UNIVERSITATEA DE STAT DE EDUCAIE FIZIC I SPORT A REPUBLICII MOLDOVA

Catedra de Gimna ti!"

TEMA# SIR ISAAC NEWTON

Doctorand: Dnu STOICA

Coordonator tiinific: Valeriu JURAT doctor !n "eda#o#ie confereniar uni$er%itar

C&iinu '()*

Intr$d%!ti$n
Ne+ton Sir I%aac ,)-*'.)/'/0 En#li%& natural "&ilo%o"&er #enerall1 re#arded a% t&e 2o%t ori#inal and influential t&eori%t in t&e &i%tor1 of %cience3 In addition to &i% in$ention of t&e infinite%i2al calculu% and a ne+ t&eor1 of li#&t and color Ne+ton tran%for2ed t&e %tructure of "&1%ical %cience +it& &i% t&ree la+% of 2otion and t&e la+ of uni$er%al #ra$itation3 A% t&e 4e1%tone of t&e %cientific re$olution of t&e )/t& centur1 Ne+ton5% +or4 co26ined t&e contri6ution% of Co"ernicu% 7e"ler 8alileo De%carte% and ot&er% into a ne+ and "o+erful %1nt&e%i%3 T&ree centurie% later t&e re%ultin# %tructure . cla%%ical 2ec&anic% . continue% to 6e a u%eful 6ut no le%% ele#ant 2onu2ent to &i% #eniu%3 Li&e ' C(ara!ter ) I%aac Ne+ton +a% 6orn "re2aturel1 on C&ri%t2a% da1 )-*' ,* Januar1 )-*9 Ne+ St1le0 in Wool%t&or"e a &a2let near 8rant&a2 in :incoln%&ire3 T&e "o%t&u2ou% %on of an illiterate 1eo2an ,al%o na2ed I%aac0 t&e fat&erle%% infant +a% %2all enou#& at 6irt& to fit 5into a ;uart"ot35 W&en &e +a% 6arel1 t&ree 1ear% old Ne+ton5% 2ot&er <anna ,A1%cou#&0 "laced &er fir%t 6orn +it& &i% #rand2ot&er in order to re2arr1 and rai%e a %econd fa2il1 +it& =arna6a% S2it& a +ealt&1 rector fro2 near61 Nort& Wit&a23 >uc& &a% 6een 2ade of Ne+ton5% "o%t&u2ou% 6irt& &i% "rolon#ed %e"aration fro2 &i% 2ot&er and &i% unri$aled &atred of &i% %te"fat&er3 Until <anna returned to Wool%t&or"e in )-?9 after t&e deat& of &er %econd &u%6and Ne+ton +a% denied &i% 2ot&er5% attention a "o%%i6le clue to &i% co2"le@ c&aracter3 Ne+ton5% c&ild&ood +a% an1t&in# 6ut &a""1 and t&rou#&out &i% life &e $er#ed on e2otional colla"%e occa%ionall1 fallin# into $iolent and $indicti$e attac4% a#ain%t friend and foe ali4e3 Wit& &i% 2ot&er5% return to Wool%t&or"e in )-?9 Ne+ton +a% ta4en fro2 %c&ool to fulfill &i% 6irt&ri#&t a% a far2er3 <a""il1 &e failed in t&i% callin# and returned to 7in#5% Sc&ool at 8rant&a2 to "re"are for entrance to Trinit1 Colle#e Ca26rid#e3 Nu2erou% anecdote% %ur$i$e fro2 t&i% "eriod a6out Ne+ton5% a6%ent.2indedne%% a% a fled#in# far2er and &i% lac4lu%ter "erfor2ance a% a %tudent3 =ut t&e turnin# "oint in Ne+ton5% life ca2e in June )--) +&en &e left Wool%t&or"e for Ca26rid#e Uni$er%it13 <ere Ne+ton entered a ne+ +orld one &e could e$entuall1 call &i% o+n3 Alt&ou#& Ca26rid#e +a% an out%tandin# center of learnin# t&e %"irit of t&e %cientific re$olution &ad 1et to "enetrate it% ancient and %o2e+&at o%%ified curriculu23 :ittle i% 4no+n of Ne+ton5% for2al %tudie% a% an under#raduate 6ut &e li4el1 recei$ed lar#e do%e% of Ari%totle a% +ell a% ot&er cla%%ical aut&or%3 And 61 all a""earance% &i% acade2ic "erfor2ance +a% undi%tin#ui%&ed3 In )--* I%aac =arro+ :uca%ian Arofe%%or of >at&e2atic% at Ca26rid#e e@a2ined Ne+ton5% under%tandin# of Euclid and found it %orel1 lac4in#3 We no+ 4no+ t&at durin# &i% under#raduate 1ear% Ne+ton +a% dee"l1 en#ro%%ed in "ri$ate %tud1 t&at &e "ri$atel1 2a%tered t&e +or4% of RenB De%carte% Aierre 8a%%endi T&o2a% <o66e% and ot&er 2aCor fi#ure% of t&e %cientific re$olution3 A %erie% of e@tant note6oo4% %&o+% t&at 61 )--* Ne+ton &ad 6e#un to 2a%ter De%carte%5 Gomtrie and ot&er for2% of 2at&e2atic% far in ad$ance of Euclid5% Elements3 =arro+ &i2%elf a #ifted 2at&e2atician &ad 1et to a""reciate Ne+ton5% #eniu%3 In )--? Ne+ton too4 &i% 6ac&elor5% de#ree at Ca26rid#e +it&out &onor% or di%tinction3 Since t&e uni$er%it1 +a% clo%ed for t&e ne@t t+o 1ear% 6ecau%e of "la#ue Ne+ton returned to Wool%t&or"e in 2id1ear3 T&ere in t&e follo+in# )D 2ont&% &e 2ade a %erie% of ori#inal contri6ution% to %cience3 A% &e later recalled 5All t&i% +a% in t&e t+o "la#ue 1ear% of )--? and )--- for in t&o%e da1% I +a% in 21 "ri2e of a#e for in$ention and 2inded 2at&e2atic% and

