The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES)

|| Volume || 3 || Issue || 4 || Pages || 16 - 21 || 2014 ||

ISSN (e): 2319 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 1805
www.theijes.com The IJES Page 16
Impact of Anthropogenic Activities on the Quality of Water
Resources in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria
Aliyu Dadan Garba
Centre for Environmental Health Engineering
University of Surrvey, UK.

--------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT--------------------------------------------------
This work investigated the impact of anthropologic activities on the quality of water resources in Kaduna
metropolis. The city has a population of 1.6 million people and has various landuses around both the main
surface water body of river Kaduna and the groundwater sources. These landuses include residential,
commercial, industrial, agricultural and civic. Water samples were collected at 12 sampling points (eight
ground water and four surface water). Analysis of acidity (PH), temperature, electrical conducting, total
dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, lead, oil and grease and coliforms were done.
Results showed that values of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, coliforms and Lead were generally
above the limits of regulatory bodies. The results also revealed very low level of dissolved oxygen. It also
showed that domestic and industrial areas as well as irrigation sites were found to be most contaminated.
Surface water has more trace elements, while ground water sources have more physico-chemical values in all
the study.
KEYWORDS: contamination, Kaduna, Landuse, Parameters, Anthropogenic
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Date of Submission: 27 February 2014 Date of Publication: 05 April 2014
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I. INTRODUCTION
Water pollution is an important aspect of environmental pollution considering the necessity of water for existence.
Water pollution has impacts on not only humans but also animals, micro-organisms and plants through the intake of water by
the living organisms. The importance of water notwithstanding, it has long been recognised as a vehicle for the spread of
many diseases ( Wijk-Sijbesma, 2002 and Sawyer et al., 2003). These diseases include the worst outbreak of Escherichia
coli in Canada (Kondro, 2000) and Cryptosporidium in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA in 1993 (Hoxie et al., 1997).Water
sources both surface and groundwater are often contaminated by anthropogenic activities. These include discharges of
agricultural, industrial and municipal wastewaters into water courses which ultimately reach the aquifers. Among the
pollutants are nitrates from domestic sewage and fertilisers and pesticides in agriculture (Salvato et al., 20003). Others are
livestock farming that transmits pathogens from animal manure and fish farming that exacerbate eutrophication by adding
biochemical oxygen demand and nutrients to the local environment (Kirby et al., 2003). Water pollution usually refers to
natural processes and events that cause the contamination and impairment of water for its intended use. These natural events
such as torrential rainfall and hurricane cause excessive erosions, flooding, tsunamis and landslides, which in turn increase
the content of suspended materials in affected rivers and lakes leading to little or no dissolved oxygen among other
consequences (Meybeck et al., 1996). Groundwater quality problems may arise from natural phenomena or due to human
activities. The principal groundwater quality issues relate to excess hardness and the presence of iron, manganese, chloride,
nitrate and coliforms (Purcell, 2003, Kiely, 1996).

Surface waters are affected by among others microbiological pollution through such human activities that generate
human wastes and municipal wastewaters, industrial wastewaters as in food, beverage, abattoir and meat packaging. These
activities invariably contain faecal materials that may include pathogens (Taylor, 2003).The impairment of water is usually
referred to as pollution, contamination, nuisance or water (air, soil) degradation (Novotny, 2003). Regardless of the
terminology or cause water pollution can be categorised as either point or non- point (Masters and Ela, 2000). Point sources
are based on the activities that produce the pollutants such as from a specific, identifiable source, usually a facility and is
released at a known discharge point or outfall, usually a pipe or ditch, a ship, municipal sewer system, industry and power
plants. Non-point source pollution on the other hand arises from the way the pollutants are discharged into the environments
which are non-specific. Amongst these are agricultural practices such as the applications of pesticides that are carried far
away as runoff which ultimately contaminate groundwater through the soil profile particularly the unsaturated soil zone
(Estevez et al. 2008).Mander and Forsberg (2000) reviewed works that showed that the most significant impacts of
diffused or non-point pollution as being caused by agriculture (nutrients and pesticides); transport (roads, rail
and shipping); atmospheric deposition (on lakes and seas); storm water from urban and industrial sites.
Impact of Anthropogenic Activities on the Quality
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It should, however, be noted that except in few cases such as storm water due to rainfall most non-
point source pollution began as point source and spread over time and space from specific points of origin to
where they are domiciled.Regarding water quality there is no any source of water that is wholesome, free from
contamination. Rainwater mixes with acids and organic compounds as it falls; surface water also comes into
contact with pollutant discharges which ultimately infiltrates into the groundwater (Zeliger, 2008). Water
pollution is a global problem which affects rich, developed and poor, developing countries; rural and urban
environments. It is expected that pollution in rural areas would come more from agricultural and mining
activities while sources such as manufacturing and power production would account for pollution in urban areas
especially in developed countries. Younger (2001) stated that coal and other abandoned mines are second to
sewage as sources of freshwater pollution in Scotland. In many coal field catchments it is the preeminent source.
On the other hand in poor, developing countries pathogens associated with disposal of human wastes have been
major sources of water pollution leading to water borne diseases such as amoebic dysentery, bacillary dysentery,
cholera, hepatitis A, typhoid and polio (Sullivan et al., 2005). And whereas in developed countries there are
regulations regarding the release of effluents into water courses those regulations are non- existent or largely
ignored in developing countries. In this regard Yassi et al., (2001) reported the release of untreated liquid wastes
into surface water courses in Alexandria, Egypt; Bogota, Columbia; Karachi, Pakistan and Shanghai, China.

