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COMMON COMMODITII

*
\<D

AND INDUSTRIES

loo

TPlIMf

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TC Par.

THE RAW MATERIALS OF PERFUMERY

COMMON COMMODITIES
AND INDUSTRIES
Each book
in

SERIES
3
-

crown 8vo,

cloth, with

many

illustrations, charts, etc.,

net

TEA. By A. IBBETSON COFFEE. By B. B. KEABLE SUGAR. By GEO. MARTINEAU, C.B. OILS. By C. AINSWORTH MITCHELL,
B.A., F.I.C.

ZINC.
B.Sc.

By T.

E. LONES, M.A., LL.D.,

PHOTOGRAPHY. By WM. GAMBLE. ASBESTOS. By A. LEONARD


SUMMERS

WHEAT.

By ANDREW MILLAR RUBBER. By C. BEADLE and H.


STEVENS, M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C.

P.

By BENJAMIN WHITE CARPETS. By REGINALD S. BRINTON PAINTS AND VARNISHES. By


SILVER.

A. S. JENNINGS IRON AND STEEL. By C, HOOD CORDAGE AND CORDAGE HEMP COPPER. By H. K. PICARD AND FIBRES. By T. WOODHOUSE COAL. By FRANCIS H. WILSON, and P. KILGOUR M.Inst., M.E. ACIDS AND ALKALIS. By G. H. J. TIMBER. By W. BULLOCK ADLAM COTTON. By R. J. PEAKE ELECTRICITY. By R. E. NEALE, SILK By LUTHER HOOPER B.Sc., Hons. WOOL. By J. A. HUNTER G. ALUMINIUM. By Captain MORTIMER LINEN. By ALFRED S. MOORE GOLD. By BENJAMIN WHITE. TOBACCO. By A. E. TANNER BUTTER AND CHEESE. By C. LEATHER. By K. J. ADCOCK W. WALKER-TISDALE and JEAN KNITTED FABRICS. By J. CHAMJONES.

BERLAIN and

J.

H. QUILTER

By ALFRED B. SEARLE PAPER. By HARRY A. MADDOX SOAP. By WILLIAM A. SIMMONS,


CLAYS.
B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S.

THE BRITISH CORN TRADE. By


A. BARKER.

THE

MOTOR

.INDUSTRY.

HORACE WYATT, B.A. GLASS AND GLASS MAKING. PERCIVAL MARSON

By

LEAD. By J. A. SMYTHE, D.Sc. ENGRAVING. By T. W. LASCELLES. STONES AND QUARRD3S. By J. ALLEN HOWE, O.B.E., B.Sc.,
M.I.M.M.

By
J.

EXPLOSIVES. By
B.Sc., F.I.C.

S. I.

LEVY, B.A.,

THE CLOTHING INDUSTRY. By B. W. POOLE, M.U.K.A. THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY. TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, AND By J. S. HARDING WIRELESS. By J. POOLE, GAS AND GAS MAKING. By A.M.I. E.E. W. H. Y. WEBBER PERFUMERY. By E. J. PARRY. FURNITURE. By H. E. BINSTEAD THE ELECTRIC LAMP INDUSTRY.
COAL TAR. By A. R. WARNES PETROLEUM. By A. LIDGETT SALT. By A. F. CALVERT
By
ICE
G. ARNCLIFFE PERCIVAL.

GUMS

.AND .RESINS. By E. PARRY, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.

AND COLD STORAGE. By B.

H.

SPRINGETT.

OTHERS IN PREPARATION

PITMAN'S

COMMON COMMODITIES AND INDUSTRIES


THE

RAW MATERIALS
OF PERFUMERY
THEIR NATURE, OCCURRENCE AND

EMPLOYMENT
BY

ERNEST J^'PARRY
B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.

W
tt

Vu

LONDON
ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD. PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C.2 BATH, MELBOURNE, TORONTO, NEW YORK
SIR

PRINTED BY
SIR ISAAC PITMAN

&

SONS, LTD.

BATH, ENGLAND

PREFACE
THIS
little

work

is

intended to

deal

with

the raw

materials employed in the manufacture of perfumes.

The whole

art of

perfumery has been so revolutionized


that a popular

by

the

aid of

Synthetic Chemistry

account of this particular branch of perfumery

may

be found of

interest.

E. J. P.

CONTENTS
CHAP.

PREFACE
I.

INTRODUCTORY

.... ....
IN

PAGE

V
1

II.

PERFUME MATERIALS

GENERAL

III.

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS

IV.

ANIMAL PERFUMES
ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES

63
82
Ill

V.

INDEX

ILLUSTRATIONS
CARTING LAVENDER FLOWERS
FIG.
. .

Frontispiece
PAGE

2.

AN OLD STILL HOUSE


CUTTING LAVENDER

3.
4.
5.

LAVENDER STILL

.11 .13 .17


.

NATIVE DISTILLERY OF OTTO OF ROSE

23

6.

POMADE MANUFACTURE
AGITATORS

.39
FROM
41

7.

FOR

EXTRACTING

PERFUMES

POMADES
8.

HYACINTHS

READY

FOR

MANUFACTURE

OF
43

CONCRETE
9.

MYROXYLON^ PEREIRAE
VANILLA
CIVET CAT
.
.

55

10. 11.
12.

MUSK DEER

....... ...
.
. . . . . .

.59
65

.76
77

13.

MUSK POD

THE RAW MATERIALS


OF PERFUMERY
CHAPTER
I

INTRODUCTORY

PERFUMERY, as known to most people, is an art but as known to the expert perfumer, it has become elevated,
;

if

not to the level of a science, at least to the level of a scientific art.

For, in the modern developments of the art of perfumery, the very highest branches of chemical research
in, and it is no exaggeration to say that the last thirty or forty years of organic chemical research have entirely revolutionized the" old conceptions of the art of Perfumery. This will, however, be developed in a later chapter,

have been called

especially

perfumes.

when we come to consider the synthetic The use of perfumes goes back to very

and entered into the mystic rites of nearly every form of religious worship. Thus we read of their use on the altars of Zoroaster, and in the rites of the followers of Confucius they were used in the Temple of Memphis as well as in those of Jerusalem. It has, indeed, been said that the history of Perfumes A good is, in some sort, the history of civilization. sized volume would be necessary to deal with the historical aspect of the subject, so that it will here only be possible to pass under rapid review and in bare outline a few aspects of the antiquity of the subject. In Egypt, that most ancient of civilizations, perfumes were well known at a very early date. In the
distant ages,
:

PERFUMERY

reign of Cheops, the builder of the great pyramid, we read of their use in funeral and religious ceremonies,

and we

all

his brethren

remember that when Joseph was sold by he was taken by merchants carrying spices

and perfumes into Egypt.


a

De Rouge

has translated

called Pen-ta-our found engraved on one of the walls of Karnak, in which Rameses II, who was

poem

Ammon

anterior to the Exodus, is made to exhort the to give him the victory in battle, saying

god
"
I

have enriched thy domain and I have sacrificed thirty thousand oxen to thee, with all the sweet smelling herbs and the finest perfumes." Many other examples of the repute in which perfumes were held by the Egyptians might be quoted, but the above must suffice
for our purpose.

The Hebrews before their captivity in Egypt were a pastoral people, who were more or less free from luxurious tastes, and knew little about perfumes, and cared less. When they left Egypt, however,
they took away with them many of the arts cultivated by their captors, amongst which was the
indulgence in perfumes.

But although the Hebrews

in the early days neither used perfumes in their religious ceremonies, nor on their persons, they must have

known of the commercial value of such substances, because in the 1644 edition of the Bible (Diodati) we " are told that Joseph was sold by his brethren to a
company
their
of Ishmaelites

who came from Galaad

and

camels were laden with precious drugs, and ladanum resin, which they were carrying to Egypt to sell." The building of the altar upon which Aaron was
to burn perfumes, after the return from captivity is too well known to need description, and the books of Exodus and Numbers will furnish many examples of

the

Hebrew use

of

perfumes for

ritualistic purposes,

INTRODUCTORY
and

in the Book of Proverbs we find the personal use accentuated in such verses as "I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes and cassia." And if the history of almost any of the older Asiatic nations be studied, it will be found that almost every one of them was well acquainted with the use of perfumes, either for ceremonial or personal purposes,

more often

for both.

When we

turn to the luxurious civilizations of the

Greeks and Romans, we meet with the use of perfumes on every side. Let us take just one or two examples of their knowledge of the Art, and we can then pass on to the real purport of this little work. Apollonius, in a work which he wrote, entitled A Treatise on Perfumes, thus speaks of the principal perfumes in use amongst
the Greeks.
extract
of

The best orris comes from Elis or Cyzique; from Phaselis, Naples and Capua saffron from Sicily and Rhodes. The finest essence of nard is made at Tarsus, and extract of vine leaves at Chypre and Adramyttium. The perfume of marjoram and the apple blossom comes from Cos. Egypt is celebrated for its essence of Chypre, and those from Phoenicia and Sidon are the. next best." And so we might go on indefinitely. We cannot
roses

"

read a Greek or Latin poet nor even a historian without continually coming across references to the use and abuse of perfumes, and, if our readers wish to see to what an extent the use of perfumes became a " fine " art under the luxurious Greek and Roman civilizations, they may read with advantage, such articles as " " that on Baths in Smith's classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Having touched upon the antiquity of the Art of

Perfumery, we may now proceed to deal with modern perfumery and perfume materials.

CHAPTER
PERFUME MATERIALS

II

IN

GENERAL

of raw materials used the manufacture of their products, that it will here be possible only to deal with them in classes, with a special examination of a very few of the most important. In order to combine these substances so that the result may be a successful perfume, it is not only necessary for the perfumer to have a very con-

THERE

are so

many hundreds

by perfumers

in

siderable practical knowledge, which is gained only by long experience, but, if the best results are to be achieved, he must have some scientific knowledge of the chemical characteristics of the various constituents of his raw materials, so that he may not blend together .antipathetic substances, but may be sure that his perfume
so to speak, harmonious and free from discords. Broadly speaking he has the following groups of bodies from which he may draw for the manufacture of his wares
is,

1.

2.

Materials of purely vegetable origin. Materials of purely animal origin.

3. Artificial substances, which are either simple substances synthesized by chemical processes, or may be mixtures of such substances with some constituents of

a natural perfume material. All these substances are of the highest importance to the perfumer, and although forty years or so ago, he had only classes (1) and (2) to rely on, it is not an
exaggeration to say that to-day many of the articles embraced by class (3) are absolutely essential to the successful modern perfumer.
4

PERFUME MATERIALS

IN

GENERAL

will now briefly examine the characters of the three categories of substances just enumerated. It is correct, within narrow limits, to say that vegetable " essential perfume materials consist in the main of " oils." oils "or as they are often termed volatile
It is true that

We

they are not always used in the form of

essential oils, nor can they always be obtained in that form. It is also true that the essential oils are often

accompanied by resinous matter, so that the odoriferous " " " or as a oleoresin balsam." body is known as an
But, broadly speaking, it is true to say that the vegetable perfume materials are almost entirely essential oils in some form or other. They may be, and often are, of so delicate a nature that they will not withstand the ordinary process of extraction of essential oils, so that they have to be prepared in some other manner, and presented to the manufacturing perfumer in some other of these and similar form, such as a flower pomade
;

products we shall speak in the sequel. For the moment, we need only say that they are by far the most important of the materials used in the manufacture of perfumes. The second class of products referred to above is that which embraces those of purely animal origin, such as musk, ambergris, castor and civet. These products are, in the natural form, hardly recognizable as " perfumes," except, perhaps musk, although to most people natural musk has a somewhat disagreeable odour. Civet, for example, is a substance with ajtaul and very objectionable odour. It is only in a state of intense dilution that the virtue of these bodies as perfume materials appears. In such dilute solution, they not only modify the odours of other perfume materials, but they also have a very remarkable fixative value, that is, they render the more volatile

PERFUMERY

substances present in the perfume

much

less

fugitive

and much more

The

lasting. evolution of the third

group of perfume materials

referred to above constitutes a veritable

romance

of

organic chemical research. Starting from either some substance which occurs naturally in a plant, or from one of the coal tar products, the organic chemist has

succeeded in building up a number of synthetic perfumes which are to-day absolutely necessary in successful perfume manufacture. In some of these cases the artificial body so built up is absolutely identical with the principal constituent of the natural perfume which it imitates. Such, for example, is the artificial methyl Now, as the essential oil of wintergreen salicylate. contains about 99*5 per cent, of methyl salicylate, it is easy to understand that the pure 100 per cent, synthetic product
is

for all practical purposes, identical

with the natural plant product. In the same way synthetic benzaldehyde made from coal tar is practically identical with natural essential oil of almonds. Vanillin, made by a complicated process from oil of cloves, is identical with the crystalline substance which is present in vanilla beans, and to which the beans owe their But in this case the characteristic odour and flavour. natural substance does contain small amounts of other bodies which modify the odour of the vanilla bean, so that artificial vanillin is not quite identical in odour with natural vanilla beans. It is, however, so near a match for the beans, that it is used as their substitute in an enormous proportion of the chocolate consumed, and it would require a connoisseur to recognize the difference between chocolate flavoured with the natural and the artificial substances. If we turn to synthetic

musk and
artificial

synthetic violet, however,


is

we

find that the

product

quite different

from any constituent

PERFUME MATERIALS IN GENERAL

of the natural product. In such cases the synthetic product only claims to produce a musk-like odour or

a violet-like odour. But in spite of this, this class of body represents the corresponding odour so well, that they are used in enormous quantities as substitutes for the natural bodies. For example, the vast majority of the violet perfumes used by the public contain a
synthetic body known as ionone, which is manufactured by a complicated process from essential oil of lemongrass or verbena. Many violet perfumes, indeed, especially the cheaper varieties, contain no true violet product at all. Preparations of ionone, however, so
well represent the violet perfume

that the public are

quite satisfied with the result. Then again we have the mixed type of perfume, consisting of some synthetic or artificial product, and some natural substances
neroli,

mixed together. Examples of this are artificial oil of and artificial Otto of Rose. The chemist can make a substance called methyl anthranilate from coal tar. This body has a characteristic neroli odour, and is actually present in natural neroli oil. But it is only by diluting it with a number of other bodies, some synthetic, some extracted from various plants, that an
closely resembling true oil of neroli can be obtained. In the same way, the chemist manufactures a complicated body called phenyl-ethyl alcohol, also from
oil

coal tar.

By

mixing

this

with geraniol, citronellol and

other bodies which can be extracted from various plants, and several other synthetic products, an oil is obtained which is a very passable imitation of Otto of Rose, and serves well for the manufacture of cheap rose perfumes. It is true that in this particular case, as in some others, the artificial product is not as fine in odour as the natural product, which it imitates rather

than coincides with, but this type of product


2
(1468G)

is

largely

PERFUMERY

and successfully employed in the manufacture of cheaper perfumes than would be possible if the much more expensive natural Otto of Rose were employed. In the succeeding chapter, the plant substances above referred to will be studied in more detail.

CHAPTER
WITHOUT
1.

III

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS


going into minutiae of detail we
oils.

may

broadly

divide this group of bodies into five classes as follows


Essential
3.

Concretes.

2. 5.

Pomades.

Balsams, etc. Plant substances other than the above.


4.

it

essential-oils-are volatile in a current of steam, obvious that in order to separate them from the inert non-volatile matter of the plant tissues, a process
is

As the

of distillation

is

are obtained."

the ordinary method by which they At the same time, it cannot be too

strongly insisted that the less an essential oil is heated, the better is its quality. Hence, if distillation be the
process emptDyecTfofTriefpreparation of the
scientific
oil, the most method should be employed, and the lowest

possible_tejnperature should govern the distillation. As a matter of fact it is very rarely the case that any choice is left to the manufacturer, and he is compelled In a few cases he is able to to distil his essential oils.
resort to a cold process of expression such as
is

the case

with lemon, bergamot and orange oils, but in most cases, where distillation would destroy the delicate essential oil, he is lorced to resort to the preparation of the perfume material in some other form, such as a pomade. In order to illustrate this group of perfume materials, which are exceedingly numerous we shall describe a few of the perfume plants in detail. These examples will suffice to illustrate the whole group which contains,

amongst

others,

the
9

following

essential

oils

10

PERFUMERY

which are amongst those most commonly used by the manufacturing perfumer Almond Cloves Marjorame
Aniseed

Eucalyptus

Orange peel
Patchouli

Bay

leaf

Bergamot
Cassia

Geranium Lavender

Roses
,

Lemon
Linaloe

Sandalwood
Vetivert

Cedar wood

Lemon-grass

Cinnamon
Citronella

Ylang-ylang

The above are, of course, merely a few examples to indicate the scope of the vegetable world to which the perfumer turns for the preparation of his raw materials.
Lavender. Few perfumes are so popular amongst those of delicate and refined taste as the old-fashioned The exact composition -of this perlavender water. fume differs with the individual manufacturer, but it is essentially a solution of oil of lavender in alcohol, with small amounts of other ingredients to slightly modify " " or round off the lavender perfume, and traces of

some

The essential oil of lavender, the main ingredient, and it is essential to success that the best oils should be selected for the purpose of manufacturing the perfume. It is, of course, absolutely necessary that in this, as in every case of an alcoholic perfume, only the finest spirit should be
fixative substance.
is

however,

employed.
^France
Italy
is

essentially the

home

of the lavender plant.

and Spain produce small quantities, and a small amount is cultivated in England. The oil distilled from the English grown plants differs very considerably from that obtained from French plants, and the English
oil
oil.

invariably commands a higher price than foreign In the author's opinion the best lavender waters are prepared from a mixture of the two oils. The lavender plant grows wild in about twenty of

the French Departments.

It is

a strong and robust

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS

11

plant withstanding cold of an intense nature, and well adapted to the general conditions of French soil and
climate.

For many

years

two

species

of

the

plant

were

FIG.

2.

AN OLD STILL HOUSE AT MITCHAM

common name Lavandula officinalis. Jordan separated the two species and renamed them, as follows (1) Lavandula delphinensis is found in the highest regions and yields an essential oil very rich in esters, which are amongst the principal odoriferous
described under the
,

12

PERFUMERY
;

oil (2) Lavandula fragrans, which but not always, found associated with ^frequently, its sister plant, and which yields a more penetrating oil. The spike lavender is a quite different plant Lavandula latifolia and yields the oil of spike lavender, which is quite different from the ordinary oil of lavender. But this particular plant and Lavandula fragrans are

constituents of the
is

very easily hybridized, and the resulting bastard lavender yields an essential oil which has properties intermediate between those of the oils from the two The bastard lavender plants often get mixed parents. with the pure species, and to that extent cause the resulting essential oil to be of less value. M. Leopold Lamothe describes the lavenders in the Drome district, where he sees great possibilities for cultivation of hitherto unproductive land, in the
following
(1)

manner
coarse lavender or bastard lavender, growing It grows to a large size,
in circumference.
It yields

The

at the foot of the mountains.

sometimes a metre
essential
oil.

a coarse

According to G. Chatenier, it is a hybrid of spike or Lavandula latifolia and of L. officinalis var. fragrans (see below). Botanically, it is thus
plant 5 to 7 decimetres in height, stout stems, with numerous branches, erect, often divided at the summits into erect spreading shoots. Leaves, straight, oblong, obtuse, narrowed towards the base, with edges turned in below at the end, green on

described:

woody

both with

faces.