"&ilo%o"&1 2ore t&an at an1 ti2e %ince35 In 2at&e2atic% Ne+ton concei$ed &i% 52et&od of flu@ion%5 ,infinite%i2al calculu%0 laid t&e foundation% for &i% t&eor1 of li#&t and color and ac&ie$ed %i#nificant in%i#&t into t&e "ro6le2 of "lanetar1 2otion in%i#&t% t&at e$entuall1 led to t&e "u6lication of &i% Principia ,)-D/03 In A"ril )--/ Ne+ton returned to Ca26rid#e and a#ain%t %tiff odd% +a% elected a 2inor fello+ at Trinit13 Succe%% follo+ed #ood fortune3 In t&e ne@t 1ear &e 6eca2e a %enior fello+ u"on ta4in# &i% 2a%ter of art% de#ree and in )--E 6efore &e &ad reac&ed &i% '/t& 6irt&da1 &e %ucceeded I%aac =arro+ a% :uca%ian Arofe%%or of >at&e2atic%3 T&e dutie% of t&i% a""oint2ent offered Ne+ton t&e o""ortunit1 to or#aniFe t&e re%ult% of &i% earlier o"tical re%earc&e% and in )-/' %&ortl1 after &i% election to t&e Ro1al Societ1 &e co22unicated &i% fir%t "u6lic "a"er a 6rilliant 6ut no le%% contro$er%ial %tud1 on t&e nature of color3 In t&e fir%t of a %erie% of 6itter di%"ute% Ne+ton loc4ed &orn% +it& t&e %ociet15% cele6rated curator of e@"eri2ent% t&e 6ri#&t 6ut 6rittle Ro6ert <oo4e3 T&e en%uin# contro$er%1 +&ic& continued until )-/D e%ta6li%&ed a "attern in Ne+ton5% 6e&a$ior3 After an initial %4ir2i%& &e ;uietl1 retreated3 Nonet&ele%% in )-/? Ne+ton $entured anot&er 1et anot&er "a"er +&ic& a#ain dre+ li#&tnin# t&i% ti2e c&ar#ed +it& clai2% t&at &e &ad "la#iariFed fro2 <oo4e3 T&e c&ar#e% +ere entirel1 un#rounded3 T+ice 6urned Ne+ton +it&dre+3 In )-/D Ne+ton %uffered a %eriou% e2otional 6rea4do+n and in t&e follo+in# 1ear &i% 2ot&er died3 Ne+ton5% re%"on%e +a% to cut off contact +it& ot&er% and en#ro%% &i2%elf in alc&e2ical re%earc&3 T&e%e %tudie% once an e26arra%%2ent to Ne+ton %c&olar% +ere not 2i%#uided 2u%in#% 6ut ri#orou% in$e%ti#ation% into t&e &idden force% of nature3 Ne+ton5% alc&e2ical %tudie% o"ened t&eoretical a$enue% not found in t&e 2ec&anical "&ilo%o"&1 t&e +orld $ie+ t&at %u%tained &i% earl1 +or43 W&ile t&e 2ec&anical "&ilo%o"&1 reduced all "&eno2ena to t&e i2"act of 2atter in 2otion t&e alc&e2ical tradition u"&eld t&e "o%%i6ilit1 of attraction and re"ul%ion at t&e "articulate le$el3 Ne+ton5% later in%i#&t% in cele%tial 2ec&anic% can 6e traced in "art to &i% alc&e2ical intere%t%3 =1 co26inin# action.at.a.di%tance and 2at&e2atic% Ne+ton tran%for2ed t&e 2ec&anical "&ilo%o"&1 61 addin# a 21%teriou% 6ut no le%% 2ea%ura6le ;uantit1 #ra$itational force3 In )--- a% tradition &a% it Ne+ton o6%er$ed t&e fall of an a""le in &i% #arden at Wool%t&or"e later recallin# 5In t&e %a2e 1ear I 6e#an to t&in4 of #ra$it1 e@tendin# to t&e or6 of t&e >oon35 Ne+ton5% 2e2or1 +a% not accurate3 In fact all e$idence %u##e%t% t&at t&e conce"t of uni$er%al #ra$itation did not %"rin# full.6lo+n fro2 Ne+ton5% &ead in )--- 6ut +a% nearl1 '( 1ear% in #e%tation3 Ironicall1 Ro6ert <oo4e &el"ed #i$e it life3 In No$e26er )-/E <oo4e initiated an e@c&an#e of letter% t&at 6ore on t&e ;ue%tion of "lanetar1 2otion3 Alt&ou#& Ne+ton &a%til1 6ro4e off t&e corre%"ondence <oo4e5% letter% "ro$ided a conce"tual lin4 6et+een central attraction and a force fallin# off +it& t&e %;uare of di%tance3 So2eti2e in earl1 )-D( Ne+ton a""ear% to &a$e ;uietl1 dra+n &i% o+n conclu%ion%3 >ean+&ile in t&e coffee&ou%e% of :ondon <oo4e Ed2und <alle1 and C&ri%to"&er Wren %tru##led un%ucce%%full1 +it& t&e "ro6le2 of "lanetar1 2otion3 Ginall1 in Au#u%t )-D* <alle1 "aid a le#endar1 $i%it to Ne+ton in Ca26rid#e &o"in# for an an%+er to &i% riddle: W&at t1"e of cur$e doe% a "lanet de%cri6e in it% or6it around t&e %un a%%u2in# an in$er%e %;uare la+ of attractionH W&en <alle1 "o%ed t&e ;ue%tion Ne+ton5% read1 re%"on%e +a% 5an elli"%e35 W&en a%4ed &o+ &e 4ne+ it +a% an elli"%e Ne+ton re"lied t&at &e &ad alread1 calculated it3 Alt&ou#& Ne+ton &ad "ri$atel1 an%+ered one of t&e riddle% of t&e uni$er%e..and &e alone "o%%e%%ed t&e 2at&e2atical a6ilit1 to do %o..&e &ad c&aracteri%ticall1 2i%"laced t&e calculation3 After furt&er di%cu%%ion &e "ro2i%ed to %end <alle1 a fre%& calculation fort&+it&3 In "artial fulfill2ent of &i% "ro2i%e Ne+ton "roduced &i% De Motu of )-D*3 Gro2 t&at %eed after nearl1 t+o 1ear% of inten%e

la6or t&e Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica a""eared3 Ar#ua6l1 it i% t&e 2o%t i2"ortant 6oo4 "u6li%&ed in t&e &i%tor1 of %cience3 =ut if t&e Principia +a% Ne+ton5% 6rainc&ild <oo4e and <alle1 +ere not&in# le%% t&an 2id+i$e%3 Alt&ou#& t&e Principia +a% +ell recei$ed it% future +a% ca%t in dou6t 6efore it a""eared3 <ere a#ain <oo4e +a% center %ta#e t&i% ti2e clai2in# ,not +it&out Cu%tification0 t&at &i% letter% of )-/E.)-D( earned &i2 a role in Ne+ton5% di%co$er13 =ut to no effect3 Ne+ton +a% %o furiou% +it& <oo4e t&at &e t&reatened to %u""re%% =oo4 III of t&e Principia alto#et&er finall1 denouncin# %cience a% 5an i2"ertinentl1 liti#iou% lad135 Ne+ton cal2ed do+n and finall1 con%ented to "u6lication3 =ut in%tead of ac4no+led#in# <oo4e5% contri6ution Ne+ton %1%te2aticall1 deleted e$er1 "o%%i6le 2ention of <oo4e5% na2e3 Ne+ton5% &atred for <oo4e +a% con%u2"ti$e3 Indeed Ne+ton later +it&&eld "u6lication of &i% Opticks ,)/(*0 and $irtuall1 +it&dre+ fro2 t&e Ro1al Societ1 until <oo4e5% deat& in )/(93 After "u6li%&in# t&e Principia Ne+ton 6eca2e 2ore in$ol$ed in "u6lic affair%3 In )-DE &e +a% elected to re"re%ent Ca26rid#e in Aarlia2ent and durin# &i% %ta1 in :ondon &e 6eca2e ac;uainted +it& Jo&n :oc4e t&e fa2ou% "&ilo%o"&er and Nicola% Gatio de Duillier a 6rilliant 1oun# 2at&e2atician +&o 6eca2e an inti2ate friend3 In )-E9 &o+e$er Ne+ton %uffered a %e$ere ner$ou% di%order not unli4e &i% 6rea4do+n of )-//.)-/D3 T&e cau%e i% o"en to inter"retation: o$er+or4I t&e %tre%% of contro$er%1I t&e une@"lained lo%% of friend%&i" +it& GatioI or "er&a"% c&ronic 2ercur1 "oi%onin# t&e re%ult of nearl1 t&ree decade% of alc&e2ical re%earc&3 Eac& factor 2a1 &a$e "la1ed a role3 We onl1 4no+ :oc4e and Sa2uel Ae"1% recei$ed %tran#e and %ee2in#l1 deran#ed letter% t&at "ro2"ted concern for Ne+ton5% 5di%co2"o%ure in &ead or 2ind or 6ot&35 W&ate$er t&e cau%e %&ortl1 after &i% reco$er1 Ne+ton %ou#&t a ne+ "o%ition in :ondon3 In )-E- +it& t&e &el" of C&arle% >onta#ue a fello+ of Trinit1 and later earl of <alifa@ Ne+ton +a% a""ointed Warden and t&en >a%ter of t&e >int3 <i% ne+ "o%ition "ro$ed 52o%t "ro"er 5 and &e left Ca26rid#e for :ondon +it&out re#ret3 Durin# &i% :ondon 1ear% Ne+ton enCo1ed "o+er and +orldl1 %ucce%%3 <i% "o%ition at t&e >int a%%ured a co2forta6le %ocial and econo2ic %tatu% and &e +a% an acti$e and a6le ad2ini%trator3 After t&e deat& of <oo4e in )/(9 Ne+ton +a% elected "re%ident of t&e Ro1al Societ1 and +a% annuall1 reelected until &i% deat&3 In )/(* &e "u6li%&ed &i% %econd 2aCor +or4 t&e Opticks 6a%ed lar#el1 on +or4 co2"leted decade% 6efore3 <e +a% 4ni#&ted in )/(?3 Alt&ou#& &i% creati$e 1ear% &ad "a%%ed Ne+ton continued to e@erci%e