Hafez the poet The difficulty of understanding Hafez correctly does not lie in his words or his grammar.

Hafez does not use difficult language, and his phraseology is very simple. There is hardly any single verse of Hafez presenting a problem in itself. However, there is also hardly aghazal not posing a problem of meaning or interpretation. In a way, the problem of complication and understanding of meaning is created by the arrangement of verses that seem to contradict each other, whether it is by their moral implications or by their addressing different ontological issues. According to Dembowski, what makes Hafez really different is the complexity of his poetic universe. I agree to this fact that we do not face this problem when reading the poems of Omar Khayyam, Khaju Kermani, or Salman-e Savoji, although they are Hafez's predecessors and contemporaries, from whom his work is sometimes borrowed; but the technique that Hafez uses is unique in losing the reader in the depth of his thoughts and his universe. Furthermore, Dembowski adds that by combining elements from different levels of language, together with different conceptual systems, Hafez achieves a high degree of complexity in his poetic utterance. 21 I however, do not agree with Dembowski in stating that Hafez combines the language of erotic poetry and the vocabulary of religion, turning this combination into love poetry. Hafez in my opinion uses two different languages and separates these two issues of religion and love poetry. His love poems are clearly statements of feelings and inner passion for the beloved ''earthly or divine'' on the contrary he tries to keep the issue of religion out of this equation. In some of his poems he uses different referential elements connecting the language of love to that of the religion, but he very cleverly uses this connection in order to disconnect. i.e. in one of his poems he talks about longing for the beloved and in it he mentions about missing the face of the beloved, but the way he uses the metaphors and the imagery bridges to connect conceptual religious issues to that of the beloved's face is masterful. The poem says: in my prayer the curve of your eyebrows came to mind. This clearly implies a number of issues that are contrary to the behavior of a true believer and a practitioner of any religion. In Islamic laws if one is devoting his or her time to prayers in admiration of God, according to the instructions of the Quran, he or she must devote his complete attention and concentrate on the words that he reads. So how can a true believer admire God in his prayers, and at the same time think about the eyebrows of the beloved? Unless of course that the beloved is God himself, which is an issue that I will expand in the next chapter. Hafez places biographical details in his poems, Preminger's view (1975) is that Hafez includes recognizable elements of reality borrowed from the world around him, they are transformed by his capacity into literary materials. 22Furthermore, Elliot (1982) thinks that

Hafez, like any conventional poet, presents ''a self appropriate [...] to the genre'', 23 not his own true personality. Similar observations have been made for medieval lyric: Peter Dronke (1968) notes that the term ''personal'' does not necessarily imply the revelation of private experience, but rather the realization of apersona, that is, the attainment of a certain objectivity. The authenticity lies in the strength of imaginative projection. 24 Fredrick Goldin (1975) thinks that the meaning of persona is central in his discussion of varying perspectives in courtly lyric. 25 After observing the views of those formerly mentioned scholars I believe that Hafez's ghazals operates at the limits of discourse, challenging the absolutes that literary orthodoxy had created and worshiped. Colie (1966) thinks that this playing with human comprehension and redirecting thoughtful attention to the faulty or limited structures of thought, in fact, constitute a primary function of paradox. 26 Like so many Hafez's confusing paradoxes, this journey does not have a clear end. There is no choice but to accept the twists and turns, constructing one's own view with the aid of imagination. Somewhere during the process of being puzzled, however, it becomes clear to the reader that it is the whole notion that has mattered all long. Passing through the gates that Hafez has opened, one has entered an open-ended road that can stretch as far as one's imagination. This rejection of limitation is another function that paradoxes are designed to perform. This paradoxical challenging of identity and creativity is only one example of many such experiences that the Divan offers the reader. One technique that Hafez uses to capture the attention of the reader is to repeat the word ''del'' (heart), throughout the Divan, 899 times to be precise, and the phrase ''khalvat-e raz'', bearing the same meaning. Watching this noun in action and observing its progress through the poems of Hafez is stunningly confusing for the reader; whilst its profound meaning sooths the reader, yet its true meaning is embedded within its shell. This arises from the reader's impression that Hafez regards the heart as a treasure in which the gems of honor and secrets of love are buried; a heart that through all eternity is enchained by the hair strings of the beloved. In other words, the motion that this metaphor provides is the manifestation of a mirror in which the reflection of inner beauty can be apparent. slh del alab-e jm-e jam az m mkard vnche khod dsht ze bgne tamman mkard For years my heart was in search of Jam-e Jam (the Holy Grail) It sought of strangers, what it already possessed 27 Moreover, Browne says; that in the ghazal, Hafez found the ideal instrument to express the tension between the opposites that exist in this world. Given the strict rhyming structure of the

same rhyme at the end of the second line of each couplet (after the first couplet), the mind must continually come back to the world, the poem, and the rhyme. The first line sets the rhyme for the rest of the ghazal, so the feeling created by the rhyme is one that flows from the beginning, and this current is then allowed to expand in the non-rhyming lines, and to contract in those lines that rhyme, when the mind must impose order on the poems. This expansion and contraction, feeling and thinking, heart and mind, combine to produce great tension and power that spiral inwards and outwards and according to Browne that, flows through all the poems of Hafez, art and song, and produces in whoever encounters it, when it is consciously expressed, an irresistible yearning to unite the opposites that it contains. Thus, the subject matter of every Hafez's ghazal is the movement of opposites toward unity: madness and sanity, youth and old age, drunkenness and sobriety, life and death. Hafez, however, not only points out and explains each pair of opposites, but also shows the invisible connection between the two; and this connection is there in all of his poetry. It exists in every line and couplet, connected to a point of unity, which flows through all the opposites and makes one yearn even more to be part of that unity. 28 In continuation of the Browne's view I believe that Hafez is a writer who expresses the journey of the human soul from the time of creation to the end of time and his own personal journey from birth to death. This concept is expressed through different moods, happiness and depression, suffering and fear, hopefulness and hopelessness and so on, which the poet blends before pouring them into the frame of ghazals. In times of happiness he benefits from a happy mood; he is thankful for being alive and being allowed to benefit from all that the friend ''dust'' i.e. God who is also the beloved has provided for mankind. In times such as this he is intoxicated and happy, at the same time wondering and searching for an answer to the mystery of life. Through all these movements there is only one that captures his attention from all that exists, this being the game of making love; Hafez has all his life been engaged in this mystery, seeking in vain anything other than this, i.e. a desire for power, wealth and greed, which are elements far removed from innovation and beauty. Furthermore, through his poems his poetic soul is always craving and seeking the beloved, desiring to join with her beauty and breaking free from the enchainment of her hair, i.e. ''zolf'', a noun which is repeated 187 times throughout the Divan, emphasizing the importance of its profound meaning to the poet and its use in expressing the feelings that Hafez carries toward his beloved. To understand the mystical values of the Divan it is first necessary to understand the culture that constitutes its foundation, in order to open the gates to a complex language, which generates the ambiguity. Through all this ambiguity and perplexity there is one simple consistency, which is the journey that the poet is courageously taking to unite with the beloved ''dust'' and through which difficulties occur, i.e. ''dam-e bala'' or moshkelha, a phrase which is encountered at the

