1

Preface

This booklet on operational amplifiers has been compiled to fulfill the requirements of
the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE). It addresses a specific need
in some of our high schools and is intended to augment the teachers material on the
subject matter. Booklets are provided to students during the CAPE Physics Workshop
offered annually by the Department of Physics at the University of the West Indies, Mona
Campus. These workshops target problematic topics in the Physics Syllabus and use
lectures and laboratory sessions to teach the material in a manner that enhances the
students understanding.

The booklet starts with an overview of the CAPE Physics Electronics requirements then
moves into the relevant subject matter. The author presents the content of each section in
a way that relates to the targeted age group and facilitates quicker understanding.
Worked examples are included throughout the booklet and additional CAPE type
questions are added at the end.

The procedures for the practical sessions are added at the end of the booklet. In Lab 1, a
chosen operational amplifier circuit is constructed and tested on the lab bench. The
results of these measurements are plotted on a graph. In lab 2, the same circuit is
simulated on a computer and its results are compared to that of Lab 1. This technique is
intended to provide the students with a comparative feel for the hands-on experiments
versus the simulated ones.

The Department of Physics hopes that the students find this booklet to be a valuable aid
in their learning process and wishes each and every student success in their upcoming
examinations.

Paul R. Aiken (PhD)
Department of Physics
UWI, Mona
2014
2
Table of Contents



CAPE Requirements . 2
What are Operational Amplifiers? .. . 3
Circuit Schematic Representation . 4
Power Supply Requirements.. 4
The Ideal Operational Amplifier 5
The Typical (Real) Operational Amplifier 9
The Op Amp as a Comparator 10
Application of the Comparator 13
Potential Dividers and Variable Resistors . 13
Light Dependent Resistors (LDR) . 14
Thermistors 14
Strain gauge ... 14
Feedback in Op Amp Circuits 17
Positive Feedback
Negative Feedback
The Inverting Amplifier 18
The Non-inverting Amplifier .. 21
Effect of Negative Feedback on Gain and Bandwidth 22
Voltage Follower 26
Summing Amplifier .... 27
Difference Amplifier .. 29
An Operational Amplifier Circuit Example .. 29
Op Amp Problems . 32
Experiment 1 ..... 34
Experiment 2 . 36




3
CAPE Requirements

4. Operational Amplifiers Students should be
able to:
4.1 describe the properties of the ideal operational
amplifier;
4.2 compare the properties of the typical and the
ideal operational amplifier;
4.3 use the operational amplifier as a comparator;
4.4 use the fact that magnitude of the output
voltage cannot exceed that of the power
supply;
4.5 discuss the effect of positive and negative
feedback in an amplifier;
4.6 explain the meaning of gain and bandwidth of
an amplifier;








Consider these effects in terms of whether they are
advantages or disadvantages.

Typical as well as ideal values for these quantities should be
discussed.
4.7 explain the gain-frequency curve for a
typical operational amplifier;
4.8 determine bandwidth from a gain frequency
curve;
4.9 draw the circuit diagram for both the
inverting and non-inverting amplifier with a
single input;
4.10 use the concept of virtual earth in the
inverting amplifier;
4.11 derive and use expressions for the gain of both
the inverting amplifier;
4.12 discuss the effect of negative feedback on the
gain and bandwidth of an operational
amplifier;
4.13 perform calculations related to single-input
inverting amplifier circuits;
4.14 perform calculations related to single-input, non-
inverting amplifier circuits;
4.15 describe the use of the inverting amplifier as a
summing amplifier;
Include the fact that frequency is usually plotted on a
logarithmic axis and explain the reason for this.
Precise numerical value related to the response of the ear
is not required.
Students should be familiar with several representations of
the same circuit.

Explain why the virtual earth cannot be connected
directly to earth although it is `virtually" at earth
potential.
State the two "Golden Rules' of Operational Amplifier
circuit analysis and show how they lead to the results
required here.
Mention the effect of negative feedback on other op-amp
characteristics.




Include the fact that it is also possible to configure
the op-amp as a difference amplifier.
4.16 solve problems related to summing amplifier
circuits;
4.17 describe the use of the operational amplifier as a
voltage follower;
4.18 analyse simple operational amplifier circuits;
4.19 analyse the response of amplifier circuits to
input signals, using timing diagrams.



Mention the important practical use of the voltage
follower as a buffer or matching amplifier.

Refer to note 4.11

4
What are Operational Amplifiers?
The term Operational Amplifier was originally used to describe an amplifier circuit
which performed various mathematical operations such as differentiation, integration,
summation and subtraction. Operational Amplifier, or Op Amp, is now more loosely
applied to any high gain alternating current (ac) and direct current (dc) amplifier capable
of operating in various configurations. Op Amps have extremely wide applications and
may be found in all types of circuit and system designs.

Op amps are a member of the family of linear integrated circuits. Integrated circuits (ICs)
consist of many transistors and few resistors and capacitors. Transistors are a special
form of semiconductors with properties similar to those of junction diodes. ICs are
usually fabricated on a specially prepared material using extremely precise process
control. The final product generally occupies areas less that one square centimeter, even
for the most complex ICs.

(a) LM741 Single OP amp (b) Quad LM741 op amp (LM324)


(c) Pin labels for LM741 (d) Pin labels for single packaged quad op amp
Fig. 1 The 741 Op amp single (8-pins) and quad packages (14-pins)
5
There are many different types of op amps designed for varying applications. The most
popular of these is the LM741 op amp developed by National Semiconductor Company.
Fig. 1 shows pictures of two package types of the LM741 Op amp and their
corresponding internal schematic.


Circuit Schematic Representation
An op amp is represented by the symbol shown in Fig 2. For the LM741 op amp, pins 2
and 3 are what we called the inverting and non-inverting inputs, respectively, because of
the way the input signals are acted upon. Pin 6 is the output and pins 7 and 4 are the pins
to which the positive and negative power supply inputs are connected. In some circuits,
pin 4 may be connected to the circuit ground (or common) instead of a negative voltage
supply.