a "rofound influence on t&e de$elo"2ent of %cience3 In effect t&e Ro1al Societ1 +a% Ne+ton5% in%tru2ent and &e "la1ed it to &i% "er%onal ad$anta#e3 <i% tenure a% "re%ident &a% 6een de%cri6ed a% t1rannical and autocratic and &i% control o$er t&e li$e% and career% of 1oun#er di%ci"le% +a% all 6ut a6%olute3 Ne+ton could not a6ide contradiction or contro$er%1 . &i% ;uarrel% +it& <oo4e "ro$ide %in#ular e@a2"le%3 =ut in later di%"ute% a% "re%ident of t&e Ro1al Societ1 Ne+ton 2ar%&aled all t&e force% at &i% co22and3 Gor e@a2"le &e "u6li%&ed Gla2%teed5% a%trono2ical o6%er$ation% . t&e la6or of a lifeti2e . +it&out t&e aut&or5% "er2i%%ionI and in &i% "riorit1 di%"ute +it& :ei6niF concernin# t&e calculu% Ne+ton enli%ted 1oun#er 2en to fi#&t &i% +ar of +ord% +&ile 6e&ind t&e line% &e %ecretl1 directed c&ar#e and counterc&ar#e3 In t&e end t&e action% of t&e Societ1 +ere little 2ore t&an e@ten%ion% of Ne+ton5% +ill and until &i% deat& &e do2inated t&e land%ca"e of %cience +it&out ri$al3 <e died in :ondon on >arc& '( )/'/ ,>arc& 9) Ne+ St1le03

S!ienti&i! A!(ie*ement
Mathematics . T&e ori#in of Ne+ton5% intere%t in 2at&e2atic% can 6e traced to &i% under#raduate da1% at Ca26rid#e3 <ere Ne+ton 6eca2e ac;uainted +it& a nu26er of conte2"orar1 +or4% includin# an edition of De%carte% Gomtrie Jo&n Walli%5 Arithmetica infinitorum and ot&er +or4% 61 "ro2inent 2at&e2atician%3 =ut 6et+een )--* and &i% return to Ca26rid#e after t&e "la#ue Ne+ton 2ade funda2ental contri6ution% to anal1tic #eo2etr1 al#e6ra and calculu%3 S"ecificall1 &e di%co$ered t&e 6ino2ial t&eore2 ne+ 2et&od% for e@"an%ion of infinite %erie% and &i% 5direct and in$er%e 2et&od of flu@ion%35 A% t&e ter2 i2"lie% flu@ional calculu% i% a 2et&od for treatin# c&an#in# or flo+in# ;uantitie%3 <ence a 5flu@ion5 re"re%ent% t&e rate of c&an#e of a 5fluent5..a continuou%l1 c&an#in# or flo+in# ;uantit1 %uc& a% di%tance area or len#t&3 In e%%ence flu@ion% +ere t&e fir%t +ord% in a ne+ lan#ua#e of "&1%ic%3 Ne+ton5% creati$e 1ear% in 2at&e2atic% e@tended fro2 )--* to rou#&l1 t&e %"rin# of )-E-3 Alt&ou#& &i% "redece%%or% &ad antici"ated $ariou% ele2ent% of t&e calculu% Ne+ton #eneraliFed and inte#rated t&e%e in%i#&t% +&ile de$elo"in# ne+ and 2ore ri#orou% 2et&od%3 T&e e%%ential ele2ent% of &i% t&ou#&t +ere "re%ented in t&ree tract% t&e fir%t a""earin# in a "ri$atel1 circulated treati%e De analysi ,On Analysis0 +&ic& +ent un"u6li%&ed until )/))3 In )-/) Ne+ton de$elo"ed a 2ore co2"lete account of &i% 2et&od of infinite%i2al% +&ic& a""eared nine 1ear% after &i% deat& a% Methodus fluxionum et serierum infinitarum (The Method of luxions and !nfinite "eries )/9-03 In addition to t&e%e +or4% Ne+ton +rote four %2aller tract% t+o of +&ic& +ere a""ended to &i% Opticks of )/(*3 Ne+ton and :ei6niF3 Ne@t to it% 6rilliance t&e 2o%t c&aracteri%tic feature of Ne+ton5% 2at&e2atical career +a% dela1ed "u6lication3 Ne+ton5% "riorit1 di%"ute +it& :ei6niF i% a cele6rated 6ut un&a""1 e@a2"le3 8ottfried Wil&el2 :ei6niF Ne+ton5% 2o%t ca"a6le ad$er%ar1 6e#an "u6li%&in# "a"er% on calculu% in )-D* al2o%t '( 1ear% after Ne+ton5% di%co$erie% co22enced3 T&e re%ult of t&i% te2"oral di%cre"anc1 +a% a 6itter di%"ute t&at ra#ed for nearl1 t+o decade%3 T&e ordeal 6e#an +it& ru2or% t&at :ei6niF &ad 6orro+ed idea% fro2 Ne+ton and ru%&ed t&e2 into "rint3 It ended +it& c&ar#e% of di%&one%t1 and outri#&t "la#iari%23 T&e Ne+ton.:ei6niF "riorit1 di%"ute..