beginning of the Divan. Throughout this journey, in some cases, Hafez feels so close to his creator that the language changes. One cannot distinguish whether the tone employed is aimed at an earthly or heavenly figure; by following the first ghazal without breaking the chain effect, the reader can follow the consistency and the pattern used to worship God, i.e. the beloved. It is important to realise that in the Divan, the declaration of despair in the face of inadequacy of verbal expression is paradoxical, too. Miller (1985) argues that where simple affirmative statements fall seriously short, paradoxical impossibilia, with their relentless push to bend logical and linguistic bars, can do much to make the ''airy prison'' of language a more spacious one. The standard critical approach associates lyrics with subjectivity, with turning inward and with excluding the audience. 29 In a discussion raised by Frye, Anatomy of Criticism (1971), it is stated that in a mysterious and melancholic ambience, the audience is supposed to overhear a poetic utterance not directly addressed to them; in Persian lyric poetry, one typically hears the poet addressing himself, natural elements, or heavenly forces. 30 Hollander (1988) believes that the flow of the rhythm of curiosity is often apparent with questions that are perhaps unanswerable. He emphasises that it has been claimed that children ask questions more to ''engage another person'' than to obtain an answer. This brings to mind an interesting similarity between the childish act of posing questions in order to interact with others and the poetic use of the interrogative mode to engage the reader. Poets often pose questions they can hardly answer. 31 What they do instead is to make their readers ask questions concerning their questions, leaving issues unresolved in a final question. More serious than actually providing answers, Hafez is a master of such unanswerable questions or ''conversational acts''. To structure an argument, Hafez uses a metaphorical method as a tool to clarify an aspect of a concept. He sometimes uses two metaphors to satisfy two purposes; this is according to Lakoff (1980) called overlap in metaphors.32 Lakoff, believes such overlaps can be characterized as shared metaphorical entailments by which cross-metaphorical correspondences are established. I however, think that Hafez's intention in constructing arrangements is mostly to show the connection between things or images existing only in his mind, which he finds a need to transfer them to the reader.
21 M Glunz and J. C Burgel, Intoxication, Earthly and Heavenly, Seven Studies on the Poet Hafez ofShiraz, European Academic, Peter Lang, Berlin 1991, p. 55. 22 Alex Preminger, ed. ''Persona'', Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, Princeton UniversityPress, 1975, p. 959. 23 Robert C. Elliot, the Literary Persona, Chicago University Press, 1982, p. 43. 24 Peter Dronke, The Medieval Lyric, London, 1968, p. 93.

25 Fredrick Goldin, In Pursuit of Perfection, ed. J. Ferrante and G. Economou, Port Washington, Kennikat Press, 1975, pp. 51-100. 26 Rosalie L. Colie, Paradoxia Epidemica, the Renaissance Tradition of Paradox. Princeton University Press, 1966, p. 7. 27 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 142, verse 1. 28 E.G. Browne, a History of Persian Literature Under Tartar Dominion, Cambridge, 1920, University Press, p. 275. 29 J. Hills. Miller, The Linguistic Moment: from Wordsworth to Steven, Princeton University Press, 1985, p. 55. 30 Northrop. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1971, p. 250. 31 John. Hollander, Fictive Patterns in Poetic Language. New Haven & London Yale University Press, 1988, p. 40. 32 George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, METAPHORS We Live By, the University of Chicago Press, 1980, pp. 22-24.

Hafez and his times

Hafez is one of the poets of medieval Persian literature whose life is not comprehensively documented by his contemporaries. Very little credible information is known about Hafezs life, particularly its early part. Indeed, after his death many stories, some greatly exaggerated, were woven around his life. The biographical information presented in this thesis is based on the details given by Dowlat Shah Samarqandi, a nobleman and biographer, born in 892 AH, AD 1513. In Tazkerat al-shu'ara (Memories of the Poets)7, he writes about many Persian poets including Hafez.

Hafez was born in AD 1325 in Shiraz, Persia (now Iran). His full name was Shams ud-Din Mohammad and his pen name was Hafez (a title given to those who had memorized the Quran by heart). His father, a coal merchant called Baha ud-Din, died when he was a child, leaving Hafez, his two older brothers and their mother with much debt. He loved the Quran, and he began to memorize it. He discovered that he was blessed with a remarkable memory, and before he was a man had memorized the Quran and many of the poems of the great poets. 8 Due to the poverty that they now experienced, Hafezs mother had to obtain work and Hafez had to leave school, working first in a drapers shop and then in a bakery. He went to school at night, where he learned calligraphy and a wide variety of subjects, while continuing to memorize the Quran. 9 Browne (1901), states that Hafez delivered bread to a certain part of Shiraz where the prosperous citizens lived. While taking bread to a particular mansion, Hafez saw a young woman standing on a balcony; her name was Shakh-e Nabat, which means Stems of Sugarcane. Her beauty immediately intoxicated Hafez; he fell hopelessly in love with her and is said to have almost lost consciousness. At night he could not sleep, and he lost his appetite. He learnt the young womans name and began to praise her in his poems. 10 Wilson (1987), believes as Hafezs love for her his beloved increased, it also increased his desire for his beloved God, whom he now saw as her higher self; and it was to this higher self, manifest through her grace

and beauty, that he composed his ghazals. 11 Hafez composed lyric poems, but his praise of wine, women and song has always been misunderstood and his being as a mystical poet has always been debated; it has been questioned whether his poems have really been read with an open mind. According to Dowlat Shah, during the time of Abu Ishaq, who was the ruler of Shiraz, Hafez wrote poems of spiritual romanticism, and then under Muzaffar, who was believed to be a dictator he began to break new ground by writing protest poems. 12 Hafez was creating an impressionistic way of writing that was completely new. Dowlat Shah adds on that Abu Ishaq was a poet, and he was fond of poets. He welcomed poetry and encouraged the court poets to compose poems. He was a pleasure-loving ruler, and had very little interest in the affairs of the state. In some of his poems he addresses his enemies, calling them fools to ignore the spring and telling them to live for today and ignore tomorrow. In the Encyclopedia of Iranica (2002), it is stated that during the period of Abu Ishaq's rule, the kingdom of Farsprospered, due to the efforts of five people, one of whom was Haji Qavam. 13 Hafez celebrates him in his poems, praising Qavam for his large and generous heart.