Regarding the problems caused by water pollution, the World Health Organization in its 2009 report
estimated that 80% of all infectious diseases in the world are associated with insufficient and unsafe water.
UNICEF (2009) reported that 39% of world population (over 2.6 billion people) live without access to improved
sanitation while 884 million are without improved water supplies. Consequently, more than 3.8 million, mostly
children under five years of age die annually from pneumonia and diarrheal diseases (WHO, 2009).Nigeria as a
developing country suffers from water contamination from anthropogenic activities. Studies have shown that the
countrys water resources have been contaminated from human activities such as industrial, agricultural and
domestic activities in both urban and rural areas. The major contaminations affect chemical and microbiological
parameters with contaminants ranging from trace elements, nutrients to coliforms.This work investigates the
impact of anthropogenic activities on the quality of water resources in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria. This is due
to the association of infectious diseases with unsafe and insufficient water (WHO, 2009). The contamination of
water is largely caused by negative impacts of human activities on environmental parameters.

II. THE STUDY AREA
Kaduna metropolis is the capital of Kaduna State. The state is one of the 36 states that comprise the
Federal Republic of Nigeria. The study area is composed of Kaduna North Local Government Area.The GPS
co-ordinates of the study area range from latitudes 10 24.447N to 10 35.004N and longitudes 007 24.245E and
007 28.886E. According to 2006 national population census Kaduna State has a population of 6.066 million
people. About 1.45 million people reside in the study area, representing about 24% of the population of the
state.The study area is roughly located in the centre of the Kaduna River Basin. The area is underlain by
Basement complex comprising high grade metamorphic and igneous rocks such as migmatite, mica, quartz
mica, schist, granite gneiss, biotite, granite, coarse- porphyritic, biotite and diorite (Akujieze et al., 2003).The
study area experiences the tropical continental climate (savannah) type of climate with two distinct yearly
seasons. The dry season starts from middle of October to late April. The wet season begins from May to early
October. The mean annual temperature stands at about 25
0
C and annual rainfall at about 1200 mm (Mallo,
2000).
III. MATERIALS AND METHODS.
The objective of sampling was to determine the points from which water would be collected for
laboratory analysis. To achieve this systematic sampling technique was chosen. This was to ensure that all
sampling points were in locations that are representative of the land use activities. In addition to that, only
activities that are sited within a close range of streams or those in whose vicinity hand dug wells are found were
sampled. Consequently, sampling points were selected in 11 locations in the study area.Samples were collected
in duplicates in all sampling points. . In the study water samples were collected from eight groundwater and
seven surface water sampling points. Samples were analysed for physico-chemical, microbiological parameters,
lead, oil and grease
(a) Groundwater sampling- in this method a container was tied to a rope and lowered into a well. Water was
fetched at the water table and some depth below. The water was poured into sampling bottles filled to the
brim, capped and tightened.
(b) Surface water sampling- to be able to collect samples from surface water particularly, perennial rivers,
research assistants got into a canoe. Inside the canoe a container was lowered into the river against
direction of flow. Content was then poured into sampling bottles, filled to the brim, capped and tightened.
Impact of Anthropogenic Activities on the Quality
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pH- was measured using HANNA HI 991300. Prior to measurement the meter was calibrated. The mode
button was pressed and held until CAL was displayed on the lower LCD. This was followed by the
display pH 7.1 USE. To measure the pH, the probe was soaked in pH 7 solution at least one hour to
reactivate the instrument. The pH mode was then selected with set/ hold button and submerged in the
sample while stirring gently. This continued until the stability indicator on the top left of the LCD
disappeared. The pH value was shown on the primary LCD while the second LCD displayed the sample
temperature.
(b) Temperature- this was displayed on the second LCD when either the pH, EC or TDS was shown in the
primary LCD.
(c) Electrical conductivity (EC)/ Total dissolved solids (TDS) - the probe was put in the sample and the EC
mode was selected with the SET/ HOLD button. The probe was lightly tapped at the bottom of the
container to remove air bubbles trapped inside the tip. After some minutes the stability indicator on the
top left of the LCD disappeared. The meter showed the EC or TDS values on the primary LCD while the
temperature was displayed on the second LCD.
(d) Dissolved oxygen (DO) - the analysis of dissolved oxygen is a key test in water pollution and waste
treatment process control. The levels of DO depend on physical, chemical and biochemical activities in
the water body.
Samples were collected in clean 300 ml glass BOD bottles. 1 ml MnSO
4
solution and 1 ml of alkaline
iodide- azide reagent were then added, glass stoppered and inverted several times until floc has settled. 1
ml of H
2
SO
4
concentrated was also added. The sample was then poured into a 250 ml graduated cylinder
to the 200 ml mark, and then poured into a 250 ml conical flask. A 25 ml burette was used to fill 0.025N
Sodium thiosulphate solution to the zero mark which was used to titrate the sample to a pale yellow
colour. Two dropperfuls of starch indicator solution was then added and swirled to mix.
Titration was continued until solution changed to dark-blue to colourless. The amount of titrant used in
ml was equal to DO mg/l in the sample.
(e) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) this represents the amount of oxygen required by bacteria to
decompose aerobically the organic matter. This decomposition happens under standard conditions of time
and temperature. In order to minimise sample degradation in the determination of BOD the samples were
stored in ice packs with temperature around 4
0
C between sampling and analysis.
(f) Total and thermotolerant coliforms- appropriate dilutions of sample water with distilled water (1- 3 ml)
were inoculated in duplicates by spread platting on eosin methylene blue (EMB) agar for the enumeration
of coliforms. 1ml of the diluted sample was introduced into each of the petri- dish plates and 15 ml of
EMB agar was poured into the plate. The plate was gently rotated to facilitate even distribution of
isolated colonies.
(g) Lead (Pb) - the method used was Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (FAAS), Model BUCK
210VGP.
(h) Oil and grease- Partition gravimetric method. In this method the determination was made by extracting a
measured water sample with 1,1,2- trichloro, 1,2,2- trifluoro- ethane (Freon 113), evaporating the Freon
113 layer and weighing the residue to determine the specific concentration in mg/l.