+&ic& e$entuall1 e@tended into "&ilo%o"&ical area% concernin# t&e nature of 8od and t&e uni$er%e..ulti2atel1 turned on t&e a26i#uit1 of "riorit13 It i% no+ #enerall1 a#reed t&at Ne+ton and :ei6niF eac& de$elo"ed t&e calculu% inde"endentl1 and &ence t&e1 are con%idered co.di%co$erer%3 =ut +&ile Ne+ton +a% t&e fir%t to concei$e and de$elo" &i% 2et&od of flu@ion% :ei6niF +a% t&e fir%t to "u6li%& &i% inde"endent re%ult%3 Optics. Ne+ton5% o"tical re%earc& li4e &i% 2at&e2atical in$e%ti#ation% 6e#an durin# &i% under#raduate 1ear% at Ca26rid#e3 =ut unli4e &i% 2at&e2atical +or4 Ne+ton5% %tudie% in o"tic% ;uic4l1 6eca2e "u6lic3 S&ortl1 after &i% election to t&e Ro1al Societ1 in )-/) Ne+ton "u6li%&ed &i% fir%t "a"er in t&e Philosophical Transactions of the #oyal "ociety3 T&i% "a"er and ot&er% t&at follo+ed dre+ on &i% under#raduate re%earc&e% a% +ell a% &i% :uca%ian lecture% at Ca26rid#e3 In )--?.)--- Ne+ton "erfor2ed a nu26er of e@"eri2ent% on t&e co2"o%ition of li#&t3 8uided initiall1 61 t&e +ritin#% of 7e"ler and De%carte% Ne+ton5% 2ain di%co$er1 +a% t&at $i%i6le ,+&ite0 li#&t i% &etero#eneou%..t&at i% +&ite li#&t i% co2"o%ed of color% t&at can 6e con%idered "ri2ar13 T&rou#& a 6rilliant %erie% of e@"eri2ent% Ne+ton de2on%trated t&at "ri%2% %e"arate rat&er t&an 2odif1 +&ite li#&t3 Contrar1 to t&e t&eorie% of Ari%totle and ot&er ancient% Ne+ton &eld t&at +&ite li#&t i% %econdar1 and &etero#eneou% +&ile t&e %e"arate color% are "ri2ar1 and &o2o#eneou%3 Of "er&a"% e;ual i2"ortance Ne+ton al%o de2on%trated t&at t&e color% of t&e %"ectru2 once t&ou#&t to 6e ;ualitie% corre%"ond to an o6%er$ed and ;uantifia6le 5de#ree of Refran#i6ilit135

T&e Crucial E@"eri2ent3 Ne+ton5% 2o%t fa2ou% e@"eri2ent t&e experimentum crucis de2on%trated &i% t&eor1 of t&e co2"o%ition of li#&t3 =riefl1 in a dar4 roo2 Ne+ton allo+ed a narro+ 6ea2 of %unli#&t to "a%% fro2 a %2all &ole in a +indo+ %&utter t&rou#& a "ri%2 t&u% 6rea4in# t&e +&ite li#&t into an o6lon# %"ectru2 on a 6oard3 T&en t&rou#& a %2all a"erture in t&e 6oard Ne+ton %elected a #i$en color ,for e@a2"le red0 to "a%% t&rou#& 1et anot&er a"erture to a %econd "ri%2 t&rou#& +&ic& it +a% refracted onto a %econd 6oard3 W&at 6e#an a% ordinar1 +&ite li#&t +a% t&u% di%"er%ed t&rou#& t+o "ri%2%3 Ne+ton5% 5crucial e@"eri2ent5 de2on%trated t&at a %elected color lea$in# t&e fir%t "ri%2 could not 6e %e"arated furt&er 61 t&e %econd "ri%23 T&e %elected 6ea2 re2ained t&e %a2e color and it% an#le of refraction +a% con%tant t&rou#&out3 Ne+ton concluded t&at +&ite li#&t i% a 5<etero#eneou% 2i@ture of differentl1 refran#i6le Ra1%5 and t&at color% of t&e %"ectru2 cannot t&e2%el$e% 6e indi$iduall1 2odified 6ut are 5Ori#inal and connate "ro"ertie%35 Ne+ton "ro6a6l1 conducted a nu26er of &i% "ri%2 e@"eri2ent% at Ca26rid#e 6efore t&e "la#ue forced &i2 to return to Wool%t&or"e3 <i% :uca%ian lecture% later "u6li%&ed in "art a% Optical $ectures ,)/'D0 %u""le2ent ot&er re%earc&e% "u6li%&ed in t&e Societ15% Tran%action% datin# fro2 Ge6ruar1 )-/'3 T&e O"tic4%3 T&e Opticks of )/(* +&ic& fir%t a""eared in En#li%& i% Ne+ton5% 2o%t co2"re&en%i$e and readil1 acce%%i6le +or4 on li#&t and color3 In Ne+ton5% +ord% t&e "ur"o%e of t&e Opticks +a% 5not to e@"lain t&e Aro"ertie% of :i#&t 61 <1"ot&e%e% 6ut to "ro"o%e and "ro$e t&e2 61 Rea%on and E@"eri2ent%35 Di$ided into t&ree 6oo4% t&e Opticks 2o$e% fro2 definition% a@io2% "ro"o%ition% and t&eore2% to "roof 61 e@"eri2ent3 A %u6tle 6lend of 2at&e2atical rea%onin# and careful o6%er$ation t&e Opticks 6eca2e t&e 2odel for e@"eri2ental "&1%ic% in t&e )Dt& centur13 T&e Cor"u%cular T&eor13 =ut t&e Opticks contained 2ore t&an e@"eri2ental re%ult%3 Durin# t&e )/t& centur1 it +a% +idel1 &eld t&at li#&t li4e %ound con%i%ted of a +a$e or undulator1 2otion and Ne+ton5% 2aCor critic% in t&e field of o"tic%..Ro6ert <oo4e and C&ri%tiaan <u1#en%..