Fig. 2 The Op amp schematic symbol


Power Supply Requirements
All ICs have a minimum and maximum power supply voltage rating. The LM741 op amp
may be operated from a dual-rail supply voltage of 5 V dc to 18 V dc, or a single-
rail supply of 10Vdc to 36 V dc with respect to ground. The op amp will not work
properly if smaller voltages (than the minimum in this range) are applied and will be
damaged if greater voltages (than the maximum in this range) are applied. Before using
positive power supply voltage
Negative power supply voltage
Output
Inverting input
Non-inverting input
2
3
6
7
4
-
+
positive power supply voltage
Negative power supply voltage
Output
Inverting input
Non-inverting input
2
3
6
7
4
positive power supply voltage
Negative power supply voltage
Output
Inverting input
Non-inverting input
2
3
6
7
4
-
+
6
any IC in a circuit always check its manufacturer data sheets for its maximum ratings.
This may be easily found by doing a Google search of the part number.

Fig. 3 show examples of single and dual rail power supplies. At this time, the most
common type available to high school students are those made from connecting batteries
in series aiding arrangements (Fig.3(c)). Other types of DC power supplies are available.


(b) A 9-Volt battery
(a) Single rail 9 V supply (c) A dual rail 9 V supply

Fig. 3 Power supply configuration


The Ideal Operational Amplifier
The output voltage of an op amp is proportional to the difference of the voltages at its
inverting (V
-
) and non-inverting (V
+
) inputs. This is represented by Equation 1

) (
0
+
= V V A V
out
(1)
where A
0
is called the Open-Loop gain of the op amp.

Oklets pause here for a minute. What are these open-loop and gain things we have
been talking about???. .. Well, the typical connection for an op amp in a circuit is one
where some other component (usually a resistor) is connected between the output pin and
the inverting input pin. This causes the signal that goes into the op amp to get loop back
from its output to its input. This setup is called a closed-loop configuration. Therefore,
if there are no components connecting the output back to the input, then we can say that
+
9V
-
+ 9 Vdc
Ground
+
9V
-
+ 9 Vdc
Ground
+
+
-
-
9V
9V
+ 9 Vdc
Ground
- 9 Vdc
+
+
-
-
9V
9V
+ 9 Vdc
Ground
- 9 Vdc
7
we have an open-loop configuration. So Eq.1 describes the gain of the op amp when the
loop is open. OK so here we go with that gain word again.

The gain of an amplifier is the amount of amplifications that is given to the input signal
to get the output signal. In other words, it is how many times the input signal gets
multiplied to equal the output signal. The gain is always found by dividing the voltage
value of the output signal by that of the input signal. The gain is always just a number
and has no units. So open-loop gain means how many times the input signal gets
amplified when there is nothing connected between the output and input pins. By the
way, this connection we are talking about, the one between the output and the input, it is
called feedback. That is, a portion of the output signal gets fed back to the input
whenever we have the connection in place. We will talk some more on this later on.

We will now attempt to describe some of the main properties of an ideal op amp. Dont
be frightened by all the new terminologies (weird words). We will list the properties first
then go through line-by-line and try to provide additional explanations. So here goes
the ideal operational amplifier may be assumed to have the following properties:

(a) An infinite open-loop gain. The slightest difference in V
+
and V
-
will caused the
output to go to saturation. Saturation voltage cannot exceed the power supply
voltage.
(b) An infinite input impedance (resistance). This ensures that no current flows into
the input terminals (V
+
and V
-
). However, voltages may be present.
(c) An infinite bandwidth. This assumes that it amplifies any input range of
frequencies.
(d) Zero output impedance (resistance). This ensures that the amplifier is unaffected
whatever output circuit it is connected to.
(e) An infinite slew rate. The means that the input and output frequency changes are
always exactly in synch.
(f) Zero voltage and current offsets. This ensures that when the input signal voltages
are zero the output will also be zero regardless of the input source resistance.

8
If your head is spinning at this point, just stop, take a deep breath, get some water or
something. Now, read these explanations below, then go back and re-read the
properties. It is very important that you understand these concept and terminologies.

Lets start with the first one,
(a) An infinite open-loop gain. The slightest difference in V
+
and V
-
will
caused the output to go to saturation. Saturation voltage cannot exceed the
power supply voltage.

By now, we all understand this open-loop gain thing. If not, re-read the top of this
section. The difference now is that we put the word infinite in front of it! Infinite just
means very, very large, countless So we are just saying that when the op amp is
configured without any feedback it has a very, very, very large gain.

The next word is saturation, what does it mean for the op amp to be saturated? What is it
saturated with? Suppose we were to plot the gain of the op amp from its definition, i.e.
in
out
V
V
gain = , where V
out
and V
in
are the output and input signal voltages, respectively.
We will get the plot shown in Fig. 4(a). Just a nice straight line with a constant gradient!
Agreed!!! Ok.. lets move on.








(a) Constant gain (b) saturation limit
Fig. 4 Op amp gain and voltage saturation

V
in
(mV)
V
out
(Volts)
Constant
Gain
0
V
in
(mV)
V
out
(Volts)
Constant
Gain
0
V
in
(mV)
V
out
(Volts)
Region of
Constant gain
0
V
supply
Region of
reducing gain
Region of
Fixed output
V
in
(mV)
V
out
(Volts)
Region of
Constant gain
0
V
supply
Region of
reducing gain
Region of
Fixed output
9
What is the maximum possible output voltage of the op amp?? No idea!!! Think about it
for a while lets ask another question then. Where does the op amp get its voltage
from? Yes, this is easier The op amp gets its voltage from the voltage of the power
supply that is connected to it. Therefore, it stands to reason that the maximum output
voltage of the op amp cannot exceed its power supply voltage. In other words, the power
supply voltage sets the voltage output limit of the amplifier. Now, lets get back to Fig. 4.
Look especially at Fig.4(b) Whenever the output voltage starts getting close to the
value of the power supply voltage, V
supply
, something strange starts happening. The gain
starts decreasing, i.e. Vout/Vin is getting smaller. As a result, the gradient of the slope
starts decreasing and is getting flatter and flatter. By the time it reaches the power supply
voltage value, it becomes a flat straight line which will never exceed the power supply
voltage value. Just as it reaches this point, the op amp is said to be saturated. That is, the
output signal remains at a constant voltage irrespective of any increases in the input
signal voltage.