Spikes generally coarser than in the parent

verticillasters

more or

less far apart.

Oval bracts,

lanceolated

lanceolated and more or less longly acuminated, green before the anthesis, almost equal to the calix. Numerous bracteoles, straight and
or
greenish.
Calices of a blueish-grey.

Pollen scarce and


sterile.

poorly developed.

Ovaries generally

14

PERFUMERY

Tfiis variety is fairly

common

in the

neighbourhood

of

Nyons.
(2)

lavender, which is met with in the of the and always at a higher elevation. first, vicinity
It is

The medium

climate.

an intermediate variety created, no doubt, by the According to Jordan it is the Lavandula


;

fragrans,

a subdivision of the species L. officinalis with very numerous slender and stiff -branches leaves very erect, very narrow and very much rolled It is very widely distributed up, and dense spikes. and is met with on nearly all the arid slopes and on the low hills of the arrondissements of Die, Montelimar and Nyons. The oil produced from it is deficient in

D.

C.,

fineness.
(3)

essential

Lastly, the fine lavender, which yields the best oil, grows at the highest altitude. Jordan

the second subdivision of the species L. D. C. and calls it L. Delphinensis Jord. it has strong stems with flexuous branches, oblong leaves, lanceolated, spread out and erect, and loosely
classifies it as

officinalis

It inhabits the high districts of arranged spikes. Lus-a-Croix-Haute, Valouse, Ballons, Teyssieres and

Vesc.

There are a number of other species of lavender found in France, but we need not deal with these here. The lavender harvest commences about the middle

and in many cases the flowers are distilled in a very crude manner Over a naked fire, in a small portable still which has not undergone any modification for centuries. It is very common for the small peasant to hire the still from the nearest town, for which he pays a sum of about 20 francs for the season, and which he sets up in some spot where he can obtain water for the condenser and wood for his fuel. The flowers and water in the still are heated over the naked
of July,

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS


fire,

15

be burnt, even when Further, in the attempt to economize in fuel, the warm water is not always emptied out of the still, and as this is full of salts of lime, there is a rapid accumulation of lime salts in the interior of

and are, obviously, most carefully distilled.

liable to

the still, which, at an elevated temperature react with the esters present in the oil, and decompose a portion of them into free acids and free alcohols, which cause a corresponding deterioration in the odour value of

the

oil.

The following summarizes the advice given small peasant distiller by M. Gattefosse, one
largest distillers of
(1)

to the

lavender

oil in

of the the South of France.

maximum,

Cut the flowering spikes when flowering is at its for the plant then contains the very highest and let the harvest be as quick percentage of esters as possible, if possible within a week.
;

(2) Choose, by preference, the morning and the evening of a day without wind, and as cool as possible, since wind and heat dissipate a good deal of the perfume. (3) If it should come on to rain, or if it be foggy, cease harvesting and wait for warm weather to repair any damage done to the plants. (4) If the flowers cannot be taken at once to the still, store them in a closed shed, so as not fo allow them to

dry,

lose some of their perfume. not allow any fermentation to take place, as this spoils both the quality of the oil and its yield. (6) Set up the still near a plentiful supply of water for condensation purposes.
(5)

and so

Do

(7) Use pine wood, by preference, as fuel, as this burns steadily on account of the resin it contains. (8) Watch the still carefully, and empty it, water and all, after each charge, so as to prevent the accumulation

of lime salts.

16

PERFUMERY
>

(9)

If possible, replace

the old-fashioned

still

by the
months

most modern one you can obtain. (10) Leave the oil, when distilled,
before you offer
as crystal.
(11) esters.
it

for several

for sale,

when

it

should be as clear

Get the

distillate

tested for its percentage in

Apart from this system of peasant distillation, there has been a considerable advance in the methods adopted b^ the larger distillers, and in the larger centres of the industry, a rapid system of carrying the flowers to modern distilleries has been arranged. These modern distilleries contain apparatus for steam distillation, thus avoiding the risk of burning the plants and the oil, which is involved in the use of open fires, and the quality of the oil produced at such distilleries is very much better than that of the peasant distilled oil. Lavender oil is a pale mobile liquid very soluble in
alcohol,

and owing

its

odour to several constituents,

the principal of which is the ester, linalyl acetate. It is customary to value lavender oil according to its ester content, but this is not always a true basis- of valuation, as oils grown, for example on the Italian frontier, containing about 30 per cent, of esters, are often of finer odour than the sometimes rank oils containing 40 per
cent,

grown

in

other districts.

English lavender

oil

rarely con tains, more than 10 per cent, of esters, and owes its characteristic odour to other bodies, more than
to its linalyl acetate.

The

principal causes which influence the

amount

of

esters present in a French la vender oil are the following the relative proportions of the various types of flowers
distilled
;

the
;

employed

the

amount and character of chemical manure amount of sunlight the plants get
;

the weather during the harvesting

the time between

18

PERFUMERY
;

the altitude gathering the flowers and their distillation at which the plants grow and, indeed, many other
;

minor circumstances, which have some influence on the development of the plant. Most lavender oils have characters which fall within
the following limits
Specific gravity Optical relation Esters

-5 to -10 28 to 45 (English oil under 10%)

= =

0'870 to "892

oil is very common, chiefly witfr expensive spike lavender oil, and artificial esters prepared chemically, which are practically odourless, and are only "added to deceive the analyst and make the oil to appear to have a higher ester percentage than it really has. The Rose. The' Rose has often been described as the Queen of Flowers. It certainly is second to none

Adulteration of the

the

much

less

in its popularity

amongst manufactured perfumes, and " " is always the well known Essence of White Rose a favourite with ladies. It is necessary to here remark that the word white is a misnomer, as nearly all the

The perfume rose perfume is distilled from red roses. of the rose will serve to illustrate more than one process
used for the manufacture of raw materials for
perfumer.
the

The
but a

essential oil of the rose, better


is

known

as Otto

or A^tar of Rose,
fair

produced principally

in Bulgaria,

distilled in

amount has, in the past five years, been France, and French Otto of Rose is becoming

a distinct competitor of the Bulgarian commodity. France, however, has long been a very considerable contributor to the world's output of rose perfume. For years past she has distilled a small quantity of the Otto, and has produced practically the world's supply of Rose Water, and has also manufactured a very large

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS

19

quantity of Rose Pomade, without which most of the " " would never have Essence of White Rose A very short history of the rose been manufactured. perfume will not be out of place. The red colour of the red rose is due to one of the following causes (at least so we are told in very old
best
authorities
(1)
!)

The blood of Venus, drawn by a thorn upon which she trod when Mars was pursuing her in a fit of righteous
anger.
(2)

drop of nectar
of

spilt at

a feast of the gods by

Cupid.

Mahomet, as the Turks affirm. may, classical authors have devoted much space to the glory of the rose, and classical literature is full of praise for the flower and its perfume. Herodotus in his History states that the odour of the rose was sought after by drinkers as a remedy Horace, against headache caused by over-indulgence. too, recommends an unsparing use of roses at the commencement of a feast, and during the decadence of the
(3)

The sweat
this as it

Be

Empire, the Romans used to soak rose leaves wine before they drank it. It is probable that the first use of Rose Water, as distinct from the petals,
in their in Egypt, and the species of rose the Egyptians used was almost certainly Rosa Damascena. It was between 1582 and 1612 that the oil or Otto of Rose was discovered. The discovery Has been described in two separate histories of the Grand Moguls, one by Mohammed Achem and the other by Mannuci, a Venetian physician. The latter tells us that at the wedding feast of the princess Nour-Djihan with Djihan-

Roman

was

Guyr, the amusements and luxurious appointments were on a very extravagant scale. Circling the whole of the gardens, a canal was dug which was filled with

20
rose water.

PERFUMERY

Whilst her newly-made husband and she walked along the borders of the canal they perceived an oily substance floating on the surface. It was skimmed off and found to be the most delicious perfume they had ever smelt, and the manufacture of Otto of Rose commenced in Persia about 1612, and in 1684 the distilleries of Shiraz were well known and working on a large scale, producing what they termed the Aettr
fat of the flower." Through the Turks the manufacture was introduced into Europe, and it is probable that the first, otto was distilled in

Ghyl, literally the

"

Bulgaria, then part of the Turkish Empire, about 1690. In France, up till five years or so ago, a small quantity of Otto of Rose was manufactured from the red rose,

Rosa centifolia, but was entirely consumed in the country itself. French roses were almost entirely used for the manufacture of Rose Pomade (which is an
altogether different type of product from the essential oil, and which will be discussed in a later chapter) and of Rose Water. To-day, however, numerous other " " Rose d' Hai are used for distillation roses, such as the

purposes,

Rose
is

distilled

and a certain amount of French Otto of from the so-called mixed garden roses,

available for the requirements of other countries.

Roses, as flowers, were exported before the war to all the capitals of Europe, and directly the season for cut
flowers,. was over, millions of roses

were wasted in the South of France, because no one thought that they would yield an otto which would be able to compete with the usual type of this product. A number of the
cultivators, however, carried out a number of experiments and new roses were introduced, the chief object of the rose grower being to improve the odour,

more scientific

rather than the appearance, of the flower. The type of still was also improved, and the result has been that a

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS


type of
still is

21

now used which

ensures the

maximum

It is probable that 10,000 yield and the finest otto. to 20,000 ounces of French otto Is, up to the present,

the

maximum annual production, but it is possible that in the near future this may increase substantially. Apart from French otto, the world draws its supply from Bulgaria (with a small amount made in some of

the Turkish provinces). The greater part of the Bulgarian Otto of Rose is distilled by small peasants who have their rose gardens throughout the valleys of the greater Balkans and

Sredna-Gora. The area under rose cultivation is included between the 24th and 26th degrees of longitude The E., and the 42nd and 43rd degrees of latitude N. geological formation is principally syenite, the decomposition of which has produced a very workable soil which has become very fertile. The roses flourish best on sandy sun-exposed slopes, with a south or south.

eastern aspect. The principal districts in which the flowers flourish are (1) the department of Stara-Zajora,
:

including the cantons of Kazanlik, Nova-Zagora, and Stara-Zagora (2) the department of Pazardjik, chiefly
;

the canton of Pechtera


popoli including the

(3)

cantons Novo-Selo and Brezovo.

the department of Philipof Karlovo, Tchirpan

The

flowers are gathered in the early


rises,

before the sun

10 to 11 continues all day. If the gardens are near a small town, a local distillery usually exists, to which the flowers are carted, and they should be distilled on the same day as they are picked. In the case of a few of

morning just and the picking should cease by o'clock unless the day be cloudy, when it

the

larger

centres

modern

distillation

and very
however,

fine otto is distilled.


is distilled

The bulk
in

plant exists, of the otto,

by the peasants

very primitive

22
stills.

PERFUMERY

The distilleries apart from the few large modern rn ones above referred to, are primitive wooden sheds, Is. with the stills in rows as illustrated (Fig. 5). There are copper alembics from 3 to 5 ft. in height, resting on furnaces built on bricks. They hold about 10 to 15 kilos of rose flowers and 70 to 100 litres of water. The distillation water, from which the otto has been separated contains dissolved perfume, so it is returned to the still and used in the distillation of a fresh batch of flowers. A well tended garden of an acre will yield about 100 Ibs.
day for three weeks, and 1 Ib. of otto the average yield from 3,000 Ibs. of the flowers. The roses cultivated in Bulgaria are of two varieties, ,the red and the white rose. As a matter of fact, the red
of flowers every
is

rose

the only one which is really cultivated, the white which is of more vigorous growth, being used for hedges between the plantations. The essence of otto is a pale yellow liquid which sets to a jelly like solid at a temperature of from 18 to 24 C., due to the deposition of crystals throughout the whole mass. It consists of two well defined portions, namely the liquid portion which contains the whole of the odour of the oil, and the sj^jij^rtipn, known Sometimes as the stearoptene, which is odourless. this stearoptene is removed by large distillers, and the resulting oil sold at a correspondingly enhanced price, " " Otto of Rose. As a matter as stearopjtene-free
is

rose,

of fact,

the stearoptene
it is

alcohol that
spirit,

is only so slightly soluble in usually thrown out by admixture with

and then separated by nitration. Bulgaria usually exports from 30 to 60 per cent, " " Otto than she distils. This is due to the more enormous amount of adulteration which takes place, and really pure Otto of Rose is the exception rather
than the
rule.

The

principal

adulterant

is

rectified

CS

(1468G)

24
geraniol,

PERFUMERY

which has a sweet rose-like odour, and is obtained either from citronella or palmarosa oils. Genuine Bulgarian Otto of Rose has the following
characters
Specific gravity at 30 C Optical rotation Congealing point Total alcohols calculated as geraniol

= =

0-850-0-860 -1 to -4 18 to 24

Otto of Rose

is

= 70-75%. used on a fairly large scale for per-

fuming the highest grades of soap, and for the manuIt is used also in facture of handkerchief perfumes.
certain high-class confectionery and to a not inconsiderable extent for perfuming certain types of tobacco. " " In the manufacture of essence of white rose it is

frequently associated with a very

little

and almost always with traces


agent.

of

sandalwood oil, an animal fixative


produce
the

Bergamot

Oil.

Our

Italian

friends

world's supply of Oil of Bergamot, one of the essential constituents of Eau de Cologne. This favourite perfume

was first made in Italy, the secret being taken to Cologne, where a manufactory was started by a German, who later had many competitors. Now, as the whole of
the perfume materials in Eau de Cologne are either of Italian or French origin, except perhaps traces of other
materials,
it is obviously ridiculous that people should think that the Germans have a monopoly in the manufacture of the best quality. The principal ingredients in

this

perfume are the essential oils of neroli, bergamot, lemon, rosemary, and traces of various other oils according to taste, such as lavender, rose^and cinnamon. Bergamot oil is one of the few essential oils which

by distillation hence, it is produced by an expression process. It is obtained from the peel of the bergamot fruit, Citrus bergamia, the principal
;

are spoiled

PERFUME MATERIALS

25

centre of the industry being in Southern Calabria, which is practically the only province of Italy where the

bergamot

tree

is

cultivated.
t

There

are

extensive

plantations in and round about Reggio, Melito, Gallico, Avangea, Sancta Catarina, S. Lorenzo Palizzi, and Staiti. The greater part of the oil is expressed from the peel

by machinery

in the following

manner.

The machine

consists of a wheel with pegs which revolve a drum with bars, ending in a bowl. The last-named is a kind
of plate

about 6 to 8 ins. in diameter, provided with copper points about J in. long, and fitting closely into a cylinder, the bottom of which constitutes a similar By its weight plate, on which the ripe fruits are placed.
the drum presses the fruits, and the two sets of copper points tear the rind, and the liquid which escapes is collected in a receiver placed at the lower end of the

machine.

This liquid is filtered through filter bags metal cases, so as to protect the oil from suspended being oxidized by the air, and the filtered mixture of water and oil is allowed to settle and the oil is then drawn It should be dried by contact with a little sodium off. sulphate, as water acts somewhat deleteriously on
in

bergamot

oil.

certain

amount

of

bergamot

oil

is

also obtained

by the older process known as the sponge process, which is the usual process by which the oils of lemons
and orange are manufactured. In this process the operator takes a fruit in his hand and with three rapid strokes with a large knife, cuts off practically all the
peel in three pieces.

The peeled fruit is then used for pressing the juice from. The slices are then passed along to a second workman, seated on a stool with a
pan
at his feet. With an ordinary sponge he presses each piece of peel by the edge, so as to bring the convex peel into a flat surface. By this pressure which is very

26
slight,

PERFUMERY
the
oil

glands are broken and the

oil is

absorbed

by the sponge, which is from time to time squeezed over the pan to recover the oil. One man can obtain about 25 to 27 ounces of oil per day by this method. Bergamot trees flourish best on well- watered, low-lying lands, and are frequently cultivated amongst the lemon and orange trees. The harvest is gathered in November and December and early in January. The oil is of a
green colour sometimes a brown-green, due to the green colouring matter of the peel, and not, as used to be said, to the presence of copper. It owes its beautiful odour almost entirely to the 35 to 42 per cent, of linalyl

As would be expected, from the peel and not distilled, contains a little non-volatile matter which it dissolves out
acetate

which

it

contains.

this oil, being pressed

of the peel.

The pure

oil

has the following characters

Specific gravity Optical rotation Esters

= 0'880 = +8 = 35 to

to 0'886 to 20

45%.

Ylang-ylang
its

Oil.

favourite perfume.

manufacture
oil is

is

is, of course, a very principal ingredient used in the essential oil of Ylang-ylang.

Ylang-ylang

The

derived from a plant which grows in several parts of the world known as Cananga odorata. The oil known as Ylang : ylang is the finest variety, and is produced principally in Manila, whilst the oil produced in Java and several other places is known as Cananga oil. The difference between the oils is not due in any way to any botanical difference between the trees, but to the climatic and soil conditions, and to some extent to the care with which the flowers are sorted and selected. The tree is a native of Ava and Tenasserium, and

The

widely distributed throughout Southern Asia. wild the tree grows to a considerable height, but the flowers have little or no odour.
is

fairly

When

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS

27

When
It is in

cultivated the tree does not grow to such a

height, arid the flowers


there,

Manila that the best


different
is

have a delightful perfume. oil is distilled, but even


qualities

many

are

produced.

