INTRODUCTION

This project report describes on the design, development and fabrication of one demonstration unit of the project work SCADA IMPLEMENTED OVER POWER TRANSFORMER WITH REMOTE MONITORING SYSTEM. Nowadays, with the advancement of technology, particularly in the field of computers as well as micro-controllers, all the activities in our day to day living have become a part of information and we find computers and micro-controllers at each and every application. Thus, the trend is directing towards computer based project works. However, in this project work the basic signal processing of temperature, load current and input high voltage parameters related to the distribution transformers are monitored with analog electronics only. or measuring various parameters values, various transducers are used, and the output of these transducers are converted to control the parameters. The control circuit is designed using micro-controller. The outputs of all the three parameters are fed to the analog to digital converter for converting the analog information in to the digital information and this digital information is fed to micro-controller. The output of the micro-controller is used to drive the digital display, so that the value of each parameter can be displayed. !n addition to the digital display micro-controller outputs are also used to drive four relays independently. These relays energi"e and de-energi"es automatically according to the condition of the parameter. #ut of four relays one relay is treated as common relay and energi"es automatically whenever any parameter e$ceeds its preset value. This relay contact is used to break the supply to the transformer primary. The remaining three relays are used for the three different parameters, to transmit the information about the failure parameter. or e$ample, if the load is more than the rated load, then immediately the micro-controller energi"es one relay out of these three relays and this relay contact is used to provide supply to the low fre%uency oscillator, which produces a perfect s%uare wave of & 'H" appro$imately. This low fre%uency is fed to transmitter as a modulating wave, which is super imposed over the carrier and transmitted as a modulated wave. (ike wise for other two parameters, two different low fre%uencies are generated. The idea of generating three different low fre%uencies is to identify the failure parameter and to transmit the failure information.

!n the receiver, the received information in the form of low fre%uency as a modulated wave is demodulated, amplified and converted into proportionate )* voltage using fre%uency to voltage converter. The output of this +, converter is again converted into digital pulses, which are essential for the computer. Here the computer is used at receiving end, where the receiver is installed- generally the receiving part of the system can be installed at electrical office. !n this project work the micro-controller is playing a major role. .icro-controllers were originally used as components in complicated process-control systems. However, because of their small si"e and low price, .icro-controllers are now also being used in regulators for individual control loops. !n several areas .icro-controllers are now outperforming their analog counterparts and are cheaper as well. .icro-controllers are also being used increasingly as tools for analysis and design of control systems. The control engineer thus has much more powerful tools available now than in the past. )igital computers are still in a state of rapid development because of the progress in very large-scale integration /,(0!1 technology. Thus substantial technological improvements can be e$pected in the future. 2ecause of these developments, the approach to analysis, design, and implementation of control systems is changing drastically. #riginally it was only a matter of translating the earlier analog designs into the new technology. However, it has been reali"ed that there is ortunately, or a while it was much to be gained by e$ploiting the full potential of the new technology. control theory has also developed substantially over the past 34 years. few e$otic mostly in aerospace or advanced process control.

%uite unrealistic to implement the type of regulators that the new theory produced e$cept in a However, due to the revolutionary development of microelectronics, advanced regulators can be implemented even for basic applications. !t is also possible to do analysis and design at a reasonable cost with the interactive design tools that are becoming increasingly available.

The purpose of this project work is to present control theory that is relevant to the analysis and design of .icro-controller system with an emphasis on basic concept and ideas. !t is assumed that a .icrocontroller with reasonable software is available for computations and simulations so that many tedious details can be left to the .icrocontroller. The control system design is also carried out up to the stage of implementation in the form of controller programs in assembly language. .icro-controllers are 5embedded5 inside some other device so that they can control the features or actions of the product. 6nother name for a micro-controller, therefore, is 5embedded controller5. .icro-controllers are dedicated to one task and run one specific program. The program is stored in 7#. /read-only memory1 and generally does not change. .icro-controllers are often low-power devices. 6 battery-operated .icrocontroller might consume 48 milli watts. 6 micro-controller has a dedicated input device and often /but not always1 has a small (9) or (*) display for output. 6 micro-controller also takes input from the device it is controlling and controls the device by sending signals to different components in the device. 7adio transmission techni%ue is incorporated in the design. There are number of mechanisms by which 7adio waves may travel from a transmitting to a receiving 6ntenna. The terms, :7#;N) <6,90, 0'= <6,90, and 0>6*9 or T7#>#0H97!* <6,90 designates the more important of these. The ground wave can e$ist when the transmitting and receiving are close to the surface of the 9arth and are vertically polari"ed. The sky wave represents energy that reaches receiving antenna as a result of a bending of the wave path introduced by the ioni"ation in the upper atmosphere. The space wave represents energy that travels from the transmitting to the 7eceiving 6ntenna in the 9arths troposphere. The radio transmission at fre%uencies above about 38.H" is normally the space wave propagation. The transmitter that is fre%uency modulated find e$tensive use at fre%uencies above ?8.H".

!n this project work, &88.H" carrier is considered and &88.H" load, over Temperature and over voltage information.

..

transmitter is designed. The signals transmitted from the transmitter to the receiver are over

*oming to the computers, the technology is so much advanced. !nitially the >* era started with !ntel @8@@+@8@A, then >*-BT with !ntel @8C@A and >*-6T with @83@A 0B and @83@A )B, then with !ntel @8?@A. 0ubse%uently the new generation of !ntel series has come with D>9NT!;.E processors. !n >entium series, variety of devices have come i.e., />entium F !1 > F !, > F !!, > F !!!, > F !,, > F *eleron, > F >ro etc. Today we are getting >- ? or power of ? processors are available in the .arket. Thus the need come to develop >* 2ased project works in the field of monitoring and control system, which will serve the need of the !ndustry. The purpose of this project work is to present control theory that is relevant to the analysis and design of computer controlled systems, with an emphasis on basic concepts and ideas. !t is assumed that a digital computer with reasonable software is available for computations and simulations so that many tedious details can be left to the computer. The control system design is also carried out up to the stage of implementation in the form of computer programs in a high level language. #ne can view computer-controlled systems as appro$imations of analog control systems, but this is a poor approach because the full potential of computer control is not used. obtained with analog control circuit. The computer-controlled system contains essentially four parts, i.e., the process, the analog to digital converter, the control algorithm, and the clock. The times when the measured signals are converted to digital form are called the sampling instants- the time between successive samplings is called the sampling period and is denoted by DhE. The output from the process is a continuous time signal. the 6 F ) converter. The output is converted into digital form by The 6 F ) converter can be included in the computer or regarded as a 6t best the results are only as good as those

separate unit, according to ones preference. The conversion is done at the sampling times. The computer interprets the converted signal, as a se%uence of numbers, processes the measurements using an algorithm, and gives a new se%uence of numbers. This se%uence is

converted to an analog signal by a digital to analog converter. Notice that the system runs open loop in the interval between the 6 F ) and the ) F 6 conversion. The real time clock in the computer synchroni"es the events. The digital computer operates se%uentially in time and each operation takes sometime. The computer-controlled system contains both continuous time signals and sampled, or discrete time, signals such systems have traditionally been called sampled data systems, and this term will be used here as a synonym for computer controlled systems. Now a days, we find lot of transformers are burning because of over loads, voltage variations and transformer body temperature rising. The body temperature of a transformer rises due to overloads and continuous long run, because of these reasons the transformer may shutdown automatically. >articularly, in the rural areas we find shutdown of transformers due to agricultural pump-sets, and we know it takes lot of time to repair and it involves lot of cost. Hence, the transformer failure prevention is become essential for smooth transmission and distribution. or simulation of the faults in the demonstration unit a step-down transformer of C amps current rating is used, and above parameters are carried over this transformer and the corrective action is initiated when the parameters crosses its limits. or over voltage parameter monitoring, the input voltage to the transformer primary is fed through autotransformer and the over voltage is checked. Normally the transformer primary is designed to operate at C38, 6*, but, if the voltage is more than C48, 6*, then there is a chance that the transformer primary winding may burn due to over voltage, to protect from this, supply to the primary is provided through the relay contact, which in turn breaks the supply to the transformer primary when the primary voltage e$ceeds more than C48, 6*. 0imilarly for other two parameters, if the limits are crosses, the high logic signal from the microcontroller energi"es the relay and breaks the supply to the primary and prevents from burning the transformer. or monitoring the transformer body temperature or oil temperature /most of the distribution transformers are oil cooled transformers1 0(&88 N>N transistor is used as a

temperature sensor and this transducer is wired with operational amplifier. 0imilarly for monitoring the load current, the current transformer /*T1 is used which gives the secondary voltage proportional to the current flowing in the primary. in later chapters1. Thus, this project work simulates the substation environment and any transformer crosses any of these parameters, then the input to the transformer is disconnected and prevents from burning the transformer. 2y implementing this kind of G0*6)6 system everywhere at the distribution transformer end, failures of the transformer can be minimi"ed and lot of revenue can be saved. The primary of the *T is connected in series with the load /The details of these parameters will be described in detail

Now coming to the transformers, a transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which 6* power in one circuit is transferred to 6* power of the same fre%uency in another circuit. This transformation of 9lectric power usually takes place with a change in voltage level. <hen the transformer raises the voltage i.e., output voltage is higher than the input voltage, it is called a step-up transformer, on the other hand, when it lowers the voltage, it is called a step-down transformer.

9lectric power is almost e$clusively generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating current. !n order that electric power may be transmitted economically over larger distances, high voltages must be used, but in order that electric power may be safely distributed- low voltages are necessary. transformers for lowering down the voltage. This is accomplished by means of transformers- step-up transformers being used to raise the voltage and step-down

6 transformer works on the principle of mutual induction between the two circuits linked by a common magnetic flu$. The first coil, in which the electric energy is fed from the 6* supply mains, is called primary winding, and the other, from which the energy is

drawn, is called secondary winding. !f the primary is connected to 6* supply an alternating flu$ is set up in the laminated core. The flu$ links with the turns of both primary and secondary windings, there by inducing e.m.fs, in these windings. The e.m.f induced in the primary is self-induced e.m.f, and opposes the supply voltage. The e.m.f induced in the secondary is the mutually induced e.m.f and is e$panded in producing current in it. Thus the electric energy is transformed electro magnetically from first coil to the second coil by virtue of magnetic coupling. The magnetic coupling between the two circuits plays an important part in the action of transformer. )istribution transformer failures have been an e$pensive problem for the 0tate 9lectricity )epartments, mainly in rural networks. 7esearch centers and consultants have done particular diagnosis studies and punctual solutions in order to reduce transformer failures and improve network performance. Transformer failures have many causes and variables involved, like natural phenomena /lightning, wind, and forest1, no natural phenomena /human errors1, design, build /manufacturing problems, materials defects1 and transformers and networks /lines, protection e%uipment, and structures1 maintenance. )istribution transformers account for the majority of losses in an electric power network. #f these losses, core heating accounts for the substantial portion. They can be considered constant so long as a transformer is in service. 2y contrast, winding losses are only significant under higher load conditions. #n a daily basis, the transformer may e$perience these conditions only briefly. 6lso, distribution transformers are often over-rated for their re%uirements, as load growth and variation may mean an installed capacity much greater than what is actually being used. This means that the winding losses may be well below the nominal short circuit value.

BLOCK DIAGRAM AND BRIEF DESCRIPTION

The block diagram of the project work G!mplementation of wireless communication in supervisory control and data ac%uisition system of a distribution transformer using microcontroller H computer is e$plained. or better under standing, the total block diagram is divided into various blocks and each block e$planation is provided in this chapter. The complete block diagram of this project work is provided at the end of this chapter. The complete block diagram consists the following blocksI &. (oad .onitoring *ircuit C. High ,oltage .onitoring *ircuit 3. Temperature 0ensing *ircuit ?. 6nalog to )igital *onverter 4. .icro-controller A. )igital )isplay J. 0ignal :enerators @. Transmitter K. 7eceiver &8. 0ignal 6mplifier &&. re%uency to ,oltage *onverter &C. 6+) *onverter /7B1 &3. *lock :enerator &?. *omputer

LOAD MONITORING CIRCUIT: or monitoring the load current continuously, *urrent Transformer /*T1 is used. The current transformer is used with its primary winding connected in series with load carrying the current to be measured and, therefore, the primary current is dependant upon the load connected to the system and is not determined by the load /burden1 connected on the secondary winding of the current transformer. The primary winding consists of very few turns and, therefore, there is no appreciable voltage drop across it. The secondary winding of the current transformer has larger number of turns, the e$act number being determined by the turnEs ratio. The ammeter, or wattmeter current coil, are connected directly across the secondary winding terminals. Thus a current transformer operates its secondary winding nearly under short circuit conditions. #ne the terminal of the secondary winding is earthed so to protect e%uipment and personnel in the vicinity in the even of an insulation breakdown in the current transformer. The output of the *T is rectified, filtered and it is fed to 6+) converter for converting the analog information of current flowing through the *T primary into digital information, which is accepted by the .icro-controller.

