Frankfurt School

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the philosophical school. For the business school, see Frankfurt School of
Finance & Management.
The Frankfurt School refers to a school of neo-Marxist sociology and philosophy in the
tradition of critical theory, which was associated with the early Institute for Social Research at
the University of Frankfurt am Main. The school gathered together dissident Marxists who,
while remaining outspoken critics of capitalism, believed that some of Marx's followers had
come to parrot a narrow selection of Marx's ideas, usually in defense of orthodox Communist or
Social-Democratic parties. These thinkers were particularly influenced by the failure of the
working-class revolution in Western Europe (precisely where Marx had predicted that a
communist revolution would take place) and by the rise of Nazism in such an economically and
technologically advanced nation as Germany. This led many of them to take up the task of
choosing what parts of Marx's thought might serve to clarify contemporary social conditions
which Marx himself had never seen.
They thus drew on other schools of thought to fill in Marx's perceived omissions, using the
insights of psychoanalysis, sociology, existential philosophy and other disciplines.[1] Max Weber
exerted a major influence, as did Sigmund Freud. The school's emphasis on the "critical"
component of theory was derived significantly from their attempt to overcome the limits of
positivism, crude materialism, and phenomenology by returning to Kant's critical philosophy and
its successors in German idealism, principally Hegel's philosophy, with its emphasis on dialectic
and contradiction as inherent properties of reality. A key influence also came from the
publication in the 1930s of Marx's Economic-Philosophical Manuscripts and The German
Ideology, which showed the continuity with Hegelianism that underlay Marx's thought. Herbert
Marcuse became one of the first to articulate the theoretical significance of these texts.
It should however be noted that the term "Frankfurt School" is an informal term used to
designate the thinkers affiliated with the Institute for Social Research or who were influenced by
it. It is not per se the title of any institution, and the main thinkers of the Frankfurt School did not
use the term to describe themselves.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
○ 1.1 Origins
• 2 Critical theory of society
○ 2.1 First phase
○ 2.2 Second phase
○ 2.3 Third phase
• 3 Notable theorists
• 4 Critical responses
 • 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 Further reading
• 8 External links

[edit] History
[edit] Origins
Main article: Institute for Social Research
The Frankfurt School is generally associated with the Institute for Social Research (Institut für
Sozialforschung), which was founded by Carl Grünberg in 1923 as an adjunct of the University
of Frankfurt; it was the first Marxist-oriented research center affiliated with a major German
university.[1] However, the school can trace its earliest roots back to Felix Weil, who was able to
use money from his father's grain business to finance the Institut.
Weil was a young Marxist who had written his Ph.D. on the practical problems of implementing
socialism and was published by Karl Korsch. With the hope of bringing different trends of
Marxism together, Weil organized a week-long symposium (the Erste Marxistische
Arbeitswoche) in 1922, a meeting attended by Georg Lukacs, Karl Korsch, Karl August
Wittfogel, Friedrich Pollock and others. The event was so successful that Weil set about erecting
a building and funding salaries for a permanent institute. Weil negotiated with the Ministry of
Education that the Director of the Institut would be a full professor from the state system, so that
the Institut would have the status of a University institution. Although Georg Lukacs and Karl
Korsch both attended the Arbeitswoche which had included a study of Korsch's Marxism and
Philosophy, both were too committed to political activity and Party membership to join the
Institut, although Korsch participated in publishing ventures for a number of years. The way
Lukacs was obliged to repudiate his History and Class Consciousness, published in 1923 and
probably a major inspiration for the work of the Frankfurt School, was an indicator for others
that independence from the Communist Party was necessary for genuine theoretical work.[2]
The school is perhaps particularly associated with Max Horkheimer, who took over as the
institute's director in 1930 and recruited many of the school's most talented theorists, including
Theodor W. Adorno, Erich Fromm, Herbert Marcuse and Walter Benjamin.[1] In any case, one of
the school's defining characteristics is that it originated in the midst of Germany's troubled
interwar years. As the growing influence of National Socialism became ever more threatening,
its founders decided to prepare to move the Institute out of the country.[3] Following Adolf
Hitler's rise to power in 1933, the Institute left Germany for Geneva. It then moved to New York
City in 1934, where it became affiliated with Columbia University. Its journal Zeitschrift für
Sozialforschung was accordingly renamed Studies in Philosophy and Social Science. It was at
this moment that much of its important work began to emerge, having gained a favorable
reception within American and English academia.
[edit] Critical theory of society