The

an important one in Java, and also in the French colony of Reunion, where the cultivation of the Ylang-ylang has made great progress. The trees attain a height of 40 to 65 ft., and are very elegant and ornamental. The flowers are produced at the base of the leaves, and are in bunches of two or three on a short stem. The oil is of a very delicate nature, and requires very careful distillation. It owes its odour to a number of substances, amongst which are esters of benzoic acid, and para-cresol methyl ether. The oils vary considerably in their physical and chemical characters, and are sometimes adulterated with fatty oils, such as olive oil. We will now turn to a series of essential oils which form a very important group, both from the perfumer's There point of view, and from that of the merchant.
industry

number of from members


are a

oils

known
the

as the

"

Grass

oils," distilled

of

natural

order

"

Gramineae,"

grown

especially in India, Ceylon, Burmah, and Java, although cultivated to some extent in many other places. These grass oils furnish some of the most important raw materials

in various parts of the woild,

more

to the manufacturing perfumer. Those that we shall deal with are the following (1) Palmarosa and gingergrass oils, (2) Lemon-grass (4) Citronella oil.
oil, (3)

Vetivert or Cus-cus

oil,

Palmarosa and ginger grass


regarded as
ginger-grass

oils

were for

many

years

many
oil

different qualities of* the same oil, being regarded as an adulterated

palmarosa oil. This, however, is now known not to be the case. Both oils appear to be the product of the same species of grass, Cymbopogon Martini. There

28
are

PERFUMERY
two kinds
of this grass,

known in India as Motia former yielding palmarosa oil, and the latter ginger-grass oil. It is, however, probable, that
and
Sufia, the

much
its

of the

commerce contains some more esteemed palmarosa oil, in order to improve own poor odour. The two grasses may, perhaps,
of the ginger-grass oil of

be regarded as varieties. There is a fairly big demand for palmarosa oil, and the output of the two oils is probably about 150,000 pounds per annum. Palmarosa oil was formerly commonly known as Turkish geranium oil. on account of the fact that it
largely,

usually arrived here via Turkey, and was, at one time, and still is, to some extent, used in Turkey as an adulterant of Otto of Rose. It is an almost colourless, or pale yellow oil, with a geranium like odour,

but without the delicate perfume of the geranium. The essential difference between palmarosa oil and
oil is that the former consists, in the main, of free geraniol, whilst geranium oil owes its sweet odour to geraniol contained in the form of esters, principally

geranium

as geranyl tiglate.
distilled is

The

grass from which the

oil

is

At present locally as Rusa grass. the principal places of production of the oil are PimTalada, palner, Akrani, Nandurbar, Shahada and all situated in Khandeish. It is also prepared on a smaller scale in the districts of Nagpur, Sagar, Jubbulpur,

known

Karnul and Ajmere.


primitive stills are
stills,

It is

produced

in

more

or less

now

although a 'certain amount of modern in use. Pure palmarosa oil has the

following characters
Specific gravity

Optical rotation Refractive index Geraniol


It is quite soluble in

= = = =

0'887 to 0'900 to +6 1-4720 to 1-4765 75 to 90%

-3

3 volumes of 70 per cent, alcohol.

PLANT PERFUME MATERIAL^


It is

29

used as a cheap perfume of the rose-geranium and also for the commercial preparation of pure type, geraniol, which is of far sweeter odour than the palmarosa oil itself. Palmarosa oil is exported from Bombay in
pots containing 100 to 200 Ibs. each. Ginger-grass oil differs in odour from oil of palmarosa in that its alcoholic constituents consist of a mixture of
geraniol and dihydrocuminic alcohol. as follows
Specific gravity

Its characters are

Optical rotation Refractive index

= = =

0'900 to 0'950 50 -30 to 1-4775 to 1'4950

It is only suitable for use as a cheap perfume, in soap and similar preparations. Lemon-grass oil is an oil which enjoys a considerable employment in the perfume It is commonly known as verbena oil, on industry. account of its odour being very similar to that of the true vervain or verbena oil, which is but rarely found in commerce. Both oils owe their typical perfume to

the presence of a large percentage of the aldelyde citral, and lemon-grass oil, in addition to being used as a perfume itself, is the source of the citral which forms the only raw material from which ionone, or artificial
violet

perfume

is

manufactured.

lemon- grass

oil of

commerce

is

The bulk of the derived from the grass

Cymbopogon

flexuosus, the less soluble oils being apparently derived from Cymbopogon citratus. The former grass yields an oil which is soluble in 3 volumes " " of 70 per cent, alcohol, and is known as soluble lemon-grass oil, whilst the latter yields the so-called " " insoluble oil, which is not soluble in 3 volumes of 70 per cent, alcohol. It is probable that a small amount of the lemon-grass oil of commerce is derived from other, lesser known species, such as Cymbopogon pendulus, but the quantity of this is practically negligible. The

30

PERFUMERY

bulk of the lemon-grass oil of commerce comes from India, but Ceylon and Java produce a certain amount, and various other parts of the world are responsible for small shipments from time to time. Uganda has sent over some shipments of oil to this country, which were of quite good quality, and the West Indies took up the industry some fifteen years ago. The West Indian oil appears to have been distilled from a different variety of the grass, and it was found to contain a considerable

amount of the so-called olefinic terpene myrcene. ^This body is very easily oxidized into an insoluble compound, and although the oil usually left the West Indies as a quite soluble lemon-grass oil, by the time it reached this country it was insoluble and, further, it was found
;

that the citral underwent rapid oxidation, so that the actual citral value of the oil rapidly diminished. These defects caused the oil to be unable to compete with the East Indian variety, so the distillation in the West Indies

was practically abandoned. Comparisons of the lemongrass oils from Ceylon, India, Uganda, and Bermuda were

made in
It

in the laboratories of the Imperial Institute. appears that the grasses used in Ceylon for distillation are of a mixed character, some oils being of

191

the insoluble variety, whilst others appear to be dis-

The Uganda and was undoubtedly distilled from Cymbopogon citratus, and -contained from 64 to 75 per cent, of citral.' The Bermuda oil only contained 40 per cent, of citral, and could not
tilled
oil

from mixtures

of different grasses.

was

of the insoluble type,

oil

compete with the East Indian oil, whilst the Montserrat was a soluble oil containing 74 per cent, of citral. The lemon-grass oils from India which were examined were as follows
(1)

Tyrna lemon- grass

oil,

a deep yellow
oil.

oil,

having

the usual odour of lemon-grass

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS


"
(2)

31

Cochin

lemon-grass

oil,"

deep-yellowish-

brown oil, which had a fine lemon- grass odour rather more pungent than that of the preceding and following samples.
Mariani lemon- grass oil," a golden-brown oil having the usual odour of lemon-grass oil. " (4) Ceylon lemon- grass oil," a deep-yellowishbrown oil, with the usual odour of lemon- grass oil.
(3)

"

32

PERFUMERY

" " of citral, but the Cochin oil was particularly rich in this constituent, containing 84-5 per cent. Most

lemon-grass per cent, of

oils

of

commerce contain from 70


"
If,

to 75

Cochin "^grass therefore, the grows well and gives a good yield of leaves, it will be desirable to encourage its cultivation rather than that
citral.

of the other varieties.

Lemon-grass

oil

entirely to its citral,

owes its perfume value almost which gives it a very powerful

odour, which is slightly modified by the presence of small amounts of other constituents. It owes its monetary value when purchased for ionone manufacture entirely to its citral, as it is usually sold on its citral
oil being graded as 70 to 75 per cent., 75 to 80 per cent., and so on. It is used in trie preparation of all perfumes of the verbena type, and in small quantity when a fresh lemony odour is required to round

value, the

other predominating perfumes. We now come to a very valuable perfume oil known in commerce as
off
oil. The plant which yields vetivert oil is locally as cus-cus or khas-khas, and was up till recently described as Andropogon muricatus, but is

vetivert

known

known now
distilled

to be Vetiveria zizanoides. The oil is not from the leaves, but from the roots. These roots are known in Bengal under the name of

aromatic roots," khas-khas, meaning in Hindustani, from which the name cus-cus is easily traced. The plant
is

"

and

a perennial tufted grass growing to a good height, is found all over the country near the Coromandel coast, Mysore, Bengal, Burma and the Punjaub. It is also found in Reunion and Mauritius and in the West Indies.
leaves themselves are practically odourless, whilst On distillathe roots have a strong, agreeable odour. tion, the first fractions passing over are much more

The

volatile

and

lighter

than those which come over with

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS


difficulty

33

towards the end of the distillation. These oils can be separated by using a steamlight jacketed still with steam at a pressure of about 10 lb., until no more oil comes over. The heavy oil is then obtained by passing steam at a higher pressure direct

and heavy

into the retort.


if

not always, a single


is

oils
oil

Europe is usually, and the fractionated are scarcely commercial articles. The yield of
distillate,

The

oil distilled in

disagreement. According to about 9 or 10 oz. of oil, whilst 2 oz. are obtained. Other observers give from -2 to -4 per cent. Probably about
Piesse, 100 lb. of oil yield Watts states that only
1

a matter of

much

the usual average. Some of the oil (which for high class perfumery) as found in used entirely commerce is adulterated, frequently with a fixed fatty

per cent,

is

is

oil.

The oils distilled in Europe from the roots imported from India has the following characters
Specific gravity

Optical rotation Refractive index

= 1"015 to 1'045 = + 24 to + 36 = 1'5200 to 1;5275

The oil distilled in Reunion is now an article of commerce on a fairly large scale, and differs somewhat
in
its

Reunion

A pure physical character from the above. oil will usually have the following values
Specific gravity

Optical rotation Refractive index

= 0'990 to 1'015 = + 20 to + 25 = 1*5130 to 1'5260

Vetivert oil is a thick, viscous, brown liquid, with a heavy penetrating odour, of the character usually associated with the idea of Oriental perfumes. It is
intensely penetrating and in addition to its odour It owes its value, has a distinct value as a fixative. odour to an alcohol named vetivenol and a sesquiterpene or mixture of sesquiterpenes

known

as vetivene.

It

34

PERFUMERY

blends well with oils of the type of orris root oil, and with cassie flower oil, and is very useful in the preparation of perfumes of the Oriental type. The last of these grass oils to be described is Citronella oil. This oil is distilled on an enormous scale, and is used for perfuming the cheapest variety of household soaps

and similar inexpensive products. Substantially there are two varieties of the oil, the common, and cheaper,
being the
typified
oil distilled in

by the Java

distillate

Ceylon, whilst the finer oil is which is closely resem-

Burmah. The odour value main on two substances, and citronellal. The principal causes of the geraniol difference between the odours of the Ceylon and the
bled

by that

distilled in

of Citronella oil depends, in the

Java
(1)

oils

are as follows

The Ceylon oil is almost exclusively distilled from the variety of Cymbopogon nardus known as Lenabatu grass, whilst that distilled in Java is obtained from the variety known as Maha Pengiri. (2) The Ceylon oil is, with the exception of a small " estate almost oil," mount, usually known as
invariably adulterated with petroleum. contains more geraniol than 1(3) The Ceylon variety citronellal, the total of the 'two constituents present in

commercial
the
oils of

oils being about 55 to 58 per cent., whereas the Java type contain more citronellal than geraniol, the total amount of the two constituents being

from 80 to 90 per cent.


for better class

The Java type work than the Ceylon

of oil
oil,

is

suitable

and fetches

a correspondingly higher price. Neither oils are used to any extent in the preparation of expensive, high-grade perfumes, but both find very extensive employment in cheap perfumery.

The above short


are
sufficient

descriptions of plant essential oils to indicate the general nature of the

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS

35

source of this important group of raw materials for

perfumery.
It is to be noted that these oils occur in the most varied portions of the plant in some plants it is the flowers, in some the leaves, the wood, the bark or the
;

root,

Different
of

which yield the perfume bearing material. methods of distillation are necessary to meet

the varied characters of the oils, since the boiling points the various constituents differ within very wide
limits.

may now leave the essential oils proper and turn to the group of raw materials manufactured from plants known as pomades. There are a number of plants which
flourish principally in the South of France, which yield perfumes of so delicate a nature that they are very

We

considerably damaged by exposure to any elevated temperature, and which have to be treated by a cold or practically cold process. The process used is really an extraction by means of a non-volatile, odourless
solvent
of the flowers,

which becomes saturated with the perfume and which is then sold as a pomade when
is

the solvent

a solid, or as a perfumed

oil

when

it is

The solvents employed are usually the finest liquid. lard in the case of pomades and olive or fine mineral
oil in

the case of the perfumed

oils.

As these solvents

are practically insoluble in alcohol, the finished pomade or perfumed oil can be shaken thoroughly with spirit,

perfume is now removed from the and fatty solvent, passes to the spirit, which is now a spirituous perfume either ready for use, or ready for

when the

delicate

the addition of other substances such as essential oils and fixatives, when a compound odour is required. Some
flowers,

when picked, contain all the perfume which can possibly be obtained from them others have the
;

power

of elaborating

more perfume material

as fast

36

PERFUMERY

as that already present is removed by the solvent, provided the life of the flower be prolonged. These and other considerations decide exactly what process shall be used in their extraction. Before describing the processes and for extracting

perfumes by means of non-volatile solvents, we may shortly deal with the principal flowers of the South of France which are treated in this manner. Jasmin. The flowers of the Jasmin are obtained from Jasminum grandiflorum, the shoots of which are usually grafted on to the stems of Jasminum officinale. This perfume is almost always extracted by the enfleurage process, but the actual essential oil has been prepared and found to be composed principally of benzyl acetate
linalyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, linalol, of other substances. It is an oil

and small quantities

of specific gravity 1-008 to 1-018, and an optical rotation of 2 to 4. Jasmin flowers contain only a portion of the perfume .which they are capable of yielding, fresh oil being

what

developed by the flowers as the solvent fat removes is originally present. The harvest is from July to October, and is one of the most important in the

South

of France.

During the

last

twenty years the

Mild cultivation of jasmin has increased very largely. weather is essential to a good crop, and sharp frosts cause a considerable loss to the cultivator.
Violet.

The usual natural

violet

perfume

is

extracted

from the flowers as a pomade.


is artificial,

say natural, since the greater part of the violet perfume of commerce

We

and will be described under synthetic perfumes, of which ionone, the representative of violets, is one of the most important. Two kinds of violets are grown in the South of France, the Parma violet, and the Victoria violet. Both are harvested in February or March. Autumn rains and mild weather in

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS

37

January and February are very favourable to the obtaining of a good crop of both these flowers. The harvest of violet flowers, however, cannot be said to be on the
increase, as the natural

perfume is suffering severely from the competition of the artificial product. A certain amount of a perfume of a distinctive character is now being made from the green leaves of the violet plants. Tuberose. Like the Jasmin flower, the Tuberose
flower

develops

more perfume,
is

solvent extracts that which

the non-volatile already formed. The


as

flowers of Polianthes tuber osa are very delicate, but, again like Jasmin, the actual essential oil has been

pure condition. Hesse succeeded in isolating kilogram of the oil from the enfleurage pomade obtained from 1,000 kilograms of the flowers.
isolated
in

O8

It is a heavy oil of specific gravity 1-007, containing a ketone which has been named tuberone and benzoic

and allied esters. The cultivation of this flower is rather a delicate matter, and the results are always somewhat uncertain. The harvest is gathered in August and September, but of late years climatic conditions have usually been unfavourable, and the cultivation of this flower cannot
be described as an expanding industry. Rose. The French rose industry has been referred to under Otto of Rose. It is, however, in reference to
the

pomade industry that French roses have their The most remarkable development of the French rose industry during the past fifty years is the impetus given to it by Graveraux and Cochet-Cochet, who by crossing the well-known red
greatest importance.
rose,

Rosa damascena with General Jacquimont, and then crossing this hybrid with Rosa rugosa, obtained, a new rose which they named the Rose d'Hai. This rose is a free bloomer, and yields a fair perfume, and is

38

PERFUMERY

being largely cultivated in the South of France. The annual harvest of rose leaves in France averages from In addition to the 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 kilograms. above described flowers which are treated with nonvolatile solvents, others are the jonquil, hyacinth,

mignonette, narcissus, cassie, mimosa, carnation, and


several others.

The processes known as maceration or are carried out in the following manner.
of the

enfleurage

quantity

refined neutral fat, lard preferably, if a solid fat be required, olive oil by preference, if a liquid fat be used is heated in a pan on a water bath,
in

most highly

flowers

the maceration process, and the freshly gathered obviously only those which will stand the

temperature are thrown in, and the whole well stirred for from twelve to forty-eight hours. When the whole of the perfume has left the flowers, the fat is strained off into a fresh pan and a new lot of flowers added. This process is repeated ten or twelve times until the fat
is

sufficiently

rich

in

perfume, when the process

is

finished,

and we have the pomade or perfumed oil. There is always a tendency for flower petals to decompose by a process of fermentation, and it is a matter

common experience that the shorter the time of contact between the flowers and the fat, the more delicate is the odour of the pomade. Hence numerous devices are resorted to in order to reduce the time of maceration. One of the most successful of these is the following. The fat is heated to about 70 in a
of

reservoir

from which

it

flows in a slow stream through

the macerating chamber which consists of a long tank in which the flowers are suspended in wire-work baskets.
to time the basket nearest to the reservoir taken out and emptied, and all the other baskets moved forward and a fresli basket added at the other
is

From time

40

PERFUMERY

A constant movement of the fat and of the row. the flowers in opposite directions is thus attained, and the period of maceration is much reduced. Where the flowers are so delicate that they will not stand the heat
end
of the maceration process, the process of enfleurage is

a slow and expensive process, and the very small. Enfleurage pomades, A number are, in consequence generally very expensive. of rectangular wooden frames about 24 ins. by 36 ins., " with a strong glass bottom, known -as chassis," are piled one on the other, and on each is spread a thin

employed.
is

It is

yield

generally

Each frame requires layer of the finest neutral fat. from 6 to 8 ozs., both surfaces of the glass being spread with the fat. The freshly gathered flowers are spread
on the upper surfaces of the chassis and left there from twelve to seventy-two hours, according to the nature of the flower. The layers of the fat on the upper surfaces become impregnated with the perfume by actual contact with the flowers and the under surfaces absorb any perfume which may be volatilized from below. When the flowers have completely lost their perfume, they are replaced by fresh ones, and so on until a very concentrated pomade is obtained. Chasis a huile are used when liquid fat is employed, and consist of similar frames with wire netting bottoms on which cloth is spread. This cloth is soaked in the neutral oil, and the flowers strewn thereon. The complete process frequently occupies eight or ten weeks. The fat is then scraped from the glass, and the oil is pressed out of the cloths by means of hydraulic presses. The
finished products, pomades or perfumed oils are sold as such to the manufacturing perfumer, but as their

manipulation

is

somewhat troublesome, he usually

prefers to have them dealt with by the French manufacturer, so as to allow the perfume to be presented to

>sion of

M.
FIG.
7.

Gattefosse

AGITATORS FOR EXTRACTING PERFUMES

FROM POMADES

42

PERFUMERY
in a

him

more

advantage perfume material


object,

To achieve this easily usable form. is taken of the fact that the actual
is
is

the fatty solvent

beaten up machines with


in substance,

readily soluble in alcohol, whilst not. The pomade or oil is therefore " " in machines called or beating batteuses

warm

alcohol.