HIGH VOLTAGE MONITORING CIRCUIT: Transformer failures have many causes and one of the main causes is over voltage. The primary of the distribution transformer or any other transformer primary is designed to operate at certain specific voltage, if that voltage is more than the rated voltage, then immediately the transformer primary may burn because of over voltage. To protect the transformer, burning due to over voltage, this voltage monitoring and control circuit is used in this project work. !n this project work for generating high voltage, autotransformer is used so that the line voltage can be increased to more than C?8,. or monitoring the line voltage, a stepdown transformer of A,-8-A, center-tapped secondary is used as a line voltage sensor. 6s this transformer primary voltage increases, according to that secondary voltage also raises, and this secondary voltage is rectified, filtered and it is applied to the analog to digital converter for converting the analog information in to the digital information.

TEMPERATURE SENSING CIRCUIT: The methods of temperature measurement may be divided into two main classes according as the e$change of heat between the testing body and the hot system takes place by contact or by radiation across a space. !n the contact methods, thermometers or thermocouples are used and they are immersed in solids or li%uids. The thermodynamic e%uilibrium between the hot body and the testing body is established by material contact. !n the non-contact methods, the thermodynamic e%uilibrium is established by the radiation emitted as e$cited atom and molecules in the hot body return to the ground state. or monitoring the transformer body temperature, 0(&88 general purpose N>N switching transistor is used and it is having DT!NE metal body, so that it can absorb the heat properly. This transistor can be placed over the transformer body, where the transformer radiates ma$imum heat. The e$act location where the transistor is to be installed using suitable clamp should be determined on the ease of access and the degree of accuracy obtainable at the given point. 6s the transistor body temperature raises, the base-emitter junction resistance decreases and this resistance variation is monitored with the help of op-amp !*, whose feed back resistor is nothing but the transistor. This differential amplifier output is further amplified using another op-amp !* and the output of this C nd amplifier is fed to analog to digital converter for converting the analog information to digital information.

ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER: 6s the peripheral signals usually are substantially different from the ones that microcontroller can understand /"ero and one1, they have to be converted into a pattern which can be comprehended by a micro-controller. This task is performed by a block for analog to digital conversion or by an 6)*. This block is responsible for converting an information about some analog value to a binary number and for follow it through to a *>; block so that *>; block can further process it.

This analog to digital converter /6)*1 converts a continuous analog input signal, into an n-bit binary number, which is easily acceptable to a computer. 6s the input increases from "ero to full scale, the output code stair steps. The width of an ideal step represents the si"e of the least significant 2it /(021 of the converter and corresponds to an input voltage of ,90+C n for an n-bit converter. voltage range of one (02, the output code is constant. voltage can be any where within a one (02 %uanti"ation interval. 6n actual converter has integral linearity and differential linearity errors. )ifferential linearity error is the difference between the actual code-step width and one (02. !ntegral linearity error is a measure of the deviation of the code transition points from the fitted line. The errors of the converter are determined by the fitting of a line through the code transition points, using least s%uare fit, the terminal point method, or the "ero base techni%ue to provide the reference line. 6 good converter will have less than 8.4 (02 linearity error and no missing codes over its full temperature range. !n the basic conversion scheme of 6)*, the un-known input voltage ,B is connected to one input of an analog signal comparator, and a time dependant reference voltage ,7 is connected to the other input of the comparator. !n this project work 6)* 8@8K /@ 2it 6+) converter1 is used to convert an analog voltage variations /according to the condition of the parameters1 into digital pulses. This !* is having built in multi-ple$er so that channel selection can be done automatically. #bviously for an input

or a given output code, the input

MICRO-CONTROLLER: .icro-controller unit is constructed with 6T.9( @K*4& .icro-controller chip. The 6T.9( 6T@K*4& is a low power, higher performance *.#0 @-bit microcomputer with ?' bytes of flash programmable and erasable read only memory />97#.1. !ts high-density non-volatile memory compatible with standard .*0-4& instruction set makes it a powerful controller that provides highly fle$ible and cost effective solution to control applications. .icro-controller works according to the program written in it. The program is

written in such a way, so that the output from the 6)* will be converted into its e%uivalent voltage and based on the magnitude of the voltage, it calculates the parameter value. Now this magnitude is again digitali"ed and fed to J-segment display unit through the latch. .icro-controllers are 5embedded5 inside some other device so that they can control the features or actions of the product. 6nother name for a micro-controller, therefore, is 5embedded controller5. .icro-controllers are dedicated to one task and run one specific program. The program is stored in 7#. /read-only memory1 and generally does not change. .icro-controllers are often low-power devices. 6 battery-operated .icrocontroller might consume 48 milli watts. 6 micro-controller has a dedicated input device and often /but not always1 has a small (9) or (*) display for output. 6 micro-controller also takes input from the device it is controlling and controls the device by sending signals to different components in the device.

DIGITAL DISPLAY: The output of the micro-controller is used to drive the digital display, for this purpose four J-segment common anode displays are used for measuring the line voltage, transformer body temperature and load current. These displays are used to display the data received from the .icrocontroller through the latches. The segments of each display are called 6, 2, up to :. !n order to reduce the numbers of connections needed to address each of the (9)Es /(ight 9mitted )iode1, the anodes of the (9)Es of each seven-segment display have been connected together. The common anode for the first seven-segment display is called 6&, 6C for the second display, etc. !n addition, the cathode pins from each display have been connected

together to form seven common terminals, called 6, 2, *, ), 9, common anode display.

and :, corresponding to

the seven-segments. !n addition to the seven segments, decimal point is also arranged in this

SIGNAL GENERATORS (LOW FREQUENCY OSCILLATORS): or the three different parameters, three different tone fre%uencies are generated. 0upply to these three-tone generators, provided through three different relay contacts, and these relays energi"es automatically, if that particular parameter output e$ceeds its limit. Three 444 timer !*Es are used for generating & 'H", C 'H" and 3 'H" separately. These !*Es are designed in D6stable .ulti-vibratorE .ode /self oscillators1. The outputs of all the three oscillators are clubbed together and fed to carrier oscillator as modulating waves. F.M. TRANSMITTER: This block generates a continuous fre%uency of &88.H", which is used to form a permanent link between the transmitter and receiver, and this is known as carrier fre%uency. The outputs of & 'H", C 'H" and 3 'H" Tone generators are combined and are fed to this .. radio transmitter. This is a fre%uency modulated radio transmitter. The radiating power of the transmitter is C8mw, and it is designed using 2* ?K? 2 high fre%uency switching transistor. The detailed description is provided in the ne$t chapter FM RECEIVER: The . receiver is designed with !* T)644K&6, which is 6.+ . 7adio receiver !*, operates at a local oscillator of &88.H" and is tuned with the transmitter. This !* consists of built in 7 amplifier, a double balanced mi$er, local oscillator, a two stage ! amplifier, a %uadrature demodulator for a ceramic filter and an automatic fre%uency control. The built in 7 amplifier, a part from the amplification of received 7 signal, it also reduces the Noise figure, which could other wise be a problem because of the large band widths needed for .. !t also matches the input impedance of the radio receiver with the antenna.

SIGNAL AMPLIFIER: The received signal or detected signal from the radio receiver, which is audio tone signal of & 'H", C 'H" and 3 'H", is amplified with the help of a transformer coupled amplifier. This amplifier can be used in the following three applications. /a1 6s an input stage, usually driven by a micro-phone /b1 6s an output stage, feeding the load impedance /c1 6s an intermediate stage The transformer coupling provides the facility of impedance matching and thus results in increased power gain. urther this method of coupling isolates the load impedance circuit of the amplifier from the )* bios stabili"ation network of the succeeding stage. FREQUENCY TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER: This circuit is designed to generate )* voltage according to the input fre%uency, i.e., input fre%uency is proportional to the output voltage. !n this block !* ?8?A and !* ?843 are used and the brief description about these two !*0 is as followsI !* ?8?A phase locked loop !*- the phase locked loop />((1 is an important building block of linear system. The output from a >(( system can be obtained either as the voltage signal ,* /t1 corresponding to the error voltage in the feed back loop, or as a fre%uency signal at ,*# output terminal. The voltage output is used in fre%uency discriminator application whereas the fre%uency output is used in signal conditioning, fre%uency synthesis or clock recovery applications. *onsider the case of voltage output, when >(( is locked to an input fre%uency, the error voltage ,* /t1 is proportional to /fs F fo1. !f the input fre%uency is varied as in the case of . signal, ,* will also vary in order to maintain the lock. Thus the voltage output serves as a fre%uency discriminator, which converts the input fre%uency changes to voltage changes.

!*?843 .;(T!>(9B97- the multi-ple$er is a special combinational circuit that is one of the most widely used standard circuits in digital design. The .ulti-ple$er /or data selector1 is a logic circuit that gates one out of several inputs to a single output. The output selected is controlled by a set of select input. The following figure shows the block diagram of a multi-ple$er with DnE input lines and one output line. or selecting one out of n inputs for connection to the output, a set of DmE select input is re%uired where CmLn. )epending up on the digital code applied at the select inputs one out of n data sources is selected and transmitted to a single output channel. Normally a strobe /or enable1 input /:1 is incorporated which helps in cascading and it is generally active-low, which means it performs its intended operation when it is low. ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER (R ): 6n analog to digital converter /6)*1 converts a continuous analog input signal, into an n-bit binary number, which is easily acceptable to a computer. 6s the input increases from "ero to full scale, the output code stair steps. The width of an ideal step represents the si"e of the least significant 2it /(021 of the converter and corresponds to an input voltage of ,90MC n for an n-bit converter. #bviously for an input voltage range of one (02, the output code, the input voltage can be anywhere within a one ()2 %uanti"ation interval.

6n actual converter has integral linearity and differential linearity errors. )ifferential linearity error is the difference between the actual code-step width and one (02. !ntegral linearity error is a measure of the deviation of the code transition points from the fitted line. The errors of the converter are determined by the fitting of a line through the code transition points, using least s%uare fit, the terminal point method, or the "ero base techni%ue to provide the reference lien. 6 good converter will have less than 8.4 (02 linearity error and no mission codes over its full temperature range. !n the basic conversion scheme of 6)*, the un-known input voltage ,B is connected to one input of an analog signal comparator, and a time dependant reference voltage ,7 is connected to the other input of the comparator. !n this project work 6)* 8@8K /@bit 6+) converter1 is used to convert an analog voltage of fre%uency to voltage converter output in to an output binary word that can be used by a computer. PC BLOCK: or monitoring and displaying of temperature and load current parameters D*E language is used. This is custom built software. The advantage of using D*E is, while there are around C48 languages e$isting in the world of computers, today the software professionals are showing increasing performance for D*E. 6ccording to one survey as much as J4N of total software developed in the world today, is written in D*E or *OO. <hat makes D*E such a success and popular is because it is simple, reliable, capable and easy to use. The compactness of D*E language is mainly due to the fact that it is a one-man language rather than a product of the committees. G)9NN!0 7!T*H!9 developed it at 6T H T bell lab, ;06. The software details are provided in chapter F A. >rogram for the project work copied from D*OOE and converted into D*E.

This program is for reading @ F channel 6)* and two different parameters output is converted into analog signal and it is fed to channel D#E in the 6)* i.e., the program is made to read the fre%uency to voltage converter output.

CLOCK GENERATOR: The clock generator circuit is designed using 444 Timer !*. This !* is configured in 6stable .ode of operation /free running oscillator1. The fre%uency can be adjusted using e$ternal resistor and capacitor. The re%uired fre%uency is more than &88 'H". The output of this !* is fed to the 6 - ) converter. The complete block diagram of the project work is shown in the ne$t page.

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
The detailed circuit description of the project work 0*6)6 !.>(9.9NT9) #,97 >#<97 T76N0 #7.97 <!TH 79.#T9 .#N!T#7!N: 0=0T9. is e$plained in section wise. or better understanding the total circuit diagram is divided into various sections and each section e$planation along with circuit diagram is provided in this chapter. LOAD MONITORING CIRCUIT: The current transformer used in this project work is designed for 46mps i.e., the current flowing through the primary is restricted for 46mps. 2ut in practical a higher rating transformer can be used according to the rated power of the distribution transformer. .ost common industrial *TEs have 4 to &8 6mp current outputs and can generate high voltage levels when not connected to a burden resistor. The *T used in this project work is nothing but a step-up transformer. This transformer is designed in &I48 ratio, so that the voltage developed across the secondary is 48 times more than the voltage induced at primary. The voltage induced at primary is proportional to the load current. The *T secondary when it is open circuited, the voltage developed across the open terminals may be very high because of the step-up ratio, and therefore, the secondary winding of the *T should always be connected to a burden resistor. The secondary 6* signal, which is proportional to the current flowing through the primary, due to transformer action, is rectified with the help of a diode /Half wave rectification1 and then filtered by a filter *apacitor This )* voltage is a variable voltage, which varies according to the load current. The variable voltage from the *T secondary is fed to analog to digital converter for converting the analog information into digital information. The output of the 6+) converter is fed to .icro-controller unit for taking the necessary action. The current flowing through the *T primary can be measured, for this purpose, digital display is provided at the output of the .icro-controller *hip. The following is the circuit diagram of load sensing circuit.