Moving on to the second property:
(b) An infinite input impedance (resistance). This ensures that no current
flows into the input terminals (V
+
and V
-
). However, voltages may be present.

What is impedance anyway? It is the term used to describe the combined resistances of
all the circuit elements, including elements that you will not study at the CAPE level.
Impedance values depend on the frequency of the signal. Its unit is the Ohm, same as that
for resistances. So, for the sake of simplification, lets think of impedance as resistance.

Why is it that no current flows into an infinitely high resistance? It goes back to Ohms
law, which state that V = IR. If V is 10 volts and R is 10 M, then the current I = 10V
10,000,000. Therefore, I = 1 A or 10
-6
A. In these kinds of circuit, this current is
considered negligible. This is the same principle behind the operation of an ideal
voltmeter. It measures the voltage while having negligible current flow through it.

Moving on ..
10
(c) An infinite bandwidth. This assumes that it amplifies any input range of
frequencies.

Bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which the op amp operates with a constant
gain. This will be explained in more detail later on.

(d) Zero output impedance (resistance). This ensures that the amplifier is
unaffected whatever output circuit it is connected to.

This is self explanatory by now. It just means there is no output resistance when the op
amp is connected to a load. In this state it is capable of driving any load.

Points (e) and (f) are self explanatory. Also, understanding these features is not a CAPE
requirement at this time.

So lets now restate the assumptions of an ideal Op amp:
(a) An infinite open-loop gain.
(b) An infinite input impedance (resistance).
(c) An infinite bandwidth.
(d) Zero output impedance (resistance).
(e) An infinite slew rate.
(f) Zero voltage and current offsets.


The Typical (Real) Operational Amplifier
Real op amps have characteristics that approach those of ideal op amp, but never quite
attained them. They deviate from the ideal op amp in the following ways:
(a) The open loop gain is usually in the range of 10
5
10
6
. Although this is high, it is
not infinite.
(b) They have large but finite input impedances usually in the range of 10
6
10
12
.
Thus, drawing very small, but measurable currents at their input terminals.
11
(c) They have a finite bandwidth which is dependent on the gain. The higher the gain
the smaller the bandwidth. This is usually described in its frequency response
characteristics or the Gain-Bandwidth product.
(d) The output impedance is usually about 100 .
(e) They have finite slew rate and voltage and current offsets.

Note that while the ideal op amp does not exist, its properties serve as a valuable starting
point for preliminary circuit analysis.


The Op Amp as a Comparator
As discussed earlier, an op amp has an inverting (V
-
) and a non-inverting (V
+
) input.
These inputs may be connected as single-ended inputs or as a differential input. In single-
ended input mode, only one of the inputs has a voltage signal while the other is grounded.
In differential mode, both inputs have voltages with respect to ground. Equation 1 may be
applied to both of these cases to create these three open-loop gain scenarios:

1.
+
= V A V
out 0
Input signal (V
in
) is on V
+
input and V
-
terminal is grounded
2. ) (
0

= V A V
out
Input signal (V
in
) is on V
-
input and V
+
terminal is grounded
3. ) (
0
+
= V V A V
out
for cases where a differential input signal is applied

This may be represented schematically as shown in Fig. 5.







(a) Case 1 (b) Case 2
-
+
- V
supply
+ V
supply
ground
V
in
) (
0

= V A V
out
-
+
- V
supply
+ V
supply
ground
V
in
) (
0

= V A V
out
-
+
- V
supply
+ V
supply
ground
V
in
+
= V A V
out 0
-
+
- V
supply
+ V
supply
ground
V
in
+
= V A V
out 0
12









(c) Case 3
Fig. 5 Open-loop gain scenarios

Some important observations:
1. In case 1, the output signal will always be of the same polarity (or phase) of its
input signal.
2. In case 2, the output signal will always be of the opposite polarity (or phase) of
its input signal.
3. In case 3, the polarity of the output will depend on which of the inputs has the
larger voltage:
a. If
+
< V V then polarity will be opposite to that of V
-

b. If
+
> V V then polarity will be same as that of V
+

4. A negative output voltage can only be obtained if the op amp is connected to a
dual rail supply (i.e Vsupply).

A Comparator may be made up of any of these three configurations. The signals at the
input terminals are compared and their difference is multiplied by the open-loop gain of
the op amp to produce the output voltage. Lets look at these three examples:

-
+
- V
supply
+ V
supply
ground
V
in
V
in
) (
0
+
= V V A V
out
-
+
- V
supply
+ V
supply
ground
V
in
V
in
) (
0
+
= V V A V
out
13
Example 1: What is the output Voltage for an op amp circuit with the following
characteristics?
V
+
= 1V V
-
= 0 Volt (or grounded) A
0
= 10
5

+Vsupply = +12Volts -Vsupply = - 12 Volts

Solution:
(Use circuit in case 1 of Fig. 4)
000 , 100 1 10
5
0
+ = = =
+
V A V
out
Volts
But stop right hereRemember, you cannot get an output voltage that is
greater that your power supply voltages. Therefore, V
out
cannot exceed
+Vsupply, i.e.
V
out
= + 12 Volts
Whenever this happens, the op amp is said to be SATURATED. Saturation
voltages cannot exceed the power supply voltages.

Example 2: Same as Example 1 except V
+
= 0, and V
-
= 1 Volt.

Solution: V
out
= -100,000 Volts
But by now we know this cannot exceed the -12 Vsupply. Therefore the real
answer is: V
out
= -12 Volts.