These machines

are,

churning machines which bring the pomade or oil into intimate contact with the alcohol. A very small amount of the fatty solvent is dissolved by the alcohol, but this can be removed by cooling the alcoholic
solution to -15 C., and filtering at that temperature. The fat or oil is never rendered completely odourless but is by this treatment, and is never thrown away, "
sold
to

for soap soap makers as corps epuise perfuming. The alcoholic extracts are now ready for " the market, and are sold under the name of Triple " " or Extracts Quadruple Extracts," according to

"

their degree of concentration. very large amount of the bottled perfumes sold to the public consist of

these triple extracts without any further treatment. When price has to be considered, they are very often

more alcohol, before 'the public get them, and they are also used as bases in the manufacture of mixed perfumes by the addition of other odoriferous
diluted with

substances.

few words must now be devoted to the so-called

concretes or absolutes, which are also known under various fancy or trade names. The extraction of the perfume material of plant substances by means of a

which is afterwards recovered by a very old process, having been employed in a more or less experimental manner as far back as the year 1835. It is, however, only during the past twenty or twenty-five years that the manufacture of
volatile

solvent,

distillation, is

this

type of perfurne material has been carried out on

44
a

PERFUMERY
commercial
is,

scale. The principle underlying the of course, very simple. The oily and resinous portions of the plant, which are the perfume bearers,

process

are dissolved out from the plant substance, leaving behind the greater part of the inert and inodorous substance. The volatile solvent is then distilled off and the perfume substance is left behind in the still. The choice of a solvent is a matter of the very greatest

importance.
(1)

It

It

must

must fulfill the following conditions dissolve the whole of the odour bearing

substances present in the plant tissue. (2) It must be neutral, without any chemical action on the perfume material which it dissolves. (3) It should dissolve as little else besides the perfume material as possible. (4) It must distil within such limits of temperature that the perfume material is not damaged by the heat necessary for distillation, nor should the perfume material be volatilized and so lost during the evaporation
of the solvent.
(5) It must leave absolutely no odour behind when evaporated. The process of extracting perfumes by means of a volatile solvent was invented by Robiquet, but its

practical

was due to Massignon, who Naudin enabled the process ~to be carried out on a commercial scale, and the solvent to be recovered without undue loss. The most efficacious solvent, which fulfils all the above conditions is a very low boiling petroleum ether that is, to all intents and " petrol." purposes, a chemically pure low boiling
application
together, with

There are

many

different

forms of apparatus used for

the purpose of extracting perfumes by means of volatile solvents, but in principle they are all more or less based on the Soxhlet process of extraction, so well known in

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS


all

45

The material to be extracted analytical laboratories. packed in a suitable container, and the petroleum ether is admitted to it so that it permeates the whole mass, becomes charged with the perfume material, and then leaves through an orifice, whence it runs into a receiving vessel, which is exposed to a temperature sufficient to volatilize the solvent, which rises and is liquefied in a condenser and drops back on to the mass of material being extracted. A continuous process is thus maintained until the material is quite free from perfume, and only a small amount of solvent has been employed. This is recovered in a proper still, and the crude matter left behind now consists of the whole of the perfume material of the plant, together with any other nonperfume matter the petroleum ether has extracted. This inert matter consists chiefly of wax, fat and traces
is

of colouring matter.

Owing to the presence of wax, etc., these natural perfume products are usually semi-solid It is for this reason that they are or even solid.

known

as concretes. The extraction process is one of considerable difficulty and requires very great skill if it is to be carried out so that the resulting product
faithfully represents the perfume of the plant and has not suffered any harmful alteration by the treatment involved. The plants which are usually subjected to this process are those where the amount of perfume material is so small that it could not be practicably obtained by any distillation process, but would be
lost. These absolutes or concretes whatever name (or fancy may be given to them) therefore contain the perfume of the plant in an extremely concentrated form, and are therefore very expensive. The only practical disadvantages of this class of product is the fact that they contain the vegetable wax, which is quite odourless and quite insoluble in alcohol. But

almostT'complefely

46

'

PERFUMERY

wax and the perfume are very closely associated, requires a number of washings with alcohol to completely extract the perfume, a matter of the highest
as the
it

importance when the high price is remembered. The practical result is that the manufacturing perfumer has a great deal of work to do to extract the perfume from the concrete, loses a fair amount of alcohol in the process, and also loses a certain amount of the valuable perfume. Further he obtains the perfume in a state
of very considerable dilution, of spirit he has had to use

described by Charabot in " The period at which the extraction of perfumes by volatile solvents entered into the region of industrial realities, coincided exactly with the time of my first researches at the Sorbonne, in the laboratory of Charles
Friedel, in the same laboratory where, first under the direction of Wurtz and subsequently under that of

owing to the large amount this is remedied is well the following words

How

my

illustrious and lamented Master, such a strenuous and glorious straggle had been maintained for the definite triumph of the splendid atomic theory, thanks to which organic chemistry has produced the marvellous results which are so evident to all. The industry of the artificial perfumes, on the morrow of the discovery of ionone, had just taken a new step in advance, and the synthetic products were beginning to claim their place
in

compositions of the finest quality. Perfumery then had need of natural raw materials, sufficiently powerful and consequently sufficiently concentrated, not to be

dominated, crushed out of existence by the chemical


perfumes. These latter were capable of imparting even to the most delicate compositions, valuable characters of originality and fixity, but only on the express condition that they can be sufficiently dominated by products derived from flowers, which are the only ones

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS


which can impart delicacy and sweetness.
It

47

was

this necessity, accentuated still more by the tendency of fashion towards powerful and tenacious perfumes,

which struck me, together with the inconveniencies


products obtained by means of thus my researches were directed towards the obtaining of the perfumes of flowers in the form of products both powerful and soluble in alcohol. They soon led to a satisfactory solution, and the preparation of products conforming with the desiderata mentioned above. Since then, we have been
involved by the
volatile
first

solvents.

And

able to substitute for the first processes which I invented, methods which are more perfect because they have been deduced from the accumulation of acquired knowledge both on the composition of the odorous matters and on their successive states in the plant.

And

these methods,

made

appropriate to the treatment

flower, have enabled us, by employing the solvents in a suitable manner, to leave the vegetable wax, the inodorous substance which is insoluble in alcohol, behind, and to extract solely and completely the odorous principles in the form of products entirely soluble in alcohol. These products, the absolute flower
';

6T each

consequently extremely convenient to use, since it is only necessary to pour them into alcohol, to obtain a clear solution of any concentration that may be desired." The exact methods by which the insoluble wax is got rid of vary with different manufacturers, but by dissolving the concrete in a solvent, and then adding a second solvent in which the perfume material is soluble, but the wax insoluble, most of the wax is The liquid ls~~then filtered, the solvent precipitated. volatilized and recovered, and the treatment repeated. The perfume material is finally obtained as an oil free
oils,

are

48

PERFUMERY

from wax, and soluble in alcohol. Rose, orange, jasmin, tuberose, cassie, mimosa, violet, mignonette, broom, oak moss and other similar perfume plants are typical of those which specially lend themselves to this process.

We will conclude this chapter by

a brief reference to a

few of the balsams and resins which are extracted from plants and which are used as raw materials for the manufacture of perfumery. There are a certain number of resins and oleo-resins which find considerable employment in the perfume industry, some of which are solid substances free from liquid essential oils, whilst others are mixtures of solid resinous substances with a certain amount of essential oil which may be, and sometimes is, separated in the pure state from the oleo-resinous mixture. Of these we shall select a few for more or less extended description. Opoponax. Opoponax has long been a name for
perfumers to conjure with, and its popular perfume will probably still enjoy a very long life. The name of opoponax as applied to a perfume was clearly originally given to a product which was not true opoponax at all.

True opoponax was correctly described by Fliickiger and Hanbury in their Pharmacographia as having a penetrating, offensive odour, reminding one of crushed
ivy leaves.

The opoponax

of

perfumery

is

a resinous

of characteristic odour, resembling true opoponax in colour and appearance. It has a dull brown surface

body

with white streaks here and there, and the pieces break with a dull fracture. The odour reminds one of a indeed, it has often been slightly perfumed bdellium
described as
"

perfumed bdellium."

Its botanical source

has
of

now been Holmes, who

settled with practical certainty by E. M. states that it is the resinous exudation

the stem of

Commiphora Erythraeu, one


to

of

the

plants

belonging

the

natural

order

Burseraceae.

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS

49

The crude substance contains about 5


of

to 7 per cent,

having the characteristic opoponax odour. It is used in perfumery in the form of a tincture " Essence of or alcoholic extract, but, of course, the
essential
oil

of commerce contains it only as a base, numerous other modifying perfume materials being

"

Opoponax

also present.

This fragrant gum resin, also known as olibanum resin, is the product of two or more species of the tree Boswellia. The following description is taken from the author's handbook on Gums and Resins. It was known to the Greeks under the name Libanos, to the Romans as Olibanum, and to the Arabs as Luban, all of which are derived from the Hebrew word It has from time immemorial Sebonah, meaning milk. been regarded as one of the indispensable ingredients of incense for ceremonial purposes. E. M. Holmes gives the following amusing account by Cosmas, of the method adopted by the traders and the natives of the highlands of Abyssinia who collect the resin, but who do not understand the traders' language. " The
Frankincense.
is usually made up of about 500 traders, with them they take a good quantity of salt and iron, and when they are close to the gold land, they rest awhile and make a great thorn hedge. They then kill

gold caravan

the cattle, cut them up, and split their joints upon the thorns while they put out the salt and iron at the foot of the hedge. That done, they retire to a certain distance. Now up come the natives with their gold in
little

lumps, and each places what he considers sufficient Then, beef, salt, or iron which he fancies. Next return the merchants and too, they go away. If content inspect the price offered for their goods. they take away the gold and leave the flesh, salt or iron thus paid for. If not content they leave the gold and

above the

50

PERFUMERY

other things together and retire again. A second visit is then paid by the natives, and either more gold is added, or it is removed altogether according as the purchaser thinks worth while." The trade in frankin-

manner

cense appear to have been carried out in the same as that in the above description of gold
trading.
carter i

trees which yield frankincense are Boswellia and Boswellia frereana, the former yielding what the natives call male frankincense, and the latter yielding the female frankincense. The former appears to be that which usually reaches the London market. It

The two

occurs in fine, small tears, or in small lumps. It consists of a mixture of gum, resin and essential oil, the
latter in

very small quantity.

It

has a characteristic

odour, and is the principal constituent of the incense burned for ceremonial purposes. Ladanum. Ladanum, or labdanum resin is a product of the very highest importance in the perfume industry,

being almost indispensable in the manufacture of those " " languorous heavy perfumes with a somewhat Oriental odour. The best method of using this perfume " " absolutes is in the form of something resembling the described above, the substance yielding about 15 per cent, to either acetone or petroleum ether, and on the evaporation of the solvent, the powerful, alcoholLadanum soluble, perfume matter remains behind. is a soft, sticky oleo-resinous substance, which is exuded by the glandular hairs of a small plant which is usually
Cistus Creticus, but which may sometimes belong to another species. It is collected in Crete and Cyprus.

accumulates on the beards of goats and on the fleeces browse upon the foliage, and is scraped off by combing the hair of these animals. As found in commerce it varies from a somewhat soft to a hardish
It

of sheep that

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS

51

mass easily softened by warming. Its odour is heavy and powerful, reminding one somewhat of ambergris. Cretan ladanum has been analysed by E. J. Emmanuel,

who found

it

to contain the following


.

Ether soluble resin


Alcohol
Essential
oil
.

. . .
.

.
.

48%
17%

. .

.
. .

2%
0'8%

Ladaniol

Ladanoil was obtained in the form of white, sweetsmelling crystals, resembling, and possibly identical with, champacol, the odorous substance obtained from

The essential oil is a liquid of specific 0-950, containing acetophenone and other bodies gravity not yet identified. The value of ladanum as a perfume
champaca wood.
depends on
its

extraordinary sweetness and

its

intense

persistence, giving a very permanent character to other perfume materials. It is therefore used both as a fixative

and an odour
is it

only used

modifier, but care must be taken that it in very small amounts, as otherwise
all

may

overpower

the other odours and ruin the


is

composition.
Storax.

Storax or styrax

a balsamic substance

which exudes from the bark of the tree Liquidambar orientalis, one of the natural order Hamamelidiae, chiefly found in the south-western portion of Asiatic
It is a pathological secretion, not exuding normally, but induced by damaging the bark by heating and bruising. The cambium layers are thus injured, causing the formation of numerous oil ducts into which the balsamic material flows, and whence it is discharged by way of the wounded bark. Crude storax as thus obtained is a greyish-opaque liquid of very thick consistency, and having a very sweet and aromatic odour. This crude storax contains

Turkey.

frorn

20 to 30 per cent, of water and organic debris,

52

PERFUMERY

standing the water separates, and the remainder be dissolved in alcohol, filtered, the alcohol evaporated, and the residue carefully dried. This is the purified storax which is used in pharmacy and perfumery. It owes its sweet odour principally to cinnamic

On

can

acid esters, which are frequently fraudulently removed, and the emasculated storax offered on the market as

genuine storax.

American Storax. There is another variety of liquid storax, known as American Storax, which is the product of various species of Liquidambar Styraciflua, a tree

up in the mountains of Honduras, in America. The much esteemed secretion is known to the natives under the name Copalme. This fragrant balsam was discovered soon after the Continent itself, and whole shiploads of it were sent to Spain from Mexico for perfuming, incense, and medicinal Its use declined, however, and probably purposes. to the difficulty of collection the trade in owing it With the commencement of the nearly died out. Great War, however, a great scarcity of oriental products set in, and fresh sources of supply, or subAdded to these diffistitutes had to be sought for. culties, the oriental storax which was available on the market was so frequently deprived of its aromatic constituents, with the result that attention was again turned to the supplies of American Storax in Honduras.
flourishing high

Central

Although the tree is widely distributed throughout the Southern States of America, known as the sweet gum, the labour conditions did not allow its collection on a commercial scale. In Honduras, however, the conditions were more favourable, and good supplies were obtained during the war from this source. A slight excrescence appears on the bark of the tree which soon enlarges into a pocket in which the balsam is secreted.

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS


It is said that

53

only about one tree in every hundred is found to be worth tapping, and conditions of growth. The to other the age owing pockets usually contain from one to eight pounds of balsam each. Watermeyer gives the following
square yards of forest
analysis Storax.
of

an

average

sample

of

this

American

Mineral matter
Purified balsam

Saponification value of Purified balsam

Acid value of Purified balsam

= traces = 85% =179 = 41

only

The balsam appears to be rich in cinnamic acid esters, and fairly low in free cinnamic acid. Balsam of Peru. This valuable perfume balsam is an oleo-resinous secretion of the bark of Myroxylon pereirae, a tree flourishing in Western Central America, and found largely in the forests of San Salvador. The
secretion is not a natural one, but is pathological, being induced by gently heating, and afterwards scorching the bark of the tree. The wounds so made are covered with cloths which are repeatedly changed and boiled with water, and the oleo-resin separated f om the water. Balsam of Peru is a dark reddish-brown liquid of great A white viscosity and of penetrating and sweet odour. variety, obtained from a different tree, or a different variety, is occasionally found, but the reddish-brown balsam is the only type found in commerce. It contains 55 to 65 per cent, of a substance known as cinnamein, which, however, is not a definite chemical .individual, but a mixture of esters of cinnamic and

benzoic acids. It also contains a small amount of free aromatic acids and free alcohols, and a very small amount of vanillin. The alcohols combined with the

cinnamic and benzoic acids to form the esters are prinFive samples cipally benzyl alcohol and peruviol.

Specific

FIG.

9.

MYROXYLON PEREIRAE
(Peru Balsam Tree)

(1468c)

56

PERFUMERY

often adulterated with ordinary American resin, but more frequently by the abstraction of its valuable
constituents.

Balsam of Tolu has excellent properties as a fixer, and is valued on this account, as well as for its sweet and persistent odour. The variations in the characters and composition are such as to cause considerable
difficulty to the analyst in framing standards for the natural product, and in deciding whether a given sample A pure Balsam of Tolu usually has is genuine or not. characters falling within the following limits
Specific gravity

Refractive index at Acid value Saponification value'

= 60= = =

1-090 to 1'5850 to 1'6020 100 to 150 170 to 205

M10

The total cinnamic acid present and 30 per cent.

varies between 20

Benzoin. Benzoin, or gum benjamin, as it 'is frequently called is a balsamic resinous matter obtained from various species of the Styrax tree, of which Styrax benzoin is the most important. The trees which yield benzoin are found principally in Siam, Sumatra and Java. They do not appear to secrete any resinous matter of an aromatic character when allowed to grow in a normal manner, but when a wound is inflicted, sufficiently deep to injure the cambium layer, numerous resin ducts are formed as a diseased condition of the plant, in which the resinous

now commences to appear. This, like several other important perfume resins, may therefore be described as a pathological secretion. The trees are usually hacked to the proper depth with an axe, when the resin commences to accumulate beneath the bark, or to exude from the incisions. This secretion gradually
secretion

hardens, and

when

it

is

quite solid

it

is

collected

and

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS

57

packed in boxes for exportation. Pure benzoin is a brownish to brownish-red solid substance occurring in large masses in which numerous white or nearly white tears or fragments are embedded. It is easily powdered, and in this form is used to a considerable extent as a
constituent
of incense

and

similar fragrant powders,


pastilles.

and

in the

manufacture of burning
finds
in the

In liquid

employment and apart from a sweet penetrating odour, it possesses good fixative properties. Si am benzoin is one of the most highly esteemed varieties it is chiefly
perfumes
tincture,
;

it

form of an alcoholic

collected in the province of Luang Pratang, but it is not quite certain as to which species of the Styrax tree It occurs, not only in yields this particular variety.

lumps, but sometimes also in the form of isolated tears. It is characterized by its very pronounced odour of vanillas, and by its comparative freedom from cinnamic acid. Sumatra benzoin is also a highly esteemed variety of the resin. It is undoubtedly the product of Styrax benzoin, and is produced on the island of Sumatra. It only occurs in the form of masses, and its odour recalls that of styrax rather than that of vanilla. It may be distinguished from Siam benzoin by boiling a fragment with dilute sulphuric acid and potassium permanganate, when a marked odour of oil of almonds is perceived, owing to the oxidation of the substances present in the Sumatra variety, which are not present in Siam benzoin. The cheapest variety of benzoin is that known as Palembang benzoin, which is obtained from a species of the Styrax tree whose botanical relationship is still
uncertain.

The

principal constituent of

acid, partly in the free state and partly esters. Vanillin is also present, in traces.

Siam benzoin is benzoic combined as In Sumatra

benzoin about half the free acids consist of cinnamic

58
acid.

PERFUMERY
The principal adulterants of benzoin are vegetable and earthy matter. The following figures are
SIAM BENZOIN.

debris

typical of the three principal types of the resin


Mineral matter v' Soluble in 90% alcohol Acid value . Ester value
.

O' 24
.

to 1'98%

.. .

...
.
.
.

88 to 96"5% 130 to 158 42 to 69.

SUMATRA BENZOIN.
Mineral matter Soluble in 90% alcohol Acid value . Ester value ..
.
.

*
.
.

0'4 to

1'96%

90 to 94% 98 to 140 50 to 100.

OTHER VARIETIES.
Mineral matter Soluble in 90% alcohol Acid value Ester value .
.

... ...
.

0'4 to 2 -9%

...
. .

86 to

95%

106 to 142 50 to 90

In addition to the above described categories of natural plant perfume materials, there are a certain number of plant substances which are used in perfumery in a different manner from those in which the above described substances are employed. As a type of this
class of
is

body we may take the

vanilla bean.