!n the above circuit, with the help of a ?J8P resistor connected across the *T secondary, the ripple can be suppressed and real value can be obtained at the output of *T. This voltage can be adjusted to the re%uired level, for this purpose C' variable resistor is used and the final output taken from mid point of the preset. 0ince it is a protype module, in this project work for the demonstration purpose, a small transformer of &C, secondary at &amp rating is considered, and it is treated as distribution transformer. This transformer secondary is used to drive the lamp load through the current transformer primary. or this purpose two No.s of &C, &8< 6* lamps are used, one lamp is treated as nominal load and the other one is used to create a fault, i.e., the transformer secondary is designed to drive only one amp load, if the load is more than one amp then the transformer may burn because of over load, to protect the transformer burning due to the over load, the output of the load monitoring circuit is used to drive the relay through the 6+) converter and microcontroller. This relay contact is used to break the supply at the primary side of the transformer- so that once the transformer is overloaded automatically primary supply can be disconnected.

HIGH VOLTAGE MONITORING CIRCUIT: The (ine voltage-sensing circuit used in this project work is capable to measure up to C48, 6*. or this purpose a step-down transformer of A,-8-A,, 488m6, *enter tapped secondary is used for monitoring the line voltage continuously. !n the prototype module, the line voltage can be increased through the autotransformer, the output of the line voltage sensing circuit is fed to micro-controller unit through the 6+) converter, so that according to the received digital information form the 6)*, the micro-controller energi"es relay. This relay contact is used to break the supply to the feeder cable. !n practical, the distribution transformers primary is designed to operate at very higher voltage of &&',6 or 33',6, because, the output of the power generating station is very high. 6ccording to the main grid voltage, the step-down transformer primary /for .onitoring the line voltage1 can be designed. The output of the line voltage-sensing transformer is rectified and filtered for obtaining pure )* voltage. The final output is taken from the mid point of C' variable resistor />reset1, so that the voltage applied to the 6+) converter can be controlled. 6s the line voltage varies, according to that output voltage also varies. This variable voltage from the potential transformer />T1 is applied to the 6+) converter. The applied voltage to the 6)* should not e$ceed more than 4,, so that the output voltage is clamped at O4, )*, for this purpose, &<, 4, "ener is used. This circuit is designed such that, the voltage applied to the transformer primary, if it is more than C?4, 6* then immediately the microcontroller energi"es the relay and breaks the supply to the primary, by which the transformer can be protected burning due to the over voltage. 0ince it is a prototype module, the output of the transformer is restricted for lower voltages for the demonstration purpose, but when it is implemented for the real time applications, at that time the output of the distribution transformer will be around CC8, 6*, and with the help of this kind of voltage control circuit, the household electrical gadgets like T,, ridge, Tube, .otor etc., can be protected burning due to the over voltage. The following is the circuit diagram of the High voltage 0ensing

TEMPERATURE SENSING CIRCUIT: !n this block, two op-amps are used to form two different stages, the first stage is configured as differential amplifier and the second stage is configured as gain amplifier. !n the first stage an DN>NE :eneral purpose transistor /0(&881 is used as a temperature sensor and this transistor is having DT!NE metal body so that it can absorb the heat properly. This transistor is connected in feed back loop /input to output1. This first stage is designed in such a way so that, as the transistor body temperature rises, according to the temperature, the baseemitter or base-collector junction resistance decreases. This first stage is designed to generate Cmv+8* which is not sufficient for the calibration. Hence, using Cnd stage this voltage is amplified, and the gain of the Cnd stage is &8, so that /C$&81 C8mv per degree centigrade can be obtained at the output of the second stage. This variable voltage /according to the temperature1 from the output of second stage is fed to the analog to digital converter for converting the analog information in to the digital information and this digital information is fed to the microcontroller for taking the necessary action.

The circuit design consists a basic transducer, which converts temperature in to e%ualent voltage. or this, transistor D0(&88E is used as a sensor. The transistor junction /2ase H emitter or 2ase H collector1 characteristics are depends upon the temperature. or a transistor, the ma$imum average power that it can dissipate is limited by the temperature that collector - base junction can with stand. Therefore, ma$imum allowable junction temperature should not be e$ceeded. The average power dissipated in collector circuit is given by the average of the product of the collector current and collector base voltage. 6t any other temperature the de-rating curves are supplied by the manufacturer to calculate ma$imum allowable power />j1.

<here T* is case temperature, Tj is junction temperature and Qj is the thermal resistance. The entire circuit design of the temperature sensing circuit is given below.

!n the above circuit diagram with the help of C' preset /variable resistor1 connected at the input of first stage, the initial room temperature corresponding output voltage can be adjusted for the easy calibration. The output of the second stage is clamped with 4, "ener

and the same output is fed to the 6+) converter. or better understanding the following is the further description along with formulas and e%uations. or sensing the transformer body temperature, a sensor has to chosen based on the following re%uirements. &. 0ensitivity and accuracy C. Temperature 7ange 3. )esired life of 0ensor ?. 2udget !n the prototype module for the simulation purpose, D0(&88E N>N Transistor is used as sensor because semiconductor Temperature sensor are best suited for embedded applications as they tend to be electrically and mechanically more delicate than other temperature sensor types. !n general silicon temperature sensors resistance is given by the e%uation 7 L 7r /&Oa /T - Tr1 O b /T - Tr1 C - c /T - Ti1 d1- where 7r R 7esistance at temperature Tra, b, cR constants. TiR !nflection point temperature resistance, such that cL8 for T S Ti 6lso resistance is dependent to some e$tent on the e$citation current. !n the present module, as the resistance property of the transistor cannot be used directly for interfacing, this transistor is employed as a feedback element in the following configuration

(et 7f be the resistance offered by the sensor under normal conditions /i.e. at 0.T.>1. The first stage is configured in Non-inverting amplifier mode, whose output voltage is given by

The second stage is designed as summing amplifier whose output is given by /;sing superposition >rinciple1

0ubstituting the value of ,8& from e% /&1 in e% /C1 we get

6s Temperature increases 7f decreases and so from above e%uation /C1 it can be concluded G,8 increases with Temperature. 6fter fabricating the circuit as per above configuration and with the resistor values as specified in list of components, it is e$perimentally observed that the output voltage is increasing by C8mv for each degree rise in temperature, after room temperature the initial output voltage can be set to desired value by varying rest D>E.

ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER: The output of the various parameters is fed to 6+) converter. The channel selection depends upon the address selection sent by the .icro-controller. This 6)* is having three address inputs to select one out of eight channels of the 6)*. This 6)* 8@8K is a successive appro$. 6nalog to digital converter and the clock rate at which the conversion is fed from the !* 444 timer configured as astable multi-vibrator. The digital output after conversion is fed to .icro-controller or 6)* to start converting the data after selecting the channel by sending the address inputs, the start conversion signal is to be sent by .icro-controller. Then 6)* starts converting the analog signals voltage into corresponding digital data. or 9$I The following table shows the digital data corresponding to analog input.

6fter conversion, the 6)* generates 9#* /9nd of conversion1. This indicates to .icro-controller that the conversion is completed and takes the digital data corresponding to analog input. The following is *ircuit diagram of 6+) *onverter along with its clock generatorI

!n the above circuit diagram 444 timer !* is used for generating the re%uired clock pulses. CLOCK GENERATOR: The re%uired clock for the 6)* is generated using 444 Timer !* that is configured as 6stable multi-vibrator /0elf #scillator1. !n this mode of operation the re%uired fre%uency can be adjusted using two e$ternal components i.e., resistor and capacitor. 'eeping capacitor value constant where as by varying the value of resistor the fre%uency can be adjusted from &H" to 488'H". Here the re%uired fre%uency is &88 'H" appro$imately. !n the above circuit diagram 444 timer !* is used for generating the re%uired clock pulses. re%uency can be adjusted using variable resistor &88' /721. !n this circuit, the

e$ternal capacitor charges through 76O72 and discharges through 72. Thus the duty cycle may be precisely set by the ratio of these two resistors. !n this mode of operation, the capacitor charges and discharges between &+3 ,** and C+3 ,**. 6s in the triggered mode, the charge and discharge times, and therefore the fre%uency are independent of the supply voltage. Here the timing resistor is now split into two sections, 76 and 72, with the discharge transistor />in J1 connected to junction of 7a and 7b. <hen the power supply is connected, the timing capacitor * charges towards C+3 ,** through 7a and 7b. <hen the capacitor voltage reaches C+3 ,**, the upper comparator triggers the flip-flop and the capacitor starts to discharge towards ground through 7b. <hen the discharge reaches &+3 ,** the lower comparator is triggered and a new cycle is started. The capacitor is then periodically charged and discharged between C+3 ,** and &+3 ,** respectively. The output state is high during the charging cycle for a time period t&, so that

The output state is (#< during the discharge cycle for a time period tC, given by tC L 8.AK3 7b* Thus, the total period charge and discharge is T L t& O tC L 8.AK3 /7a O C7b1 * /0econds1 0o that the output fre%uency is given as

MICRO-CONTROLLER: *ircumstances that we find ourselves in today in the field of micro-controllers had their beginnings in the development of technology of integrated circuits. This development has made it possible to store hundreds of thousands of transistors into one chip. That was a prere%uisite for production of microprocessors, and adding e$ternal peripherals such as

memory, input-output lines, timers and other made the first computers. urther increasing of the volume of the package resulted in creation of integrated circuits. These integrated circuits contained both processor and peripherals. That is how the first chip containing a microcomputer, or what would later be known as a micro-controller came about.

MEMORY UNIT: .emory is part of the micro-controller whose function is to store data. The easiest way to e$plain it is to describe it as one big closet with lots of drawers. !f we suppose that we marked the drawers in such a way that they cannot be confused, any of their contents will then be easily accessible. !t is enough to know the designation of the drawer and so we will know its contents for sure. .emory components are e$actly like that. or a certain input we get the contents of a certain addressed memory location and thatEs all. Two new concepts are brought to usI addressing and memory location. .emory consists of all memory locations, and addressing is nothing but selecting one of them. This means that we need to select the desired memory location on one hand, and on the other hand we need to wait for the contents of that location. 2esides reading from a memory location, memory must also provide for writing onto it. 0upplying an additional line called control line does this. <e will designate this line as 7+< /read+write1. *ontrol line is used in the following wayI if r+wL&, reading is done, and if opposite is true then writing is done on the memory location. .emory is the first element, and we need a few operation of our micro-controller. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT: (et add 3 more memory locations to a specific block that will have a built in capability to multiply, divide, subtract, and move its contents from one memory location onto another. The part we just added in is called Gcentral processing unit /*>;1. !ts memory locations are called registers. 7egisters are therefore memory locations whose role is to help with performing various mathematical operations or any other operations with data wherever data can be

found. (ook at the current situation. <e have two independent entities /memory and *>;1 that are interconnected, and thus any e$change of data is hindered, as well as its functionality. !f, for e$ample, we wish to add the contents of two memory locations and return the result again back to memory, we would need a connection between memory and *>;. 0imply stated, we must have some Gway through data goes from one block to another. BUS: That Gway is called Gbus. >hysically, it represents a group of @, &A, or more wires. There are two types of busesI address and data bus. The first one consists of as many lines as the amount of memory we wish to address, and the other one is as wide as data, in our case @ bits or the connection line. irst one serves to transmit address from *>; memory, and the second to connect all blocks inside the micro-controller. INPUT-OUTPUT UNIT: Those locations weEve just added are called Gports. There are several types of portsI input, output or bi-directional ports. <hen working with ports, first of all it is necessary to choose which port we need to work with, and then to send data to, or take it from the port. <hen working with it the port acts like a memory location. 0omething is simply being written into or read from it, and it could be noticed on the pins of the micro-controller.

The following is the *ircuit diagram of )igital )isplay )riven by the micro-controller

!n the above circuit diagram, four common anode J-0egment displays are used for displaying the motor speed. The output of the .icro-controller is fed to digital display through the latches, for this purpose !* J?4J3 is used, this is an octal transparent )-type latches !*. To drive the displays independently 4?J transistors are used. 6 seven segment (9) is a device for display of numbers and letters. !t contains seven (9) bars, which can be turned on by placing the appropriate signals on the appropriate pins. !n order to produce a specific number, we must light the correct segments of the (9). or e$ample, to display the number 3, we must light segments a, b, c, d and g. 2y which we understand that the pattern of lit and unlit segments can be formed into a binary number.