Example 3: Same as Example 1 except V
+
= 1.3 V, and V
-
= 1.1 V

Solution: Applying Case 3 equation,
( ) 1 . 1 3 . 1 10 ) (
5
0
= =
+
V V A V
out

= 0.2 x 10
5
= 20,000 Volts
Again the actual value is:
V
out
= +12 Volts

14
Application of the Comparator
The comparator is used in many circuit applications where two states need to be
compared to produce a desired output signal, which is usually used to control some other
circuit or to switch some state. A not so obvious use is that of a voltage-level-shifter. That
is, use can be made of the fact that an output voltage that is equal to the power supply
voltage can always be obtained, irrespective of how small the input voltage difference is.

Usually, when the op amp is used as a comparator, its input terminals are connected to
some kind of potential divider circuit. One of these potential dividers creates a fixed
voltage that is used as a reference, while the other varies in accordance with some other
physical or electrical property that may either be internal or external to the circuit. It may
be important at this point to say a little about potential dividers and variable resistors.

Potential Dividers and Variable Resistors
A Potential Divider or voltage divider is a simple arrangement of two resistances across
one voltage source. From Ohms and Kirchhoffs laws, we know that the sum of the
voltage drops across each resistance will be equal to the supply voltage. In other words,
the voltage drop across each of the resistances is always less than that of the voltage
source. By varying the resistances, we can vary the amount of voltage across them. We
can collect an output voltage at the point just between the two resistances. In most cases
this output is taken with respect to the ground. Note that we are referring to two
resistances and not two resistors. There is a reason for this! While two resistors will work
perfectly well as voltage dividers, there are a set of resistors that has variable resistances.
They have three terminals, one of which is a slider that is used to vary the resistance that
is seen at the output. Terminals 1 and 3 (see Fig. 6) may be connected across a voltage
source and the output taken from terminal 2. An illustration of these resistors is shown in
Fig. 6.



15







Fig. 6 Fixed and variable resistors

Fig. 7 shows actual voltage divider examples using these two types of resistors. The value
of the output voltage (in Fig. 7) can always be determined from Equation 2.

2 1
sup 2
R R
V R
V
ply
out
+
=
(2)
Note that in Fig.7 (b) the variable resistor is divided into two resistances, the one above
the slider, R1, and the other below, R2. Eq. (2) applies in all cases where the output is
connected to a very high resistance (or impedance), for example, the input terminal of an
op amp.







(a) Two fixed resistor divider (b) Variable resistor divider

Fig. 7 Voltage Dividers
Fixed resistor
1 2
Variable resistor
1
3
2
Variable resistor
1 3
2
Fixed resistor Fixed resistor
1 2
Variable resistor
1
3
2
Variable resistor
1
3
2
Variable resistor
1 3
2
Variable resistor
1 3
2
+
V
supply
R1
R2 V
out
+
V
supply
V
out
R1
R2
+
V
supply
R1
R2 V
out
+
V
supply
V
out
R1
R2
16
Example 1: If Vsupply =12 V, R1 = R2 = 10 k, what is the value of Vout?

Solution: Using Eq.2;

6
2
12
000 , 10 000 , 10
12 000 , 10
= =
+

=
out
V

= 6 Volts

Example 2: If Vsupply =12 V, R1 = 10 k, what value of R2 is required to let Vout =
4V?
Solution: Modifying Eq.2 so that R2 becomes the subject:

= =

= k
V V
V R
R
out ply
out
5 5000
4 12
4 000 , 10
sup
1
2


Other forms of variable resistors exist that have only two terminals, instead of three.
Their resistances usually depend on some external physical condition, like temperature,
light or strain. Resistors with resistances that depend on the amount of light present are
called Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) and those that depend on temperature are called
Thermistors.
An LDR is made by sandwiching two metal electrodes by a film of cadmium
sulphide. In complete darkness, it has a resistance of about 10M, but in bright
sunlight, its resistance falls to about 100. Therefore, by varying the amount of
light shining on the LDR, we can vary its resistance. In Example 1 above, Replace
R2 with a LDR and calculate Vout for both darkness and sunlight cases.
A thermistor is a temperature dependent resistor which is manufactured from the
oxides of various metals. They are made in all kinds of shapes and sizes. Negative
temperature coefficient types have resistances which becomes smaller as
temperature increases.
A strain gauge is made by sealing a length of very fine wire in a small
rectangular of thin plastic sheet in such a way that if the plastic is stretched (i.e.
under strain), the wire will be stretched, which in turn increases its resistance.

17
So lets get back to our discussion of the op amp as a comparator. Fig 8 shows an
example of a comparator application. Resistors R3 and R4 fixed the voltage at the non-
inverting input to half the +Vsupply voltage. The voltage at the inverting terminal will
depend on the value of the resistance of the LDR, R2. In the presence of light (such as
daylight) the LDR will have a resistance that is less than R1. This makes V
+
less than V
-

and the output to be equal to Vsupply. In this output state, no current will flow through
the Light Emitting Diode (LED) and it will remain off.











Fig. 8 Comparator application: A light sensitive circuit

In the absence of light (such as at night) the LDR resistance will exceed that of R1,
creating a voltage at V+ that is greater than that at V-. The output of the op amp will then
switch to the positive saturation voltage which equals +Vsupply. In this state, a current
will flow through the LED to turn it on. That is, the LED will be lit. Resistor R5 is
required to limit the current through the LED. Usually, LED draws a current of 10 mA
and has1.8 V drop across it, therefore R5 value is
=
+
720
01 . 0
8 . 1
sup ply
V
.

This is the basic principle of operation of a photosensitive light detector, like those
installed outside your houses. Note that the LDR can be replaced by a thermistor to
produce an ice-warning LED circuit.

-
+
ground
+
+
-
-
9V
9V
R1
10k
LDR
R2
R3
10k
R4
10k
R5
+ 9 V
-9 V
LED
-
+
ground
+
+
-
-
9V
9V
R1
10k
LDR
R2
R3
10k
R4
10k
R5
+ 9 V
-9 V
LED
-
+
ground
+
+
-
-
9V
9V
R1
10k
LDR
R2
R3
10k
R4
10k
R5
+ 9 V
-9 V
LED
18
Feedback in Op Amp Circuits
Feedback, as the word implies, is the process of taking some, or all, of the output signal
of an amplifier and adding it back to its input. The basic arrangement for this is shown in
Fig. 9.