No attempt

to separate from these substances (of which the tonquin bean, or tonka bean, is another example)
definite active principle. They are used in the form of alcoholic extracts or tinctures made by macerating

made

any

The most
is

the plant substance in alcohol of suitable strength. largely employed of this class of substances the vanilla bean. It is employed to an enormous extent in the flavouring of cocoa -to make chocolate, but it is also used to a considerable extent in perfumery, the odour being sweet and persistent, producing an agreeable modification of the perfume of other constituents of a bouquet, and at the same time acting as

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS

59

a very useful fixative. The vanilla bean is the fruit of a climbing orchid, a native of South America. There are two species which are cultivated, Vanilla planifolia, the true Mexican vanilla, and Vanilla pompona, the West
Indian vanilla.
Vanilla
is

cultivated in

many

parts

of the tropics, especially in Mexico, Seychelles, Reunion, Mauritius, Tahiti, Java, the Fiji islands, and the West It was used as a flavouring before the Indies.

discovery of America, and was first brought thence to Europe by the Spaniards. The plant requires a tropical climate, hot and moist with frequent but not excessive rains. In Mexico the
flowers are fertilized naturally
birds,

by bees and humming strange that in no other part of the world do the bees visit the flowers, or, if they do, they do not It is therefore necessary to fertilize fertilize them. the vanilla flower by hand, a somewhat delicate operabut
it is

tion,

natives.

is soon learned successfully by the As the flowers only remain open for one day, a large number of persons are required for this work at the flowering season, and women and children become

but one which

60

PERFUMERY

very expert at it. The flowers open one by one on the stalk, but sometimes more than one are open at the same time. The best time to fertilize the flowers is from 8 o'clock in the morning till 1 o'clock in the afternoon. Fertilization is most successful on a day which has been preceded by a rainy day, but on which no rain is falling. An average worker can fertilize 2,000 flowers a day if the vines are fairly close together. He uses a small pointed stick, or splinter, the size and shape of a tooth-pick. He carries a number of these, and with them transfers the pollen to the stigma of the flower. When the fruits are gathered, they have to be dried and cured in order to turn them into the vanilla beans In the fresh state they have little as we know them. or no odour, the vanilla odour being developed by a process of fermentation during the drying and curing. By the use of hot water, stove heat, or sun heat, they
are rapidly ripened uniformly throughout the pod. There are numerous methods adopted for the artificial curing of vanilla of which we will describe one, namely, the Mexican process. The pods are piled in heaps in a shed to protect them from the sun or rain, and in a few days, when they have commenced to shrivel, they are " sweated." In fine warm weather they are spread out on a woollen blanket and exposed to the sun. About midday the blanket is folded over them and the bundle In the evening left in the sun for the rest of the day. they are packed in air-tight boxes and allowed to sweat all night. This process is repeated for a few days, until the beans become dark coffee coloured. In cloudy weather they are cured in an oven at 140 F., instead

exposed to the sun. After the sweating process over the beans are spread out on matting every day for about two months to dry in the sun, and when completely dry are tied into the small bundles in which
of being
is

PLANT PERFUME MATERIALS

61

they are found in commerce. The total vanilla crop of the world is rather a variable quantity, sometimes falling to 350 tons, and at times rising to well over

50Q tons. The vanilla bean owes its characteristic odour to a crystalline substance termed vanillin. The odour is, of course, modified to a slight extent by traces of other bodies, but vanillin is the dominant and In fine quality characteristic odour bearer of the fruit.
beans, the vanillin is present in sufficient quantity to crystallize out on the surface of the beans, and give them a frosted appearance. This appearance is some-

times fraudulently imitated on beans of poor quality by soaking them for a few moments in a solution of benzoic acid in alcohol when the alcohol evaporates the crystals of benzoic acid have the same general appearance as the vanillin crystals. Piesse gives the following as the best method of pre" In paring vanilla beans for perfumery purposes. order to obtain the perfume or essence, half a pound of
;

vanilla pods are cut up small and put into one gallon of pure alcohol of a strength known as 60 over proof,

giving the whole a shake up daily. The ingredients must remain togethe^: for four weeks, at which time all that is worth extracting will be found in the spirits,

may then be strained off clear and bright. It is then suitable as a flavouring agent, or, when blended with other scents, makes delicious perfumery. These,
which
sold under the
etc.,

names

of clematis, 'heliotrope, wallflower,

mostly contain half in bulk of vanilla extract." The statement as to the presence of this large quantity of vanilla in the perfumes named is certainly not true
of the

perfumes of to-day. flavour and perfume of the vanilla bean is so highly esteemed that it caused chemists to investigate the nature of its odorous constituent very minutely

The

62

PERFUMERY

in the hope of being able to manufacture it by synthetic means. The successful synthesis of vanillin is a romance in the history of organic chemistry, and will be dealt with when we turn to the discussion of the synthetic

or artificial perfumes.

CHAPTER
THERE

IV

ANIMAL PERFUMES
are a few substances obtained from animal It is not altogether correct sources used in perfumery. to describe the"m as perfumes, as some of them, in the

natural condition are objectionable in odour and, for example, in the case of civet, positively revolting. And even when diluted to such an extent that the revolting odour becomes tolerable, or even pleasant,
their value, in general, fixative value they have

depends more on the wonderful than on their actual odour. The animal perfume materials that will now be described are four in number, namely, civet, musk, castor and
ambergris.

a glandular secretion^ of the civet cat, species, and is a soft oily substance of the consistence of butter with a powerful It arrives in this country in horns, and faecal odour. upon opening these, the civet appears of a deepish
Civet.

Civet

is

of

which there are several

brown

portion will

if the surface be turned over, the under be found to be of a pale yellowish colour, the brown colour of the surface being due to oxidation. Civet is used in the form of an alcoholic tincture or solution, in very minute quantities, when its very objectionable odour disappears, and the resulting product, mixed with various essential oils, etc., is far more persistent as a perfume than the same product made up without the civet. Civet is a substance which has been known for hundreds of years, and which among the ancients was supposed to possess marvellous virtues. Avicenna, the famous Arabian alchemist, who lived about A.D. 980,

colour, but

63

64

PERFUMERY

writes of civet in his well

known work on pharmacology.

oil of ben, and a copper vessel, when the distillation will be found to be a valuable remedy in cases of chills, tumours, It was also used to a conepilepsy, rheumatism, etc.

He

states that

it

should be dissolved in

distilled in

siderable extent in the manufacture of toilet powders,

But, frankly, we perfumes, ointments and soaps. cannot understand why Benedick, in Much Ado about Nothing, should rub himself with civet to make himself attractive to Beatrice. YTo-day, it would be an excellent method of driving onps friends

away.
civet cat
1

of the natural history of the the most authentic and up-to-date account of the animal we have. It is due to Mr. C. Court
is

The following account

Treatt,

by whom,

also,

the illustration

we

give

was

drawn.
Natural History. The civet cat tribe (Viverridae) is a division of the large group of carnivora, and is closely allied to the cat tribe, from which, however, it differs in several points of structure. The Viverridae are strictly confined to the Old World, both at the present Under the day and probably in pre-historic times. title of civet cat are placed zoologically not only those animals which produce the civet of commerce, but also several close-allied carnivors, such as ichneumons,

palm civets, mongooses, genets, linsangs, etc. Although the members of this group bear the name of cats, they The faces are differ considerably from the cat family. and the bodies thinner, and the legs longer, longer shorter and stouter the soles of the feet are hairy. With the exception of the Rasse, to be mentioned later,
;

all the species of true civets possess an erectile crest of coarse long hairs running down the middle of the back.
1

Perfumery and Essential Oil Record 1912, 73.

ANIMAL PERFUMES

65

The

fur

is

long, coarse
;

and rough, marked at the throat

with a black patch the body striped and mottled with black and the tail, which is long and stout, All the striped with alternate light and dark bands.
;

true civets are characterized


civet glands.

by the

possession of the

These are two perineal glands, forming

a deep pouch in the posterior part of the abdomen, which pouch is divided into two sacs, each about the size of a marble, in which the civet, secreted by the

FIG. 11.

CIVET CAT

surrounding glandular follicles, is stored. The civet in the pouches is at first semi-fluid, but later is of a The function stiffer consistency and darker in colour. of the civet bag is not exactly known, but it is presumed to be of use in sexual attraction and also as a means of defence. Hunters tell us that hounds when close to a civet cat are almost overpowered by the odour it emits. Nevertheless, a hound will leave off hunting animal when once it has crossed the trail of other any a civet cat. The animals producing civet are
Viverra civetta
the African civet cat,

66
V. zibetta

PERFUMERY
the Indian civet of Bengal, China and

Malayan

regions. V. civettina on the

Malabar

coast.

V. megaspila the Burmese civet of Burma, Cochin China, the Malay Peninsular and Sumatra. V.

tangalunga

the Java civet of Java,

Sumatra

and Borneo.
V. malaccensis the Rasse of India, Ceylon, Assam, China, Java, and Sumatra. Almost all the civet imported to Europe comes from the African civet, and since we find a comparatively
large

number

of

true

civets

inhabiting

India

and

one only species of the genus is found in Africa, it seems strange that practically no civet is imported into Europe from those
Malaysia,

while

especially in

travellers that in parts of India, and Java and Sumatra, civet is in great request by the natives as a perfume, and possibly the demand there is so large that export to Europe is" not worth The civets seem always to have been more while. numerous in India than in Africa, several remains of extinct species having been found in Pliocene rocks of

regions. learn

We

from

India. It is interesting to note that in earlier periods of the earth's history, the lower Miocene and upper Eocene, civets inhabited England and parts of Western

Europe. The African Civet. The African Civet is one of the largest civet cats, the length of the body being about 2J to 3 ft., while the height is from 10 ins. to a foot. The stout tail, about 18 ins. long, is of a darker colour than the body, almost black towards the tip, but marked in the anterior portion with transverse ridges of a paler The brownish grey fur is coarse and roughcolour. marked over the whole body with dark streaks looking,

ANIMAL PERFUMES
;

67

and patches while the legs, two patches round the and a broad eyes, patch on the chest, are black. The chin and the sides of the neck are white. The erectile crest running down the back is exceedingly noticeable, the hairs being longer, stouter, and darker than the rest of the fur. Not much is definitely known of its habits in a wild state indeed, considering the hundreds of years in which civet has been an article of commerce,
;

surprising how little we really know of the animal. Like the majority of carnivores the civet is nocturnal, hiding in thick grass and undergrowth during the day,
it is

and only issuing forth at night to hunt its prey, which consists of small birds and mammals, snakes, frogs, Both ancient large insects, and possibly some fruits. and modern writers agree that it is often found in holes and small caves but whether the holes are dug by the
;

animal

itself is

doubtful.

The

civets are quite at

home

and are said by the natives to prey on the wild fowl which are so abundant on some of the reedcovered lakes, and to rob the eggs from their nests. The animals are captured in various ways, and kept in cages, where they are carefully fed and tended for the sake of their secretion. While young they are fed on a pap, composed of meal, with a little fish and flesh added, but when adult the diet consists entirely of raw meat. Though in captivity they become partially tamed, they are never entirely domesticated, and are
in the water,

always dangerous to handle, flying into rages without the least warning, and attacking fiercely anyone who comes within reach of their teeth. When the civet is to be collected, which operation takes place about every four days, the animal is placed in a small cage only just
It big enough to contain it, and the legs are secured. is then teased and irritated, as the secretion is formed in

larger

quantities

when the animal

is

angered.

The

68
civet
is

PERFUMERY

extracted from the pouch with a horn or iron spatula, and if the animal is in good condition, well grown and a male, about a dram to a dram and a half
is

When

yields less than the male. almost liquid and of a pale yellow colour, but with time and exposure to the air it darkens

obtained.
fresh

The female
is

it

and becomes of the consistency of pomade. After having been freed from hairs it is packed in oxhorns, which are covered over with hide and bound round with grass fibre. The average horn contains
slightly,

though occasionally horns are received holding The Indian and other civet cats as 70 ozs. mentioned above all closely resemble the African variety in appearance and habits, and the civet obtained from them is of identical quality and odour. The Rasse alone differs, being a much smaller animal and lacking It is carried about in cages by the the erectile crest.
30
as
ozs.,

much

natives of Java who keep it for the sake of its perfume. It is a fierce little animal, absolutely untamable, and never breeds in captivity. The Javanese are extremely

fond

of

civet

and anoint

their

hair,

bodies

and

clothing with the raw article, and also with mixtures of The civet with various extracts of flowers. houses and everything in them are strongly scented with it, and at public ceremonies and functions the perfume is so strong as to be quite nauseating to

Europeans.
Civet is very frequently adulterated, the principal adulterants being butter or other fats, banana pulp,

and sometimes vaseline. A gummy matter which has not been identified is also sometimes used for adulterating purposes. J. O. Braithwate has examined a sample of
authenticity and compared three commercial samples with it. His results were as shown in the table on the following page.

known

ANIMAL PERFUMES

69

The markedly lower percentage

of volatile acids in

the commercial samples, as compared with the authentic specimen, indicate the presence of foreign fatty matter.

70

PERFUMERY
The residue is dried

more acetone.
If

at a low temperature. from vaseline it will be greyish-white and powdery, but if vaseline be present it will be oily

the civet

is

free

or pasty.

If

this

be the case, shake the oily residue

petroleum ether, and filter, and well wash the residue with more petroleum ether. If vaseline is present the petroleum ether will be highly fluorescent, and on evaporation will leave the vaseline which can be weighed. As little as 5 per cent, can be detected by this method. Sack has quite recently investigated the composition of civet and has isolated from it a body which is a ketone, and which he terms zibethone. This was separated from the civet in the following manner. The civet is boiled for several hours with a
with 50
cc. of

strong solution of caustic potash in alcohol. The alcohol is removed by evaporation, and the residue treated with water and extracted with ether. The ether is evaporated, and the residue so obtained is steam distilled until all the skatole (another constituent
of the civet) is

ether

removed. It is then again shaken with and the ether removed by distillation. This leaves an oily residue, which is treated with a little and the alcoholic solution filtered. The alcohol, alcohol is removed by distillation in vacuo, and leaves
a yellow syrup amounting to 10 to 15 per cent, of the civet used. This substance possesses a pleasant musklike odour, together with the peculiar animal aroma of the civet. It can be co verted into a crystalline from which the zibethone can be recovered compound in a state of absolute purity.

A genuine civet should have the following characters


Moisture V . J Mineral matter Soluble in petroleum ether Acid value of petroleum extract Sugar
'

"

...
.

15 to to

30%

2%

almost entirely 130 to 150

.-..-.

none

ANIMAL PERFUMES
Castor.

71

Castor or Castoreum is a valued material manufacture of high-class perfumes, and is used as an odorous fixative in the form of an alcoholic
in the

tincture.

It^consists of the dried

membranous

follicles of

the

Beaver,

Castor

fiber,

which"""afe~5itu'ated

between the

amis~ahdjhe_genital organs of both sexes of the animal. There are two pairs attached to each animal, the lower ones being pear shaped and somewhat larger than the upper pair. They contain an oily, viscid, highly odorous substance which, is a glandular secretion. The follicles are removed after the death of the animal and dried

by smoke or in the sun. When quite fresh, castor a white liquid of the consistence of very thick cream. In commerce two varieties are met with, namely, the Canadian and the Russian. Canadian castor, however, is the one variety met with in this country, Russian Castor castor very rarely reaching the London market. is sold in the form of more or less soft, unctuous masses, which gradually harden, and which is contained in sacs from 2 to 3 ins. long, very flattened and wrinkled, and of a deep brown colour. A good quality sample
either
is

should be very powerful in odour and very bitter and nauseous in taste. So far as the English market is concerned, castor comes on offer only once a year. The Canadian castor is, to all intents and purposes, a monopoly of the Hudson's Bay Company, and the
year's
collection
is

offered

by public

sale

annually,

towards the end of the year, the amount offered being now about 1,000 Ibs.
Castor varies considerably in composition, the principal constituent being a resin which is present to the extent of from 40 to. 70- per cent. The characteristic

odour
6

is

peculiar crystalline principle,


(1468o)

due to a small amount of an essential oil. A which has been named

72
castorin
is

PERFUMERY
also present to the extent of

from 4 to 5
analysis
of

per

cent.

Mingand

gives

the

following

castor

Ether extract
Alcohol
,
:

88.4%
0-8
0-1

Aquean
Acetic

,,

0-6

Residue
Volatile matter

Mineral matter
It is strange that

2-2% 7-9% 0-75%

well

about 150 years ago, when it was that castor was the product above described, a writer in so important a scientific journal as the

known

it describes Philosophical Transcactins erroneously He wrote as the product of the testicles of the Beaver. " To prepare the the following interesting remarks matter of Beaver's stones, boil a proper quantity of water with half a shovelful of woodashes, tie the bags

and put them in the boiling water for half a quarter of an hour. Lay birch bark on the fire and smoke the bags well over it for an hour till they be well dried lay them up for a week or more till perfectly dry and hard they may then be packed up for use or Castor is still used to a small extent exportation." as a drug, but its employment is almost entirely confined to perfumery as an odorous fixative material. Ambergris. Ambergris is an exceedingly valuable animal product for which perfumers pay very high prices.
in couples
; ;

Its

name
"

is

derived from
"
signifies

its

supposed resemblalicef t.o


"

amber, and
think

grey amber

or as

many

people

amber grease." It is an opaque grey to blackish solid material, containing a certain amount of fatty material, of very low specific purity, and yielding only a small amount to
alcohol.

lsjxlour
it

is

small amounts

gives

not attractive, but in exceedingly a character to perfumes not

ANIMAL PERFUMES

73

obtainable in any other way, and also acts as a most valuable fixative, a character in common with that of other animal perfumes. It is found on the sea coast, or floating on the sea near the coasts of India, Africa, and
Brazil it is also sought for by the whale fishers, who always look for ambergris in the intestines of the sperm whale when they catch one. They are most successful in finding it in those which appear torpid, sick and lean. It is now well known that ambergris is a pathological
;

product, the result of some particular disease in sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus. Sometimes whale manages to reject the secreted ambergris recovers from his disease, sometimes he does not,

the
the

and and

dies. His body is eaten by other fish, who will not touch the ambergris, which is thus left floating on the sea. A sick whale may be caught alive, and the whalers will then rejoice over their luck as the ambergris they find in the whale sintes_tiae&-m.ay be worth far more than the rest of The" whale. Ambergris occur in small pieces varying from a few ounces to a few pounds, but occasionally huge lumps are found, and it is recorded that a piece weighing 182 pounds was sold by the Dutch India Company for
>

116,400
is

florins.