+ere articulate %"o4e%2en for t&i% t&eor13 =ut Ne+ton di%a#reed3 Alt&ou#& &i% $ie+% e$ol$ed o$er ti2e Ne+ton5% t&eor1 of li#&t +a% e%%entiall1 cor"u%cular or "articulate3 In effect %ince li#&t ,unli4e %ound0 tra$el% in %trai#&t line% and ca%t% a %&ar" %&ado+ Ne+ton %u##e%ted t&at li#&t +a% co2"o%ed of di%crete "article% 2o$in# in %trai#&t line% in t&e 2anner of inertial 6odie%3 Gurt&er %ince e@"eri2ent &ad %&o+n t&at t&e "ro"ertie% of t&e %e"arate color% of li#&t +ere con%tant and unc&an#in# %o too Ne+ton rea%oned +a% t&e %tuff of li#&t it%elf.. "article%3 At $ariou% "oint% in &i% career Ne+ton in effect co26ined t&e "article and +a$e t&eorie% of li#&t3 In &i% earlie%t di%"ute +it& <oo4e and a#ain in &i% Opticks of )/)/ Ne+ton con%idered t&e "o%%i6ilit1 of an et&ereal %u6%tance..an all."er$a%i$e ela%tic 2aterial 2ore %u6tle t&an air.. t&at +ould "ro$ide a 2ediu2 for t&e "ro"a#ation of +a$e% or $i6ration%3 Gro2 t&e out%et Ne+ton reCected t&e 6a%ic +a$e 2odel% of <oo4e and <u1#en% "er&a"% 6ecau%e t&e1 o$erloo4ed t&e %u6tlet1 of "eriodicit13 T&e ;ue%tion of "eriodicit1 aro%e +it& t&e "&eno2enon 4no+n a% 5Ne+ton5% rin#%35 In 6oo4 II of t&e Opticks Ne+ton de%cri6e% a %erie% of e@"eri2ent% concernin# t&e color% of t&in fil2%3 <i% 2o%t re2ar4a6le o6%er$ation +a% t&at li#&t "a%%in# t&rou#& a con$e@ len% "re%%ed a#ain%t a flat #la%% "late "roduce% concentric colored rin#% ,Ne+ton5% rin#%0 +it& alternatin# dar4 rin#%3 Ne+ton atte2"ted to e@"lain t&i% "&eno2enon 61 e2"lo1in# t&e "article t&eor1 in conCunction +it& &i% &1"ot&e%i% of 5fit% of ea%1 tran%2i%%ion JrefractionK and reflection35 After 2a4in# careful 2ea%ure2ent% Ne+ton found t&at t&e t&ic4ne%% of t&e fil2 of air 6et+een t&e len% ,of a #i$en cur$ature0 and t&e #la%% corre%"onded to t&e %"acin# of t&e rin#%3 If dar4 rin#%

occurred at t&ic4ne%%e% of ( ' * -333 t&en t&e colored rin#% corre%"onded to an odd nu26er "ro#re%%ion ) 9 ? / 3333 Alt&ou#& Ne+ton did not %"eculate on t&e cau%e of t&i% "eriodicit1 &i% initial a%%ociation of 5Ne+ton5% rin#%5 +it& $i6ration% in a 2ediu2 %u##e%t% &i% +illin#ne%% to 2odif1 6ut not a6andon t&e "article t&eor13 T&e Opticks +a% Ne+ton5% 2o%t +idel1 read +or43 Gollo+in# t&e fir%t edition :atin $er%ion% a""eared in )/(- and )/)E and %econd and t&ird En#li%& edition% in )/)/ and )/')3 Aer&a"% t&e 2o%t "ro$ocati$e "art of t&e Opticks i% t&e %ection 4no+n a% t&e 5Luerie% 5 +&ic& Ne+ton "laced at t&e end of t&e 6oo43 <ere &e "o%ed ;ue%tion% and $entured o"inion% on t&e nature of li#&t 2atter and t&e force% of nature3 >ec&anic%3 Ne+ton5% re%earc& in d1na2ic% fall% into t&ree 2aCor "eriod%: t&e "la#ue 1ear% )--*.)--- t&e in$e%ti#ation% of )-/E.)-D( follo+in# <oo4e5% corre%"ondence and t&e "eriod )-D*.)-D/ follo+in# <alle15% $i%it to Ca26rid#e3 T&e #radual e$olution of Ne+ton5% t&ou#&t o$er t&e%e t+o decade% illu%trate% t&e co2"le@it1 of &i% ac&ie$e2ent a% +ell a% t&e "rolon#ed c&aracter of %cientific 5di%co$er135 W&ile t&e 21t& of Ne+ton and t&e a""le 2a16e true t&e traditional account of Ne+ton and #ra$it1 i% not3 To 6e %ure Ne+ton5% earl1 t&ou#&t% on #ra$it1 6e#an in Wool%t&or"e 6ut at t&e ti2e of &i% fa2ou% 52oon te%t5 Ne+ton &ad 1et to arri$e at t&e conce"t of #ra$itational attraction3 Earl1 2anu%cri"t% %u##e%t t&at in t&e 2id.)