Sociology
 Portal · History

General aspects

Public sociology · Social research

Social theory · Sociological theory
Sociological practice

Related fields and subfields

Comparative sociology · Criminology

Demography · Environmental sociology
Social movements · Social psychology
Medical sociology · Sociolinguistics
Social networks

Sociology of: culture · deviance

economics · education · gender
industry · knowledge · law
military · politics · religion
science · stratification

Categories and lists

Journals · Publications
Outline · Sociologists · Index

v•d•e

Critical theory, in sociology and philosophy, is shorthand for critical theory of society. It is a
label used by the Frankfurt School, their intellectual and social network, and those influenced by
them intellectually to describe their own work. The work of the School is oriented toward radical
social change, in contradistinction to "traditional theory," i.e. theory in the positivistic,
scientistic, or purely observational mode. In literature and literary criticism and cultural studies,
by contrast, "critical theory" means something quite different, namely theory used in criticism.
The original critical social theorists were Marxists, and there is some evidence that in their
choice of the phrase "critical theory of society" they were in part influenced by its sounding less
politically controversial than "Marxism". Nevertheless there were other substantive reasons for
this choice. First, they were explicitly linking up with the critical philosophy of Immanuel Kant,
where the term critique meant philosophical reflection on the limits of claims made for certain
kinds of knowledge and a direct connection between such critique and the emphasis on moral
autonomy. In an intellectual context defined by dogmatic positivism and scientism on the one
hand and dogmatic "scientific socialism" on the other, critical theory meant to rehabilitate
through its philosophically critical approach an orientation toward revolutionary agency, or at
least its possibility, at a time when it seemed in decline.
Second, in the context of both Marxist-Leninist and Social-Democratic orthodoxy, which
emphasized Marxism as a new kind of positive science, they were linking up with the implicit
epistemology of Karl Marx's work, which presented itself as critique, as in Marx's "Capital: A
Critique of Political Economy". That is, they emphasized that Marx was attempting to create a
new kind of critical analysis oriented toward the unity of theory and revolutionary practice rather
than a new kind of positive science. Critique in this Marxian sense meant taking the ideology of
a society (e.g. "freedom of the individual" or "equality" under capitalism) and critiquing it by
comparing it with the social reality of that very society (e.g. subordination of the individual to
the class structure or real social inequality under capitalism).
It also, especially in the Frankfurt School version, meant critiquing the existing social reality in
terms of the potential for human freedom and happiness that existed within that same reality (e.g.
using technologies for the exploitation of nature that could be used for the conservation of
nature).
The Frankfurt School also found additional insights from history. For instance, in Escape from
Freedom by Erich Fromm the critique of the modern political order led him to seek insight from
the freedom to be found in medieval feudalism. In Fromm’s most well known book, he found
favor with the lack of individual freedom, rigid structure, and obligations required on the
members of medieval society:

“ What characterizes medieval in contrast to modern society is its lack of individual

freedom… But altogether a person was not free in the modern sense, neither was he
alone and isolated. In having a distinct, unchangeable, and unquestionable place in
the social world from the moment of birth, man was rooted in a structuralized whole,
and thus life had a meaning which left no place, and no need for doubt… There was
comparatively little competition. One was born into a certain economic position
which guaranteed a livelihood determined by tradition, just as it carried economic
obligations to those higher in the social hierarchy.[4] ”
[edit] First phase
The intellectual influences on and theoretical focus of the first generation of Frankfurt School
critical theorists can be summarized as follows:
• The historical situation: Transition from small-scale entrepreneurial capitalism to
monopoly capitalism and imperialism; socialist labor movement grows, turns reformist;
 emergence of warfare/welfare state; Russian revolution and rise of Communism;
neotechnic period; emergence of mass media and mass culture, "modern" art; rise of
Nazism.
• Weberian theory: comparative historical analysis of Western rationalism in capitalism,
the modern state, secular scientific rationality, culture, and religion; analysis of the forms
of domination in general and of modern rational-legal bureaucratic domination in
particular; articulation of the distinctive, hermeneutic method of the social sciences.
• Freudian theory: critique of the repressive structure of the "reality principle" of
advanced civilization and of the normal neurosis of everyday life; discovery of the
unconscious, primary-process thinking, and the impact of the Oedipus complex and of
anxiety on psychic life; analysis of the psychic bases of authoritarianism and irrational
social behavior, psychic Thermidor.
• Critique of Positivism: critique of positivism as philosophy, as scientific methodology,
as political ideology, and as everyday conformism; rehabilitation of --- negative ---
dialectic, return to Hegel; appropriation of critical elements in phenomenology,
historicism, existentialism, critique of their ahistorical, idealist tendencies; critique of
logical positivism and pragmatism.
• Aesthetic modernism: critique of "false" and reified experience by breaking through its
traditional forms and language; projection of alternative modes of existence and
experience; liberation of the unconscious; consciousness of unique, modern situation;
appropriation of Kafka, Proust, Schoenberg, Breton; critique of the culture industry and
"affirmative" culture; aesthetic utopia.
• Marxist theory: critique of bourgeois ideology; critique of alienated labor; historical
materialism; history as class struggle and exploitation of labor in different modes of
production; systems analysis of capitalism as extraction of surplus labor through free
labor in the free market; unity of theory and practice; analysis for the sake of revolution,
socialist democracy, classless society.
• Culture theory: critique of mass culture as suppression and absorption of negation, as
integration into status quo; critique of Western culture as culture of domination of
external and internal nature; dialectic differentiation of emancipatory and repressive
dimensions of elite culture; Nietzsche's transvaluation and Schiller's aesthetic education.
These influences combined to create the Critical Theory of Culture: Responding to the
intensification of unfreedom and irrationality in industrial, advanced capitalist society---
culminating in fascism---critical theory is a comprehensive, ideology-critical, historically self-
reflective, body of theory aiming simultaneously to explain and combat domination and
alienation and help bring about a rational, humane, democratic, and socialist society. The critical
theorists developed an integrated theory of the economic, political, cultural, and psychological
domination structures of advanced industrial civilization, and of the dialectic through which the
emancipatory potential of modern society is suppressed and its rationality turns into a positivistic
rationality of domination leading to barbarism.
The Institute made major contributions in two areas relating to the possibility of rational human
subjects, i.e. individuals who could act rationally to take charge of their own society and their
own history. The first consisted of social phenomena previously considered in Marxism as part
of the "superstructure" or as ideology: personality, family and authority structures (its first book
publication bore the title Studies of Authority and the Family), and the realm of aesthetics and
mass culture. Studies saw a common concern here in the ability of capitalism to destroy the
preconditions of critical, revolutionary political consciousness. This meant arriving at a
sophisticated awareness of the depth dimension in which social oppression sustains itself. It also
meant the beginning of critical theory's recognition of ideology as part of the foundations of
social structure. The Institute and various collaborators had a gigantic effect on (especially
American) social science through their work The Authoritarian Personality, which conducted
extensive empirical research, using sociological and psychoanalytic categories, in order to
characterize the forces that led individuals to affiliate with or support fascist movements or
parties. The study found the assertion of universals, or even truth, to be a hallmark of fascism.
The Authoritarian Personality hypothesis which proceeded from this contributed greatly to the
emergence of the counterculture. Erich Fromm, who in its initial period worked with the school,
is credited with bringing it a psychoanalytic focus. However, Adorno and Horkheimer belittled
Fromm's contributions, even though a central theme, "The Authoritarian Character," developed
directly from Fromm's research on the subject.[5]
The nature of Marxism itself formed the second focus of the Institute, and in this context the
concept of critical theory originated. The term served several purposes - first, it contrasted from
traditional notions of theory, which were largely either positivist or scientific. Second, the term
allowed them to escape the politically charged label of "Marxism." Third, it explicitly linked
them with the "critical philosophy" of Immanuel Kant, where the term "critique" meant
philosophical reflection on the limits of claims made for certain kinds of knowledge and a direct
connection between such critique and the emphasis on moral autonomy. In an intellectual context
defined by dogmatic positivism and scientism on the one hand and dogmatic "scientific
socialism" on the other, critical theory meant to rehabilitate through such a philosophically
critical approach an orientation toward revolutionary agency, or at least its possibility, at a time
when it seemed in decline.
Finally, in the context of both Marxist-Leninist and Social-Democratic orthodoxy, which
emphasized Marxism as a new kind of positive science, they were linking up with the implicit
epistemology of Karl Marx's work, which presented itself as critique, as in Marx's "Capital: a
critique of political economy", wanting to emphasize that Marx was attempting to create a new
kind of critical analysis oriented toward the unity of theory and revolutionary practice rather than
a new kind of positive science. In the 1960s, Jürgen Habermas raised the epistemological
discussion to a new level in his "Knowledge and Human Interests" (1968), by identifying critical
knowledge as based on principles that differentiated it either from the natural sciences or the
humanities, through its orientation to self-reflection and emancipation.
Although Horkheimer's distinction between traditional and critical theory in one sense merely
repeated Marx's dictum that philosophers have always interpreted the world and the point is to
change it, the Institute, in its critique of ideology, took on such philosophical currents as
positivism, phenomenology, existentialism, and pragmatism, with an implied critique of
contemporary Marxism, which had turned dialectics into an alternate science or metaphysics.
The Institute attempted to reformulate dialectics as a concrete method, continually aware of the
specific social roots of thought and of the specific constellation of forces that affected the
possibility of liberation. Accordingly, critical theory rejected the materialist metaphysics of
orthodox Marxism. For Horkheimer and his associates, materialism meant the orientation of
theory towards practice and towards the fulfillment of human needs, not a metaphysical
statement about the nature of reality.
[edit] Second phase
The second phase of Frankfurt School critical theory centres principally on two works that rank
as classics of twentieth-century thought: Horkheimer's and Adorno's Dialectic of Enlightenment
(1944) and Adorno's Minima Moralia (1951). The authors wrote both works during the Institute's
American exile in the Nazi period. While retaining much of the Marxian analysis, in these works
critical theory has shifted its emphasis. The critique of capitalism has turned into a critique of
Western civilization as a whole. Indeed, the Dialectic of Enlightenment uses the Odyssey as a
paradigm for the analysis of bourgeois consciousness. Horkheimer and Adorno already present
in these works many themes that have come to dominate the social thought of recent years: the
domination of nature appears as central to Western civilization long before ecology had become
a catchphrase of the day.
The analysis of reason now goes one stage further. The rationality of Western civilization
appears as a fusion of domination and of technological rationality, bringing all of external and
internal nature under the power of the human subject. In the process, however, the subject itself
gets swallowed up, and no social force analogous to the proletariat can be identified that will
enable the subject to emancipate itself. Hence the subtitle of Minima Moralia: "Reflections from
Damaged Life". In Adorno's words,

