foil has melted where
it was exposed to the air after steam formed under
it. Cooktop manufacturers prohibit the use of
aluminum foil in contact with an induction
cooktop.
Induction cooker 5

Early production
First patents date from the early 1900s.[11] Demonstration stoves were
shown by the Frigidaire division of General Motors in the
mid-1950s[12] on a touring GM showcase in North America. The
induction cooker was shown heating a pot of water with a newspaper
placed between the stove and the pot, to demonstrate the convenience
and safety. This unit, however, was never put into production. Modern
implementation in the USA dates from the early 1970s, with work
done at the Research & Development Center of Westinghouse Electric
Corporation at Churchill Borough, near Pittsburgh, PA, USA.[8]

That work was first put on public display at the 1971 National
Association of Home Builders convention in Houston, Texas, as part of
the Westinghouse Consumer Products Division display. The
stand-alone single-burner range was named the Cool Top Induction
Range. It used transistors developed for automotive electronic ignition An early induction cooker patent from 1909
systems to drive the 25 kHz current. illustrates the principle. The coil of wire S
induces a magnetic field in the magnetic core M.
Westinghouse decided to make a few hundred production units to The magnetic field passes through the bottom of
develop the market. Those were named Cool Top 2 (CT2) Induction the pot A, inducing eddy currents within it.
ranges. The development work was done at the same R&D location, by Unlike this concept, a modern cooktop uses
electronically-generated high-frequency current.
a team led by Bill Moreland and Terry Malarkey. The ranges were
$1,500. That price included a set of high quality cookware made of
Quadraply, a stainless steel/carbon steel/aluminium/stainless steel laminate (outside to inside).

Production took place in 1973 through to 1975 and stopped, coincidentally, with the sale of Westinghouse Consumer
Products Division to White Consolidated Industries Inc.
CT2 had four burners of sufficient power, about 1,600 watts. The range top was a PyroCeram ceramic sheet
surrounded by a stainless-steel bezel upon which four magnetic sliders adjusted four corresponding potentiometers
set below. That design, using no through-holes, made the range proof against spills. The electronic section was made
in four identical modules. Provision was made for fan cooling of the electronics.
In each of the electronics modules, the 240V, 60 Hz domestic line power was converted to between 20V and 200V
of continuously variable DC by a phase-controlled rectifier. That DC power was in turn converted to 27 kHz AC by
two arrays of six paralleled Motorola automotive-ignition transistors in a half-bridge configuration driving a
series-resonant LC oscillator, of which the inductor component was the induction-heating coil and its load, the
cooking pan. That elegant circuit design, largely by Ray MacKenzie, successfully dealt with certain bothersome
overload problems.
Control electronics included functions such as protection against over-heated cook-pans and overloads. Provision
was made to reduce radiated electrical and magnetic fields. There was also magnetic pan detection.
CT2 was UL Listed and received Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approval, both firsts. Numerous
patents were also issued. CT2 won several awards, including Industrial Research Magazine's IR-100 1972
best-product award and a citation from the United States Steel Association. Raymond Baxter demonstrated the CT2
on his BBC series, Tomorrow’s World. He showed how the CT2 could cook through a slab of ice.
Sears Kenmore sold a free-standing oven/stove with four induction-cooking surfaces in the mid-1980s (Model
Number 103.9647910). The unit also featured a self-cleaning oven, solid-state kitchen timer and capacitive-touch
control buttons (advanced for its time). The units were more expensive than standard cooktops.
Induction cooker 6

Vendors
The market for induction stoves is dominated by German manufacturers, such as AEG, Bosch, Miele and Siemens.
The Spanish company Fagor, Italian firm Smeg and Sweden's Electrolux are also key players in the European
market. Prices range from about GBP250 to 1,000 within the UK. In 2006, Stoves launched the UK's first domestic
induction hob (cooktop) on a range cooker at a slightly lower cost than those imported.
The European induction cooking market for hotels, restaurants and other caterers is primarily satisfied by smaller
specialist commercial induction catering equipment manufacturers such as Adventys [13] of France, Control
Induction [14] of the UK and Scholl [15] of Germany.
Taiwanese and Japanese electronics companies are the dominant players in induction cooking for East Asia. After
aggressive promotions by utilities in HK like CLP Power HK Ltd [16], many local brands like UNIVERSAL [17],
icMagIC [18], Zanussi, iLighting, German Pool [19] also emerged. Their power and ratings are high, more than 2,800
watts. They are multiple zone and capable of performing better than their gas counterpart. The efficiency is as high
as 90% and saves a lot of energy and is environmentally friendly. Their use by local Chinese for wok cooking is
becoming popular. Some of these companies have also started marketing in the West. However, the product range
sold in Western markets is a subset of that in their domestic market; some Japanese electronics manufacturers only
sell domestically.
Small stand-alone induction cookers are relatively inexpensive, priced from around $60.
Units may have two, three, four or five induction zones, but four (normally in a 30-inch-wide unit) is the most
common in the US and Europe. Two coils are most common in Hong Kong and three is most common in Japan.
Some have touch-sensitive controls. Some induction stoves have a memory setting, one per element, to control the
time that heat is applied.

Induction cooking pans

The types of pans that can be used on an induction hob will be generally the same as those that can be used on a
conventional electric or gas hob. Induction hobs (cooktops) work well with any pans with a high ferrous metal
content at the base. Cast iron pans and any black metal or iron pans will work on an induction hob. Stainless steel
pans will often work on an induction hob provided the sole of the pan is a grade of stainless steel that is magnetic. If
a magnet sticks well to the sole of the pan, it will work on an induction hob.
For frying on an induction hob, a pan with a base that is a good heat conductor is needed to spread the heat quickly
and evenly. For induction hob use, the sole of the pan will be either a steel plate pressed into the aluminium or a
cladding of stainless steel over the aluminium. This ferromagnetic sole is the part which generates the heat on the
induction hob. The high thermal conductivity of aluminium pans makes the temperature more uniform across the
pan. Stainless frying pans with an aluminium base will not have the same level of heat at their sides as an aluminium
sided pan will have. Some frying pans are made of iron, which does not perform as well as aluminium as a conductor
and does not provide even heat, but is cheaper. Cast iron pans work well with induction.
When boiling water, the water spreads the heat and prevents hot spots. For products such as sauces, it is important
that at least the base of the pan incorporates a good heat conducting material such as aluminium to spread the heat
evenly across the base. For really delicate products such as thick sauces, a pan with aluminium throughout is better,
since the heat flows up the sides through the aluminium, allowing the chef to heat the sauce rapidly but evenly.