F.M TRANSMITTER: The following is the circuit diagram

!n the above circuit design, the instantaneous fre%uency of the carrier is varied directly in accordance with the base band signal by means of a device known as ,*# /,oltage controlled oscillator1 one way of implementing such a device is to use a sinusoidal oscillatory having a relatively high F Q fre%uency. )etermining network and to control the oscillator by symmetrical incremental variation of the reactive components. Thus the tone signal modulated at &88 .H" carriers. To understand how radio wave are generated and radiated into space, consider alternating currents of suitable fre%uency fed into conductor or wire of suitable length called the antenna. ast moving alternating currents produce a moving electric field around the antenna. This field in turn produces a magnetic field at right angles to it. This combination of electric and magnetic fields constitutes the radio wave or electro magnetic wave, which is a form of radiant energy. F.M RECEIVER: The . receiver is located at the remote end. The first stage of this remote end unit is the ... 7adio 7eceiver, which is designed with >hillips !* T96 44K&6. !n the circuit diagram an (9) indicator is connected at >in No.J of 44K& !*, which glows brightly, if the receiver is tuned perfectly with the transmitter. The ... receiver, which operates at &88 .H", will have an intermediate fre%uency of &8.J .H" and bandwidth of C88 'H". This !* consists of a built in 7 amplification circuit. !t matches the input impedance of the antenna. This !* consists of ... )etector including amplifier of modulated signal /7 amplification1. Two sections of (* are provided and a ceramic filter is used to filter the ! of &8.J .H". The . demodulator is basically a fre%uency to amplitude converter, which converts the fre%uency deviation of the incoming carrier into an 6 /6udio fre%uency1 amplitude variation identical to that of modulating

signal. !n demodulation any change in amplitude of the signal fed to the . demodulator is a spurious signal. Therefore it must be removed, if distortion is to be avoided. 6 limiter is a form of clipping device. !t is %uite possible for the amplitude limiter to be described to be inade%uate to its task, because signal strength variations may easily take average signal amplitude outside the limiting range. 6s a result, further limiting is re%uired. !n practice, two amplitude limiters are used in cascade. This arrangement increases the limiting range satisfactory. To ensure that the signal fed to the limiter is within its range regardless of input signal limiting range strength and also to prevent overloading of the amplifier, the 6:* /6utomatic :ain *ontrol1 is used. !nstead of designing a double limiter, the better performance is obtained by using one limiter and 6:*. The fre%uency-modulated signal is fed to a tuned circuit whose resonant fre%uency is to one side of the center fre%uency /* 1 of the . signal, the output of this tuned circuit will have an amplitude that depends on the fre%uency deviation of the input signal. The following is the circuit diagram of 7eceiver. ...

SIGNAL AMPLIFIER:

or ma$imum power output and impedance matching the audio fre%uency driver transformer is used in the signal amplifier circuit. The design e%uation of a driver transformer is

<hen n L 7atio of the transformer

<here N& L >rimary winding and NC L 0econdary winding. The following is the *ircuit diagram of signal amplifier.

The signal, which is detected by the receiver, is further amplified with the help of above audio amplifier. !n this circuit, the input capacitor 8.& . permits complete input power to flow into the base circuit. !t also blocks the )* component to flow into the base circuit. The 338' resistor works as a biasing resistor. The purpose of this biasing is as follows. 6 study of the transistor characteristics shows that the transistor function is most linear when the transistor operates in its active region. The operating point may then be suitably placed in this region by proper selection or dc potentials and currents through use of e$ternal energy sources. <ith a properly selected operating point, the time varying component of the 6* input signal. 0ay base current in common emitter amplifier, results in output signal of the same waveform. 6n improperly selected operating points results in an output signal, which differs in waveform from the input signal, such an operative point is unsatisfactory and should be rejected. The selection of suitable operating point is vital for linear amplification. The &88 and 338' forms as a input resistance of the transformer primary. or securing ma$imum transfer of power from the amplifier to the load, the source impedance should match with the input impedance of the amplifier transferred to the primary

of the transformer. 0imilarly for ma$imum transfer of power from the amplifier to the load, the output impedance of the amplifier is matched with the load impedance. To get large output the two secondary signals are cascaded and output is taken for further processing. !n O ,* half cycle, the top transistor circuit enables and in the F,* half cycle, the bottom transistor circuit enables and total cycle gets amplified output signal. The output of this signal amplifier is fed to the +, converter. FREQUENCY TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER: The output of the signal amplifier is converted into )* voltage in proportion to the tone fre%uency, with the help of phase locked loop !* ?8?A and .ulti-ple$er !* ?843. The amplified signal is fed to the in signal />in N#.&?1 of the device, which is the input of the phase comparator. The other input of the phase comparator is fed from the internally generated voltage controlled oscillator /,*#1, whose fre%uency is set with the help of e$ternal capacitor connected between >in A and J, here >(( is used for synchroni"ation. The output of the >(( is fed to the .ultiple$er. The signals of the phase comparator F ! and phase comparator F !! are fed so that the output is multi-ple$ed with the hlp of !*?843. The output of the +, converter is fed to the 6nalog to digital converter circuit for converting the 6nalog information into digital pulses. The circuit design of phase locked loop with multiple$er and its associated circuitry is shown below.

ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER:

The 6+) *onverter used in the receiving module is similar to the 6+) converter used in the transmitter. The difference is the transmitter converter is interfaced with the .icrocontroller where as the receiver converter is interfaced with computer. The following is the circuit diagram of 6+) converter along with latches and buffer used in the receiving module.

DETAILS ABOUT WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

M!"#$ !% & '!(()*+'&,+!* -.-,#(: The overall purpose of the communication system is to transfer information from one point to in space and time, called the source to another point, the user destination. 6s a rule, the message produced by a source is not electrical. Hence an input transducer is re%uired for converting the message to a time varying electrical %uantity called a message signal. 6t the destination point another transducer converts the electrical waveform to the appropriate message. The information source and the destination point are usually separated in space. The channel provides the electrical connection between the information source and the user. The channel can have many deferent forms such as a microwave radio link over free space a pair of wires, or an optical fiber. 7egardless of its type the channel degrades the transmitted single in a number of ways. The degradation is a result of signal distortion due to imperfect response of the channel and due to undesirable electrical signals /noise1 and interference. Noise and signal distortion are two basic problems of electrical communication. The transmitter and the receiver in a communication system are carefully designed to avoid signal distortion and minimi"e the effects of noise at the receiver so that a faithful reproduction of the message emitted by the source is possible. The transmitter couples the input message signal to the channel. <hile it may sometimes be possible to couple the input transducer directly to the channel, it is often necessary to process and modify the input signal for efficient transmission over the channel. 0ignal processing operations performed by the transmitter include amplification, filtering, and modulation. The most important of these operations is modulation a process designed to match the properties of the transmitted signal to the channel through the use of a carrier wave. .odulation is the systematic variation of some attribute of a carrier waveform such as the amplitude, phase, or fre%uency in accordance with a function of the message signal. )espite the multitude of modulation techni%ues, it is possible to identify two basic types of modulationI the continuous carrier wave /*<1 modulation and the pulse nodulation. !n continuous wave /*<1 carrier modulation the carrier waveform is continuous /usually a sinusoidal waveform1, and a parameter of the waveform is changed in proportion to the

message signal. !n pulse modulation the carrier waveform is a pulse waveform /often a rectangular pulse waveform1, and a parameter of the pulse waveform is changed in proportion to the message signal. !n both cases the carrier attribute can be changed in continuous or discrete fashion. )iscrete pulse /digital1 modulation is a discrete process and is best suited for messages that are discrete in nature such as the output of a teletypewriter. However, with the aid of sampling and %uanti"ation, continuously varying /analog1 message signal can be transmitted using digital modulation techni%ues. .odulation is used in communication systems for matching signal characteristics to channel characteristics, for reducing noise and interference, for simultaneously transmitting several signals over a single channel, and for overcoming some e%uipment limitations. 6 considerable portion of this article is devoted to the study of how modulation schemes are designed to achieve the above tasks. The success of a communication system depends to a large e$tent on the modulation. The main function of the receiver is e$tracting the input message signal from the degraded version of the transmitted signal coming from the channel. The receiver performs this function through the process of demodulation, the reverse of the transmitterEs modulation process. 2ecause of the presence of noise and other signal degradations, the receiver cannot recover the message signal perfectly. <ays of approaching ideal recovery will be discussed later. !n addition to demodulation, the receiver usually provides amplification and filtering. 2ased on the type of modulation scheme used and the nature of the output of the information source, we can divide communication systems into three categoriesI &.analog communication systems designed to transmit analog information using analog modulation methods C. )igital communication systems designed for transmitting digital information using digital modulation schemes and 3. Hybrid systems that use digital modulation schemes for transmitting sampled and %uanti"ed values of an analog message signal. #ther ways of categori"ing communication systems include the classification based on the fre%uency of the carrier and the nature or the communication channel.

<ith this brief description of a general model of a communication system, we will now take a detailed look at various components that make up a typical communication system using the digital communication system as an e$ample. <e will enumerate the important parameter of each functional block in a digital communication system and point out some of the limitations of the capabilities of various blocks. ELEMENTS OF A DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM: The overall purpose of the system is to transmit the messages /or se%uences of symbols1 coming out of a source to a destination point at as high a rate and accuracy as possible. The source and the destination point are physically separated in space and a communication channel of some sort connects the source to the destination point. The channel accepts electrical+electromagnetic signals, and the output of the channel is usually a smeared or distorted version of the input due to the non-ideal nature of the communication channel. !n addition to the smearing, the information-bearing signal is also corrupted by unpredictable electrical signals /noise1 from both man-made and natural causes. The smearing and noise introduce errors in the information being transmitted and limits the rate at which information can be communicated from the source to the destination. The probability of incorrectly decoding a message symbol at the receiver is often used as a measure of performance of digital communication system. The main function of the coder, the modulator, the demodulator, and the decoder is to combat the degrading effects of the channel on the signal and ma$imi"ed the information rate and accuracy. INFORMATION SOURCE: !nformation sources can be classified into two categories based on the nature of their outputsI 6nalog information sources, and discrete information sources. 6nalog information sources, such as a microphone actuated by speech, or a T, camera scanning a scene, emit one or more continuous amplitude signals /or functions of time1. The output of discrete information sources such as a teletype or the numerical output of a computer consists of a se%uence of discrete symbols or letters. 6n analog information source can be transformed onto a discrete information source through the process of sampling and %uanti"ing. )iscrete information sources ate characteri"ed by the following parametersI

&. 0ource alphabet /symbols or letters1 C. 0ymbol rate 3. 0ource alphabet probabilities ?. >robabilistic dependence of symbols in a se%uence rom these parameters, we can construct a probabilistic model of the information source and define the source entropy /H1 and source information rate /71 in bits per symbol and bits per second, respectively. The term bid is used to denote a binary digit.1 To develop a feel for what these %uantities represent, let us consider a discrete information source-a Teletype having CA letters of the 9nglish alphabet plus si$ special characters. The source alphabet for this e$ample consists of 3C symbols. The symbol rate refers to the rate at which the Teletype produces charactersI for purposes of discussion, let us assume that the Teletype operates at a speed of &8 characters or &8 symbols+sec. !f the Teletype is producing messages consisting of symbol se%uences in the 9nglish language, then we know that some letters will appear more often than others. <e also know that the occurrence of a particular letter in a se%uence is somewhat dependent on the letters preceding it. or e$ample, the letter 9 will occur more often than letter Q and the occurrence of Q implies that the ne$t letter in the se%uence will most probably be the letter ;, and so forth. These structural properties of symbol se%uences can be characteri"ed by probabilities of occurrence of individual symbols by the conditional probabilities of occurrence of symbols. 6n important parameter of a discrete source is its entropy. The entropy of a source, denoted by H, refers to the average information content per symbol in a long message and is given units of bits for symbol where bit is used as an abbreviation for a binary digit. !n our e$ample, if we assume that all symbols occur with e%ual probabilities in a statistically independent se%uence, then the source entropy is five bits per symbols. However, the probabilistic dependence of symbols in a se%uence, and the une%ual probabilities of occurrence of symbols considerably reduce the average information content of the symbols. Naturally we can justify the previous statement by convincing ourselves that in a symbol se%uence Q;9, the letter ; carries little or no information because the occurrence of Q implies that the ne$t letter in the se%uence has to be a ;. The source information rate is defined as the product of the source entropy and the symbol rate and has the units of bits per second. The information rate, denoted by 7,

represents the minimum number of bits per second that will be needed, on the average, to represent the information coming out of the discrete source. 6lternately, 7 represents the .inimum average data rate needed to convey the information from the source to the destination. S!)/'# E*'!"#/0D#'!"#/: The input to the source encoder /also referred to as the source coder1 is a string of symbols occurring at a rate of r s symbols+sec. The source coder converts the symbol se%uence into a binary se%uence of 8Es and &Es by assigning code words to the symbols in input se%uence. The simplest way in which a source coder can perform this operation is to assign a fi$ed-length binary code word to each symbol in the input se%uence. or the teletype e$ample we have been discussing, this can be done by assigning 4-bit code world 88888 through &&&&& for the 3C symbols in the source alphabet and replacing each symbol in the input se%uence by its pre-assigned code word. <ith a symbol rate of &8 symbols+sec, the source coder output data rate will be 48 bits+sec. i$ed-length coding of individual symbols in a source output is efficient only if the symbols occur with e%ual probabilities in a statistically independent se%uence. !n most practical situation symbols in a se%uence are statistically dependent, and they occur with une%ual probabilities. !n these situations the source coder takes a string of two or more symbols as a block and assigns variable-length code words to these block. The optimum source coder is designed to produce an output data rate approaching 7, the source information rate. )ue to practical constraints, the actual output rate of source encoders will be greater than the source information rate 7. the important parameters of a source coder are black si"e, code word lengths, average data rate, and the efficiency of the coder /i.e., actual output data rate compared to the minimum achievable rate 71. 6t the receiver the source decoder converts the binary output of the channel decoder into a symbol se%uence. The decoder for a system using fi$ed-length code words is %uite simple, but the decoder for a system using variable-length code words will be very comple$. )ecoders for such systems must be able to cope with a number of problems such as growing memory re%uirement and loss of synchroni"ation due to bit errors.