Browne (1920), says; Mubariz ud-Din Muhammad ibn-e Muzaffar, who ruled over Persiafrom 754 (AD 1353) to 759 (1357), was hardly a pleasure-lover; on the contrary, he was a harsh fanatic who caused all the taverns in Shiraz to be closed. He also put a stop as far as he could to the drinking of wine. This was a great annoyance to Hafez. 14 In view of the above statement made by Browne, I believe that these rules were enforced in the name of Islam, and Hafez, therefore, began to retaliate and make critical attacks on the clergy; but Shah Shuja, who succeeded his father Muzaffar ud-Din and eased the situation, brought some comfort to Hafez. Browne further adds that Hafez welcomed the reopening of the taverns, and announced his happiness in some verses, but the period of Shah Shuja's reign was also not without problems for Hafez. Shuja, who also knew the Quran by heart and considered himself something of a poet, grew jealous of Hafez, although it was because of their common interest that a friendship had developed between them in the beginning. Zarinkub, a contemporary literary figure, in his book ''az kuche ye rendan'' (2002), says; Hafez's enemies; the orthodox clergy and some other poets who were jealous of him, had made Shiraz an unsafe place by constantly slandering him and complaining about him to Shah Shuja, who was completely under their sway, while Haji Qavam was no longer at court to protect him. Hafez grieved over the absence of Haji Qavam, who was very dear to him, and composed some poems in praise of him. 15 It can be argued that Hafez's lyrics contain sincerity of thoughts; I believe each ghazalreflects the poet's inner honesty and sincerity. Hafez borrowed from the ghazals of Rumi and Attar, also taking ideas from poets of

his own age. He had shown himself as a disciple of such predecessors and of contemporary poets like Sa'di, Khaju-ye Kermani, Salman-e Savoji and Imad-e Faqihi. However, while many of his verses and lyrics are similar to theirs, I undoubtedly emphasise that he was no imitator; he had his own style and introduced a new way of presenting words. Arberry (1994), thinks that the similarity of his work to that of Khaju and Salman is not due to any mystical or spiritual influence, but is explained by the sweetness of his melody and the fluency of his verse. 16 In addition to the above statement Arberry (1960), further, thinks that ghazals appear to have originated in pre-Islamic times, but their precise origins and evolution remain unclear. Arberry suggests that they may be traced back to the ''erotic prelude (nasib) of ancient Arabia'' or to ''some kind of lyrical poetry current in the courts of Pre-Islamic Persia.'' 17 Looking at Arberry's observations and bearing in mind that, while such questions cannot be settled definitively, so that ''we must rely on scattered, fragmentary, and indirect evidence.''Clinton (1972) thinks it appears tolerably certain that this form of poetry was always associated with music, that in fact it was designed to be sung.'' 18 Furthermore, Meisami (1987) says; the poetry of medieval Persia attained a high level of artistic excellence from the beginning of the tenth century. Despite subsequent changes in patterns of patronage, a significant amount of poetry was produced for courtly purposes. It is to be expected that this circumstance would have profound influence on the forms and styles most favoured and the values expressed therein. 19 Perhaps more than any other style of poetry, theghazal is, paradoxically, both highly conventional and highly flexible. Peter. F Dembowski the author of the book under the title of Approaches to Medieval Romance (1974) assert if this flexibility, this potential for variety, does not reside in the ghazal's language or thematic content, it must derive from the third dimension of the poems, that is, from the uses to which its essentially conventional elements are put, in other words, from what the poem ''means'': a meaning not to be equated with some hidden allegorical (i.e. mystical) sense, but which must be understood in terms of the poems function. It is an entertainment, a diversion (particularly as it is frequently accompanied by music), and a background for courtly gatherings. It may be composed in response to an issue of immediate topical importance or may bear a more general message. 20

Hafez in the Persian tradition

Although Hafez died seven centuries ago, his words and thoughts continue to touch the hearts of all who love his poetry and admire his wisdom. This phenomenon of poetic longevity requires explanation. It cannot be contended simply that his poems contain all sweetness of Persian language or that they present all the correct poetic techniques, as the same assessment could be made of many other poets, whether his predecessors or contemporaries. (I shall expand on the definition of sweetness on later chapters).R. Zolnur a contemporary Iranian writer whose authority lies in the field of understanding the poetic language of Hafez thinks; that the intellectual strength of a poet lies in his or her ability to transform mere verbal symbols into poetic diction in order to express an inexpressible notion and turn it into a comprehensible concept for the reader.37 It is appropriate to suggest that the expression each poet or writer leaves behind is in some way connected to the environment to which he belongs. Q. Ghani who also was a 20th century authority on Hafez presents his views and emphasises that the poems of Hafez are therefore, the product of the period in which he lived; if he had lived in a different time or place his verses would have been different from those examined in this study. 38 It is my view that the student of any poet would naturally benefit from a broader understanding of the poet's surroundings. This section will therefore seek to locate the special and enduring status of Hafez in a broad cultural and historical setting. Kermani (1376) a respectable figure in this field thinks that Persian language benefits from two different cultures, one pre-dating the Islamic invasion and the other depending on the influence of Islam. Hafez concentrates on the first culture more than the second, he believes according to some of his verses that it is the source of purity and one that delivers sincerity and dignity. A culture that regards lies as evil and rewards the truth. A culture whose very foundations are honesty, and dignity. The reader of Hafez's Divan cannot ignore the identifying traces of his choice of principle that he leaves behind. 39 According to Hafez the second culture, on the other hand, is misused and forces itself upon the people. Hafez lives in a period when his nation is dominated by this culture. Kermani further emphasises that Shiraz is Hafezs town, a place where hypocrisy and deception are commonplace. There is a power struggle and a desire for wealth amongst the rulers, while territory is lost to plunders every day. Heavy taxes are imposed on the working class to pay for continuous wars. One result is that the people are powerless. Hafez is the tongue that speaks for those people; he is seen as their saviour; what goes on in their hearts Hafez speaks in forms of poetry. 40 Hafez lives in a period when authority and power are in the hands of the ignorant. He is a hero who speaks for people who are unable to speak for themselves. He possesses an extraordinary and courageous temperament, which is employed to confront the rulers, and dictators whose only profession is deception and hypocrisy; his aim is to target them and unveil their true faces. Thus, heroic patriotism is one of the many facets that this

poet possesses. Hafez sacrificed himself in many ways, depriving himself of all the luxuries of life in order to speak his mind with absolute sincerity. 41 Furthermore, Khoramshahi (1376) says; Hafezs poems began obtain fame even in his own time. He was only in his twenties when his fame spread across Shiraz.42 The National Commission of Unisco in Iran (1367) emphasises that although Hafez was an artist and an intellectual thinker, he had a humble life. He had no greed for power or wealth; he neither claimed to be a learned preacher nor did he show any desire for such a position. 43 I however, entirely agree with this statement as the evidence of such claim is found in the words of the poet himself. He says; the true treasure lies in wisdom and knowledge. In the following verse Hafez says:

nche zar mshavad az partov-e n qalb-e syh kmy st ke dar o bat-e darvshn-ast 44 What turns a black heart into gold Is the elixir, which lies in the discourse of humble men (Darvishan) or (Mendicant)