“ For since the overwhelming objectivity of historical movement in its present phase
consists so far only in the dissolution of the subject, without yet giving rise to a new
one, individual experience necessarily bases itself on the old subject, now historically
condemned, which is still for-itself, but no longer in-itself. The subject still feels sure
of its autonomy, but the nullity demonstrated to subjects by the concentration camp
is already overtaking the form of subjectivity itself.[6] ”
Consequently, at a time when it appears that reality itself has become ideology, the greatest
contribution that critical theory can make is to explore the dialectical contradictions of individual
subjective experience on the one hand, and to preserve the truth of theory on the other. Even the
dialectic can become a means to domination: "Its truth or untruth, therefore, is not inherent in the
method itself, but in its intention in the historical process." And this intention must be toward
integral freedom and happiness: "the only philosophy which can be responsibly practised in face
of despair is the attempt to contemplate all things as they would present themselves from the
standpoint of redemption". How far from orthodox Marxism is Adorno's conclusion: "But beside
the demand thus placed on thought, the question of the reality or unreality of redemption itself
hardly matters.".[7]
Adorno, a trained musician, wrote The Philosophy of Modern Music, in which he, in essence,
polemicizes against beauty itself — because it has become part of the ideology of advanced
capitalist society and the false consciousness that contributes to domination by prettifying it.
Avant-garde art and music preserve the truth by capturing the reality of human suffering. Hence:

“ What radical music perceives is the untransfigured suffering of man... The

seismographic registration of traumatic shock becomes, at the same time, the ”
technical structural law of music. It forbids continuity and development. Musical
language is polarized according to its extreme; towards gestures of shock resembling
bodily convulsions on the one hand, and on the other towards a crystalline standstill
of a human being whom anxiety causes to freeze in her tracks... Modern music sees
absolute oblivion as its goal. It is the surviving message of despair from the
 shipwrecked.[8]

This view of modern art as producing truth only through the negation of traditional aesthetic
form and traditional norms of beauty because they have become ideological is characteristic of
Adorno and of the Frankfurt School generally. It has been criticized by those who do not share
its conception of modern society as a false totality that renders obsolete traditional conceptions
and images of beauty and harmony.
[edit] Third phase
From these thoughts only a short step remained to the third phase of the Frankfurt School, which
coincided with the postwar period, particularly from the early 1950s to the middle 1960s. With
the growth of advanced industrial society under Cold War conditions, the critical theorists
recognized that the structure of capitalism and history had changed decisively, that the modes of
oppression operated differently, and that the industrial working class no longer remained the
determinate negation of capitalism. This led to the attempt to root the dialectic in an absolute
method of negativity, as in Marcuse's One-Dimensional Man and Adorno's Negative Dialectics.
During this period the Institute of Social Research re-settled in Frankfurt (although many of its
associates remained in the United States), with the task not merely of continuing its research but
of becoming a leading force in the sociological education and democratization of West Germany.
This led to a certain systematization of the Institute's entire accumulation of empirical research
and theoretical analysis.
More importantly, however, the Frankfurt School attempted to define the fate of reason in the
new historical period. While Marcuse did so through analysis of structural changes in the labor
process under capitalism and inherent features of the methodology of science, Horkheimer and
Adorno concentrated on a re-examination of the foundation of critical theory. This effort appears
in systematized form in Adorno's Negative Dialectics, which tries to redefine dialectics for an era
in which "philosophy, which once seemed obsolete, lives on because the moment to realize it
was missed". Negative dialectics expresses the idea of critical thought so conceived that the
apparatus of domination cannot co-opt it. Its central notion, long a focal one for Horkheimer and
Adorno, suggests that the original sin of thought lies in its attempt to eliminate all that is other
than thought, the attempt by the subject to devour the object, the striving for identity. This
reduction makes thought the accomplice of domination. Negative Dialectics rescues the
"preponderance of the object", not through a naive epistemological or metaphysical realism but
through a thought based on differentiation, paradox, and ruse: a "logic of disintegration". Adorno
thoroughly criticizes Heidegger's fundamental ontology, which reintroduces idealistic and
identity-based concepts under the guise of having overcome the philosophical tradition.
Negative Dialectics comprises a monument to the end of the tradition of the individual subject as
the locus of criticism. Without a revolutionary working class, the Frankfurt School had no one to
rely on but the individual subject. But, as the liberal capitalist social basis of the autonomous
individual receded into the past, the dialectic based on it became more and more abstract. This
stance helped prepare the way for the fourth, current phase of the Frankfurt School, shaped by
the communication theory of Habermas.
Habermas's work takes the Frankfurt School's abiding interests in rationality, the human subject,
democratic socialism, and the dialectical method and overcomes a set of contradictions that
always weakened critical theory: the contradictions between the materialist and transcendental
methods, between Marxian social theory and the individualist assumptions of critical rationalism
between technical and social rationalization, and between cultural and psychological phenomena
on the one hand and the economic structure of society on the other. The Frankfurt School
avoided taking a stand on the precise relationship between the materialist and transcendental
methods, which led to ambiguity in their writings and confusion among their readers. Habermas'
epistemology synthesizes these two traditions by showing that phenomenological and
transcendental analysis can be subsumed under a materialist theory of social evolution, while the
materialist theory makes sense only as part of a quasi-transcendental theory of emancipatory
knowledge that is the self-reflection of cultural evolution. The simultaneously empirical and
transcendental nature of emancipatory knowledge becomes the foundation stone of critical
theory.
By locating the conditions of rationality in the social structure of language use, Habermas moves
the locus of rationality from the autonomous subject to subjects in interaction. Rationality is a
property not of individuals per se, but rather of structures of undistorted communication. In this
notion Habermas has overcome the ambiguous plight of the subject in critical theory. If
capitalistic technological society weakens the autonomy and rationality of the subject, it is not
through the domination of the individual by the apparatus but through technological rationality
supplanting a describable rationality of communication. And, in his sketch of communicative
ethics as the highest stage in the internal logic of the evolution of ethical systems, Habermas
hints at the source of a new political practice that incorporates the imperatives of evolutionary
rationality.
Frankfurt School critical theory has influenced some segments of the Left wing and leftist
thought (particularly the New Left). Herbert Marcuse has occasionally been described as the
theorist or intellectual progenitor of the New Left. Their critique of technology, totality,
teleology and (occasionally) civilization is an influence on anarcho-primitivism. Their work also
heavily influenced intellectual discourse on popular culture and scholarly popular culture studies.
[edit] Notable theorists