Fig. 9 Basic feedback in amplifier

A fraction of the output voltage is fed back and added to the input applied voltage. By
inspection of Fig. 9, it is seen that the fraction of signal fed back to the input is
out
V .
This gets added to the input, V
in
, to give
out in
V V + . This combined input is amplified by
the gain A
0
of the amplifier to give an output of ( )
out in out
V V A V + =
0
. This may be
rewritten as:


( )

0 0
0 0
0 0
1 A V V A
V A V V A
V A V A V
out in
out out in
out in out
=
=
+ =


The overall gain of this feedback arrangement may now be expressed as:


( )
0
0
1 A
A
V
V
in
out

= (3)
Add
V
in
Feedback
Fraction,
Amplifier
Gain, A
0
V
out
V
out
V
in
+V
out
Add
V
in
Feedback
Fraction,
Amplifier
Gain, A
0
V
out
Add
V
in
Feedback
Fraction,
Amplifier
Gain, A
0
V
out
V
out
V
in
+V
out
19

There are two kinds of feedback that depends on the polarity of . They are positive
feedback and negative feedback.

Positive Feedback
Referring to Eq. 3 above, if is positive, then the
0
A term can be made to be equal to
1, making the denominator term ( )
0
1 A equal to zero. That is, the overall gain will be
infinite. So we now have an amplifier system with an infinite gain, even without any
inputs. This is the basis of the principle of operation of oscillator circuits. Note that
positive feedback is only possible when the output signal is fed back in phase with the
input signal, so in the case of the op amp, the feedback signal must be sent to the non-
inverting input terminal.

Negative Feedback
If the fraction is negative, then the denominator term in Eq. 3 is greater than unity. The
overall gain of the feedback amplifying system is now much smaller than the open-loop
gain. At first glance, this may seem pointless, but there are some very great advantages
for doing this:
a. Lowering the gain significantly increases the bandwidth. That is, it allows
amplification over a greater frequency range.
b. There is less distortion of the output signal. The op amp doesnt have to saturate
anymore.
c. Overall improvement in the operational stability of the circuit.


The Inverting Amplifier
The inverting amplifier is shown in Fig. 10. For simplification, the power supply
connections are not shown. Also, it is assumed that the op amp is not saturated. An input
signal V
in
is applied to the resistor R
1
, which is connected to the inverting input terminal.
Resistor R
f
is connected across the output and the inverting input terminal to provide
negative feedback.
20










Fig. 10 The inverting amplifier


The non-inverting input is connected to ground so its potential is at exactly zero volt.
The behavior of an op amp is such that when any of its input terminals is grounded it
causes a virtual ground condition to exist at the other terminal. This point is labeled VG
in Fig.10. This is an important point and needs restating. When the amplifier output is
fed back to the inverting input terminal, the output voltage will always take on that value
required to drive the signal difference between the amplifier input terminals to zero.
Another point to note is that because of the very large input impedance no current flows
into the input terminals of the op amp.

Let us now derive an expression for the gain in terms of the R
1
and R
f
. The circuits of
Fig.11 (a) and (b) show the directions of current flow in an inverting amplifier. Since no
currents flow into the input terminals, all currents must flow through the external
resistors, R
1
and R
f
.
-
+
V
in
V
out
R
f
R
1 VG
-
+
V
in
V
out
R
f
R
1 VG
21








(a) +ve flowing (b) -ve flowing

Fig. 11 Direction of current flow in the inverting amplifier


The same current, I, that flows through R
1
, also flows through R
f
. Therefore, Ohms law
may be used to derive a simple expression of the voltage gain.

Current through R
1
= Current through R
f


From Ohms law (V=IR), we can express the current in terms of voltage and resistance;
Therefore,
f
R
R
R
V
R
V
f
=
1
1


Where, V
R1
and V
Rf
are the voltage drops across resistors R
1
and R
f
, respectively.
But, since the voltage at the inverting input is 0-volt (at the point VG) then:

0
1
=
in R
V V and
out R
V V
f
= 0

Substituting,
-
+
-ve output
R
f
R
1 VG
+ve input
Current, I
Current, I
Current, I
0-volt
-
+
-ve output
R
f
R
1 VG
+ve input
Current, I
Current, I
Current, I
-
+
-ve output
R
f
R
1 VG
+ve input
Current, I
Current, I
Current, I
0-volt
-
+
+ve output
R
f
R
1 VG
-ve input
Current, I
Current, I
Current, I
-
+
+ve output
R
f
R
1 VG
-ve input
Current, I
Current, I
Current, I
22
1
1
1
0 0
R
R
V
V
R
V
R
V
R
V
R
V
f
in
out
f
out in
f
out in
=

That is, the voltage gain of an inverting amplifier is equal to the negative of the ratio of
its feedback resistance to its input resistance.


The Non-inverting Amplifier
The non-inverting amplifier is shown in Fig.12. An input voltage V
in
is applied directly to
the non-inverting input terminal, V
+
. Negative feedback is applied by means of resistors
R
f
and R
1
, as shown.











Fig. 12 The non-inverting amplifier

-
+
R
f
R
1
V
out
V
in
0 V
-
+
R
f
R
1
V
out
V
in
0 V
(4)
23
Assuming that the amplifier is not saturated, then the voltages at the two input terminal
must effectively be the same. That is V
+
= V
-
. In this setup, V
+
is equal to V
in
and V
-
is
equal to the voltage dividing of V
out
by R
f
and R
1
. This may be expressed as:


f
out
in
R R
V R
V V V
+
= = =
+
1
1


By rearranging, the overall voltage gain of the amplifier is given by


1
1
R
R
V
V
f
in
out
+ =
(5)
Exercise: Verify Eq.5 by using the current flow technique used to derive the gain
equation for the inverting amp.