C!(()*+'&,+!* C1&**#$: The *ommunication channel provides the electrical connection between the source and the destination. The channel may be a pair of wires or a telephone link or free space over which the information-bearing signal is radiated. )ue to physical limitations, communication channels have only finite bandwidth /2 HT1, and the information-bearing signal often suffers amplitude and phase distortion as it travels over the channel. !n addition to the distortion, the signal power also decreases due to the attenuation of the channel. urthermore, the signal is corrupted by unwanted, unpredictable electrical signals referred to as noise. <hile some of the degrading effects of the of the channel can be removed or compensated for, the effects of noise cannot be completely removed. rom this point of view, the primary objective of a communication system design should be to suppress the bad effects of the noise as much as possible. #ne of the ways in which the effects of noise can be minimi"ed is to increase the signal power. However, signal power cannot be increased beyond certain levels because of nonlinear effects that become dominant as the signal amplitude is increased. or this reason the signal-to-noise power ratio /0+N1, which can be maintained at the output of a communication channel, is an important parameter of the system. #ther important parameters of the channel are the usable bandwidth /21, amplitude an phase response, and the statistical properties of the noise. !f the parameters of a communication channel are known, then we can compute the channel capacity *, which represents the ma$imum rate at which nearly errorless data transmission is theoretically possible. or certain types of communication channels it has The channel capacity * has to be The been shown that c is e%ual to 2 logC /&O0+N1 bits+sec.

greater than the average information rate 7 of the source for errorless transmission.

capacity c represents a theoretical limit, and the practical usable data rate will be much smaller than *. as an e$ample, for a typical telephone link with a usable bandwidth of 3'H" and 0+N L &83, the channel capacity is appro$imately 38,888 bits+sec. 6t the present time, the actual data rate on such channels ranges from &48 to KA88 bits+sec.

M!")$&,!/: The modulator accepts a bit stream as its input and converts it to an electrical waveform suitable for transmission over the communication channel. .odulation is one of the most powerful tools in the hands of a communication systems designer. !t can be effectively used to minimi"e the effects of channel noise, to match the fre%uency spectrum of the transmitted signal with channel characteristics, to provide the capability to multiple$ many signals, and to overcome some e%uipment limitations. The important parameters of the modulator are the types of waveforms used, the duration of the waveforms, the power level, and the bandwidth used. The modulator accomplishes the task of minimi"ing the effects of channel noise by the use of large signal power and bandwidth, and by the use of waveforms that last for longer durations. <hile the use of increasingly large amounts of signal power and bandwidth to combat the effects of noise is an obvious method, these parameters cannot be increased indefinitely because of e%uipment and channel limitations. numbers. The use of waveforms of longer time duration to minimi"e the effects of channel noise is based on the well-known statistical law of large The law of large numbers states that while the outcome of a single random e$periment may fluctuate wildly, the overall result of many repetitions of a random e$periment can be predicted accurately. !n data communications, this principle can be used to advantage by making the duration of signaling waveforms long. longer durations of time, the effects of noise can be minimi"ed. To illustrate the above principle, assume that the input to the modulator consists of 8Es and &Es occurring at a rate of & bit+sec. The modulator can assign waveforms once every second. Notice that the information contained in the input bit is now contained in the fre%uency of the output waveform. To employ waveforms of longer duration, the modulator can assign waveforms once every four seconds. The number of distinct waveforms the modulator has to generate /hence the number of waveforms the demodulator has to detect1 increases e$ponentially as the duration of the waveforms increases. This leads to an increase in e%uipment comple$ity and hence the duration cannot be increased indefinitely. The number of waveforms used in commercial digital modulators available at the present time ranges from C to &A. 2y averaging over

D#(!")$&,!/: .odulation is a reversible process, and the demodulator accomplishes the e$traction of the message from the information bearing waveform produced by the modulator. or a given type of modulation, the most important parameter of the demodulator is the method of demodulation. There are a variety of techni%ues available for demodulating a given modulated waveformI the actual procedure used determines the e%uipment comple$ity needed and the accuracy of demodulation. :iven the type and duration of waveforms used by the modulator, the power level at the modulator, he physical and noise characteristics of the channel, and the type of demodulation, we can derive uni%ue relationship between data rate, power bandwidth re%uirements, and the probability of incorrectly decoding a message bit. 6 considerable portion of this te$t is devoted to the derivation of these important relationships and their use in system design. C1&**#$ E*'!"#/0D#'!"#/: )igital channel coding is a practical method of reali"ing high transmission reliability and efficiency that otherwise may be achieved only by the use of signals of longer duration in the modulation+demodulation process. <ith digital coding, a relatively a small set of analog signals, often two, is selected for transmission over the channel and the demodulator has the conceptually simple task of distinguishing between two different waveforms of known shapes. The channel coding operation that consists of systematically adding e$tra bits to the output of the source coder accomplishes error control. <hile these e$tra bits themselves convey no information, they make it possible for the receiver to detect and+or correct some of the errors in the information bearing bits. There are two methods of performing the channel coding operation. !n the first method, called the block coding method, the encoder takes a block of k information bits from the source encoder and adds r error control bits. The number of error control bits added will depend on the value of k and the error control capabilities desired. !n the second method, called the convolution coding method, the information bearing message stream is encoded in a continuous fashion by continuously interleaving information bits and error control bits. 2oth methods re%uire storage and processing of binary data at the encoder and decoder.

<hile this re%uirement was a limiting factor in the early days of data communication, it is no longer such a problem because of the availability of solid-state memory and microprocessor devices at reasonable prices. The important parameters of a channel encoder are the method of coding. 7ate or efficiency of the coder /as measured by the ratio of data rate at input to the data rate at the output1, error controls capabilities, and comple$ity of the encoder. The channel decoder recovers the information bearing bits from the coded binary stream. The channel decoder also performs error detection and possible correction. The decoder operates either in a block mode or in a continuous se%uential mode depending on the type of coding used in the system. The comple$ity of the decoder and the time delay involved in the decoder are important design parameter.

THEORY RELATED TO DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

The transformer is a device, which transfers electrical energy from one electrical to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and without a change in the fre%uency. The electric circuit, which receives energy from the supply mains, is called primary winding and the other circuit, which delivers electric energy to the load, is called the secondary winding. 6ctually, the transformer is an electromagnetic energy conversion device, since the energy received by the primary is first converted to magnetic energy and it is then reconverted to useful electrical energy in the other circuits. Thus primary and secondary windings of a transformer are not connected electrically, but are coupled magnetically. This coupling magnetic field allows the transfer of energy in either direction, from high voltage to low voltage circuits or from low voltage to high voltage circuits. !f the transfer of energy occurs at the same voltage, the purpose of the transformer is merely to isolate the two electric circuits and this use is very rare in power applications. !f the secondary winding has more turns than the primary winding, then the secondary voltage is higher than the primary voltage and the transfer is called a step-up transformer. !n case the secondary winding has less turns than the primary winding, then the secondary voltage is lower than the primary voltage and the transformer is called a step-down transformer. Note that a step-up transformer can be used as a step-down transformer, in which case the secondary of step-up transformer becomes the primary of step-down transformer. 6ctually a Transformer can be termed a step-up or step-down transformer only after it has been put into service. Therefore, when referring to the windings of a particular transformer, the terms highvoltage winding and low voltage winding should be used instead of primary and secondary windings. 6 transformer is the most widely used device in both low and high current circuits. 6s such, transformers are built in an ama"ing range of si"es. !n electronic, measurement and control circuits, transformer si"e may be so small that it weighs only a few tens of grams whereas in high voltage power circuits, it may weigh hundreds tones.

There are two general types of transformers, the core type and the shell type. These two types differ from each other by the manner in which the windings are wound around the magnetic core. 6 transformer works on the principle of electro magnetic induction. 6ccording to the principle, an e.m.f. is induced in a coil if it links a changing flu$. 6 distribution transformer should have a small value of voltage regulation, so that the terminal voltage at the consumerEs premises doesnEt vary widely as the load changes. or a transformer of large voltage regulation, the voltage at the consumerEs terminals will fall appreciably with the increase in load. This has a detrimental effect on the operation of the fluorescent tubes, T, sets, 7efrigerator .otors etc., since these are designed to operate satisfactorily at a constant voltage. Thus the distribution transformers should be designed to have a low value of leakage impedance. The transformer efficiency can be calculated if the total loses in the transformer are known. >ower transformers are used at the sending and receiving ends of a long, high voltage power transmission line for stepping up or stepping down the voltage. These transformers are manipulated to operate almost always at or near their rated capacity. Therefore, power transformers are disconnected during light load periods. !n view of this, a power transformer is designed to have ma$imum efficiency at or near its full load ',6. Hence the choice of a power transformer, out of a large numbers of competing transformers, should be based on full load efficiency. )istribution transformers are those, which change the voltage to a level suitable for utili"ation purposes at the consumerEs premises. 6 power transformer does not come in direct contact with the consumerEs terminals, whereas a distribution transformer must have its secondary directly connected with the consumerEs terminals. The load on a distribution transformer varies over a wide range during a C?-hour day. or e$ample, a distribution transformer in a residential colony may have practically little or no load during a considerable portion of the daytime, but in the evenings, the load may be near its rated capacity. Note that the primary of distribution transformers are always energi"ed and, therefore, the core loss takes place continuously. !n view of this, the distribution transformers are designed to have very low value of core loss. 2ut for reduced core loss >c />c is constant

load voltage1 the ma$imum efficiency may occur at about one-half of its rated ',6. Thus a distribution transformer should not be judged by its full load efficiency, which is usually much less than its ma$imum efficiency. However, the choice of a distribution transformer, out of a large number of competing transformers, can be based on energy efficiency. <hile testing the transformer polarity, on the primary side of two ending transformer, one terminal is positive with respect to the other terminal at any one instant. 6t the same instant one terminal of the secondary winding is positive with respect to the other terminal. These relative polarities of the primary and the secondary terminals at any instant must be known if the transformers are to be operated in parallel or are to be used in a polyphase circuit. 6 load test on a transformer is necessary if its ma$imum temperature rise is to be determined. 6 small transformer can be put on full load by means of suitable load impedance. 2ut for large transformer, full load test is difficult, since it involves considerable waste of energy and a suitable load, capable of absorbing full load power, is not easily available. However, large transformers can be put on full load by means of sumpnerEs or back-to-back test. The sumpnerEs test can also be used for calculating the efficiency of a transformer, though the later can be determined accurately from open circuit and shortcircuited tests. The back-to-back test on single >hase transformers re%uires to identical units, where two primaries are connected in parallel, are energi"ed at rated voltage and rated fre%uency. or performing the load test on single-phase transformers, two identical units are essential, whereas the load test on three phase transformers can be carried out on a single unit. 6 transformer, in which a part of the winding is common to both the primary and secondary circuits, is called an autotransformer. !n a two winding transformer, primary and secondary windings are electrically isolated, but in an auto transformer the two windings are not electrically isolated. The main dis-advantage of an autotransformer is due to the direct electrical connection between the low tension and high-tension sides.