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.
In the study, water samples were collected from a total of twelve sampling points (eight groundwater
and four surface water). The results of laboratory analysis were subjected to statistical analysis with the aim of
having a more meaningful data for discussion. The statistical techniques used were summary statistics which
produced mean and standard deviation of all the parameters








Impact of Anthropogenic Activities on the Quality
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Table 3.1 Mean and range of parameters, Pilot study 1 sampling programme, June &July, 2009



Key- GW- groundwater; SW- surface water; WHO- World Health Organization Guidelines on Drinking Water
Quality; US EPA- United States Environmental Protection Agency-National Drinking Water Regulations;
NIG. GOVT- Nigerian Government Standards on Drinking Water Quality

(a) pH. The results showed mean pH values slightly below the limits of World Health Organization (WHO)
Guidelines and the Nigerian Standards in groundwater samples. The values were 6.44 and 5.93
(Table.3.1). The pH values in surface water sampling points were, however, within the range of limits.
They were 6.8 and 7 (Table 3.1). The results of Pilot study 2 showed similar trend. Groundwater
sampling points have mean pH values ranging from 5.5 to 5.75 (Table 3.2) showing high degree of
acidity in some sampling points to values in moderate range in others. The mean values of pH in surface
water sampling points range from 6.44 to 6.7 which were within the range of limits (Table 3.3). All the
sampling points recorded high temperatures which were the ambient temperatures. In the Pilot study 1 the
values were 26.76
0
C and 27.43
0
C in groundwater sampling points and 27.25
0
C and 26.55
0
C (Table 3.1)
in surface water sampling points. In the Pilot 2 study the temperatures ranged from 25
0
C to 27.08
0
C
(Table 3.2) in groundwater and 26.71
0
C to 29.81
0
C (Table.3.3) in surface water sampling points.
(b) Temperature C. The relationship between temperature and pH showed that with increase in the former
the value of the latter decreased slightly. High temperatures were due to the rainy season with intermittent
high intensity of solar radiation (Kemdirim, 2005).
(c) Electrical conductivity (EC, S/cm). Mean electrical conductivity (EC) values showed values higher than
the limits of World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines but lower than those of Nigerian Standards
(524.29 and 542.36 S/cm, Table 3.1) in groundwater sampling points. These high values may be due to
the dissolution of rock minerals and the presence of salts. The values in surface water sampling points
hovered around WHO Guidelines. They were 307.13 and 224.38 S/cm (Table 3.1.). The low levels of
EC in surface water may be due to continuous flow of water which constantly carries away ions and salts.
The high EC values in groundwater sampling points may be attributed to the acidic nature since they also
have low pH values. It may also be due to the presence of salts.
(d) Total Dissolved Solids (TDS, mg/l). The total dissolved solids (TDS) mean values were 379.14 and
361.86 mg/l groundwater sampling points and 243.75 and 123.32 mg/l in surface water sampling points
(Table 3.1). These were all below the limits of WHO Guidelines, U.S. EPA maximum contaminant levels
and Nigerian Standards.
(e) Dissolved Oxygen (DO, mg/l). The levels of dissolved oxygen (DO) were below the limits of WHO
Guidelines in all sampling points. In groundwater sampling points the mean values were 2.82 and 2.87
mg/l and 2.47 and 2.78 mg/l (Table 3.1). Dissolved oxygen depletion was caused by the combination of
factors such as flooding and effluent discharges from domestic and industrial areas. These values are
significantly lower than those reported by Kemdirim, (2005) in some parts of the study area. They,
however, agree with the work of Xu et al., 2009. The levels also agree with work in SW Nigeria
(Adekunle et al., 2007).
Impact of Anthropogenic Activities on the Quality
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(f) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD, mg/l). The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) levels somewhat
mitigated the dissolved oxygen low levels. BOD levels were found to be below the WHO Guidelines in
some groundwater sampling points. The values were 29.21 and 18.28 mg/l which hovered around WHO
limit. The levels were, however, high in surface water with mean values of 173.68 and 156.48
mg/l,(Table 3.1) well above the limits. The levels of BOD are similar to those reported by Omo- Irabor et
al., 2008) caused principally by industrial, domestic and agricultural effluents.