Important Observations:
1. The non-inverting amplifier produces an output that is in phase with the input
signal, hence the name non-inverting.
2. The inverting amplifier produces an output that is out-of-phase (usually by 180
degrees) with its input. Look back at the circuits of Fig. 10 and Fig. 12.
3. The input signal of the inverting amplifier goes through the input resistors. This
means that the impedance seen by the input signal is dependent on the values of
the resistors.
4. In the case of the non-inverting amplifier, however, the input signal goes directly
to the non-inverting input of the amplifier, which has infinitely high input
impedance. Because of this, the current drawn from the signal source is negligible
and this circuit configuration is extremely suitable for BUFFER AMPLIFIER
applications. That is, it does not load down the signal driving circuit.

Effect of Negative Feedback on Gain and Bandwidth
Fig.13 shows a circuit that could be used to measure the open-loop gain of a real op amp
at a number of different frequencies. During measurement of gain, the amplifier must not
24
be saturated. Because the open-loop gain is about 10
5
, if Vsupply is 12V then the
maximum output voltage would be 12V. This means that the maximum input signal must
be 12V 10
5
= 0.12V = 120mVpeak.








Fig. 13 Measuring the gain and bandwidth of an open loop op amp

The sinusoidal input signal may be obtained from a frequency generator and an
oscilloscope may be used to measure the input and output voltages (or waveforms). The
frequency may be varied from 0 Hz (dc) to 1 MHz. A plot of the gain versus frequency
for this open loop amplifier is shown in Fig.14. This is called the frequency response
curve of the op amp.












Fig. 14 Frequency response of the open-loop op amp circuit

-
+
- 12V
+ 12V
ground
V
ac
V
out
-
+
- 12V
+ 12V
ground
V
ac
V
out
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
1
10
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
Frequency (Hz)
gain
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
1
10
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
Frequency (Hz)
gain
25
The plot shows that in the open-loop mode, the op amp does not amplify all frequencies
equally. The range of frequencies for which the gain is more or less constant is called the
bandwidth of the amplifier. For this op amp in open loop mode, its bandwidth is about dc
to 10 Hz, or just 10 Hz. An important observation from the plot is that if a larger
bandwidth is desired, the gain must be reduced. How can we reduce the gain? By using
negative feedback of course! We just did that in the previous sections.

Using the circuits of Fig. 10 and Fig. 12, shown together in Fig. 15, and applying a
variable frequency sinusoidal signal, Gain-Frequency plots may be obtained when both
input and output are measured with an oscilloscope.







(a) Inverting setup (b) Non-inverting setup

Fig. 15 Circuits to determine frequency response of negative feedback amplifiers

Note that the gain of both the inverting and non-inverting amplifiers may be easily
adjusted by varying the values of one are both resistors (R
1
and/or R
f
). They may also be
adjusted to be the same value. They have same frequency response, but different resistor
values. Fig. 16 shows the frequency response curves for gains of 10, 100 and 1000.

The main observation from these plots is that as the gain decreases, the bandwidth
increases. That is, as more and more negative feedback is applied, the bandwidth
increases. Therefore, negative feedback improves bandwidth while reducing gain. But
look more closely at the relationship between the product of the Gain and the bandwidth.
Yes, it seems always to be constant. Lets look at the three cases of Fig. 16 again.

-
+
R
f
R
1
V
out
0 V
-
+
ground
V
ac
V
out
R
f
R
1
V
ac
-
+
R
f
R
1
V
out
0 V
-
+
ground
V
ac
V
out
R
f
R
1
V
ac
26




























Fig. 16 Gain-Bandwidth for variable gain feedback amplifier

When the gain is 1000 the bandwidth is 10
3
making a Gain-Bandwidth product of 10
6
.
The second case has a gain of 100 and a bandwidth of 10
4
giving a gain-bandwidth
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
1
10
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
Frequency (Hz)
gain
Without feedback
With feedback
Overall gain = 1000
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
1
10
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
Frequency (Hz)
gain
Without feedback
With feedback
Overall gain = 1000
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
1
10
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
Frequency (Hz)
gain
Without feedback
With feedback
Overall gain = 100
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
1
10
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
Frequency (Hz)
gain
Without feedback
With feedback
Overall gain = 100
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
1
10
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
Frequency (Hz)
gain
Without feedback
With feedback
Overall gain = 10
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
1
10
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
Frequency (Hz)
gain
Without feedback
With feedback
Overall gain = 10
27
product of 10
6
. Likewise the third case! Go back to Fig. 14 for the case without feedback.
Its gain is 10
5
and its bandwidth is 10 making the gain-bandwidth product of 10
6
. This is
a very important property of the op amp and is used in many design considerations.

Important observation:
Sometimes you may be required to design circuits with large gain and large
bandwidths. For example, suppose a gain of 100 and a bandwidth of 10
5
are
desired. From the plots in Fig. 16, this cannot be obtained from one op amp
circuit. So why not cascade (join in series) two op amp circuits, each with a gain
of 10.


Voltage Follower
What is a voltage follower? It is also called a unity gain buffer, that is, it has very high
input impedance and low output impedance and is very applicable in cases where signal
sources must not be loaded down. To load down a circuit means to connect a load that
will cause too much current to be drawn. Fig. 17 shows the configuration of an op amp as
a voltage follower.










Fig. 17 A voltage follower

V
out
-
+
ground
V
in
+V
s
-V
s
V
out
-
+
ground
V
in
-
+
ground
V
in
+V
s
-V
s
28
In this configuration negative feedback is provided by directly connecting the output to
the inverting input. V
out
will adjust itself in such a way as to ensure than the voltage at V
-
is the same as that of V
+
. The voltage at V
+
is V
in
, therefore, V
out
will always be the same
as V
in
. Some characteristics of the voltage follower are:

1. Infinite input impedance
2. Low output impedance
3. Input and output are always in phase
4. Output voltage is the same as the input voltage. That is, Gain = 1

Question: What is the bandwidth of an op amp voltage follower?
Answer: Since the gain is always 1, look at the frequency response plots. At
gain=1, we always have maximum bandwidth. In Fig. 14, the bandwidth at
gain = 1 is 1 MHz.