Although

it is now well established that ambergris a pathological sjecreJioji^jQi-tha^Sperm whale, many

fanciful stories

have been told

of its alleged origin.

less than eighteen current opinions as to its origin and production. The principal views held were the following (1) It was believed to be the excrement of a bird, common in

writer

named Klobius quotes no

Madagascar, melted by the sun's heat, washed out to swallowed by a whale, and passed through it unaltered. (2) Others believed it to be part of the excrement of certain cetaceous fish. (3) It was also
sea,

74

PERFUMERY

surmised to be the
trees

wax or gum exuding from certain on the sea shore, which dropped into the growing sea, congealed and became ambergris. (4) A common Oriental idea was that it sprang from the bed of the sea as naphtha does from the earth, or that it was a kind of bitumen gradually working up from the ocean and hardening in the sun. (5) By some it was held to be a kind of marine fungus torn up from the bottom of the
sea

by

violent tempests.

(6)

The

origin of ambergris

honeycomb which had fallen into the sea from rocks where bees had built their nests. (7) Dr. Boylston and Mr. Dudley (Phil. Trans., 385-387) asserted that ambergris was an animal concretion found in balls in the body of the male sperm whale. (8) A certain Herr Neumann, chemist to the King of Prussia (Phil. Trans., 433, 434, 435), denied that ambergris was an animal product at all, and that if it were found in whales it must have first been swallowed by them. His own opinion was that it was a species of bitumen exuding from the earth into the sea. Quoting from an old
was
also ascribed to
scientific work of the eighteenth century we find the " The pieces are frequently seen composed following. of divers strata with stones and other bodies

endorsed therein, and the strata are sometimes full of whence it may be conjectured that little shells the ambergris had originally been in a fluid state and enveloped such bodies as happened to be in its

way." Musk.

for centuries

The veneration in which musk has been held by the Chinese, and the exceedingly high value placed upon it by the perfumer, are reasons why a somewhat full account of this perfume material is now given. The old name of musk in China is Shay
"

hiang, signifying is probably the

the perfume of the deer."


traveller

first

Ta vernier who makes mention of

'

ANIMAL PERFUMES
this substance, describing in his diary that over 7,000 pods during one of his voyages.

75 he purchased

musk

all the animal perfume materials, an intense fixative agent, but in contra-distinction to other animal perfumes, it possesses an odour

In

common with
is

which,is so intense and so sought after, that


in

many

cases,

become merely subordinated

odours, but

in the finished perfume, is, predominating notes of the whole composition. Musk was probably introduced into Europe by the Arabs: at all events it figures in the list of presents In sent to the Emperor of Greece by Saladin in 1189. the tenth century Avicenna mentions it in his pharma-

does not, to other one of the


it

cology as a remedy for various diseases, and, of course, Marco Polo in his travels found musk to be a common

commodity amongst the

Orientals.

Musk

is

the highly

odorous secretion, of -the 'M:us^^Q^r~Moschus moschiferus, formeoTEy a special gland situated in the skin of the abdomen. The deer live in a wild state, very seldom gregarious in their habits, rarely being found except singly or in pairs. They usually conceal themselves during the day and come out to feed at night, and again in the very early morning. They are found principally on the mountains of the North of India and in Central Asia, their habitat being within 70 to 170 longitude E, and 65 to 15 latitude N. They are found to a smaller extent in Northern Siberia, and they are also hunted, in the north-east of Cochin China. But
it is

principally in Mongolia, Thibet, Nepaul, Cashmire,

Assam and Surkutan in China that the animal is hunted and to some extent in the neighbourhood of Lake Baikal. The secreting gland is peculiar to the male
animal, and the secretion appears to be in relation to the sexujl_organs, since it is more abundant and more

odorous at _the time when the female deer

is

in season.

76

PERFUMERY

It is only found in the adult animal and ceases when he has passed a certain age. The gland is about the size of a tangerine orange, buried under the skin of the abdomen immediately above the preputial orifice, but not having any direct communication with the It possesses a small orifice, through genital organs. which the secretion exudes on the contraction of a

powerful muscle by the deer.

FIG. 12.

MUSK DEER

of the secretion,

The whole animal is permeated by the powerful odour and even the excrement on drying

causes the surrounding atmosphere to be permeated with the odour of musk, a fact which the hunter turns to very useful account in following the trail of the deer. Hunting the musk deer is very difficult, and is sometimes undertaken as a sport by Anglo-Indians. The natives, however, find it very difficult and sometimes very hazardous. The use of dogs is scarcely practicable, since the deer is so agile, as to easily outdistance any dog in mountain country. The deer are, to a large
'

extent, caught

by

building hedges or barriers across

ANIMAL PERFUMES

77

places where they are known to be, with openings at fixed distances in which traps are inserted. The traps

must be

visited regularly, as otherwise leopards or other animals will devour any deer that have been caught. The deer are killed unfortunately even young ones whose musk pouches are only in a very early stage of development, and the pouches carefully laid out to dry before they are packed for transmission to the merchants.

There seems reason to believe that, in spite of the interruption of hunting during the whole of the winter, the feeble breeding power of the musk deer, coupled with the senseless killing oi everything the hunter catchy the extermination of the animal will only be a matter of a comparatively short time.

The
(1)

principal varieties of

musk

are the following


(3)

Tonquin musk, (2) Gabardine musk, musk, and (5) Assam musk. Tonquin musk comes from Thibet, and the most prized commercially. It arrives,

Nepaul
certainly

is

in the pod,

78

PERFUMERY

in small boxes covered with silk and lined with lead, which are known as catties, because they contain one The pod of tonquin musk, catty (22f oz.) of musk. is round, never pear-shaped slightly flattened, but A lappet of skin is left round the edge of the pod, and when this is cut down, so that it is only about Jth of an inch broad, the pod is said, to be trimmed. The

so-called

"

Blueskin

"

musk

is

Tonquin pod prepared

in a special

merely the old-fashioned manner. The two

or three layers of skin covering the opposite side of the pod to that on which the orifice lies are removed, leaving

exposed the thin membranous skin which lies immeThis membrane is of diately next to the musk grains.
steel

a bright metallic blue colour, somewhat resembling " hence the name Blueskin." The preparation of blueskin musk is an operation of a very delicate
is performed by specially trained natives, principally in Shanghai. According to C. Court Treatt, the advantages to be claimed for blueskin musk "are the following

nature, and

(a)

The character
There
is

of the contained grain can

be more

readily ascertained.

chance of adulteration, since the no rough handling. one (c) It is easier to grain than the old-fashioned has only to break the blueskin with the fingers instead of cutting through a leathery jacket with a knife. a pod whose skin (d) There is less skin to go bad has begun to putrefy may affect the odour of a whole parcel of musk.
(b)

less

delicate blueskin will stand

buyers like the interesting appearance of a blueskin pod with its bright iridescent covering is quite a beautiful object in itself. Tonquin musk constitutes from 80 to 85 per cent, of the musk of commerce, and is, of course, the most
(e)

Many
;

blueskin

ANIMAL PERFUMES

79

esteemed variety. In common with other musk, except Nepaul musk, it usually possesses a more or less ammoniacal odour, due to its not having been completely dried,

and having therefore undergone a small amount


fermentation.

of

Gabardine musk is not of so fine an odour as Tonquin musk. A distinction is made between Russian and Chinese cabardine musk. The pods are more oval and flatter in shape, and they usually have wide margins of adherent skin. They are more hairy than Tonquin
pods, and are frequently much more moist, and, so, more fermented. In this condition they are sometimes
half full of a yellow liquid, are then known commercially " The Russian cabardine musk trade as squeakers."
is

carried on from Siberia via Petrograd, the Chinese variety coming over through the same sources as Ton-

quin musk, which it more nearly resembles in general characters than does the Russian variety. Nepaul musk only arrives in London at irregular intervals, much of it being used in India and in the Arabian districts. The pods are very small, being only about one-third of the size of the Tonquin pod. They are in the form of hard, round balls covered with hair about an inch long. The grain is quite dry and, on account of this careful preparation, never has any odour of ammonia. Assam musk is only obtainable in very small quantities, the supply, other than any which may be used

by the

The natives, being sent entirely to England. pods resemble the Nepaul pods, but the skin is conThe grain is almost black, and has siderably darker. an odour differing somewhat from that of all other varieties of musk. Grain musk, which is the form in which many perfumers prefer to buy it, is made by splitting open the

80

PERFUMERY

pod and scooping out the grain, great care being taken not to scrape away any of the blue skin with it, as this is liable to putrefy, and would thus spoil the whole of the bulk of the grain. The grain is soft and unctuous to the touch, and is in the form of small deep reddishbrown particles somewhat resembling clotted blood, with a bitter and somewhat astringent taste. The
odour
is

a strong

so powerful that one part of musk can impart musk odour to 3,000 parts of an odourless

powder. According to some, the odour of musk is not only due to the compounds which it contains amongst which the ketone, muskone, is the principal but also to the development of some substance during a slow process of fermentation. Any specimen of musk which has been kept in a closed space for any length of time gives off a distinct odour of ammonia.
of musk is very common, and it to Dried an expert recognize pure samples. requires blood, albumen, earthy matter, etc., etc., are used for this purpose, and the adulteration commences with the journey with the caravan which has collected the pods from the hunters, to the headquarters of the exporting merchant. In the leisurely journey, the pods are carefully opened and the adulterant inserted in so skilful a manner, that only an expert could detect what had been done. There used to be a tax on all musk so brought in to Shanghai, and it was generally paid in kind. If the merchant tendered adulterated musk pods in payment but of the tax, the collectors did not argue with him promptly cut his head off. Hence the fact that musk used for payment of the tax was severely left alone, and

The adulteration

was always pure. Musk owes its odour,

in the main, to

about 0*5 up

to 2 per cent, of a ketone apparently allied to the ketone

ANIMAL PERFUMES
of civet

81
It is

which has been referred to above.

a thick,

colourless, oil, only very slightly soluble in water, but It forms crystalline derivatives easily soluble in alcohol. from which it is easily recovered in a chemically pure

condition.

be as well to mention here that, as will be seen deal with synthetic perfumes, artificial musk has no connection, from a chemical point of view, with natural musk, the artificial substance being an entirely different body from muskone, only resembling it in that it possesses a powerful musk-like odour. Musk is used in perfumery in the form of an alcoholic
It

may

when we

tincture,

and

finds

employment

in a large

number

of

the most esteemed liquid perfumes.

CHAPTER V
ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES

THE development

of the synthetic perfume, although

of considerably less commercial importance than that of the coal tar dye, is of at least as great scientific interest

and value as the results which followed the epoch making discovery of our own countryman, W. H. Perkin, who discovered the first of the coal tar colours. There is one clear and definite reason why the evolution of the
synthetic perfume the coal tar dye.
is of

much

later date

than that of
is

The

intense colour of the dye

at

visible, and practically unmistakably visible, to the eye of any person with the exception of the very

once

few really colour blind persons. Now with odours the matter is entirely different. Nearly every substance which is recognized as having a pleasing odour, or what
is

commonly regarded

as a

"

perfume,"

is

appreciated

as such in a state of considerable dilution, and very few persons, who, for example, highly appreciate the

perfume of a bottle of essence of white rose, or of eau de Cologne, would consider the concentrated materials to which the finished article owes its fragrance as being

As a solitary example, we may agreeable perfumes. mention methyl anthranilate, one of the chief constituents of oil of neroli, which in itself is one of the principal ingredients of eau de Cologne, would be regarded with aversion by the admirers of the eau de Cologne. Hence,

when a body is discovered, it often requires a chemist who has been specially trained to the valuation of odours, to recognize what its odour is likely to be when the substance is used in a diluted or compounded condition.
82

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES

83

Prior to the last twenty or thirty years, this simple fact had not received sufficient attention, and the skilled

chemist did not always realize the odour value of As an extreme example substances he was handling. of this, we may mention that when the coal tar body diphenyl-oxide was discovered thirty years or so ago,
its

discoverer
it

recorded

its

having a slight odour of oranges." " " Ten years or so ago d^hejiyl-o^dde_was rediscovered by a chemist who had a due perception of odour value.
described
as
its immense possibility as a perfume' and to-day diphenyl-oxide is made on a com" artificial geranium," the mercial scale and sold as

"

physical

characters,

and

He

recognized

material,

when in dilute solution, having an intense odour closely resembling that of the geranium leaf. The first thing we have to do is to understand what a
substance,

synthetic

perfume
the

is.

Synthesis
as

is

the

"

putting

building up, together," distinguished from or in chemical down, breaking operations. analysis,
If by starting from one substance we succeed in effecting chemical combinations and changes, so that

from the original body we eventually build up an entirely and, usually, more complicated compound, we have synthesized that compound. And when we use the term synthetic in its true sense as applied to a perfume, it is a substance built up in this manner. " The wider term " artificial perfume embraces something more than this. For example, if we are able to extract from some natural source one given constituent of, for example, oil of neroli, and from some other natural
different,

source another constituent occurring in oil of neroli, and so, eventually extract all the constituents of natural
oil of neroli

them together we obtain an

from quite varied sources, so that by mixing oil which closely resembles the natural oil of neroli, we should not have synthesized

84

PERFUMERY

any single ingredient, but should merely have separated them from other substances in which they existed ready-formed, arid mixed them so as to make, not a
synthetic,

but an

artificial oil of neroli.

As a matter of fact the artificial oil of neroli of commerce is so made in regard to nearly the whole of its ingredients. But one very important constituent, methyl anthranilate, is in fact prepared by synthesis from coal
tar derivatives, so that the artificial **^^ oil^does contain

some synthetic perfume material. The distinction between the words

'S^

artificial

and

synthetic above mentioned, is not a very important one from the point of view of the practical perfumer, but to the chemist it is highly important, as in general the

methods used for extracting ready-formed ingredients, and for synthesizing new substances, are of very
different characters.

The
in the

early development of the synthetic perfume was,

main, in the hands of the Germans,

who

exploited

them strongly against the natural flower perfumer. The French, being naturally the leaders of the flower
perfume industry of the world, opposed the newlyintroduced synthetic perfume very strongly on the grounds of the general coarseness of their odours. To-day the antagonistic schools have come together, and perfumers universally recognize the value of blending the synthetic perfume with the natural, whilst the most
bigoted exponent of the synthetic will not deny that as delicate perfumes they are of.. little use without the assistance of the natural substances. As an illustration of this position we may quote the following interesting remarks by the well-known French perfume chemist Dr. Eugene Charabot. " I still have a vivid remembrance of the uneasiness

which, on the

morrow

of the discovery of ionone,

tended

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES
to cloud the hopes

85

tural populations of the Grasse district of the violet.

founded by the industrious agriculon the cultivation

After seeing the profits, which were afforded them in former times by abundant olive harvests, disappear, these cultivators had sunk their labour and their modest resources in planting violet plants under the shade of the olive trees which had broken their promises. And it was feared that there would happen the same thing which had come about in the dyestuff industry, where chemistry, by its marvellous methods of synthesis, had succeeded in realizing the same groupings of atoms as the vegetable organism, thus gaining over Nature a victory, the consequence of which was the ruin of agricultural industries

"

and the upsetting

of the

economic

But events- soon showed position of several districts. that all fears in this respect were devoid of foundation.

The industry of natural perlumes was destined to evade these disturbing influences and we have seen the artificial perfume industry born and develop, not merely without inflicting the least injury on the industry of Grasse, but even assisting its progressive evolution. Xature maintained the monopoly of the fine perfumes, whilst the art of the chemist created odorous products of low price, which enabled compositions to be prepared
;

"

within the means of humbler customers. " New needs are created by the possibility of satisfyso that the use of perfumes has extended to all them, ing
classes of society.

Since the

employment

of artificial

perfumes necessitates that of a certain proportion of the natural products, the immediate result was that the latter found new outlets in cheap perfumery, whilst still
retaining the basis of the better class of scents. " If, I confined myself to the statement that
artificial

the

perfumes have been the making of cheap

86

PERFUMERY

perfumery, I should be doing these products an injustice, which I wish to avoid by pointing out another circumstance which has contributed to the union of the destinies of the two industries with which we are dealing. The chemical products do not serve exclusively for the

they also preparation of strong and coarse perfumes have their place in fine perfumery. Properly applied they are capable of increasing the power of the sweetest
;

scents,

to

which they impart

originality,

strictly

on

condition that they are accompanied by a large proportion of natural products, of which they, in this way,
difficult at

again favour the continued consumption. Thus it is the present day to conceive the employment These of the one class to the exclusion of the other.

more than sufficient to justify my opinion the influence exerted by the chemical perfumes regarding on the development of the natural perfume industry. They are expressed in the ever growing importance of the floriculture of the South of France and the ever
facts are

increasing " And

demand

for flower products.

is emphatic, tnat the industry of natural perfumes and that of the artificial perfumes, rivals in appearance, lend each other mutual support

my

conclusion

in the

path of progress on which they both are travelling. is one more instance of the truth, with the fruitful instruction which it bears with it, that real,

Thus there

continuous progress, universally beneficial, is invariably manifested when Science and Industry are bound
together in close union, strong and fertile." With these preliminary remarks, we may now pass on to the detailed examination of a number of the more

important of

the synthetic and artificial perfumes, commencing with lonone. lonone. The perfume of the violet has always been an exceedingly popular one. The odorous constituents

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES
of the violet flower are so delicate

87

and exist in such a practical impossibility to Natural violet isolate them for the perfumer's use. perfume, therefore, is prepared for manufacturers in
minute quantity, that
it is

the form of pomade, or sometimes concrete. The wellknown resemblance of the oddur of the root of several
species of
Iris,

led to the general

employment

violet dered orris root in the preparation of the " powder of the Victorian era, a powder in which violet

of "

pow-

perfume jwas usually conspicuous by its absence. TRe chemists, Tiemann and Kriiger, determined to attempt to prepare a violet perfume by synthetic methods.
But, owing to the practical impossibility of obtaining sufficient of the natural violet perfume for proper
investigation, they

commenced

their

work by an

ex-

haustive research into the chemistry of the odorous constituents of the closely allied perfume of orris root.. From orris root they succeeded in isolating a body, known chemically as a ketone, which they named irone,

which had an intense odour resembling that of violets, although not absolutely identical with it. Having
succeeded in establishing the identity of the substance they wished to synthesize, they then started out to

attempt to prepare an identical body by synthetic methods. As a matter of fact they did not succeed in preparing irone in this manner, but eventually they did succeed in preparing an allied body, which they termed lonone, and which had an odour even more like that of violets than irone itself. They produced

new known as
this

ketone, ionone,
citral,

by

first

separating the body

which forms the principal constituent of oil of lemon, oil of verbena, and oil of lemon -grass. On a commercial scale, citral is always obtained from oil of lemon-grass. Citral, thus separated, was Jieated with acetone (the highly volatile liquid which is used as
7

(1468G)

88
a solvent for cordite,

PERFUMERY
etc.)

in the presence of a small

amount

of caustic alkali.