--(5% Ne+ton did not t&in4 in ter2% of t&e 2oon5% central attraction to+ard t&e eart& 6ut rat&er of t&e 2oon5% centrifu#al tendenc1 to recede3 Under t&e influence of t&e 2ec&anical "&ilo%o"&1 Ne+ton &ad 1et to con%ider t&e "o%%i6ilit1 of action. at.a.di%tanceI nor +a% &e a+are of 7e"ler5% fir%t t+o "lanetar1 &1"ot&e%e%3 Gor &i%torical "&ilo%o"&ical and 2at&e2atical rea%on% Ne+ton a%%u2ed t&e 2oon5% centrifu#al 5endea$our5 to 6e e;ual and o""o%ite to %o2e un4no+n 2ec&anical con%traint3 Gor t&e %a2e rea%on% &e al%o a%%u2ed a circular or6it and an in$er%e %;uare relation3 T&e latter +a% deri$ed fro2 7e"ler5% t&ird &1"ot&e%i% ,t&e %;uare of a "lanet5% or6ital "eriod i% "ro"ortional to t&e cu6e of it% 2ean di%tance fro2 t&e %un0 t&e for2ula for centrifu#al force ,t&e centrifu#al force on a re$ol$in# 6od1 i% "ro"ortional to t&e %;uare of it% $elocit1 and in$er%el1 "ro"ortional to t&e radiu% of it% or6it0 and t&e a%%u2"tion of circular or6it%3 T&e ne@t %te" +a% to te%t t&e in$er%e %;uare relation a#ain%t e2"irical data3 To do t&i% Ne+ton in effect co2"ared t&e re%traint on t&e 2oon5% 5endea$our5 to recede +it& t&e o6%er$ed rate of acceleration of fallin# o6Cect% on eart&3 T&e "ro6le2 +a% to o6tain accurate data3 A%%u2in# 8alileo5% e%ti2ate t&at t&e 2oon i% -( eart& radii fro2 t&e eart& t&e re%traint on t&e 2oon %&ould &a$e 6een )M9-(( ,)M-( '0 of t&e #ra$itational acceleration on eart&3 =ut Ne+ton5% e%ti2ate of t&e %iFe of t&e eart& +a% too lo+ and &i% calculation %&o+ed t&e effect on t&e 2oon to 6e a6out )M*((( of t&at on eart&3 A% Ne+ton later de%cri6ed it t&e 2oon te%t an%+ered 5"rett1 nearl135 =ut t&e fi#ure% for t&e 2oon +ere not e@act and Ne+ton a6andoned t&e "ro6le23 In late )-/E and earl1 )-D( an e@c&an#e of letter% +it& <oo4e rene+ed Ne+ton5% intere%t3 In No$e26er )-/E nearl1 )? 1ear% after t&e 2oon te%t <oo4e +rote Ne+ton concernin# a &1"ot&e%i% "re%ented in &i% Attempt to Pro%e the Motion of the Earth ,)-/*03 <ere <oo4e "ro"o%ed t&at "lanetar1 or6it% re%ult fro2 a tan#ential 2otion and 5an attracti$e 2otion to+ard% t&e centrall 6od135 In later letter% <oo4e furt&er %"ecified a central attractin# force t&at fell off +it& t&e %;uare of di%tance3 A% a re%ult of t&i% e@c&an#e Ne+ton reCected &i% earlier notion of centrifu#al tendencie% in fa$or of central attraction3 <oo4e5% letter% "ro$ided crucial in%i#&t3 =ut in retro%"ect if <oo4e5% intuiti$e "o+er %ee2% un"aralleled it ne$er a""roac&ed Ne+ton5% 2at&e2atical "o+er in "rinci"le or in "ractice3 W&en <alle1 $i%ited Ca26rid#e in )-D* Ne+ton &ad alread1 de2on%trated t&e relation 6et+een an in$er%e %;uare attraction and elli"tical or6it%3 To <alle15% 5Co1 and a2aFe2ent 5

Ne+ton a""arentl1 %ucceeded +&ere &e and ot&er% failed3 Wit& t&i% <alle15% role %&ifted and &e "roceeded to #uide Ne+ton to+ard "u6lication3 <alle1 "er%onall1 financed t&e Principia and %a+ it t&rou#& t&e "re%% to "u6lication in Jul1 )-D/3 The Principia. Ne+ton5% 2a%ter"iece i% di$ided into t&ree 6oo4%3 =oo4 I of t&e Principia 6e#in% +it& ei#&t definition% and t&ree a@io2% t&e latter no+ 4no+n a% Ne+ton5% la+% of 2otion3 No di%cu%%ion of Ne+ton +ould 6e co2"lete +it&out t&e2: ,)0 E$er1 6od1 continue% in it% %tate of re%t or unifor2 2otion in a %trai#&t line unle%% it i% co2"elled to c&an#e t&at %tate 61 force% i2"re%%ed on it ,inertia03 ,'0 T&e c&an#e in 2otion i% "ro"ortional to t&e 2oti$e force i2"re%%ed and i% 2ade in t&e direction of t&e %trai#&t line in +&ic& t&at force i% i2"re%%ed ,G N 2a03 ,90 To e$er1 action t&ere i% al+a1% an o""o%ed and e;ual reaction3 Gollo+in# t&e%e a@io2% Ne+ton "roceed% %te" 61 %te" +it& "ro"o%ition% t&eore2% and "ro6le2%3 In =oo4 II of t&e Principia Ne+ton treat% t&e >otion of 6odie% t&rou#& re%i%tin# 2ediu2% a% +ell a% t&e 2otion of fluid% t&e2%el$e%3 Since =oo4 II +a% not "art of Ne+ton5% initial outline it &a% traditionall1 %ee2ed %o2e+&at out of "lace3 Nonet&ele%% it i% note+ort&1 t&at near t&e end of =oo4 II ,Section IO0 Ne+ton de2on%trate% t&at t&e $ortice% in$o4ed 61 De%carte% to e@"lain "lanetar1 2otion could not 6e %elf.