Summing Amplifier
The inverting amplifier configuration of the Op amp may be configured to operate with
more than one input signals. Fig. 18 shows such a configuration where 3 input signals,
V1, V2, and V3 are connected to resistors R1, R2 and R3, respectively. The other ends of
the resistors are connected together at the inverting input terminal.

Fig. 18 The summing amplifier
-
+
R
f
R
2
V
ou

R
1
R
3
V
1
V
2
V
3
I1
I2
I3
-
+
R
f
R
2
V
ou

R
1
R
3
V
1
V
2
V
3
I1
I2
I3
I
total
= I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
29
The analysis we did earlier for a single input inverting amplifier may be extended for this
3-input configuration. From Kirchhoffs current law, we know that the algebraic sum of
the currents flowing into a junction must be equal to the algebraic sum of the currents
flowing out of that junction. Since the V
+
input terminal is grounded, then the V
-
terminal
must be at a ground potential as well, i.e. 0 volts. Also, no current will flow into the
terminals of the op amp (because of their infinitely high input impedance). Therefore, the
currents I
1
, I
2
and I
3
produced by the input voltages V
1
, V
2
, and V
3
can only combine to
flow through the feedback resistor, R
f
, creating a voltage drop across R
f
that (from Ohms
law) is equal to R
f
(I
1
+I
2
+I
3
). But, the voltage drop across R
f
is equal to V
out
. Therefore,
Vout = - R
f
[I
1
+I
2
+I
3
]. Note the minus sign!! If current flowing into the junction is
positive, then current flowing out must be negative.

We can express the currents in terms of the input voltages. Once again, because of the
virtual ground (or earth) at the inverting input terminal,
1
1
1
R
V
I = ,
2
2
2
R
V
I = and
3
3
3
R
V
I = .
Substituting in expression for V
out
:

+ + =
3
3
2
2
1
1
R
V
R
V
R
V
R V
f out
(6)

This expression may be extended for many inputs system. Likewise, if there were only 2
inputs then the term with
3
3
R
V
should be removed.
Summing circuits are used in the design of audio mixers. Input 1 may be from a
microphone, input 2 from a CD player, and input 3 from a turn table (phono player), etc.
The input resistors may be made variable for separate volume adjustment, while the
feedback resistor may be made variable for the master volume adjustment. In most
applications, however, the output of the summer is fed to a different amplifier circuit for
master volume adjustments.

30
Difference Amplifier
The op amp may also be configured as a difference amplifier (or subtractor). Fig. 19
shows such a configuration. Notice the use of the same resistances, R
1
and R
2
!







Fig. 19 The difference amplifier
( )
2 1
1
2
V V
R
R
V
out
=
(7)

An Operational Amplifier Circuit Example
In this section we will examine a number of op amp circuits operations with respect to dc
and ac signal inputs. Wherever appropriate, waveform diagrams (or timing diagrams) will
be used to show the relationship between the input and output signals.

Response to a variable voltage 1 KHz input signal: Fig. 20 shows a typical inverting
amplifier with supply voltages 10V. The input signal is obtained from a 10Vpeak, 1Kz
signal generator and is varied (from 0 -10V) by adjusting the slider arm of the variable
resistor.





Fig. 20 An inverting amplifier circuit

-
+
100 k
10 k
+10 V
-10 V
V
out
Signal
Generator
(10V, 1kHz
100k
Variable
resistor
Slider
-
+
100 k
10 k
+10 V
-10 V
V
out
Signal
Generator
(10V, 1kHz
100k
Variable
resistor
Slider
-
+
R
2
V
out
R
1
V
1
V
2
R
1
R
2
-
+
R
2
V
out
R
1
V
1
V
2
R
1
R
2
31
Try to answer the following:
1. What is the voltage gain of the amplifier?
2. What is the maximum peak voltage output?
3. Draw the output waveform corresponding to input voltages of
a. 0.1 volt
b. 1 volt
c. 5 volts
d. 10 volts
4. How can the gain of the amp be increased by a factor of 10?
5. What is the maximum input voltage that will not saturate the amp?
Solutions:
1. Gain is
in
f
R
R
=
k
k
10
100
= - 10
2. Max. peak voltage = V
supply
= 10 V (or -10V)
3. In drawing waveform diagrams. Always draw the input and the output on the
same plot.
a. Note the 180 degree phase change














b. 1 volt input will give 10 volts output. Waveform looks like that of (a).
time
Voltage
input
0.1V
1 V
output
time
Voltage
input
0.1V
1 V
output
32

c. 5 volts input will saturate the amplifier. The output signal will be clipped at the
saturation voltage of 10 V.

















d. A similar waveform is obtained as in (c) when input is 10 V. Waveform will
look more like a square wave.

4. Change the 100 k resistor to 1 M., or the 10k to 1k, or use any other resistor
combination that gives a gain of 100.

5. The maximum input signal that will not saturate the amp is the Vsupply divided by the
gain.
1
10
10
sup
=

=
V
gain
V
ply
volt

time
Voltage
input
5V
10 V
output
-10 V
time
Voltage
input
5V
10 V
output
-10 V
time
Voltage
input
5V
10 V
output
-10 V
33
OP Amp Problems

1. The circuit of Fig. 21 was used as a buffer amplifier for an audio signal.


















Fig. 21 Buffer Amplifier


Answer the following questions:

(a) What amplifier configuration is this (inverting or non-inverting)?

(b) What is the theoretical gain?

(c) Sketch of graph of the output vs input voltage when the input voltage is varied
from 100mV to 5V.

(d) What is the saturation voltage of this circuit? Show this on your sketch in (c)
above.

(e) What is the maximum input before saturation? Show this on your sketch in (c)
above.