This clearly indicates that his priorities are not connected with the worldly materials. The key factor in the sweetness i.e. ''the longevity these verses leave on the mind of the reader'' of his verse is claimed by B. Khoramshahi, to be the balanced proportion of the words, meaning, and sound. 45 I strongly believe that Hafez is bound by his strong temperament, but his liberal behaviour is also apparent in his poetry. He supports dignity and truthfulness; his ideology supports purity, and sincerity. As has been mentioned above, Hafez was a humble man. Although his speeches were highly appreciated by his disciples, who considered him a learned and respected preacher, he treated everyone equally and spoke kindly to everyone, regardless of their age or rank. To those who are familiar with Hafez his sense of humour is apparent right through his Divan; whether in erotic poetry, opposing hypocrisy, praising the king, or attacking the ascetics, the patterns of witticism are apparent throughout his Divan. Here is an example of the wittiness in his love poetry:

gofte bd ke shavam mast o do bsat bedaham va de az add beshod o m na do ddm o na yak 46

I was told that you would become intoxicated and give me a kiss or two The promise reached its limits, yet we neither saw the two or the one!

Hafez has always had respect and fame amongst Persians. From his time until the late nineteenth century, the majority of the population was illiterate. The only ability in literacy they had was to know the Qoran and the Divan of Hafez; most people knew some poems of Hafez by heart, whether an entire ghazal or only a few verses. This ability is still found, even in the present day, and it requires explanation. Perhaps the most important disposition in the intellectual attraction of the poems of Hafez is their music, i.e. the poetic structure, the phonemic arrangement, the inspiration, and coherence of the metaphors. The one very effective method he employs to force the reader into the whirlpool of his poetry is his pictorial vision. He engages this vision with the aid of pictorial metaphors to form a unique presentation of his thoughts. He then blends these presentations of thoughts with melody and rhyme to give it the final touch, thus creating ghazals that no poet has ever been able to equal, even to this day. Hafez himself is so sure of this fact that he clearly praises his own gifts and skills, as the following verse confirms:

kas cho fe nagoshd az rokh-e andshe neqb t sar-e zolf-e sokhan r be qalam shne zadand 47 No one can display thoughts like Hafez can Ever since the tip of hair of the words were combed by the pen

Although the art of composing ghazals was considered to have been taken to its limits by one of Hafez's predecessors, Sa'di, yet Hafez pushed its progress even further. He composed only 495 ghazals in total, which in comparison to Sa'di or Rumi is very little; during the fifty years of his poetic life they average only ten ghazals per year. Amongst nearly five hundred ghazals, only thirty or forty of them have earned him his incomparable fame, because, judging by the structure and content, one can easily identify the enriched articulations that he achieved by the experience and wisdom one gains through life. Another outstanding skill of which Hafez left evidence in his poems is his phonological and phonostylistics ability, employing such expertise to compose ghazals in the way he did. Kadkani (1370) presents this argument in his book musiqi-ye she'r (The music of poetry), emphasising the phonological system employed in the ghazals of Hafez that make the poems more memorable and cherished than any other poems of his time or since. Hafez supports this judgment in another of his verses, which praises his phonological system:

ghazal goft o dorr soft by o khosh bekhn fe ke bar na m-e to afshnad falak aqd-e sorayy r 48

You uttered a ghazal; and threaded pearls, O Hafez! Come and sweetly sing That, on your versification, the sky will arrange its stars.

Hafez's phonostylistics ability was indeed among his most effective techniques to capture the attention of the reader, but I would describe this as one of the many pillars that hold the structure of his poetic language together. Another tool that he employs abundantly throughout his Divan is the engagement of verbal irony and verbal humour. Hafez uses this technique to humour the reader, but at the same time speaks his mind that even the most offensive remark directed to the figure in his poems is taken without any offence. The following verse is a clear example:

fe am dar majles dord kesham dar ma fel bengar n shkh ke chn b khalq-e an at mkonam 49

I am Hafez in a religious assembly; I am a dreg-drinker in a convivial assembly: This mockery behold now, with the learned, I make.

One of the talents that Hafez possessed and which proved extremely effective was his wit. This enabled the transmission of his articulations to his reader with a listing effect on their memories. Hence, to this day there is hardly a Persian-speaking individual who is not familiar with Hafez. It is appropriate at this stage to refer to an argument presented by Danesi (1994) in relation to metaphors and imaginative bridges made by man to present the concept of his world to others. This is relevant to our discussion of Hafez and the poetic techniques he employ to compose his poems. Danesi points out that in all languages, the majority of expressions referring to inanimate things are created by metaphor from the human body and its parts, its senses and passions. This is a reminder of such techniques and their use by Hafez, likening the brow to a bow from which the eyelash is an arrow aimed at the heart of the beloved, or the wind to whistles or messengers delivering news from the beloved, and so on. All of these are the consequence of our axiom that man in his mind makes himself. 50 Furthermore, Danesi points out that this imaginative metaphysics shows that man becomes all things by not understanding them. He further argues that when man does not understand he makes the things out of himself and becomes them by transforming himself into them. This, however, does not mean that Hafez's metaphorical techniques are due to his lack of understanding of the universe and the world around him; on the contrary, I believe that the engagement of such techniques in his Divan is solely due to simplification of his understanding for the benefit of the reader. Hafez in translation and his influence

Hafez did not publish a compilation of his poetry. Mohammad Golandam, who was one of his disciples did the first compilation and wrote a preface to his life, completed it in 813 AH (AD 1410), some 21 or 22 years after Hafezs death. 51 To this day, readers treat

Hafez's Divan as an oracle to give guidance to their acts and direction to realise their wishes. Many scholars have expressed opinions on Hafez and translated his poems. Many have tried to understand him and even compete with him. A very important western literary figure who admired Hafez was Goethe, Burgel thinks that Hafez and Goethe are two high points in the history of human spirituality; for the Persians and the Germans respectively, these two poets are held in very high esteemed by those who enjoy literature in general and romantic poetry in particular. Furthermore, Goethe devoted himself to learning the Persian culture and language in order to comprehend Hafez's poetry. The following verse, composed by Goethe in praise of Hafez, asserts the latter dominant status in world cultural history. Hafez, dir sich gleichzustellen Welch ein wahn! Hafez, what is this madness Of competing with you? 52

Goethe has found the path to Hafez's mind and ideology and in congruent ways he expresses a feeling of remorse and jealousy towards him. Nevertheless, the connections between these two make it possible for the first time to exchange ideas between two poets of different literary cultures, thus giving readers an opportunity to witness the results. According to Burgel what Goethe left behind in his oriental collection is clearly a reflection of his own personality. In this collection, it is clear that there are unfamiliar details, which are hard to understand, eve for enthusiasts of Goethe; Burgel, further emphasises that true comprehension of this collection is limited to experts in Persian and German studies. When Goethe speaks of admiration for Hafez, Burgel adds, it is oriental literary culture and its appreciation by another poet in the western world, which is the topic of discussion, which focuses on how Goethe sees the East and from what angle. How does he achieve this task, and most of all his connection with Hafez; what are his expectations of Hafez; and finally, what do they have in common? It is my intention to illustrate Hafez through translation and from the point of view of another culture.