DETAILS ABOUT 2A3 TO 2D3 CONVERTERS

The analog F to F digital converter /6.)1 is used to convert an analog voltage or current input to an output binary word that can be used by a computer. #f the many techni%ues that have been published for performing an 6+) conversion, only a few are of interest to usI so we will consider only the voltage to fre%uency, signal F slope integrator, duel-slope integrator, counter /or servo1, successive appro$imation and flash methods. The basic si"e of circuit that we will show is the @-bit 6+) converter, which for many purposes is all that is needed. These same discussions are also useful for &8-bit, &C-bit or higher order 6+) converters. INTEGRATION A0D METHODS: .ost digital panel .eters /)>.1 and digital multi-meters /)..1 use either the single integration or duel-slope integration methods for the 6+) conversion process. The single slope integrator is simple, but is limited to those applications that can tolerate accuracy of one or two percent. 6n e$ample of single slope integrator 6+) converter is shown in the ne$t page, while its timing diagram is shown below that.

The following is the timing diagram

The single F slope integrator 6+) converter consists of five basic sectionsI 7amp generator, comparator, and logic. *lock and an output encoder consisting of a binary counter, latch and display in the digital counter block. The ramp generator is an ordinary operational amplifier .iller integrator with its input connected to a stable, fi$ed, reference voltage source. This makes the input current essentially constant- so the voltage at 7amp o+p will rise in a nearly linear manner, creating the voltage ramp. The comparator is an operational amplifier that has an open feed back loop. The circuit gain is the open-loop gain /6 vol1 of the device selected. Typically very high even in low cost operational amplifiers. <hen the analog input voltage ,$ is greater than the ramp voltage, the output of the comparator is saturated at logic FH!:H level. The logic section consists of a main 6N) gate, a main gate control, and a clock. The waveforms associated with this circuit are based on unknown input ,oltage ,$. The 6N) gate re%uires all three inputs to be high before its output can be H!:H also. The output of the 6N) gate will go H!:H every time the clock signal is also H!:H. The encoder, in this case an 2-bit binary counter, will than see a pulse train with a length proportional to the amplitude of the analog input voltage. !f the 6+) converter is designed correctly, then the ma$imum range /full-scale1 value of ,$. 0everal problems are found in single-slope integrator 6+) converters. &1 The ramp voltage may be Non-linear C1 The ramp voltage may have too steep or too shallow a slope

31 The clock pulse fre%uency could be wrong ?1 !t may be prone to changes in apparent value of ,$ caused by Noise The duel-slope integrator corrects many of these problems. This circuit also consists of five basic sectionsI integrator, comparator, control logic section, binary counter and a reference current or voltage source. 6n integrator is made with an operational amplifier connected with a capacitor in the negative feed back loop, as was the case in the single-slope version. The comparator in this circuit is also the same sort of circuit as was used in the previous e$ample. !n this case though, the comparator is ground referenced by connecting O!N to ground. <hen a start command is received, the control circuit resets the counter, resets the integrator to D#E volts. The analog voltage creates an input current to the integrator, which causes the integrator output to begin charging capacitor- the output voltage of the integrator will begin to rise. 6s soon as this voltage rises a few milli volts above ground potential the comparator output snaps H!:H- >ositive. 6 H!: comparator output causes the control circuit to enable the counter, which begins to count pulses. V!$,&4# ,! F/#5)#*'. C!*6#/,#/-: These circuits are not 6+) *onverters in the strictest sense, but are very good for representing analog data in a form that can be tape recorder on a low cost audio- machine, or transmitted over radio. The ,+ converter output can also be used for direct input to a computer if a binary counter is used to measure the output fre%uency. Two forms of ,+ converter are common. #ne is a voltage-controlled oscillator /,*#1, that is, a regular oscillator circuit in which the output fre%uency is a function of an input controls voltage. !f the ,*# is connected to a binary or binary coded decimal /2*)1 counter, then the ,*# becomes a ,+ form of 6+) converter. The integrator, which causes the integrator output to begin charging capacitor, the output voltage of the integrator will begin to rise. 6s soon as this voltage rises a few milli-volts above ground potential the comparator output snaps H!:H F >ositive. 6 H!: comparator output causes the control circuit to enable the counter, which begins to count pulses. The following is the block diagram of voltage to fre%uency converter

C!)*,#/ ,.7# A0D C!*6#/,#/: 6 counter type 6+) converter /6lso called Gservo or Gramp 6+) converters1 consists of a comparator, voltage output )6*, binary counter, and the necessary control logic. <hen the start command is received, the control logic resets the binary counter, enables the clock, and begins counting. The counter outputs control the )6* inputs, so the )6* output voltage will begin to rise when the counter begins to increment. 6s long as analog input voltage ,$ is less than ,ref /The )6* output1, the comparator output is H!:H, when ,$ and ,ref are e%ual, however, the comparator output goes low, which turns off the clock and stops the counter output at this time represents the value of ,$. The following is the block diagram of binary 6+) converter.

SUCCESSIVE APPRO IMATION A0D CONVERTERS: 0uccessive appro$imation 6+) conversion is best suited for many applications where speed is important. This type of 6+) converter re%uires only NO& clock cycles to make the conversion, and some designs allow truncation of the conversion process after fewer cycles if the final value is found prior to NO& *ycles. The successive appro$imation converter operates by making several successive trails at comparing the analog input voltage with a reference generated by a )6*. PARALLEL OR FLASH A0D '!*6#/,#/-: The parallel 6+) *onverter is probably the fastest 6+) circuit known- indeed, the very fastest ordinary commercial products use this method. 0ome sources call the parallel 6+) converter the Gflash circuit because of its inherent high speed. The parallel 6+) converter consists of a blank of /CN-&1 voltage comparators biased by reference potential ,ref though a resistor Network that keeps the individual comparators &-(02 a port. 0ince the input voltage is applied to all the comparators simultaneously, the speed of conversion is limited essentially by slow rate of the slowest comparator in the bank, and also by the decoder circuit propagation time. The decoder converts the output code to binary code needed by the computers. The 6+) converter is a circuit that is used to produce a binary number output that represents an analog voltage applied to the input.

DETAILS ABOUT MICORCONTROLLER

The micro-controller is a chip, which has a computer processor with all its support functions, memory /both program storage and 76.1, and !+# built in to the device. These built in functions minimi"e the need for e$ternal circuits and devices to be designed in the final applications. .ost micro-controllers do not re%uire a substantial amount of time to learn how to efficiently program them, although many of them have %uirks, which you will have to under stand before you attempt to develop your first application. 6long with micro-controllers getting faster, smaller and more power efficient they are also getting more and more features. #ften, the first version of micro-controller will just have memory and simple digital !+#, but as the device family matures, more and more part numbers with varying features will be available. <ith all the @84& manufacturerEs products taken into account, there are over two hundred different @84& part numbers, each with different features and capabilities. or most applications, we will be able to find a device within the family that meets our specifications with a minimum of e$ternal devices, or an e$ternal but which will make attaching e$ternal devices easier, both in terms of wiring and programming. or many micro-controllers, programmers can be built very cheaply, or even built in to the final application circuit eliminating the need for a separate circuit. 6lso simplifying this re%uirement is the availability of micro-controllers with 076. and 99>7#. for control store, which will allow program development without having to remove the microcontroller from the application circuit.

D+%%#/#*, ,.7#- !% M+'/!-'!*,/!$$#/-: *reating applications for micro-controllers is completely different than any other development job in computing and electronic. !n most other applications, we probably have a number of sub systems and interfaces already available for our use. This is not the case with a .icro-controller, where we are responsible a1 >ower distribution b1 0ystem clocking c1 !nterface design and wiring d1 0ystems programming e1 6pplication programming f1 )evice programming These work items might seem obvious, but having to do them all is really %uite profound in modern computing system development. !n no other aspect of electronics are all these re%uirements found. The process is also made more enjoyable by learning how to work with the features built into the devices that are designed to simplify the task of directly connecting to other devices. #ften, very useful applications can be created using a microcontroller and a few passive components. E(8#""#" (+'/!-'!*,/!$$#/-: <hen all the hardware re%uired to run the application is provided on the chip, it is referred to as an embedded micro-controller. 6ll that is typically re%uired to operate the device is power, reset, and a clock. )igital !+# pins are provided to allow interfacing with e$ternal devices. This complete hardware on a chip is e$tremely useful for some applications. 9mbedded micro-controllers are now replacing some very common devices like 444 timers because they are actually cheaper to use in applications and they are much more precise and easier to control M+'/!-'!*,/!$$#/ (#(!/. ,.7#-: .emory is probably not something we normally think about when we create applications for a personal computer. !n a micro-controller, understanding how much memory we have and how its architect is critical, especially when we are planning on how to

implement the application code. !n a micro-controller, memory for different purposes is typically segregated and arranged to allow the device to e$ecute most efficiently. C!*,/!$ -,!/&4#: !n a >*, when we e$ecute an application, we read the application from disk and store it into an allocated section of memory. !n a micro-controller, this is not possible because there is no disk to read from. The application that is stored in non-volatile memory is always the only software the micro-controller will e$ecute. Having the program always available in memory makes the writing of its some what different than >* or work station applications. *ontrol store is known by a number of different names including program memory and firmware /as well as some permutations of the various names1. The name really is not important. <hat is important is under standing that this memory space is the ma$imum si"e of the application that can be loaded in to the micro-controller and that the application also includes all the low-level code and device interfaces necessary to e$ecute an application. CHIP TECHNOLOGIES: .icro-controllers, like all other electronic products, are growing smaller, running faster, re%uiring less power, and are cheaper. This is primarily due to improvements in the manufacturing process and technologies used /and not the adoption of different computer architectures1. ,irtually all micro-controllers built today use *.#0 /complementary metal o$ide semiconductor1 logic technology to provide the computing functions and electronic interfaces. *.#0 is a push-pull technology in which a >.#0 and N.#0 transistor are paired together. The following is the circuit diagram of push-pull configuration

<hen the input signal is low, the >.#0 transistor will be conducting and the N.#0 transistor will be DoffE. This means that the switch /or transistor1 at ,cc will be D#NE, providing ,cc at the signal out. !f a high voltage is input to the gate, then the >.#0 transistor will be turned off and the N.#0 transistor will be turned on, pulling the output line to ground. )uring a state transition, a very small amount of current will flow through the transistors. 6s the fre%uency of operation increases, current will flow more often in a given period of time /put another way, the charge transferred per unit time, which is defined as Gcurrent, will increase1. This increased current flow will result in increased power consumption by the device. Therefore, a *.#0 device should be driven at the slowest possible speed, to minimi"e power consumption. 6n important point with all logic families understands the switching point of the input signal. or *.#0 devices, this is typically &.?,olts to one half of ,cc. However, it can be at different levels for different devices. 2efore using any device, it is important to understand what the input threshold level is. *.#0 can interface directly with most positive logic technologies, although we must be careful of low voltage logic, to make sure that a high can be differentiated from a low in all circumstances. ATMEL 9:C;< PROGRAMMING: >rogramming the 6tmel 6T@K*$84& series of @84& micro-controllers uses some what of a different algorithm than what is used for the standard ?8-pin devices. The 6T@K*4& algorithm is actually %uite simple to implement. This programmer hardware can also be used to program 6,7 C8-pin micro-controllers. The programming can be described as erasing the control store and then presenting bytes to the micro-controller and latching it in. 6fter the byte is latched in, the programmer waits for the byte to be saved into control store before reading it back and incrementing the 6T@K*$84&Es program counter to receive the ne$t byte. To begin the programming cycle, the 6T @K*4& is powered up with the 7eset and BT6(& pins held low. Then, O4, is applied to 7eset and the >7#: pin. 6t this point, the

program counter inside the 6T@K*4& is reset to "ero. 6fter power up, the first thing we should do is a chip erase, to prepare the control store for the ne$t program /all the control store bytes are loaded with 8 at least &8 msec. <ith the chip erased, the control store can be programmed. Note that 7eset is cycled between O4, and O&C, for writes and reads. This means that the 7eset driver has to be a circuit that can output 8,, 4,, and &C, to the 7eset >in. The lock bits are used to limit access to the application in control store of a programmed part. !f lock bit & is programmed, then the flash control store cannot be updated until it is erased again. !f bit C is programmed, the verify fuction /read back1 will return invalid data /this is copy protection for the chip , there is no encryption array in the 6T@K*$4&1 again until the control store on the chip is erased. or obvious reasons, these two bits should not be programmed until the application programming is complete. #ften in application programming, there will be gaps in the code, which means there are areas that are not programmed. The 6T@K*$4&Es program counter can be incremented /by pulsing BT6(&1 to skip over these areas. To carry this out, the programmerEs control software will have to keep track of the current value of the program counter as it works through programming the device. AT9:C=>;< P/!4/&((#/ C+/')+,: or many other devices /including the >!* .icro and even the A@H*$$1, there are actually %uite a few simple circuits available for simply programming the .icro-controller. <hile not attempting to fill the gap, a perfect programmer circuit can be design and it can be used for all the 6T@K*$4& applications. h1. This is accomplished by setting high and to low /this will be characteri"ed as H((( to show how the control signals are set1 and pulsing >7#: low for