%u%tainin#I nor +a% t&e $orte@ t&eor1 con%i%tent +it& 7e"ler5% t&ree "lanetar1 rule%3 T&e "ur"o%e of =oo4 II t&en 6eco2e% clear3 After di%creditin# De%carte%5 %1%te2 Ne+ton conclude%: 5<o+ t&e%e 2otion% are "erfor2ed in free %"ace +it&out $ortice% 2a1 6e under%tood 61 t&e fir%t 6oo4I and I %&all no+ 2ore full1 treat of it in t&e follo+in# 6oo435 In =oo4 III %u6titled t&e "ystem of the &orld Ne+ton e@tended &i% t&ree la+% of 2otion to t&e fra2e of t&e +orld finall1 de2on%tratin# 5t&at t&ere i% a "o+er of #ra$it1 tendin# to all 6odie% "ro"ortional to t&e %e$eral ;uantitie% of 2atter +&ic& t&e1 contain35 Ne+ton5% la+ of uni$er%al #ra$itation %tate% t&at G N 8 >2MR'I t&at i% t&at all 2atter i% 2utuall1 attracted +it& a force ,G0 "ro"ortional to t&e "roduct of t&eir 2a%%e% ,>20 and in$er%el1 "ro"ortional to t&e %;uare of di%tance ,R'0 6et+een t&e23 8 i% a con%tant +&o%e $alue de"end% on t&e unit% u%ed for 2a%% and di%tance3 To de2on%trate t&e "o+er of &i% t&eor1 Ne+ton u%ed #ra$itational attraction to e@"lain t&e 2otion of t&e "lanet% and t&eir 2oon% t&e "rece%%ion of e;uino@e% t&e action of t&e tide% and t&e 2otion of co2et%3 In %u2 Ne+ton5% uni$er%e united &ea$en and eart& +it& a %in#le %et of la+%3 It 6eca2e t&e "&1%ical and intellectual foundation of t&e 2odern +orld $ie+3 Aer&a"% t&e 2o%t "o+erful and influential %cientific treati%e e$er "u6li%&ed t&e Principia a""eared in t+o furt&er edition% durin# Ne+ton5% lifeti2e in )/)9 and )/'-3 Other Researches3 T&rou#&out &i% career Ne+ton conducted re%earc& in t&eolo#1 and &i%tor1 +it& t&e %a2e "a%%ion t&at &e "ur%ued alc&e21 and %cience3 Alt&ou#& %o2e &i%torian% &a$e ne#lected Ne+ton5% non%cientific +ritin#% t&ere i% little dou6t of &i% de$otion to t&e%e %u6Cect% a% &i% 2anu%cri"t% a2"l1 atte%t3 Ne+ton5% +ritin#% on t&eolo#ical and 6i6lical %u6Cect% alone a2ount to a6out )39 2illion +ord% t&e e;ui$alent of '( of toda15% %tandard len#t& 6oo4%3 Alt&ou#& t&e%e +ritin#% %a1 little a6out Ne+tonian %cience t&e1 tell u% a #ood deal a6out I%aac Ne+ton3 Ne+ton5% final #e%ture 6efore deat& +a% to refu%e t&e %acra2ent a deci%ion of %o2e con%e;uence in t&e )Dt& centur13 Alt&ou#& Ne+ton +a% dutifull1 rai%ed in t&e Arote%tant tradition &i% 2ature $ie+% on t&eolo#1 +ere neit&er Arote%tant traditional nor ort&odo@3 In t&e "ri$ac1 of &i% t&ou#&t% and +ritin#% Ne+ton reCected a &o%t of doctrine% &e con%idered 21%tical irrational or %u"er%titiou%3 In a +ord &e +a% a Unitarian3 Ne+ton5% re%earc& out%ide of %cience..in t&eolo#1 "ro"&ec1 and &i%tor1..+a% a ;ue%t for co&erence and unit13 <i% "a%%ion +a% to unite 4no+led#e and 6elief to reconcile t&e =oo4 of Nature +it& t&e =oo4 of Scri"ture3

Bi+,i$-ra.(/
)3 Co&en I3 =ernard The Ne'tonian #e%olution ,Ca26rid#e )ED(03 '3 Do66% =ett1 J3 The oundation of Ne'ton(s Alchemy) The *untin+ of the Greene $yon ,Ca26rid#e )E/?03 93 <all A3R3 Philosophers at &ar) The ,uarrel -et'een Ne'ton and $ei.ni/ ,Ca26rid#e )ED(03 *3 <eri$el Jo&n The -ack+round to Ne'ton(s Principia ,O@ford )E-?03 ?3 7o1rB Ale@andre Ne'tonian "tudies ,<ar$ard U3 Are%%)E-?03 -3 >anuel Gran4 E3 A Portrait of !saac Ne'ton ,<ar$ard U3 Are%% )E-D03 /3 >anuel Gran4 E3 The #eli+ion of !saac Ne'ton ,O@ford )E/*03 D3 We%tfall Ric&ard S3 The 0onstruction of Modem "cience) Mechanisms and Mechanics ,Wille1 )E/)I CUA03 E3 We%tfall Ric&ard S3 Ne%er at #est) A -io+raphy of !saac Ne'ton ,Ca26rid#e )ED(03