Goethe's first oriental collection was published in 1834, some two years after his death. This was a very important collection, revealing some of the most important sources of the East in detail, including most of Hafez's works, and it has managed to retain its value.

Goethe's interest in the East and its literature started during his youth, thanks in large part to the stories told about the East by those who had visited that part of the world and painted an attractive picture of it. Galland (1704-1717) had already translated the famous Persian story, The One Thousand and One Nights, into French; the German translation also gained considerable popularity at that time, and was Goethe's favourite. This was even apparent in one of his famous books, which was published during his late thirties under the name of The Angels (Leyla). His connection with Hafez took place during his seventies and eighties, although this connection was the result of a romantic relationship with an aristocrat i.e. a woman in Germany. During the years 1812 to 1813, a German translation of the Divan of Hafez by Joseph Von Hammer-Purgstall, translator to the Austrian Royal court and ambassador to Istanbul, was introduced to Goethe. In the year 1814, Goethe started taking steps to explore Hafez. He referred to Hafez as a genius, and one who possessed a talent greater than his own: he wrote the following words in Hafez's admiration: '' There are many poets here and there whose works one cam enjoy, but now that I read his poems, I am so speechless and hypnotized that in order to continue to survive I must put my pen to paper in his admiration''. 53 The result of this admiration was Goethes collection of the east (Divan-e Sharq). The similarity between Goethe and Hafez is also apparent in the pattern of his discourse, i.e. the faith and belief he places in Hafez, as he asserts in the following statement:

Imagine the words as the bride And the meaning as the groom Such a marriage is only recognized By him who praises Hafez. 54 Gertrude Lowthian Bell (1897) believes the poets found available a mass of vague and pretty thought eminently suited to imaginative treatment; this was engaged in poetry regardless of their beliefs. Hafez, however, believed this fact and thereby expanded its concept, delighting the necessity of veiling it with exquisite symbolism, and decorating it with the aid of charming phrases. Each reader must decide for himself, and each will probably arrive at a different conclusion. Bell, further points out that in the judgment of Jami, Hafez was undoubtedly an eminent Sufi, while Von Hammer, thinks that the Interpreter of Secrets, ''lesan al-gheyb'', i.e. Hafez interpreted only the language of

pleasure; between these two there is a wide field for differences of opinion. I, however, do not agree entirely with either Jami or Von Hammer, because, Hafez condemns the asceticism of Sufism and orthodoxy, and for interpreting the language of pleasure, it can be argued that the concept of pleasure to Hafez is not as we know it. This involves a vast discussion and requires adequate explanation, which I will give in later chapters. It is my belief that often so much of the true meanings of poems are left out in translations that, the reader cannot feel and understand the profound passion the poet has tried so hard to transmit. This fact has been admitted by many scholars, the translation of Hafez's ghazals undertaken by Gertrude Bell (1868-1929), has brought fame to Hafez as the Fitzgerald's translation has to 'Omar Khayyam'sRubaiyyat. Gertrude Bell at the age of twenty-four, wrote the following from Persia.55 ''In the afternoon I did my best to realise Fitzgerald's desire, ''a book of verses underneath the bough''- you remember and with the real 'Omar Khayyam too, for I sat in the garden with the Persian text and many dictionaries and spelt out two quatrains Dear Fitzgerald is not much use as a crib, besides he leaves out so much. 56 She added, more people will turn to Hafez for guidance and wisdom, and on the issue of Sufism, she states that Hafez was a believer of both real and ideal beauty, and therefore was influenced by both pleasure and religion. Dick Davis also has the same opinion as Bell and in the following quote he states, and more or less confirms the views of Gertrude Bell. ''His great fame rests on his ghazals, which are so allusive and dense in their language, using the often arcane conventions of Persian lyric poetry with consummate dexterity, as to be virtually untranslatable.'' 57 I believe, however, that the key to understanding or dealing with a mystical poet is to comprehend his deeper meaning, even when the simple meaning is clear enough and obvious in itself. Hafez is one of those who have suffered from this process; it has removed him, extensively, from the touch of human understanding. There are yet fragments in his songs of that melody of human life, which is everywhere, the same. When he cries, ''My beloved is gone and I had not even bidden him/her farewell!'' his words are pleasant now as they were seven centuries ago, and they would gain nothing from a mystical interpretation. As simple and as touching is his mourning for his son: ''Alas! He found it easy to depart, but unto me he left the harder pilgrimage.'' In addition, for his wife: ''Then said my heart, I will rest myself in this city which is alive by her scent; already her feet were bent upon a

longer journey, but my poor heart was unaware.'' One can not find a more passionate image for love than: ''Open my grave when I am dead, and you shall see a cloud of smoke rising out from it; then you shall know that my inner fire has set my very winding-sheet alight.'' Or: ''If the scent of her hair were to blow across my ashes when I had been dead a hundred years, my mouldering bones would rise and come dancing out of the tomb.'' These are the utterances of a great poet, the imaginative interpreter of the heart of man; they are not of one age or of another, but for all time. A Zarinkub (2002) says that during his lifetime, the city that he loved was besieged and occupied five or six times; it changed hands even more often. It was drenched with blood by one conqueror, filled with revelry by a second, and subjected to the hard rule of asceticism by a third. One after another, Hafez saw kings and princes rise into power and vanish. Pitiful incidents, great rejoicings, the fall of kingdoms, and the clash of battle-all these he must have seen and heard. However, the echo of these events is almost non-existent in his poems. Zarinkub adds on that an occasional reference which commentators refer to some political event; i.e. exaggerated in praising first of one king, then of another; the celebration of such and such a victory and of the bravery of such and such a royal general-just what any self-respecting court poet would feel it necessary upon himself to write and no more. 58 I find it improper to give a completely mystical or material interpretation to his songs. His words are written according to his understanding of the world around him, exactly as he saw it. In his experience, pleasure and religion were the two most important incentives to human action and he ignored neither the one nor the other. To end this section of the first chapter an overview of important events in Hafez's death is proved appropriate in order to connect his argument to the place this poet held in the heart of his people and the impact he had on the Persian tradition. According to Zarinkub, another person who compiled Hafez's poetry was one of his young disciples, Saeid Kazeme Anvar, who collected 569 ghazals attributed to Hafez. He died in AD 1431, some 42 or 43 years after Hafez's death. Hafez died at the age of 69 in late 1388 or early 1389 in Musalla Gardens, on the banks ofRuknabad River in Shiraz, which is referred to as Hafeziyeh. The orthodox clergy, who had always opposed Hafez refused to allow him to have a Muslim burial. 59Zarinkub adds that his support among the people of Shiraz created an atmosphere of conflict. To resolve the controversy, they decided to use Hafezs poems, by dividing his ghazals into couplets, and asking a young boy to draw a couplet. They agreed that however the couplet directed them; they would all consent to follow. The chosen couplet was the following verse, which was a tongue-in-cheek response from Hafez to the orthodox clergy:

qadam dargh madr az jenaze-ye fe ke gar-che gharq-e gonh ast mravad be behesht 60

From the bier of Hafez, do not keep back your foot: For though he is immersed in sin, yet he goes to heaven.