(f) Are there any advantages of using this buffer amp over other configuration?
Explain.


2. Using the circuit of Fig. 21, but replacing the audio input with variable frequency
generator. It was found that the gain was different for different frequencies. Explain!


-
+
V
out
V
audio
R
1
= 100k
+12V
-12V
R
2
= 400k
-
+
V
out
V
audio
R
1
= 100k
+12V
-12V
R
2
= 400k
34

3. Explain the effect of negative feedback on

(a) The gain of an op amp

(b) The bandwidth of an op amp

(c) The gain-bandwidth product

(d) The saturation voltage



4. Design a 2-input audio mixer circuit that has gain of 10.


5. Fig. 22 shows a 2-stage op amp circuit.











Fig. 22 Two stage amplifier


Determine the following:

(a) The value of the voltage V
a
.

(b) The output voltage, V
out


(c) The total gain of the circuit.

(d) Which of the two op amp configuration above determines the bandwidth of
the circuit?


6. Use any amplifier configuration to explain the concept of virtual ground.
-
+
100k
+12V
-12V
600k
V
out
-
+
+15V
-15 V
0.2V
V
a
-
+
100k
+12V
-12V
600k
V
out
-
+
+15V
-15 V
0.2V
V
a
35
EXPERIMENT #1 Inverting Amplifier

AIM: Determine the effect of negative feedback on the gain and
bandwidth of an Operational Amplifier.

APPARATUS: Dual voltage power supply ( 12 V), 741 Operational Amplifier,
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, Resistors (1 k, 10 k, 100 k) and
function generator (0 1 MHz).

DIAGRAM:


1. Choose two resistors R
f
= 10k and R
i
= 1k, such that the Gain of the amplifier
is 10 and connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. The pin labels for the Op
amp may be obtained from page 3 of this workbook.
Place the input signal on Channel 1 and the output signal on channel 2 of
the scope.

2. Set your signal generator to produce a sinusoidal waveform and set voltage
amplitude to any value between) 0.5V and 1.0 V.

3. Adjust the frequency of signal generator to 100 Hz. Remember the Cathode
Ray Oscilloscope must be used to check/verify the output (frequency and
voltage) of the signal generator.
36

4. Measure the output voltage of the Operational Amplifier using the cathode ray
oscilloscope.

5. Repeat steps 3 & 4 at frequencies 1 kHz, 10 kHz, 100 kHz, 1 MHz.

6. Tabulate your results in the table below (in Part 2).

7. Plot graph of log of Gain vs. log of frequency.

PART 2

1. Repeat the experiment in Part 1, but set R
f
= 100k and R
i
= 1k to produce
voltage gains of 100. Tabulate your results below:

Input Voltage
(Vin)
Output Voltage
(Vout)
Volatge Gain
(Vout/Vin)
Log of
Gain
Frequency
(Hz)
Log of
Frequency
10 100
10 1000
10 10000
10 100000
10 1000000
100 100
100 1000
100 10000
100 100000
100 1000000


2. Make a plot of log(Gain) vs. log(frequency) on the same graph created in Part
1.
3. Determine the Gain-Bandwidth product and the maximum bandwidth of the Op-
Amp..

DISCUSSION: Discuss your result as they relate to the aim of the experiment.
37
EXPERIMENT #2 Simulation of Experiment 1

AIM: Using PSPICE simulator to determine the effect of negative
feedback on the gain and bandwidth of an Operation Amplifier.

APPARATUS: Computer with student version of PSPICE loaded.

DIAGRAM: Draw the circuit of Experiment 1 in PSPICE Schematic Editor as
shown:




Procedure:

The lab instructor will guide you through the simulation setup and measurement via ac
analysis and transient analysis. You will use PSPICE to obtain the output voltages and
make the plots as required by Experiment 1.

38
1. Click START , select ALL PROGRAMS, then PSPICE STUDENT, then
Schematics (as shown).




2. The PSPICE window should open up and looks like



39
3. You will now draw the circuit inside the SPICE window by selecting and placing
the components. Click on the looking glass icon (part browser) to open the
component selection window. Select and place each component as follows:
uA741 (for the op amp), r (for resistor x 3), V dc for voltage supply times 2, Vsin
for signal, and GND_EARTH for the ground connections.



4. Place the components to match the layout in the circuit diagram (Exit 1) then
make all wire connections. This is done by clicking on the THIN PENCIL, place
the mouse at one component, make one click, then place the mouse at the other
component, and make another click. Repeat this procedure the components are
connected as shown:



40
5. Double click on each resistor to set its value.

6. Double click on the V dc parts and set values to 12V

7. Double click on Vsin to open a window. Set values as

DC = 0
AC = 0.1 (this is the desired input voltage level: 100mV)
V
off
= 0
Vamp = 0.1 (same as AC)
Freq = 100 (this set it to 100 Hz)

Then click ok to save values. During the experiment you must re-select this
window to change the frequency value to 1k, 10k, 100k, and 1MHz. :



8. Insert Vin and Vout labels by double clicking on the input and output wires:


41
9. You are now ready to start your simulations. Click on Analysis then Setup and
select Transient box. Enter the values shown in the transient window.




10. Close Analysis Setup Window.

11. Click on Analysis and select Simulate to start your simulations. A percentage
completion bar will be displayed on the bottom right of the screen.

12. Display the input and output waveform (Vin and Vout) and take the relevant
measurements. The lab instructors will show you how to do this.

13. Record your data in the table below:

42
Inpuit Voltage (Vin) Output Voltage (Vout) Voltage Gain (Vout/Vin) Frequency (Hz) Log of Frequency
100 2
1,000 3
10,000 4
100,000 5
1,000,000 6




14. Make a plot of Gain vs. log of frequency on a graph paper (or in EXCEL).

15. Determine the Gain-Bandwidth product and the maximum bandwidth of the
circuit.


DISCUSSION:

Discuss your result as they relate to the aim of the experiment, and compare
your results for the simulations to that of the hands on measurements.