#ne nice feature of the programmer is its ability to be used in-circuit, it can be wired into a prototype circuit and have the 6T@K*$84& run without having to pull the chip in an out of the programmer as circuits are being developed. 6nother feature is that this circuit could be used for programming C8-pin 6tmel 6,7 micro-controllers in parallel mode. The circuit itself is pretty simple and can be blocked out, with the programmer connected to an !2. Fcompatible >* via the parallel port. 6n adaptor with at least &A, peak-to-peak supplies power. The power circuit provides switched O4 and O&C, for the @84&Es ,cc and 7eset /8 ,, O4 , or O&C ,1. The programmer control block controls the power circuit. !f 7eset is being driven by something other than 8 ,, the programmer drivers are active. <ith this circuit, it is found that, when going from O&C, to O4, on 7eset, 38 micro sec was needed. !f we end up writing our own software for this circuit, we may have to make sure that we have a long enough delay before attempting to read back what was written. :oing from 8 , to O4, or O&C, /or from O4, to O&C,1 took less than a micro sec. The programmer control block is used to control the power applied to the device being programmed as well as to its 7eset /as noted in the previous paragraph1 and the programming mode of 6T@K*$4&. 6 J?(03J? is used with data being latched in from the >*Es parallel port. The output of the D3J? is always enabled, but all the lines going to the 6T@K*$4& /with the e$ception of the power and 7eset, which are independently controlled1 pass through a J?(0C??, which allows the 6T@K*$4& to be pulled from the circuit without turning off the power to the programmer. The DC?? is also used to pass the 7)=+U20= signal back to the >* to allow the programmer to poll the 7)=+U20= to determine when the programming operation has finished. The )ata, which allows a programming byte to be passed to the .icro-controller or read from it. !t could have eliminated this pin and had the same functionality by simply using the bi-directional features of the >*Es parallel port. However, to ensure that the 6T@K*$4&

would run in-circuit, we wanted to make sure that we could disable the connection to the >*, to make sure the cable wouldnEt affect the operation of the application and, more importantly, make sure that invalid voltages or signals in the application circuit would not damage the >*. The >* should have a parallel port capable of bi-directional !+#, and we used a switch-bo$ dual male )2-C4 connector cable. This cable is used for connecting a >*Es parallel port to a printer sharing switch bo$. #n two of the )b- C4 connectors, each pin is directly connected /i.e., pin & is connected to >in &, pin C to pin C, and so on1, which makes wiring to the application easier. The final circuit probably looks pretty comple$- however, by following the nets, we can find that itEs actually %uite simple and easy to understand. <hat might be surprising is the component reference numbers /they donEt go in any order in the schematic1. They are not in any kind of logical order because we developed this raw card. ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE: <hen we look at the different types of programming languages, we have to understand the Gpay menow, pay me later rule that e$ists with programming costs. 6ssembly language programming is generally the cheapest way to get into micro-controller programming, but it is the most difficult to learn, re%uires the most effort, and is the least portable to other platforms. *onversely, using a high-level language /such as 260!* or *1 can make it much easier for a beginner to program a .icro-controller, but it is the most costly option. *ode written for a high-level language is, by definition, portable to other platforms. <here the G pay me now, pay me later rule comes into effect is if we are developing @84& applications professionally. 0pending time on assembly language programming is probably costing you money over doing it in a high-level language. or learning the @84& or any other .icro-controller or computer processor, assembly language is, as per the author opinion, the best way of doing it. 2efore going to an

e$periment, we will get a good feeling for how the @84& processes instructions and how it works. 6ssembly language programming is the process of writing code that uses assembler statement, which are the actual instructions the @84&Es processor e$ecutes /the smallest unit of granularity1. 6long with assembler statement, directives are added to the source file to control the operation of the assembly process. .acros and conditional assembly statements are types of directives that can help you develop code uni%ue to our application. .acros are labels that are replaced with code- theyEre similar to subroutines, e$cept the subroutine code is copied directly into the source before the assembly operation. *onditional assembly statements are Gif+else+end if statements that e$ecute during assembly and, depending on the conditions, not allow certain sections of code to be assembled. 6 completed assembly language source file is assembled into a listing file /showing how the assembly program converted the source into bits for the processor1 and an object, or he$, file, which are the actual bits and bytes to be burned into the @84&. 6ssembly language programming is the lowest form ofI Ghuman-readable source code-processing possible. !nterpreters and compilers take high-level language statements and convert them directly into processor instructions without the programmer being involved. Now, if we are well heeled and donEt want to do the drudgery of assembly language programming, we could buy a compiler, but we will never use the full potential of the @84&. 'nowing and being proficient in assembly language programming will allow us to enhance our high-level language applications by allowing us to add code that will reduce the number of cycles re%uired to e$ecute, reduce the number of bytes re%uired for the program, or enhance the operation of the application.

HARDWARE DETAILS
The !*Es and other important components used in this project work, procured from the Hyderabad 9lectronics .arket. The details or data sheets of the !*Es are down loaded from the !nternet. The following are the web sites that can be browsed for collecting the data sheets. &. www. Te$as !nstruments.com C. www. National semiconductors.com 3. www. airchild semiconductors.com The following are the !*Es and other important components used in this project work /&1 6)* 8@8K - 6nalog to )igital *onverter !* /C1 J?(0 4J3 #ctal Transparent )-type (atches /31 (.3C? - Quad #p-6mp !* /?1 (. 444 Timer !* /41 ,oltage 7egulator /A1 7elay /J1 *urrent Transformer /@1 @K*4& .icro-controller !* /K1 T96 44K& 6.+ . 7adio 7eceiver !* /&81 J?(0 &3@ 3-line to @-line )ecoder /&&1 J? (0 4J? #ctal )-type lip- lop /&C1 J?(0C?? #ctal 2uffer /&31 *) ?8?A >(( !* /&?1 *) ?843 .ultiple$er !* POWER SUPPLY: The re%uired )* levels are derived from the mains supply for this purpose a stepdown transformer of &C,-8-&C, center tapped secondary transformer is used. The current rating of the transformer is J48 ma at secondary. The secondary is rectified and filtered to generate &C, smooth )* which is un-regulated voltage and which is re%uired to drive the bu""er and relay. <ith help of positive voltage regulators, a constant voltage source of O4, and OK, are derived, for this purpose J@84 and J@8K 3>in ,oltage regulators are used so

that, though the mains supply varies from &J8, to C48,, the output )* levels remains constant. The following is the circuit diagram of power supply.

MICROCONTROLLER SOFTWARE

TEMP_ADC DATA 30H DSP_C DATA 31H DSP1 DATA 32H DSP2 DATA 33H DSP3 DATA 34H DSP4 DATA 35H BUF1 DATA 36H BUF2 DATA 37H BUF3 DATA 38H BUF4 DATA 39H LV1 DATA 3AH LV2 DATA 3BH LV3 DATA 3CH LV4 DATA 3DH T1_1 DATA 3EH T1_2 DATA 3FH T1_3 DATA 40H T1_4 DATA 41H T2_1 DATA 42H T2_2 DATA 43H T2_3 DATA 45H T2_4 DATA 46H CT1 DATA 47H CT2 DATA 48H CT3 DATA 49H CT4 DATA 4AH CNT DATA 4BH ! A0 A1 A2 ALE SOC OE EOC RL# $%& BIT P3"0 BIT P3"1 BIT P3"2 BIT P3"3 BIT P3"4 BIT P3"5 BIT P3"6 BIT P2"0 $'( )2"1*

! +++ (((1 (((2 ,,,1 ! ONE E-U 11111001B TWO E-U 10100100B THREE E-U 10110000B FOUR E-U 10011001B FIVE E-U 10010010B SI. E-U 10000010B SEVEN E-U 11111000B EI/HT E-U 10000000B NINE E-U 10010000B 0ERO E-U 11000000B ! OR/ 0000H L1MP START OR/ 000BH PUSH ACC PUSH PSW LCALL DISPLA# POP PSW POP ACC RETI START3 MOV MOV SETB MOV MOV MOV MOV MOV MOV MOV MOV MOV SETB P1450FFH P24500H P3"7 P04500H SP4560H DSP_C4500H TMOD4501H IE4582H $%61450C0H $%62450C0H $%63450C0H $%64450C0H TR0 START OF PRO/"" TIMER INT20 BIT 00H BIT 01H BIT 02H BIT 03H

MOV

R74501H

MAIN3 CLR A0 77SELECTIN/ THE VOLTA/E CHANNEL2277 SETB A1 CLR A2 LCALL /ET_ADC MOV A4TEMP_ADC LCALL H_D LCALL STR_SE/ MOV LV24DSP2 MOV LV34DSP3 MOV LV44DSP4 MOV A4TEMP_ADC C1NE A450F0H4L1 L13 1C 8'1 9:($ +++ 8;<) =:>:1 8'13 ,8> +++ =:>:13 CLR A0 77SELECTIN/ THE TEMP"" CHANNEL2077 CLR A1 CLR A2 LCALL /ET_ADC MOV A4TEMP_ADC LCALL H_D LCALL STR_SE/ MOV T2_24DSP2 MOV T2_34DSP3 MOV T2_44DSP4 MOV A4TEMP_ADC C1NE A4532H4L8 L83 1C 8'3 9:($ (((2 8;<) =:>:2 8'33 ,8> (((2 HERE23 SETB A0 77SELECTIN/ THE CURRENT CHANNEL2177 CLR A1 CLR A2 LCALL /ET_ADC MOV A4TEMP_ADC LCALL H_D LCALL STR_SE/

MOV CT24DSP2 MOV CT34DSP3 MOV CT44DSP4 MOV A4TEMP_ADC C1NE A4564H4LS3 LS33 1C 8'4 9:($ ,,,1 MOV R74503H 8;<) =:>:3 8'43 ,8> ,,,1 HERE33 1B P3"74LA0 LCALL DELA#1 INC R7 LA03 MOV A4R7 C1NE A45014LA01 MOV BUF1450C1H MOV BUF24LV2 MOV BUF34LV3 MOV BUF44LV4 LA013 C1NE A4500H4LA02 LA023 C1NE A4502H4LA03 MOV BUF1450,6= MOV BUF24T2_2 MOV BUF34T2_3 MOV BUF44T2_4 LA033 C1NE A4503H4LA04 MOV BUF14588H MOV BUF24CT2 MOV BUF34CT3 MOV ?4CT4 ANL ?457F= <@+ $%644? LA043 C1NE A4504H4LA05 MOV R74500H LA053 ;$ +++48(1 ;$ (((248(3 ;$ ,,,148(4 ,8> >8A ,8> $%& 8;<) <?'B 8(13 9:($ >8A SETB $%& 8;<) <?'B

8(33 8(43 ! !

9:($ >8A SETB $%& 8;<) <?'B 9:($ >8A SETB $%& 8;<) <?'B

DISPLA#3 MOV A4DSP_C C1NE A4500H4H1 MOV P04BUF4 SETB P2"6 CLR P2"5 CLR P2"4 CLR P2"3 H13 C1NE A4501H4H2 MOV P04BUF3 CLR P2"6 SETB P2"5 CLR P2"4 CLR P2"3 H23C1NE A4502H4H3 MOV P04BUF2 CLR P2"6 CLR P2"5 SETB P2"4 CLR P2"3 H33C1NE A4503H4H4 MOV P04BUF1 CLR P2"6 CLR P2"5 CLR P2"4 SETB P2"3 H43INC DSP_C MOV A4DSP_C C1NE A4504H4H5 MOV DSP_C4500H H53MOV TL04500H MOV TH0450F0H RET ! /ET_ADC3 SETB ALE

NOP NOP SETB LCALL CLR NOP NOP CLR EO03 1B EOC03 1NB SETB MOV MOV NOP NOP CLR RET !