The problem and the question each poem poses

Based on analyzing of the Divan, I do not believe that Hafez uses difficult language. He does not use hard and rare words; in fact, his phraseology is generally not complex. The problem of understanding Hafez correctly lies in the contradictory of resolving nature and verses. Hafez composed ghazals of five to twelve verses bearing a message within each line. Emphasis must be placed on the word message, as each ghazal is trying to tell us something. Generally in classical Persian poetry each ghazal bears a message or deliver a subject of discourse, this is not always the case with the ghazals of Hafez. In fact, almost every other line contradicts another; thus confusion is created for the reader who tries to follow a consistent notion, making it difficult to comprehend the true intentions of the poet. However, the contradiction in his verses may be seen as a kind of methodical employment of ambiguity for the purpose of maneuvering and blocking the possibility of being questioned by the reader, i.e. the authorities of his time. I believe that one of the reasons that Hafez used such a technique was the political turmoil of his time. The only effective way he finds to express his opinion is through the ambiguity of hisghazals; by composing poems to express his thoughts, he provides very little evidence for interrogation. This applies, however, only to those poems that express his political and religious views; there are still unsolved problems with his love poems, where the ambiguity seems to be even more accentuated. The one aim that the poet tries very hard to achieve is to conceal the identity of his beloved. I have not yet encountered even one single line clarifying the identity of the figure he so passionately praises. Hafez adopts this method of concealment right from the firstghazal in his Divan; one can follow his attempt at doing so even from the first encounter with his poems. Here is an example of the above statement:

al y eyyuha ssq ader kasa wan welh ke eshq sn nemd aval val oftd mushkelh

Saqi; come and pass the bowl around Love seemed easy at first, but difficulties arose

be b-ye nfe- kkher s ab zn orre bogshyad ze tb-e ja de moshknash che khn oftd dar delh

In the hope that the breeze may one day release the musk of that hair What hearts have not bled for the sake of his/her curly hair!

mar dar manzele jnn che amne eysh chon har dam jaras faryd mydrad ke bar bandd ma melh

How can I rest in comfort in the abode of my beloved? As a constant bell reminds me of departure

be mey sajjde rangn kon garat pr-e moghn gyad ke slek bkhabar nabvad ze rh o rasm-e manzelh

Stain your prayer-mat with wine, if the Magi bid you As he who is enlightened knows the way to the final home

shab-e trk o bm-e moj o gerdb chonn hyel koj dnand al-e m sabokbrn-e sa elh

A dark night with the fear of waves, and dreadful whirlpool How can the light-burdened ones of the shore know our state?

hame kram ze khod kmy be badnmy keshd kher nahn key mnad n raz kaz szand ma felh

By following my own selfishness, I led myself to a sorry fate How can a mystery remain a secret when it is spoken in assemblies?

o r gar ham khh az ghyeb masho fe mate m talq-e man tahv da-e dony wa ahmelh 61

Hafez! If you desire the presence of the beloved, do not be absent When you visit the beloved, abandon the world; and let it go.

This is a clear example of my earlier claim. It is obvious that every attempt has been made by the poet to conceal the identity of the beloved. The key question is: why? By analysing the poems individually I have come to the opinion that Hafez is respecting the privacy of love. He does not conceal the identity of his beloved to create problems of understanding for the reader; on the contrary, his intention is very simply to keep this phenomenon a mystery, solely due to the mysterious nature of the realm of love. This is a place where only the lover and the beloved are

permitted. Hafez confirms this notion in one of his verses, implying that the mystery of love is a secret that must be buried in one's heart at all times: goft n yr kaz- gasht sar-e dr boland jormash n bd ke asrr hoveyd mkard 62 He said of a friend whose head loftily swung from the gibbet That his crime was that of forbidden mysteries he spoke. This a reference to the famous story of Hallaj, a Sufi whose life was devoted to God; he was passionately in love with his creator and reached a stage where he could no longer keep this a secret. When he therefore decided to announce his passion openly to the public, he was assumed to be mad and shortly after hanged. On the very same night that his body was taken down from the gibbet, one of his disciples looked at the sky and asked God: ''Why did he have to die like this? What was his crime, apart from loving you?'' He suddenly heard a voice saying: ''His crime was to speak of the forbidden mysteries!'' 63Hafez constantly speaks of such mysteries, yet tries his utmost to keep them secret; he gives no clue to the identity of his beloved.

I have tried very hard to find the key to this puzzle of ambiguity in his poems, trying to find the answer to such concealment, but I have realised that I was looking for the wrong reasons. There is deliberateness in the employment of such ambiguity, which is to keep the identity of the beloved and the very act of lovemaking a secret, worthy of revelation only to the two souls themselves who are in love: the poet and the beloved. He speaks of love and constantly attempts to bring its values to the surface, reminding the reader that there is nothing more important than love itself. Hence, he devotes his very existence to understanding the concept behind this phenomenon.

eshq dordne ast o man ghavv o dary mey-kade sar for bordam dar nj t koj sar barkonam 64 The pearl-grain is love; I am the diver; and the wine-house is the sea

There my head I plunged; uplifted, let us see where I shall surface. The question each poem poses is obviously the notion underlying it and the purpose of its composition. Why has the poet composed such lyrics, and why in such complex structures? Readers of Hafez's poems have asked this question for centuries. I do not claim to have the answer to it, but the focus of this study is an attempt to solve this puzzle and expand discussion on this perplexity as far as the boundaries of reason and logic will allow.