Max Horkheimer (front left), Theodor Adorno (front right), and Jürgen Habermas in the
background, right, in 1965 at Heidelberg.
• Theodor W. Adorno
• Walter Benjamin
• Erich Fromm
• Jürgen Habermas
 • Axel Honneth
• Max Horkheimer
• Siegfried Kracauer
• Otto Kirchheimer
• Leo Löwenthal
• Herbert Marcuse
• Oskar Negt
• Franz L. Neumann
• Franz Oppenheimer
• Friedrich Pollock
• Alfred Schmidt
• Alfred Sohn-Rethel
• Karl A. Wittfogel
[edit] Critical responses
Several camps of criticism of the Frankfurt School have emerged. Some critics state that the
intellectual perspective of the Frankfurt School is a romantic, elitist critique of mass culture with
a contrived neo-Marxist guise. Another criticism, originating from the Left, is that critical theory
is a form of bourgeois idealism that has no inherent relation to political practice and is totally
isolated from any ongoing revolutionary movement.
Both of these criticisms were captured in Georg Lukács's phrase "Grand Hotel Abyss" as a
syndrome he imputed to the members of the Frankfurt School. Karl Popper believed that the
school did not live up to Marx's promise of a better future:
"Marx's own condemnation of our society makes sense. For Marx's theory contains the promise of a better
future. But the theory becomes vacuous and irresponsible if this promise is withdrawn, as it is by Adorno
and Horkheimer."[9]
Other notable critics of the Frankfurt School include Henryk Grossman, Umberto Eco and Mike
Godwin.[citation needed]
[edit] See also
• Cultural Marxism