In this

manner they obtained

this is neither particularly But, by heating pleasant, nor characteristic of violets. this pseudo-ionone with dilute sulphuric acid in the

a condensation product, ionone. The odour of

which they termed pseudo-

presence of a little glycerine, they converted it into an isomeric body, which they termed ionone. This body was found to possess an intense odour of violets,

and was put on to the market in the form of a 10,-per cent, solution in alcohol, and was sold at a very high
being protected by a patent. To-day, the patent having expired, it is sold in a pure 100 per cent, condition,
price,

and the price


Ionone
is

is

quite reasonable.

a pale yellow, or almost colourless oil, of specific gravity from 0'935 to 0'940, having an intense violet odour, but also slightly recalling that of the vine blossom. It was for many years believed that ionone was an absolute chemical individual. Later researches, however, have shown that it is a mixture of two closely allied isomeric ketones, which have been named alphaionone and beta-ionone. So that by separating ionone into its two isomeric constituents, two bodies are obtained each having an intense violet perfume, but " " " each having a distinctly different timbre note," or as the French prefer to call it. Alpha-ionone has the sweeter and more penetrating odour of the two, rather resembling orris root than violets in perfume, whilst beta-ionone more closely resembles the violet flower. In addition to these bodies, other very closely allied ketones can be prepared by substituting for acetone, a closely allied substance, and so producing very closely allied condensation products. The result is that we have a number of bodies, all of which have intense

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES
violet odours,

89

but which differ slightly between themSo that by judiciously blending them a number of artificial violet perfumes can be prepared, each with " shade." So that the artificial a slightly different violet perfume sold by the manufacturers to the perfumers under various proprietary names may, and do, actually vary in character, on account oFtHe different proportions in which these violet ketones are blended.
selves.

The discovery
violet

of ionone

has helped to popularize

perfume amongst the masses to an enormous Much of the violet perfume as sold to the public extent. contains no trace of true violet perfume, but is made Such mixtures are entirely with the artificial ionone. " " chemical odour, always rather coarse and have a
especially if, as is often the case, there is too much ionone in the perfume. This very common fault is not due to any error of judgment on the part of the per-

fumer.

He knows

sorrowfully,

perhaps,

from

an

artistic point of view that there is a large user who will be content with nothing but

class of

a strong

perfume.

The
flower,

however,

better class of violet perfume offered to the public, is, in most cases, a natural-extract of the violet
fortified

with a

little

artificj^a^Monone^.

Such

perfumes, properly prepared, leave little to be desired. In reference to the practical use of ionone, Messrs.

Schimmel comments.
'

&

Co.

have made

the

following
its

useful

This beautiful article maintains

position in the

rank of preparations for perfumery, and will probably remain without a rival among artificial perfumes for some time to come. Although the violet scent has long been a favourite perfume, its popularity has doubled through the invention of ionone, and it is
front

not too

much

to say that the introduction of that

body

90
alone has

PERFUMERY

made it possible to produce a perfect extract. of the leading European perfumers produce violet extracts which may be recommended as examples of
Some
excellence,
of

and which have deservedly become comfirst

mercial articles of the

ionone have earned

importance. the gratitude

The inventors
of

the entire

perfumery industry, and may be congratulated in turn upon the remarkable success of their invention. As we have already pointed out on a previous occasion, the preparation of a violet extract in which ionone is made to occupy its due position is not such an easy task as is often assumed on the contrary it requires a long and thoughtful application. To obtain a perfect result with ionone is an art in the true meaning of the word, and on that account no inexperienced hand should attempt it. We again and again lay stress upon this
;

fact,

because in our business

face to face with people a suitable violet extract

we are constantly brought who think that they can make by simply mixing alcohol with
view
is

ionone

wrong. The above employment presupposes everything else that the user is acquainted with the peculiarities of the article, and knows how to deal with them. Again and again the uninitiated come to us with the complaint that ionone has no odour at all, or that it smells disagreeably, although, as a matter of fact, these objections are usually withdrawn upon closer acquaintance with the article. The assumptions in question are only due
solution.

This

quite

of ionone

to a blunting of the olfactory nerves, or, more correctly, to a nasal delusion, which also occurs sometimes in

known

the case of other flower odours, and to which people are to be particularly liable when smelling freshly gathered violets. The principal thing in' connection with the employment of ionone is to discover its-proper

degree of dilution.

In

its

natural state the "body

is

so

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES

91

highly concentrated as scarcely to remind one of violets. This is the reason why it was placed in trade in the form This of a 10 per cent solution, and not in its pure state. form has proved an exceedingly useful one. In using it for extracts, powders, sachets, etc., the solution must be further diluted and fixed with some orris oil, civet

and musk."
Vanillin.

When

describing

the

characters

of

the

vanilla bean,

material

we pointed out that the valuable perfume owed its odour, in the main to a crystalline
These crystals

substance which was termed vanillin.

were

separated and examined,


to prepare
it

made

artificially.

and attempts "were The first method by


:

which it was prepared is of historical interest only this was by the oxidation of the glucoside coniferin, by means of chromic acid. The researches of Tiemann and Haarmann eventually led to a most interesting synthesis of vanillin, and one which, to-day, is the principal method by which it is manufactured com-

The starting point for this synthesis is the mercially. essential oil of cloves. This oil, so largely used in the
preparation of flavouring essences, contains from 75 to 90 per cent, of a substance called eugenol, to which the cloves owe their characteristic odour and flavour.
is quite easily extracted from the oil, in a state of absolute purity. If eugenol be heated for a short time with a little caustic alkali, it undergoes a slight alteration a molecular rearrangement and is converted into iso-eugenol. By treating this' body with acetic anbydride, it is converted into acetiso-

The eugenol

This body is then treated with an oxidizing is converted into acetyl- vanillin, from which pure vanillin is obtained by decomposition by means
eugenol.
agent, and
of

an

alkali.

The

vanillin so obtained is absolutely identical with,

92

PERFUMERY
vanillin occuring

and indistinguishable from, the natural


in the vanilla bean.

So that, in this case, the synthetic one which is not product merely resembles that which it purports to imitate, but is absolutely identical with It is, of course, true that the odour of synthetic it. vanillin, is not quite identical with that of the vanilla bean, because the* bean contain^ traces of other substances than vanillin, which all contribute to the odour of the bean. Vanillin can be made by a number of other processes, including several which start from substances found in coal tar. For example, Tiemann and Reimer have succeeded in preparing it from guaiacol, a phenolic body existing in, or manufactured from,
coal tar.

The process is carried out in the following manner About 100 parts of caustic soda are dissolved in 100 parts of water, and to the solution thirty-five parts of
After the mixing, the guaiacol are added, whilst hot. solution is cooled to 60 to 65, and then sixty parts of chloroform are gradually added through the usual

type of side tube, or through the condenser, which should be long and kept cold with water nearly at ice temperature. About one-third of the chloroform should be added at first, and the liquid in the heating apparatus should be well stirred. A thermometer must be kept in the heating flask, so that the temperature may be completely under control. Directly a temperature of 70 is indicated the flask must be immersed in cold water until it is reduced again to 65. The temperature is thus kept between 65 and 70 during the whole course of the reaction, and if it should fall below 60 In the flask must be immersed in warm water again. about 15 minutes, a second third of the chloroform is added, the precautions as to temperature being still observed. After another quarter of an hour the balance

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES
of the chloroform
is

93

added.

Towards the end of the

reaction the temperature will fall, as reaction is now much slower, and it will be found necessary to immerse the flask in warm water from time to time to maintain

the temperature limits above mentioned. The reaction takes about two hours to complete. The reaction mixture should be repeatedly shaken, especially towards the completion of the reaction. When the reaction has entirely ceased, excess of chloroform should be

recovered by distillation, and the contents of the flask allowed to cool and then rendered acid by careful addition of dilute sulphuric acid. The vanillin can be separated and purified by means of
;

its

acid sulphite

compound and recrystallized but unless the greatest care and skill are exercised, traces of unaltered guaiacol
be found to be adherent to the crystals of vanillin, will entirely spoil the odour or flavour of anything in connection with which it may be used. Vanillin is a white crystalline body melting at 82. It is sometimes adulterated, principally with antifebrin, but adulterations are easy to detect on analysis, so that to-day, the commercial article is generally found to be quite pure. It is used in the form of an alcoholic solution in perfumery, and imparts a very sweet odour to combinations with which it is used. It also has a
will

which

useful fixative value.


Artificial Musk. For many years attempts have been made to prepare the musk perfume artificially. Although there efforts were eventually crowned with well-deserved success, we may say at the outset, that every substance known as artificial musk is an entirely different compound from that' which is the actual odour bearer in natural musk, with which they have no chemical relationship. Natural musk, as has been pointed out previously, owes its odour to a ketone

94

PERFUMERY
as muskone.

known

No attempt

has been

made

to

synthesize this body, every chemical research on the

musk odour having taken an


The
first

entirely different direction.


artificial

attempt to prepare an
is

musk

that

we

that of Margraff and Eisner. They ground amber to powder, mixed it with sand, and then distilled

can trace
it

The resulting oil was washed from an iron retort. it from foetid matter resulting from the decomposition, and then digested with fuming nitric acid, the temperature being kept low all the time. A resinous matter results, which when washed and dried has a
to free
distinct,

although not very pronounced,

musk

odour.

The

first

serious attempt, however, to prepare a definite

chemical compound with a musk-like odour was covered by an English patent, taken out on behalf of German In this process they started from metachemists. xylene, a coal tar hydrocarbon, and isobutyl alcohol, which were together heated with zinc chloride, and the resulting hydrocarbon was nitrated, and so converted into a nitro-hydrocarbon having a fairly powerful musk odour. The first artificial musk, however, to achieve commercial success was that patented by Albert Baur, and known during the duration of the patent as MuskBaur. This artificial musk is prepared by heating toluene, a coal tar hydrocarbon, with butyl bromide and aluminium chloride, and nitrating the resulting hydrocarbon. The full chemical name of the substance
is

which musk.

trinitro-tertiary butyl-xylene, and it is this body is known in commerce as musk-xylol, or xylene It is a crystalline compound of slight yellowish

colour, melting at 110 to 113 C., and -having a very It is only soluble to a, very powerful odour of musk: slight extent in alcohol or the usual organic solvents, but sufficient can be dissolved to impart a powerful odour to the solution. The best solvent for it is benzyl

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES
benzoate, in which

95

it is fairly soluble. It is used as an adjunct to numerous types of perfumes, and also acts as a very powerful fixative. There is another closely allied musk-like substance,

also discovered

by Baur, who showed that

if

acetyl

with condensed hydrocarbons an was introduced into the molecule and soacetyl group called ketone musk resulted. By using various closely
chloride

were

hydrocarbons and other bodies, quite similar musks "can be obtained, which have odours which differ but slightly between themselves. Muskambrette which is generally considered the finest of all the artificial musks, is an entirely different compound,
allied
artificial

compound of butyl-meta-cresol a methyl/ether. crystalline compound, with a sweet musk odour, melting -at 85. The basis of nearly every perfume of Heliotropine. " " the cherry-pie type is heliotropine, a substance which is present in small quantity in a few natural flower oils. It is, however, now manufactured on a very large scale by a synthetic process, and this type
is

and

the

dinitro
It

is

based almost entirely on the artificial is almost a monopoly of the product. world's supply of camphor, the solid substance which separates from the essential oil distilled from the camphor tree. As a bye product in the manufacture of camphor there is obtained a large quantity of the liquid essential oil from which almost the whole of the camphor has been removed. Now this essential oil of camphor is very rich in a body termed safrol, which is identical with the principal odorous constituent of oil of sassafras whence its name. The safrol must first be rectified to obtain it in a perfectly pure condition, when it is suitable for the manufacture of heliotropine.
of

perfume

is

In Japan there

This

is

effected

by a

careful fractionation of the

oil,

when

96

PERFUMERY

the fraction distilling between 220 and 240 is reserved, and again carefully refractionated until the pure safrol This boils at 231 to 233 C. is obtained. From a
of allyl-dioxybenzene.

chemical point of view safrol is the methylene ether This is converted into an isomeric body, isosafrol, by heating the safrol with 5' per cent, of its weight of a saturated solution of caustic soda at 100 to 110 C., in exactly the same manner as eugenol is converted into isoeugenol for vanillin manuThe crude isosafrol so obtained is carefully facture. to rectified, and the pure compound boiling at 253 254 C., is collected. Five parts of isosafrol are then treated with a solution of 25 parts of potassium bichromate, 35 parts of sulphuric acid, and 80 parts of water, and the mixture is boiled under a reflux conWhen the reaction is complete the product is denser. washed with water to remove chromium compounds and excess of acid, and the washed oil steam-distilled, and the distillate dissolved in ether. The ethereal solution is then well shaken with a solution of sodium bisulphite, which extracts the heliotropine from the ether and forms a chemical combination with it. The aqueous solution containing this compound is treated with alkalies, when heliotropine is set free and can be dissolved out by ether, and the resulting heliotropine purified by recrystallization. Heliotropine is a sweet, powerful perfume, closely resembling that of the plant from which it takes its name, and is used to a very large extent in the preparation
-

of liquid perfumes,

Coumarine.
considerable

and for soap perfumery. Coumarine is a synthetic perfume

of

importance. It is a white crystalline substance melting at 67 to 68 C., and is the active odorous substance found in the Tonquin or Tonka Bean, the seeds of two or more species of Dipteryx, in which it is present to the extent of about 3 per cent.

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES
It also

97

occurs abundantly in the dried leaves of Liatris odoratissima, an herbaceous plant growing freely in North Carolina, where it is known as Deer's tongue From 1 Ib. of dried leaves, as much or Hound's tongue.
as

Coumarine has

100 to 150 grains of coumarine can be obtained. also been identified in a very large
of plants,
first

number

but generally speaking, only in small

obtained synthetically by our countryman it by heating salicylic aldehyde Perkin, with acetic anhydride and sodium acetate. The mixture solidifies to a mass from which, by treatment with water, an oil separates containing coumarine and acetocoumaric acid. On heating, the latter is decomposed into acetic acid and coumarine. Hence, on distillation, the principal product obtained is coumarine. Coumarine is a white crystalline body having a powerful odour of the Tonquin bean, and is used in perfumery as a substitute for the natural beans. Perfumes of the New Mown Hay type are usually based on coumarine. Coumarine is sometimes adulterated with acetanilide, which, however, is very easily detected by the analyst. Coumarine is soluble in alcohol, and is used in the form of an alcoholic solution in the preparation of liquid perfumes. It is also used to a fair extent in the perfuming of snuff, when it is mixed in with the powdered tobacco in the dry form, and not in solution. A New Series of Alcohols and Aldehydes. During the past few years a series of bodies which were never suspected to have any odour value, have been intro-

amount. It was

who obtained

duced to the perfumery industry, and have proved themselves to have the most extraordinary value in modifying the odour of numerous flower combinations,
thus enabling perfumers,
of these bodies, to prepare

by a judicious use new " bouquets

of a selection " which their

98
rivals find

PERFUMERY
very
difficult to

match.

The bodies

in ques-

tion are the higher alcohols and aldehydes of the socalled fatty or aliphatic series. They have odours

which can scarcely be described, except by the words fruity and flowery, more or less of the same general The one character, but each differing from the other.
great secret of their successful

employment

is

that they

must be used

minute quantities, or the composition is spoiled. Only a few of them have, so far, been detected as natural constituents of essential oils, but no doubt many of them exist naturally, but have not yet been isolated. The lowest member of the alcohol series which is of any interest to perfumers is octyl alcohol. This has a very sweet, rose-like odour, and
in very
it is

especially suitable for imparting the natural perfume of the rose flower to essence of rose which usually lacks

something of the smell of the flower itself. This feature is also present in the next higher alcohol, nonyl alcohol, but diminishes as we ascend the series. The alcohols in question are liquids, only solidifying at very low
temperatures as the following table indicates
Octyl alcohol
.

Nonyl

,. Decyl Duodecyl,, Undecylenic alcohol


.

Melting point. -22 to -21 -11 to -10 -10 to - 8

Boiling point.

+13
-12

to to

+15
-11

95 102 110 142 128

The above
very
difficult

series of synthetic

to manufacture,

perfume materials are and consequently very

costly.

Similar to the alcohols, are the corresponding aldeFor example, octyl aldehyde, which occurs hydes. naturally in neroli and rose oils has a deep honey-like odour, and is very useful for rounding off perfumes which possess a heavy odour. Nonyl aldehyde has

an odour which belongs to the rose and orange types of

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES

99

odour, and can be used to great advantage in any perfume based on rose, geranium or neroli oils. Decyl

aldehyde has been found in rose and orange oils, and probably the most useful body of the whole series There are several other of this group of aldehydes. aldehydes of this series, all very powerful in odour, and all very difficult to manufacture in a state of purity, and consequently very expensive. They are easily oxidized, and therefore are difficult to keep in a pure condition. They are best preserved in a 10 per cent, alcoholic solution, in which form they do not undergo oxidation for a considerable time. This very important body is the basis of Terpineol.
is

nearly
type.
least

lilac and lily of the valley commerce is a mixture of at three isomeric alcohols, in which the modification
all

the perfumes of the


terpineol of

The

known

as alpha-terpineol largely predominates. It possesses the great virtue of being quite unaffected by alkalies, so that it can be used safely in soap perfumery. It blends exceedingly well with quite a large number
it is one of the most useful perfumes that the manufacturer can possibly have. For example, the compound perfumes known under the names muguet, syringol, lilacine, and artificial gardenia are all based on terpineol. Geranium oil and heliotropine, ylang-ylang, and sandal wood oil all blend well with terpineol. Terpineol was first prepared by Tilden by the action of dilute mineral acids on terpin

of other perfumes, so that


artificial

hydrate, and
of acids

it is to-day produced entirely by the action on turpentine, from which terpin hydrate is prepared. It is a thick, viscous oil, having an intense odour, recalling that of hyacinth, lilac, and hawthorn. It is comparatively cheap, hence its very extensive

employment

in cheap perfumery, although used in high-grade work as well.

it

is

also

100

PERFUMERY

Aubepine. Hawthorn and May blossom perfumes almost owe their existence to the discovery of the body known to chemists as anisic aldehyde, or in commerce as aubepine. It is the methyl ether of para-oxy-benzaldehyde. It is prepared commercially by the careful oxidation of anethol, the characteristic constituent of aniseed oil. This is treated with nitric acid at a very This is a gentle heat, when anisic aldehyde results. heavy oil of specific gravity M275, boiling at 245 to 246 C. It possesses a well marked odour of hawthorn
blossoms, especially when diluted. Other Alcohols. There are quite a number of bodies of an alcoholic nature which to-day are absolutely
essential constituents of

many

perfumes, in addition

above described as the higher alcohols of the series. Of these we can only select a few of the fatty more important for a short description. One of the most
to those

largely employed is geraniol. This body is a natural constituent of geranium, rose, citronella and other oils, and

not produced by synthetic methods, but is separated from the cheaper of the oils in which it exists naturally. Geraniol is one of the chief ingredients used in the manufacture of artificial otto of rose, for which a large demand exists, on account of the high price of the
is

natural

article.