Analysing of the structure, order, and nature of Hafez's verses Hafez's method of composing ghazals is almost unique to him. The melody and rhythm used in each ghazal make it very easy for the reader both to remember the verses and search for them in his collection. As Thiesen (1982) explains in a literary fashion, hisghazals are identified as bahr, meaning 'ocean' in Arabic, and each one of these oceans is formulated and signed. For instance, the majority of his ghazals are referred to as bahr-e ramal, meaning 'an ocean of words that speak of mysteries'. These are categorised into different formats of poetry, such as mosamman-e mashkul, or makhbun, 'the hemmed running meter'. The basic unit of this meter is fa'elaton: U U . It is traditionally not recognised as a separate bahr, but said to be a makhbun or mosamman, meaning that it bears eight measures of feet, and mashkul is a measure of foot that carries khabn and kaffin a fa'elaton arrangement, where khabn is singular of makhbun, meaning that the first syllable of each rokn has been changed from long to a short one. In general, it means a 'tied running meter'. 65 There will be an extended discussion of this issue in the next chapters. The following illustration will clarify this discussion. a r-e ramal-e mosamman-e mashkl fa'elto f'elton fa'elto f'elton

U | U

| U

U| U

be molzemn-e soln ke resnad n do' r

ke be shokr-e pdeshh ze na ar marn ged r

To the Sultan's presence, who will convey this prayer? In thanks for sovereignty, drive not the beggar from sight ze raqb-e dv srat be khod-ye khod panham magar n shahb-e sqeb madad dahad khodr From the enemy demon-nature I take shelter in my God Perchance that gleaming light may, for the sake of God, give a little aid mozhe-ye syhat ar kard be khn-e m eshrat ze farb-e bandsh o ghala makon negr If your black eyelash attempted to spill our blood O Idol! Think of its deceit, and make no mistake del-e 'lam besz cho 'ezr bar forz to az n che sd dr ke nemkon modr You will consume a world, when you show your face From this, what profit do you make that you do not kindness? hame shab dar n omdam ke nasm-e ob gah be peym-e shnyn benavzad shen r I pass the long night in the hope that the breeze of down With the message of the lovers will cherish the lover che qymat ast jn ke be 'sheqn nemd del o jn fada-ye ryat benam 'ezr mr O beloved! What is the tumult that to lovers you display? My heart and soul I shall sacrifice for your cheek; show us your face

be khod ke jor'e' de to be fe -e sa arkhz ke do'-ye ob gh asar konad shom r 66 For the sake of God, give a cup to Hafez the early riser May his prayer of morning-time avail you. Here, the pattern has become clear already from the first couplets. A perusal of the rest of this ghazal will fail to show any variation from this rhythm. A characteristically fluent quality of Hafez's poems is that it is very easy to establish their rhythm, which can be deduced with absolute certainty from the first beiyt. In practice, however, ascertaining the rhythm is not always as easy as the above ghazal may lead the reader to think. Thiesen presents the following example:
''It has been assumed that the reader knows from the outset the correct interpretation, i.e., whether to have ezafe or not, whether to read as shokr 'gratefulness' or shekar 'sugar'''. 67

However, easy as they may be to follow line-by-line, this does not rule out the problems of contradiction in his poems; a difficulty in understanding the notion of the subject faces the reader. Hafez's poems fall into three categories: political, religious and love poems. Those expressing his political views are quite straightforward and easy to understand, and the ambiguity can be relatively simply resolved; the same statement can be made about his religious poems, as they fall into the same framework. Thus, the greatest obstacle of all is presented by his love poems. As mentioned before, the contradictions and ambiguities reach their peak in these verses. The following example is a clear illustration: dar vaf-ye 'eshq-e to mashhr-e khbnam cho sham' shab-neshn-e k-ye sarbzn o rendnam cho sham' In constancy of love for you, renowned of the lovely ones, I am like the candle Night-sitter in the street of heroes and Rogues, I am like the candle rz o shab khbam nemyad be chashm-e gham-parast bas ke dar bmr-ye hejr-e to gerynam cho sham'

My sorrow-worshiping eyes do not allow me to rest, day or night In my sick state, due to your absence, tearful, I am like the candle reshte-ye abram be meqr -e ghamat bobrde shod hamconn dar tash-e mehr-e to sznam cho sham' The shears of my grief for you have severed the thread of my patience Therefore, in the fire of your love, burning, I am like the candle gar komt-e ashk-e golgnam nabd garm-r key shod roshan be gt rz-e penhnam cho sham If hot and moving had not been the steed of my rose-hued tear, When would my hidden mystery have become luminous, like the candle? dar myn-e b o tash hamchonn sar garm-e tost n del-e zr-e nezr-e ashk-brnam cho sham In the midst of water and of fire, so occupied is my mind with you This my heart, poor, tearful, feeble, like the candle dar shab-e hejrn mar parvne-ye va l ferest var-na az dardat jahn ra besznam cho sham In the night of separation, send me a letter of union If not, in grief for you, I will burn the world like a candle b jaml-e 'lam-r-ye to rzam chon shab ast b kaml-e 'eshq-e to dar 'eyn-e noq nam cho sham' Night is my day, without your world-adoring beauty With the perfection of love for you, in the very essence of loss, I am like the candle kh-e abram narm shod chon mm dar dast-e ghamat

t dar b o tash-e 'eshqat godznam cho sham' From the power of grief for you, the mountain of patience has become as wax Since, in the water and fire of love for you, melting, I am like the candle hamcho ob am yek nafas bqst b ddr-e to chehre benm delbar t jn bar-afshnam cho sham' Like the morning, without a sight of you, is left a breath of life O heart-ravisher, show your cheek, so my life I may scatter, like the candle sarfarzam kon shab az va l-e khod ey nzan t monnavar gardad az ddrat eyvnam cho sham My beloved, honour me one night with your union So that my home will become luminous by your sight, like the candle tash-e 'eshq-e tor fe 'ajab dar sar gereft tash-e del key be b-e dde benshnam cho sham' Wonderful! In his head, Hafez has caught the fire of love for you With water of the eye, how can I quench the heart's fire, like the candle? 68

Can a method of reading be introduced to guide the reader to an appropriate understanding of Hafez? I do not believe that there is such a thing as an appropriate reading of Hafez. If we divide his poems into three different categories, i.e. political, religious, and exotic love poems, then an appropriate reading can only apply to the first two categories. One can only have an almost accurate reading of his political and religious views if one has an adequate familiarity with the political and religious issues of his time and sufficient knowledge of the relevant history and culture. On the other hand, when we enter the realm of his exotic poems, the whole concepts change. This issue requires a very broad explanation and analysis of various poems in their entirety. After a brief insight, I will further expand this notion in the forthcoming chapters.

The exotic poems of Hafez cannot be understood through any particular given formula. This subject changes its concept according to the comprehension of each individual. Hence, different interpretations have always been made of the poems by different readers; to the present day, the Divan of Hafez has been interpreted in numerous ways and each one provides a different view. This is purely due to the subject that he treats, i.e. love, a phenomenon of which not everybody has the same understanding. Therefore, each translation, each interpretation is different and will be different. One can only hope to reach a state of love similar to that which Hafez did in order to comprehend the truth behind the language that he uses in his poems. Even then, a correct understanding cannot be reached, as the passion and feelings of each individual are unique to himself. Therefore, I can reasonably rule out a general method of reading the poems of Hafez that can be applied to all his readers.