(g) Total coliforms (cfu/ml) and thermotolerant coliforms (cfu/100 ml). The results showed serious
microbiological contamination in all the sampling points. The levels of total and thermotolerant coliforms
were above the limits of WHO Guidelines, U.S. EPA and Nigerian Standards. The mean values of total
coliforms were 48.57and 65.57 cfu/ml (Table.3.1) in groundwater and 77.75 and 86.75 cfu/ml (Table.3.1)
in surface water sampling points. The values of thermotolerant coliforms were 14.57 and 33.57 cfu/100ml
(Table.3.1) in groundwater and 11.25 and 21.25 cfu/100ml in surface water (Table 3.1). High levels of
coliforms above the limits agree with findings on in rural settlement in SW Nigeria (Adekunle et al.,
2007) and from oil producing community in Nigeria (Ejechi et al., 2007).
The probable sources of coliforms in groundwater would be the improper handling of wastes from
domestic and agricultural areas which ultimately affected surface water through dumping into water
courses through the groundwater/ surface water interactions (Masamba & Mazvimavi, 2008); poor
sanitary condition of wells (Machiwa, 1992 and Bordalo and Savva- Bordalo, 2007).
(h) Lead (Pb, mg/l). Pb was detected in all sampling points above the limits of the regulatory bodies. The
mean values were 0.54 and 0.19 mg/l (Table.3.1) in groundwater and 1 and 0.08 mg/l (Table.3.1) in
surface water sampling points. The probable causes of Pb in groundwater would be the dissolution of
rock minerals. In surface water it may be due to the use of leaded petrol particularly in refinery and
industrial areas. To corroborate this work, high levels of Pb were reported in contiguous host
communities of Warri Refinery, Niger Delta, Nigeria (Nduka and Orisakwe, 2009).
(j) Oil and Grease (O&G, mg/l). This was detected in all sampling points. The levels were, however, below
WHO Guidelines limit. The mean values were 0.43 and 0.53 in groundwater and 1.08 and 1.03 mg/l
(Table.3.1) in surface water sampling points. These levels are significantly lower than those reported
from the effluents from Bodija abattoir, Ibadan, (Osibanjo and Adie, 2007) and at Afa canal, Lagos,
Nigeria, (Olowu et al., 2010). The inability to record significant quantities of oil and grease in surface
water even in refinery and industrial areas may be attributed to adsorption onto sediments since the water
bodies appeared oily and were also seen adhering onto the walls of the dug wells.

V. CONCLUSION
In the study, the results showed that the values of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids,
coliforms and lead to be generally above the limits of the regulatory bodies. The results also revealed very low
levels of dissolved oxygen. Overall the results showed water contamination regarding dissolved oxygen and
microbiological parameters in all sampling points. In the follow-up study the results showed the levels of trace
elements to be generally below the limits in all sampling points. Also, the results show that domestic and
industrial areas and areas devoted to irrigation activities were found to be most contaminated. In addition to the
above refinery area was also found to have contaminated water sources. Surface water sources have more trace
elements while groundwater sources have more physico-chemical parameters in all the study. Tap water sources
were found to be the least affected in the study.
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