SOC D1 ALE SOC P3"64EO0 P3"64EOC0 OE A4P1 TEMP_ADC4A OE

H_D3 CLR A MOV R04500H 77STR THE VALUE UPPER77 MOV R14500H 77STR VALUE LOWER77 MOV R24500H MOV R24TEMP_ADC MOV A4TEMP_ADC C1NE A4500H400 MOV R04500H MOV R14500H RET 003 CLR A LA23 CLR C INC A ADD A4500H DA A 1NC LA1 INC R0 LA13 D1N0 R24LA2 MOV R14A RET ! STR_SE/3 MOV A4R1 ANL A450FH LCALL SE/MNT

MOV DSP24A MOV A4R1 ANL A450F0H SWAP A LCALL SE/MNT MOV DSP34A MOV A4R0 ANL A450FH LCALL SE/MNT MOV DSP44A RET ! SE/MNT3 C1NE A4500H4LA3 MOV A450ERO LA33C1NE A4501H4LA4 MOV A45ONE LA43C1NE A4502H4LA5 MOV A45TWO LA53C1NE A4503H4LA6 MOV A45THREE LA63C1NE A4504H4LA7 MOV A45FOUR LA73C1NE A4505H4LA8 MOV A45FIVE LA83C1NE A4506H4LA9 MOV A45SI. LA93C1NE A4507H4LA10 MOV A45SEVEN LA103C1NE A4508H4LA11 MOV A45EI/HT LA113C1NE A4509H4LA12 MOV A45NINE LA123RET ! D13 MOV R34501H D1N0 R34C RET ! DELA#3 MOV R4450FFH

D1N0 R44C RET ! DELA#33 MOV R44530H 023 MOV R54520H 013 MOV R64510H D1N0 R64C D1N0 R5401 D1N0 R4402 RET ! DELA#13 MOV R54564H L.13 MOV R64554H D1N0 R64C D1N0 R54L.1 RET ! END

COMPUTER SOFTWARE DE PC BASED SCADA MONITERIN/ AND CONTROLIN/"ED 5'B,8%F: G9(F'@"=! 5'B,8%F: GF@9"=! 5'B,8%F: G$'@9"=! 5'B,8%F: G,@B'@"=! 5'B,8%F: GH>?)=',9"=! 5F:6'B: LOWER_NIBBLE 3 5F:6'B: UPPER_NIBBLE 2 5F:6'B: ADC_CONTROL 1 5F:6'B: RESET 4 5F:6'B: HI/H 0I,0 5F:6'B: STC 0I01 5F:6'B: ALE 0I02 5F:6'B: OE 0I04 5F:6'B: IPRT 0I379 5F:6'B: OPRT 0I378 5F:6'B: CPRT 0I37A +@'F )>'B(JK +@'F 9=@LJK +@'F >F?F,JK 'B( >:?F_$A(:JK 'B( >:?F_9(9JK 'B( 9:BF_$A(:J'B( 4'B(K ,=?> ,= 'B( <?II4 <?IA 'B( $%&_9(9 <?'BJK M 'B( :>>@>,@F:4)@9$?N 'B( HF>'+:>ODETECT4 H<@F: 'B'(H>?)=JPHF>'+:>4 PH<@F:4 Q QK DE ,=:N )?(= ED :>>@>,@F: O H>?)=>:9%8(JK '6 J:>>@>,@F: RO H>ONK M )>'B(6JQ/>?)=',9 :>>@>3 S97BQ4 H>?)=:>>@><9HJ:>>@>,@F:KK DE DISPLA#S RECTAN/LESED DE DISPLA#S MENUS AND NAMESED DE READS ADC VOLTA/ESED DE READS FROM PARALLEL PORTED DE READS STATUS OF ADCED DE SEND TO PARALLEL PORTED

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

9:(,@8@>JREDK >:,(?BH8:J1004 4004 <?II21004 <?IA2200K 9:(,@8@>JLI/HTREDK >:,(?BH8:J1014 4014 <?II21014 <?IA2201K 9:(,@8@>J#ELLOWK >:,(?BH8:J1024 4024 <?II21024 <?IA2202K 9:(,@8@>JLI/HTREDK >:,(?BH8:J1034 4034 <?II21034 <?IA2203K 9:(,@8@>JREDK >:,(?BH8:J1044 4044 <?II21044 <?IA2204K 9:(,@8@>JREDK >:,(?BH8:J1054 4054 <?II21054 <?IA2205K 9:(,@8@>JLI/HTREDK >:,(?BH8:J1064 4064 <?II21064 <?IA2206K 9:(,@8@>J#ELLOWK >:,(?BH8:J1074 4074 <?II21074 <?IA2207K 9:(,@8@>JLI/HTREDK >:,(?BH8:J1084 4084 <?II21084 <?IA2208K 9:(,@8@>JREDK >:,(?BH8:J1094 4094 <?II21094 <?IA2209K T +@'F 9=@LJK M 9:((:I(9(A8:J14041K 9:(,@8@>JLI/HTREDK @%((:I(IAJ<?II2J<?II2200K4<?IA2J<?IA240K4QPC BASED SCADA MONITERIN/QK 9:(,@8@>J7K 8'B:J2004624465462K 9:(,@8@>J7K 8'B:J2004644465464K T +@'F >F?F,JK M 'B( (:<) 'B( ,(14 ,(2 O 04,(3O0 'B( VOLT O 0

68@?( I14 A1 68@?( (2 9(>(3 L='8:JRN$='(JKK M 68%9=?88JK VOLT O >:?F_ADCJ0K I1 O VOLT E 5 A1 O I1 D 255 9:(,@8@>JWHITEK H@(@IAJ134 8K )>'B(6JQIB)%( +@8(?H: O S"16 +@8(9Q4A1K DDF:8?AJ10K '6JA1 GO 0"4 K M $%&_9(9 O 0 H@(@IAJ30419K )>'B(6JQ QK H@(@IAJ30422K )>'B(6JQ S#STEM NORMAL CONDITION QK F:8?AJ10K T :89: M DD H@(@IAJ30419K )>'B(6JQ S#STEM ABNORMAL CONDITION QK '6JJA1 !O 0"8K PP JA1 GO 1"5KK M '6 J,(2 !O 8K M $%&_9(9 O 0IC0 H@(@IAJ30422K )>'B(6JQ S#STEM OVERLOAD QK F:8?AJ10K ,(2O0 T ,(2WW T '6JJA1 !O 1"6K PP JA1 GO 2"5KK M '6J,(3 !O 8K M $%&_9(9 O 0IC0

H@(@IAJ30422K )>'B(6JQ TEMPERATURE HI/H QK F:8?AJ10K ,(3O0 T ,(3WW T '6JJA1 !O 2"8K PP JA1 GO 4"3KK M $%&_9(9 O 0IC0 H@(@IAJ30422K )>'B(6JQHI/H VOLATA/E F:8?AJ10K T T '6JA1!O4"8 K M $%&_9(9 O 0 H@(@IAJ30419K )>'B(6JQ QK H@(@IAJ30422K )>'B(6JQ S#STEM DISCONECT F:8?AJ1K T T ,=O$'@9N:AJ0K '6J,=ROUIUPP,=ROU.UKH@(@ 9(>( T 'B( >:?F_ADCJ'B( ,B(K M 'B( (:<)4 ,(1 (:<)O ,B(GG3 9:BF_$A(:JADC_CONTROL4$%&_9(9 P HI/HK F:8?AJ1K 9:BF_$A(:JADC_CONTROL4J$%&_9(9 P HI/HKX(:<)K F:8?AJ0K 9:BF_$A(:JADC_CONTROL4J$%&_9(9 P HI/HKX(:<)XALEK F:8?AJ0K 9:BF_$A(:JADC_CONTROL4J$%&_9(9 P HI/HKX(:<)XALEX STCK F:8?AJ0K 9:BF_$A(:JADC_CONTROL4J$%&_9(9 P HI/HKX(:<)XSTCK F:8?AJ0K 9:BF_$A(:JADC_CONTROL4J$%&_9(9 P HI/HKX(:<)K F:8?AJ0K L='8:J>:?F_9(9JKOO0K M '6JN$='(JKRO0K$>:?N T QK

QK

F:8?AJ10K 9:BF_$A(:JADC_CONTROL4JJ$%&_9(9 P HI/HKX(:<)KXOEK F:8?AJ0K ,(1O>:?F_$A(:JK >:(%>B ,(1 T 'B( >:?F_$A(:JK M 'B( 8$4=$ @%()@>(JCPRT4LOWER_NIBBLEK F:8?AJ1K 8$O'B)JIPRTK F:8?AJ1K @%()@>(JCPRT4RESETK F:8?AJ1K @%()@>(JCPRT4UPPER_NIBBLEK F:8?AJ1K =$O'B)JIPRTK F:8?AJ1K @%()@>(JCPRT4RESETK F:8?AJ1K >:(%>B J=$P0I60KY0I80WJJ8$P0I60K!!4KY0I08 T 'B( 9:BF_$A(:J'B( ?FF>4'B( F?(K M 'B( I @%()JOPRT4F?(K F:8?AJ1K @%()JCPRT4?FF>K F:8?AJ1K @%()JCPRT4RESETK F:8?AJ1K T 'B( >:?F_9(9JK M 'B( 8$ 8$O'B)JIPRTK F:8?AJ1K >:(%>B JJ8$P0I08K!!3K T

FABRICATION DETAILS
The fabrication of one demonstration unit is carried out in the following se%uenceI &. C. 3. ?. 4. inali"ing the total circuit diagram, listing out the components and their sources of procurement. >rocuring the components, testing the components and screening the components. .aking layout, preparing the inter connection diagram as per the circuit diagram, preparing the drilling details, cutting the laminate to the re%uired si"e. )rilling the holes on the board as per the component layout, painting the tracks on the board as per inter connection diagram. 9tching the board to remove the un-wanted copper other than track portion. Then cleaning the board with water, and solder coating the copper tracks to protect the tracks from rusting or o$idation due to moisture. A. J. @. 6ssembling the components as per the component layout and circuit diagram and soldering components. !ntegrating the total unit inter wiring the unit and final testing the unit. 'eeping the unit ready for demonstration.

PCB FABRICATION DETAILS: The 2asic raw material in the manufacture of >*2 is copper cladded laminate. The laminate consists of two or more layers insulating reinforced materials bonded together under heat and pressure by thermo setting resins used are phenolic or epo$y. The reinforced materials used are electrical grade paper or woven glass cloth. The laminates are manufactured by impregnating thin sheets of reinforced materials /woven glass cloth or electrical grade paper1 with the re%uired resin />henolic or epo$y1. The laminates are divided into various grades by National 9lectrical .anufacturers association /N9.61. The nominal overall thickness of laminate normally used in >*2 industry is &.Amm with copper cladding on one or two sides. The copper foil thickness is 34 .icrons /8.834mm1 #7 J8 .icrons /8.8J8 mm1.

The ne$t stage in >*2 fabrication is artwork preparation. The artwork /.ater drawing1 is essentially a manufacturing tool used in the fabrication of >*2Es. !t defines the pattern to be generated on the board. 0ince the artwork is the first of many process steps in the abrication of >*2s. !t must be very accurately drawn. The accuracy of the finished board depends on the accuracy of artwork. Normally, in industrial applications the artwork is drawn on an enlarged scale and photographically reduced to re%uired si"e. !t is not only easy to draw the enlarged dimensions but also the errors in the artwork correspondingly get reduced during photo reduction. or ordinary application of simple single sided boards artwork is made on ivory art paper using drafting aids. 6fter taping on a art paper and phototraphy /.aking the Fve1 the image of the photo given is transformed on silk screen for screen printing. 6fter drying the paint, the etching process is carried out. This is done after drilling of the holes on the laminate as per the components layout. The etching is the process of chemically removing un-wanted copper from the board. The ne$t stage after >*2 fabrication is solder masking the board to prevent the tracks from corrosion and rust formation. Then the components will be assembled on the board as per the component layout. The ne$t stage after assembling is the soldering the components. The soldering may be defined as process where in joining between metal parts is produced by heating to suitable temperatures using non-ferrous filler metals has melting temperatures below the melting temperatures of the metals to be joined. This non-ferrous intermediate metal is called solder. The solders are the alloys of lead and tin.

REFERENCES: The following are the references made during the development of this project work. Te$t 2ooksI /&1 (inear !ntegrated *ircuits F I ). 7oy *houdhury, 0hail Vain /C1 >ower 9lectronics - 2yI 09N /31 7elays and their applications - 2yI ..*.0H67.6 /?1 #p-6mps Hand 2ook - 2yI .6(,!N) /41 .echanical and !ndustrial .easurements - 2yI 7.'. Vain /A1 *omputer *ontrolled 0ystem - 2yI 'arl V.60T7#. /J1 >rogramming and *ustomi"ing the @84& .icro-controller - 2yI .yke >redko /@1 The concepts and eatures of .icro-controllers - 2yI 7aj 'amal /K1 *OO 6n !ntroduction to >rogramming 2yI V9009 (!297T= . V!. '9#:H /&81 D*E 6(( *lear - 2yI 76,!N)76 /&&1 2asic 7adio and Television. 2=I 0.>. 0H67.6 /&C1 undamentals of 7adio *ommunication 2=I 6. 0H9!N:#() /&31 The !* 444 Timer applications source book 2yI H#<67) ..297(!N *atalogs I /&1 T9B60 - (!N967 !*Es manual /C1 0!:N9T!*0 - )!:!T6( !*Es manual VournalsI /&1 9lectronic )esign /C1 9lectronics for you /31 9lectronics Te$t. /?1 >ractical 9lectronics

COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH LIST OF COMPONENTS