7 A.A Dehkhoda, Farhang-e loghat, (ed.), SJ Shahidi, M. Moein, University Press, Tehran, 1345. 8 A. Haeri, Hadith Hajj Sayyah, in: Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Encyclopedia Iranica, vol.XI, fascicle 5, New York, Bibliotheca Persica Press, 2002, p. 465. 9 E. G. Browne, TADHKIRATU SH-SHUARA, (Memories 0f the Poets), Dawlatshah Bin Alau D-Dawla Bakhtishah Al-Ghazi of Samarqand, University Press, Cambridge, 1901, pp. 5, 6. 10 E. G. Browne, TADHKIRATU SH-SHUARA, (Memories 0f the Poets), Dawlatshah Bin Alau D-Dawla Bakhtishah Al-Ghazi of Samarqand, University Press, Cambridge, 1901, p. 7. 11 P.H Wilson, The Drunken Universe, An Anthology of Persian Sufi Poetry, Phanes Press Michigan, 1987, p. 139. 12 E. G. Browne, TADHKIRATU SH-SHUARA, (Memories 0f the Poets), Dawlatshah Bin Alau D-Dawla Bakhtishah Al-Ghazi of Samarqand, University Press, Cambridge, 1901, pp. 5-9. 13 A. Haeri, Hadith Hajj Sayyah, in: Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Encyclopedia Iranica, vol.XI, fascicle 5, New York, Bibliotheca Persica Press, 2002, pp. 465-467. 14 E.G. Browne, a History of Persian Literature Under Tartar Dominion, Cambridge, 1920, University Press, pp. 275-277. 15 A.H. Zarinkub, az kuche ye rendan, About the life and Thoughts of Hafez, Tehran, 2002, Sokhan Publication, pp. 31-33. 16 A.J. Arberry, Classical Persian Literature, Curzon Press, Surry 1994, p. 350. 17 A.J. Arberry, Fifty Poems of Hafez, Cambridge University Press, 1962, pp. 10-22. 18 Jerome W. Clinton, the Divan of Manuchehri Damghani, A Critical Study, Minneapolis, Bibliotheca Islamica, 1972, p.1. 19 J.S Meisami, Medieval Persian Court Poetry, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1987, p. 1. 20 Peter. F Dembowski, Authors Monologue and Related Problems in Romances of Chretien de Troyes, in: Approaches to Medieval Romance, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1974, pp. 102-14. 21 M Glunz and J. C Burgel, Intoxication, Earthly and Heavenly, Seven Studies on the Poet Hafez ofShiraz, European Academic, Peter Lang, Berlin 1991, p. 55.

22 Alex Preminger, ed. Persona, Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, Princeton UniversityPress, 1975, p. 959. 23 Robert C. Elliot, the Literary Persona, Chicago University Press, 1982, p. 43. 24 Peter Dronke, The Medieval Lyric, London, 1968, p. 93. 25 Fredrick Goldin, In Pursuit of Perfection, ed. J. Ferrante and G. Economou, Port Washington, Kennikat Press, 1975, pp. 51-100. 26 Rosalie L. Colie, Paradoxia Epidemica, the Renaissance Tradition of Paradox. Princeton University Press, 1966, p. 7. 27 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 142, verse 1. 28 E.G. Browne, a History of Persian Literature Under Tartar Dominion, Cambridge, 1920, University Press, p. 275. 29 J. Hills. Miller, The Linguistic Moment: from Wordsworth to Steven, Princeton University Press, 1985, p. 55. 30 Northrop. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1971, p. 250. 31 John. Hollander, Fictive Patterns in Poetic Language. New Haven & London Yale University Press, 1988, p. 40. 32 George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, METAPHORS We Live By, the University of Chicago Press, 1980, pp. 22-24. 33 M.R.S Kadkani, Musiqi ye sher, Agah Publications Tehran, 1379, pp. 421-426. 34 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 474, verse 4. 35 J. Derrida, Of Spirits, Heidegger and the Questions, the University of Chicago Press, Chicago andLondon, 1989, p. 65. 36 Michael. A. Sells, Mystical Language of Unsaying, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press, 1994, pp. 4-9. 37 R. Zolnur, dar jostoju ye Hafez, Zavvar Publication, Tehran, 1363, p.13. 38 Q. Ghani, tarikh-e asr-e Hafez, Zavvar Publication, Tehran, 1363, p. 22. 39 S.N. Kermani, Hafez shenasi, vol 10, Pazhang Publication, Tehran, 1376, p.6. 40 S.N. Kermani, Hafez shenasi, vol 10, Pazhang Publication, Tehran, 1376, p.8. 41 S.N. Kermani, Hafez shenasi, vol 10, Pazhang Publication, Tehran, 1376, p.9. 42 B. Khoramshahi, zehn o zaban-e Hafez, Khas Publication, Tehran, 1367, p.29. 43 The National Commission of Unisco in Iran, sokhan-e ahl-e del, Ofset Publication, Tehran, 1371, p.14. 44 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 49, verse 4, p. 35. 45 B. Khoramshahi, zehn o zaban-e Hafez, Khas Publication, Tehran, 1367, p.27. 46 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 301, verse 4, p. 205. 47 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 184, verse 7, pp. 124- 25. 48 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 3, verse 9, pp. 3, 4. 49 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 352, verse 8, p. 242.

50 M. Danesi, The Imaginative Basis of Thought and Culture, University of Toronto Press, 1994, p. 91. 51 F. Mazarei, mafhum-e rendi dar sher-e Hafez, Kavir Pulication, Tehran, 1373, p.7. 52 J.C Burgel, an essay about Hafez, translated by, K Safavi, Markaz Publication, Tehran, 1376, p.19. 53 J.C Burgel, an essay about Hafez, translated by, K Safavi, Markaz Publication, Tehran, 1376, p.14. 54 J.C Burgel, an essay about Hafez, translated by, K Safavi, Markaz Publication, Tehran, 1376, p.43. 55 J. D. Yohannan, Persian Poetry in England and America, A 200-Year History, Caravan Books Publication, Delmar, New York, 1977, p. 189. 56 Gertrude L. Bell, The Earlier Letters, ed. Elsa Richmond New York Liveright, 1937, p.280. 57 Dick Davis, Borrowed Ware, Medieval Persian Epigrams, Anvil Press Poetry, London, 1966, p.110. 58 A.H. Zarinkub, az kuche-ye rendan, about the life and thoughts of Hafez, td, Sokhan Publication,Tehran, 2002, pp. 1011. 59 A.H. Zarinkub, az kuche-ye rendan, about the life and thoughts of Hafez, td, Sokhan Publication,Tehran, 2002, p.12. 60 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 79, verse 7, p. 55. 61 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 1, verse 1, p. 2. 62 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 142, verse 8, pp. 96-7. 63 A.H. Zarinkub, shole-ye tur, about the Life and Thoughts of Hallaj, Maharat Publication, Tehran, 2002, pp.19-20. 64 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 346, verse 3, p. 237. 65 F. Thiesen, A Manual of Classical Persian Prosody, Wiesbaden, 1982, p.99. 66 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 6, p. 6. 67 F. Thiesen, A Manual of Classical Persian Prosody, Wiesbaden, 1982, p.99. 68 M. Qazvini, Q. Ghani, Divan of Hafez, Majlis Publication Tehran, 1941, ghazal 294, p. 199