AP Bio Study

AP BIO STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 6A tour of the Cell small to be resol ed by the microscope. and function !hich ta)es cells apart and separates the ma"or organelles and other subcellular structures from one another. --The instrument used is called a centrifuge !hich spins test tubes holding mi5tures of disrupted cells at arious speeds. -The resulting force causes a fraction of the cell components to settle to the bottom of the tube, forming a pellet. -At lo!er speeds the pellet consists of larger components and at higher speeds it consists larger components. -'ell 3ractionation enables researchers to prepare specific cell components in bul) and identify their functions, a tas) that !ould be much harder !ith intact cells.
The cell is as fundamental to biology as an atom to chemistryAll organisms are made up of cells.
6.1-To study cells, biologists use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry.
-Microscopes are indispensible for the study of cells. In a light microscope (LM), isible light is passed through t he specimen and then through glass lenses. (These are the ones !e use in class). --These lenses retract (bend) the light in such a !ay that the image of the specimen is magnified as it is pro"ected into the eye, onto photographic film or a digital sensor onto a ideo screen. Magnification is the ratio of an ob"ect#s image si$e to its real si$e. %esolution is a measure of the clarity of the image& it is the minimum distance t!o points can be separated and still be distinguished as t!o points. --'ontrast !hich accentuates differences in parts of the sample. --'ells first seen by %obert (oo)e in *++,. --Most subcellular structure-- including organelles, !hich are membrane enclosed compartments-are simply too Instead of using light, the electron microscope(-M) focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or onto its surface. --Modern electron microscopes can theoretically achie e a resolution of about .../ nm, although for practical purposes they usually cannot resol e biological structures smaller than /nm. 0canning electron microscope(0-M)-is useful for a detailed study of the surface of the sample, !hich is usually coated !ith a thin film of gold. --The 0-M has a great depth of field, resulting in an image that appears 12. The Transmission -lectron Microscope- is used to study the ultrastructure of cells. The T-M aims an electron beam through a ery thin section of the specimen, similar to the !ay a light microscope transmits light through a slide. ---lectron microscopes re eal many organelles and other subcellular structures that are impossible to resol e !ith the light microscope. --Light microscopes can study li ing cells ,--!hile the method to prepare the specimen )ills the cells in electron microscopes. 'ell 3ractionation- a useful techni4ue for studying cell structure
6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions
All cells ha e se eral basic features in common-they are all bounded by a selecti e barrier called the plasma membrane. --nclosed by the membrane is a semi fluid "ellyli)e substance called cytosol. --All cells contain chromosomes !hich carry genes in the form of 26A. --All cells ha e ribosomes !hich are tiny comple5es that ma)e proteins according to instructions from the genes. A ma"or difference b7t the pro)aryotic and eu)aryotic cells is the location of their 26A. --In a eu)aryotic cell, most of the 26A is in a n organelle called the nucleus !hich is bounded by a double membrane. In a pro)aryotic cell, the 26A is concentrated in a region that is not membrane enclosed, called the nucleoid. Interior of a pro)aryotic cell is called the cytoplasm.
AP BIO STUDY GUIDE