The

geraniol
oil
oil.

of

commerce
oil,

is

made

from either palma-rosa anium oil) or citronella

(the so-called Indian Ger-

The

or the distilled

fraction consisting mainly of geraniol, is rubbed -down with an equal quantity of dry powdered calcium
chloride,

and the mixture kept


of -4

in

a desiccator at a

The soft mass temperature is then rubbed down with dry petroleum ether, and the liquid portion removed by means of a suction filter. This leaves a solid compound of geraniol and calcium chloride oil the filter. This is treated with warm
C. for sixteen hours.

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES

101

water, which decomposes the compound and liberates the geraniol which can then be purified by fractional
It is a colourless oil of specific gravity possessing a sweet rose odour, but wanting strength, which, in the manufacture of artificial otto Citof rose, has to be supplied by other ingredients.

distillation.

0-881,

ronellol is
is

an alcohol closely allied to geraniol, which also a constituent of otto of rose. This has a sweet

rose odour, but of a different character from that of


It can be prepared by a chemical process, a commercial article used to a considerable extent in perfumery, especially where rose odours are concerned.

geraniol.

and

is

Phenyl-ethyl alcohol is one of the triumphs of synperfume chemistry! It has long been recognized that the rose flower has a perfume which differs in some definite way from that of the otto of rose distilled from the flowers. This has been found to be due to the fact that phenyl-ethyl alcohol is a constituent of the rose perfume, but is very soluble in water, so that it dissolves in the distillation waters, and does not So that the appear in the separated otto of rose. of the rose has to be complete perfume sought for in both the otto and the rose water. The phenyl-ethyl alcohol cannot, however, be easily recovered from the rose water, so that it has to be made synthetically.
thetic

The method of its preparation is very complicated, and need not be described here. It is a colourless, heavy oil of specific gravity 1-024, having a peculiar rose and honey odour. It is soluble in 60 times its volume of
water, hence the ease with which it is lost in the distillation of rose flowers. It is an absolutely essential ingredient in all well-made artificial otto of rose. Cinnamic alcohol, a natural constituent of storax and

balsam of Peru, is now made synthetically by reducing rinnamic aldehyde diacetate, and saponifying the

102

PERFUMERY

is

Cinnamic alcohol resulting mixture of cinnamic esters. an oil when it contains traces of impurities, but when
It has a weak but absolutely pure melts at 33 C. delicate odour, recalling that of roses aVid hyacinths, and is most useful in compounding perfumes of the

hyacinth or narcissus type.


Artificial

Esters.

By

the

condensation

of

bodies

known known
in

as alcohols, with acids, compounds are produced Esters are amongst the most imporas esters.
oils,

tant of the natural constituents of essential

and

cases are the principal odour bearers of the oil. It was, therefore, to be expected that chemists should devote a considerable amount of attention to

many

the possibilities of preparing esters as perfume materials

by synthetic methods. This has been done on a very large scale, and to-day a very large number of synthetic
esters

are commercially manufactured as synthetic perfumes. Here, again, only a few can be described, as a description of all the perfume esters would occupy far too much space. Methyl anthranilate is one of the most important
oil

constituents of

of neroli.

It is

prepared synthetically,

and used to manufacture artificial oil of neroli, an important article of commerce. The starting point of this ester is the coal tar derivative, benzoic acid, which is nitrated, and then reduced to anthranilic acid, which
can then be condensed with methyl alcohol, with the It is a formation of the ester methyl anthranilate. an intense oil of 1*168, having specific gravity yellowish blue fluorescence, and possessing an odour of neroli

and

similar flower

oils.

Methyl benzoate, prepared by condensing methyl alcohol and benzoic acid is a well-known product, sold commercially under the name of Niobe oil. It is a colourless oil of specific gravity 1-102, and has a fragrant

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES

103
It is

odour somewhat suggesting ylang-ylang.


ingredient of artificial ylang-ylang fume known as Peau d'Espagne.
oil,

a favourite the perIt blends well with

and

of

oil, musk, geranium oil, and otto of rose. Methyl salicylate is the product of condensing methyl It is practically identical alcohol and salicylic acid. with oil of wintergreen, and has practically replaced that well-known American perfume in such products

sandal-wood

as tooth paste, etc.

Amyl salicylate, prepared in a similar manner by the condensation of amyl alcohol and salicylic acid is a regular commercial product, sold under various names, such as it is the Orchidee, trefle, or artificial orchid essence basic constituent of all artificial orchid perfumes, and most of those known as Trefle or trefoil. It is a colourless
;
"

oil of specific

gravity 1 052. alcohol geraniol, which has been already described is readily converted into a number of esters, by

The

condensing

it

with the respective acids.

The

principal

of these are geranyl formate, geranyl acetate, geranyl propionate, geranyl butyrate, and geranyl isovalerianate.

These esters have rose-like odours, and are exceedingly useful in rounding off the odour of artificial otto of rose

and similar products. Of the esters of the alcohol linalol, the acetate is the most widely employed. It is prepared on a fairly large scale, and so closely resembles bergamot oil in odour,
that
it can well be used as a substitute for that oil. Benzyl acetate, prepared by the interaction of benzyl

alcohol
oils of

and

acetic acid

is

a natural constituent of the

jasmin, ylang-ylang and other similar flower oils. It is an oil of powerful jasmin odour, and is the basic constituent of the artificial essential oils of both jasmin

and ylang-ylang.
Bornyl acetate, the acetic ester of the alcohol borneol,
8
(1468c)

12pp.

104
is

PERFUMERY
artificial

a commercial article used as an

substitute

This oil contains a considerable for pine needle oil. so that the synthetic ester of acetate, bornyl quantity

has a quite similar, but much more powerful odour. Cinnamic alcohol forms the basis of several esters which
are prepared artificially and which are of use in perOf these, cinnanyl propionate has a pleasant fumery. grape-like odour, and is of considerable use in the modifi-

cation of fruit or flower odours.


similar, and,
if

Cinnamyl butyrate is small in used amount, is of great very very value in imparting a fruity bouquet to a flower perfume Cinnamyl cinnamate is a heavy ester differing from the
.

last

mentioned very considerably.

It exists naturally

It is useful in storax and, probably, in oil of hyacinth. in perfumes where a heavy odour is wanted, and has

very powerful fixative properties. The esters of plenyl-ethyl alcohol, -which has been described above, are of a highly aromatic nature, the acetate gives what is " known to perfumers as a fine " leaf effect to a flower a rather fine rose odour, bouquet. The propionate has and is useful in producing a characteristic odour in
also

blends of the rose type. The higher aldehydes of the Artificial Aldehydes. fatty, or aliphatic, series have, for the sake of convenience, been referred to under their corresponding alcohols. There are, however, a number of aldehydes belonging to entirely different groups, which are prepared synin thetically, and which are of considerable value so-called is the of Foremost these, perhaps, perfumery.
artificial oil

of almonds.

The natural

essential oil of

almonds consists, when freed from a little prussic acid, etc., which is present, almost entirely of benzaldehyde. Since this body can be prepared in a state of absolute
purity, the artificial benzaldehyde is so nearly identical with the natural essential oil, that they are practically

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES

105

It must be borne in mind, however, indistinguishable. that in the preparation of artificial benzaldehyde,

hydrochloric acid is usually used as a condensing reagent, with the result that traces of chlorine are very frequently present in the product. This is very objectionable,

substances perfumed with such benzaldehyde, white soap for example, gradually darken in colour and lose their attractiveness. Where benzaldehyde is required for high-class perfumery work, it is absolutely necessary that it should be free from any traces of
since
chlorine.

Benzaldehyde is manufactured in various ways, amongst which is the following. Benzal chloride is treated with milk of lime at an elevated temperature, by which process the lime combines with the chlorine, which is replaced by an hydroxyl group, benzaldehyde The benzal chloride has to be prepared from resulting. toluene, a hydrocarbon of coal tar, which must be carefully purified by fractional distillation, and is then treated with chlorine, which results' in the formation
of benzal chloride.

Another important synthetic aldehyde is salicylic aldehyde. This is an almost colourless oil having It is the characteristic odour of oil of meadowsweet. made in the following manner. Caustic soda is dissolved
in water,

and phenol (carbolic acid) in the calculated quantity is added. The mixture is warmed to a ternperature of about 65, and then the flask containing the mixture is attached to a reflux condenser. The calculated amount of chloroform is then slowly run in, the
temperature
driven off
the reaction

>

being Very carefully regulated. When is complete the excess of chloroform is a by gentle heat, and the residue is subjected

to steam distillation.

The

distillate consists of a

mix-

ture of salicylic aldehyde

and unaltered phenol.

The

106

PERFUMERY

aldehyde

is purified by being converted into a crystalline compound with sodium bisulphite, from which salicylic aldehyde is liberated in a pure condition by treating the compound with caustic alkali. Salicylic aldehyde
is

which

exceedingly useful in the production of odours in that of meadowsweet is desired. Cinnamic aldehyde is the principal odorous constituent of cincassia
of

bark oils, which possess perfumes extreme value to manufacturers. A con.siderable quantity of cinnamic aldehyde is, however,

namon and
which are

now prepared by
of the so-called
artificial

synthetic methods, and a good deal

oil. of commerce is really an mixture based on the synthetic aldehyde. A This can be prepared in the following manner. mixture of 10 parts of benzaldehyde the synthetic oil of almonds recently described 15 parts of acetof 900 and 10 water, parts aldehyde, paits of a 10 per cent, solution of caustic soda are allowed to stand for ten days at a temperature of 30 C., with regular The cinnamic aldehyde formed intervals of stirring. and purified by fractional is extracted with ether Cinnamic aldehyde is a sweet, odorous distillation. liquid, boiling at 252 to 254, and closely resembling cinnamon oil in odour, but without its delicacy. We now come to one of the most interesting of the synthetic aldehydes, and one which has only come to the front during the past few years. This is phenylacetic aldehyde, which may be regarded as one of the

cinnamon

modern triumphs
pared in the
(16 parts)
is

It is preof synthetic perfumery. following manner. Methyl cinnamate dissolved in methyl alcohol (20 parts) and

treated with bromine (20 parts). The mixture solidifies It is then shaken with a solution of caustic in the cold.

soda (12 parts) in water (24 parts). The temperature should be kept down to 40 C. After two hours the

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES

107

mixture is neutralized with dilute sulphuric acid, and an oily layer separates, and is mixed with water (to 250 parts) and sodium carbonate (55 parts). The aldehyde is then distilled in a current of steam, and extracted with ether, and the ether evaporated. The aldehyde has a strong tendency to alteration, and it is difficult to either make it of keep it in an absolutely It pure condition. keeps better, however, in an alcoholic solution. Phenyl-acetic aldehyde is an oil of specific gravity 1-085, and boiling at 205 to 207. It has a very intense odour of hyacinth and narcissus
so intense as to be, to most persons, sickly and objectionable. Its value as a perfume appears best in very dilute solutions. It is one of the indispensable constituents in artificial imitations of flower perfumes of the hyacinth, narcissus and jonquil type.

conclude the section dealing with synthetic materials with the description of a few imporperfume tant compounds not coming within the above classes.

We may

Acetophenone
the essential

is

a ketone which

is

found naturally
It is

in

oil of

labdanum

resin.

a fragrant,
at about

crystalline substance, melting at 20 200 C. As found in commerce

and boiling
it

usually contains

traces of impurities
so that
it is

which prevent

it

from

crystallizing,

It usually found in the liquid condition. can be prepared synthetically by distilling a mixture

of calcium benzoate

and calcium
is

acetate, or

in

the

following manner, which

commercial
chloride in

synthetic
is

is

by which most of the prepared. Dry aluminium


that

powder

placed in a capacious flask attached

to a reflux condenser, and covered with benzene. The flask is kept in ice cold water, and acetyl chloride is

reaction
SA

allowed to drop slowly into the liquid. A vigorous ensues, and much hydrochloric acid gas is evolved. After about one hour the reaction is finished,
(1468c)

108

PERFUMERY

and the mass is transferred to ice cold water, when a brown oil separates. The mixture is extracted with benzene, the benzene extract washed with dilute caustic soda, then with water, and dried over calcium chloride. The anhydrous liquid is then decanted and distilled, and when the benzene has been recovered, the fraction,
to 202 C., is almost pure acetophenone. This substance has a very lasting and powerful sweet It is a odour, and is very useful in soap perfumery. to such odours as of mown those new good auxiliary hay, syringa, and the like. Paracresol and naphthol, both coal tar derivatives, form ethers which are of the highest value in perfumery. Paracresol yields a methyl and an ethyl ether, the former occurring naturally in ylang-ylang oil. Both ethers are prepared synthetically, and both have sweet flower odours, resembling that of ylang-ylang oil. The synthetic perfume sold under the name yara-yara or nerolin (old) is the synthetic methyl ether of betanaphthol. Bromelia or nerolin (new) is the correspondboiling at 195

Both are crystalline compounds with ing ethyl ether. an orange flower odour. They are prepared by heating
five

parts of beta-naphthol with five parts of methyl or ethyl alcohol, and two parts of concentrated sulphuric acid for several hours at 125 under a low
pressure.

There are two substances which have recently been introduced into synthetic perfumery, having a powerful odour of geranium leaves, and which form the basis These of the artificial geranium perfume of commerce.

and diphenyl oxide. Of these, a crystalline body melting at 26 to 27 C. It can be prepared by treating benzyl chloride and benzene with zinc dust, or by condensing benzene with methylene chloride in the presence of aluminium
are diphenyl-me thane

the former

is

ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES
chloride.

109

Diphenyl oxide, or phenyl ether is also a compound, which can be prepared by digesting diazo-benzene sulphate with phenol, or by It is to-day manufactured distilling copper benzoate. on a comparatively large scale as an artificial geranium perfume. Indole is a nitrogenous compound, related
crystalline

chemically to the indigo group of dye substances. It minute amounts in several flower oils and in most animal perfumes. In a concentrated probably form it has a faecal odour, and is very objectionable,
exists in

but on dilution, minute quantities are found to be very useful as slightly modifying and fixing other odours.
prepared synthetically, and is very expensive. The above survey of the principal perfume materials manufactured by synthetic methods is sufficient to
It is

enormous scope of this comparatively newbranch of the industry. There are enormous numbers of such bodies, and fresh ones are continually being
indicate the

discovered.

Frequently where, for example, the acetic

ester of a given alcohol is found to have a useful odour, the whole series of the esters is prepared with different
acids, all of which have similar but not identical odours, which are of considerable use in preparing bouquets have the same predominating perfume, but which can be modified to an almost infinite extent by a judicious

mixing of the subsidiary odours. In conclusion, the two guiding rules in the use of be sure they synthetic perfume materials are these are chemically pure, and do-_rLoXJie_ _tp^jnjili-of--them. Neglect either of these precautions, and an indifferent or valueless product will be the result.
:
<

INDEX
ABSOLUTES, 45 Acetophenone, 107 Aettr Ghyl, 20
Alcohols, synthetic, 97 Aldehydes, synthetic, 97 Almond oil, 6, 10

Citrus Bergamia, 24 Civet, 5, 63 Clove oil, 6, 10

Concretes, Confucius,
Cus-cus, 27

9,
1

45

Coumarine, 96

Ambergris,

5,

72

Amyl

salicylate, 103

Cymbopogon

oils,

27, 29,

34

Andropogon oils, 32 Animal perfumes, 63


Aniseed oil, 10 Appolonius, 3
Artificial esters, 102

DE

Rouge, 2 Diphenyl methane, 108

oxide, 108

Distillation,

perfumes, 82 Attar of Rose, 18 Aubepine, 100

EAU

de Cologne, 24 Egypt, 1, 2 Enfleurage, 38


Essential oils, 5 Esters, artificial, 102 Eucalyptus oil, 10 Extracts, 42

BALSAMS, 5, 9 Balsam of Peru, 53


- Tolu, 54 Batteuses, 42 Bay leaf oil, 10 Bdellium, 48

FRANKINCENSE, 49
GARDENIA, 99
Geraniol,
oil,

Benzaldehyde, 6, 105 Benzoin, 56 Benzyl acetate, 103 Bergamot oil, 10, 24 Boswellia species, 50

7,

103
108

Geranium,
Geranyl

artificial,

10
esters,
oil,

103
27,

CANANGA

odorata, 26 Cassia oil, 10 Castor, 5, 71 Cedarwood oil, 10


Chassis, 40 Cheops, 2

Gingergrass

29

Gramineae, 27 Grass oils, 27


Greeks, 3

Gum

Benjamin, 56
100

- aldehyde, 106 Cinnamon oil, 10


Citronellol, 9

Cinnamic alcohol, 101

HAWTHORN,
Hebrews, 2

Heliotropine, 95

Cistus creticus, 50 Citronella oil, 10, 27, 34

INDOLE, 109
lonone, 7/86
111

112
JASMINE, 36
Jerusalem, Joseph, 2
1

INDEX
Otto of Rose, 18

artificial,
oil,

PALMAROSA
KARNAK, 2
LADANOIL, 51

27

Ladanum,

50, 107
11

Lavender oil, 10 Lavandula delphinensis,

Paracresol ethers, 108 Patchouli oil, 10 Peru, balsam of, 53 Phenyl acetic aldehyde, 106 Phenyl ethyl alcohol, 7, 101 Pomades, 9, 35

fragrans,

12 latifolia, 12
officinalis,

11

Lemon

oil,

10

ROMANS, 3 Rosa centifolia, 20 damascema, 19, 37


Rose, 18, 37

Lemongrass oil, 10, 27 Lenabatu oil, 34


Lilacine, 99

Linaloe

oil, 10 Linalol esters, 103

of, 18 d'Hai, 20 - otto of, 18 - water, 19

attar

Liquidamber, 51, 52

SALICYLIC aldehyde, 106

MACERATION, 38

Sandalwood
34

oil,

10

Maha

pengri,

oil,

oil, 10 blossom, 100 ^Memphis, 1 Methyl Anthranilate, 5, 102 - benzoate, 102 - saliaylate, 6, 103

Marjoram

May

Spike lavender, 12 Storax, 51, 52 Syringol, 99

TERPINEOL, 99
Tolu, balsam Irene, 103 Tuberose, 37
of,

54

Muguet, 99 Musk, 5, 74
,

artificial,

93

VANILLA beans,
Vanillin, 6, 91

6,

58 32 86

Myrcene, 30

Myroxylon

toluifera,

54

Vetivert
Violet,

oil,

10, 27,

36
7,

NAPHTHOL
Niobe
oil,

ethers,

108

synthetic, 6,
oils,

Neroli, artificial, 7,

84

Viverra civetta, 65
Volatile

102
5,

solvents, 44

OILS Essential,

WHITE

volatile, 5

Oleoresins, 5

Wintergreen

Rose, essence oil, 6


oil,

of,

18

Opoponax, 48 Orange oil, 10


Orchidee, 103
j

YLANG-YLANG
ZOROASTER,
1

10,

26

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