6. -The eukaryotic cell!s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosome. continuity or by the transfer of membrane segments as tiny esicles (sacs made of membrane). 0mooth -%-is so named because its outer surface lac)s ribosomes. The nucleus contains most of the genes in the eu)aryotic cell (some genes are located in mitochondria and chloroplasts). It is generally the most conspicuous organelle in a eu)aryotic cell, a eraging about , um in diameter. The nuclear en elope encloses the nucleus, separating its contents from the cytoplasm. At the boundary of e ery cell, the plasma membrane functions as a selecti e barrier that allo!s sufficient passage of o5ygen, nutrients, and !astes to ser ice the entire cell. As a cell increases in si$e, its olume gro!s proportionately more than its surface area. 8Thus, a smaller ob"ect has a greater ratio of surface area to olume. --A high surface to olume ratio facilitates the e5changes b7t a cell and its en ironment. Larger organisms do not generally ha e larger cells than smaller organisms, simply more cell. --The nuclear en elope is a double membrane. The t!o membranes, each a lipid bilayer !ith associated proteins are separated by a space of /.-9. nm. The nuclear side of the en elope is lined by the nuclear lamina, a netli)e array of proteins filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear en elope. 'hromosomes-26A is organi$ed into discrete unites called chromosomes !hich are structures that carry the genetic information. -ach chromosome is made up of material called chromatin, a comple5 of proteins and 26A. A prominent structure !ith the nondi iding nucleus is the nucleolus, !hich appears through the microscope as a mass of densely stained granules and fibers ad"oining part of the chromatin. %ibosomes, !hich are comple5es made of ribosomal %6A and protein, are the cellular components that carry out protein synthesis. --synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbs, and deto5ification of drugs and poisons. %ough -%- has ribosomes on the outer surface of its membrane and thus appears rough through the electron microscope. --many types of cells secrete proteins produced by ribosomes attached to rough -%. --:olgi apparatus- after lea ing -% many transport esicles tra el to the :.A !hich is a center of manufacturing, !arehousing, sorting and shipping. Lysosome- a membranous sac of hydrolytic en$ymes that an animal cell uses to digest macromolecules Lysosomal en$ymes !or) best in the acidic en ironment found in lysosomes. Mitochondria- are the sites of cellular respiration, the metabolic process that generates AT; by e5tracting energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels !ith the help of o5ygen. 'hloroplasts- found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis. They con ert solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing sunlight and using to dri e the synthesis of organic compounds such as sugars from carbon dio5ide and !ater. ;ero5isome- an o5idati e organelle that is not part of the endomembrane system. Li)e mitochondria and chloroplasts, the pero5isome imports it proteins primarily from the cytosol. 'ytos)eleton-a net!or) of fibers e5tending throughout the cytoplasm. ;lays a ma"or role in organi$ing the structures and acti ities of the cell is composed of three types of molecular structures< microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. Although animals cells lac) !alls a)in to those of plant cells, they do ha e an elaborate e5tracellular matri5(-'M). 8it regulates a cells
6." The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell. Many of the different membranes of the eu)aryotic cell are part of an endomembrane system !hich carries out a ariety of tas)s in the cell such as 8the synthesis of proteins and their transport into membranes and organelles or out of the cell. The membranes of this system are related either through direct physical
%efer to a better picture7diagram on pg*.*.
AP BIO STUDY GUIDE

beha ior by communicating !ith a cell through integrins. --#efer to pg 12 for e$cellent chart 'ell to cell recognition-a cells ability to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another, is crucial to the functioning of an organism. --It is important for e5ample, in the sorting of cells into tissues and organs in an animal embryo. 'ell membranes are permable to specific ions and a ariety of polar molecules. The plasma membrane e5hibits selecti e permeability& that is it allo!s some substances to cross it more easily than others. --The ability of a cell to discriminate in its chemical e5changes !ith its en ironment is fundamental to life and it is the plasma membrane and its component molecules that ma)e this selecti ity possible. A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule, meaning it has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region. In the fluid mosaic model, the membrane is a fluid structure !ith a mosaic of arious proteins embedded in or attached to a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids. =nsaturated hydrocarbon tails of phospholipids ha e )in)s that )eep the molecules from pac)ing together, enhancing membrane fluidity. --These hydrophilic substances can a oid contact !ith the lipid bilayer by passing through transport proteins that span the membrane. The passage of !ater molecules through the membrane in certain cells is greatly facilitated by channel proteins )no!n as a4uaporins. The selecti e permeability of a membrane depends on both the discriminating barrier of the lipid bilayer and the specific transport proteins built into the membrane. >ne result of thermal motion is diffusion, the mo ement of molecules of any substance so that they spread out e enly into the a ailable space. 'oncentration gradient- the region along !hich the density of a chemical substance decreases. The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane is called passi e transport. The diffusion of !ater across a selecti ely permeable membrane is osmosis. To pump a solute across a membrane against its gradient re4uires !or)& the cell must e5pend energy-Acti e Transport.
Chapter 7 Membrane Structure and Function
Integral ;roteins-penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer. Many are transmembrane proteins !hich span the membrane& other integral protein e5tend only part!ay into the hydrophobic core. ;rtipheral proteins are not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all& they are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane, often e5posed parts of integral proteins.

AP Bio Study

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AP BIO STUDY GUIDE

AP BIO STUDY GUIDE

%efer to a better picture7diagram on pg..

AP BIO STUDY GUIDE

Chapter 7 Membrane Structure and Function

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