A113N AND DRAINAGE PAPER

FA0 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE PAPER

small hydraulic structures

by

d. b. kraatz
hydraulic engineer

and

i. k. mahajan
secretary, icid prepared with the support of the international commission on irrigation and drainage

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome 1975

First printing 1975 Second printing 1982

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agri~culture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-56 ISBN 92-5-100161-8

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic. mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Via delle Terme di Caracalla. 00100 Rom'e, Italy.

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

VOLUME

I1

Page PREFACE

6.

WATER LEVEL AND VELOCITY CONTROL STRUCTURES 6. 1 6.2 6. 3 Introduction General Feat!ures of Checks o r C r o s s Regulators Checks with Fixed Overfall C r e s t without Movable Controls 6r3.1 6. 3.2 6. 3. 3 6. 3.4 6. 3.5 6.4 General Hydraulic design Design example (diagonal w e i r ) Design examples (duckbill w e i r ) Check- slab s t r u c t u r e (Mexico) 1 1 4 4 8 16 16 16 22

Checks Regulated by Stop P l a n k s (Drop B a r s ) o r F l a s h B o a r d s 6.4.1 6.4.2 General D r o p - b a r check s t r u c t u r e (Victoria, A u s t r a l i a )

6.5

Checks Equipped with Hand Operated Gates 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5. 3 6.5.4 6.5.5 6.5.6 6.5.7 General Standard check (USBR) Check s t r u c t u r e m a d e of sheet m e t a l Wooden checks P o r t a b l e checks Radial gate check The Romijn gate

6.6

Hydraulically Automated Checks (Neyrpic) 6. 6 . 1 6. 6 . 2 General s t r u c t u r e and application Range of standard g a t e s available

6. 7 6.8 6.9

Semi Automatic Time Controlled Check Check S t r u c t u r e s Combined with a F a l l , Drop o r Chute General F e a t u r e s of Drops (or F a l l s ) and Chutes

T a b l e of Contents Contld. Page 6. 10 Vertical Drops (or Falls) 6.10.1 6. 1 0 . 2 6. 10. 3 6.10.4 6.10.5 6. 11 General S a r d a - t y p e fall (India) R e c t a n g u l a r w e i r d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t V e r t i c a l c h e c k - d r o p (USBR) YMGT-type d r o p ( J a p a n )

Inclined D r o p s and Chutes 6.11.1 6.11.2 6. 11. 3 6. 1 1 . 4 6.11.5 General Standing wave f l u m e f a l l (India) F l u m e type fall (CDO, P u n j a b , India) USBR r e c t a n g u l a r inclined d r o p Rubble c a s c a d e inclined d r o p

6.12

Piped Drops 6.12.1 6. 1 2 . 2 6. 1 2 . 3 6. 1 2 . 4 6.12.5 6.12. 6 General Well d r o p r e g u l a t o r (U. S. S. R. ) Well type d r o p (India) P i p e d r o p (India) Inclinedpipedrop (U.S.A.) Inclined pipe d r o p (U. S. S. R. )

6.13

F a r m Drop Structures 6.13.1 6. 13. 2 6.13.3 6.13.4 6.13.5 6.13.6 6. 13. 7 General Head wall d r o p with g r a v e l b a s i n C e m e n t block check a n d d r o p C o n c r e t e check d r o p Wooden d r o p Piped drops Sloping r o c k d r o p

7.

STRUCTURES AND DEVICES F O R WATER MEASUREMENT Introduction Sharp Crested Measuring Weirs The Romijn B r o a d C r e s t e d W e i r The Par s h a l l F l u m e The Standing Wave M e a s u r i n g F l u m e The C u t - t h r o a t F l u m e The C o n c r e t e ( C a s t - i n - P l a c e ) T r a p e z o i d a l M e a s u r i n g F l u m e U s e of C u l v e r t s a s M e a s u r i n g D e v i c e s Propeller Meters Deflection M e t e r s The D e t h r i d g e M e t e r The Constant Head O r i f i c e Turnout C a l i b r a t i o n of M e a s u r i n g S t r u c t u r e s

Table of Contents Cont'd.

Page

LIST O F REFERENCES

NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS

LIST

OF

FIGURES Page

Figure 6-1. - Flow through check s t r u c t u r e s : ( a ) f r e e overflow; (b) submerged orifice flow 6 - 2 ( a ) and (b).

Duckbill w e i r s on distribution canals (Spain).

6-3. - Small duckbill weir installed in a concrete flume distribution s y s t e m (Kiti D a m P r o j e c t , Cyprus). 6-4(a). 6-4 (b). 6-5. 6-6.

Double duckbill weir for 480 l / s discharge capacity Duckbill weir for 160 l/ s discharge capacity.

.6-7. Graph for determination of discharge o v e r diagonal, duckbill, o r Z-type w e i r s (84) 6-8.

D i a g r a m of flow o v e r diagonal, duckbill o r Z-type w e i r s . Determination of coefficient Im' for angles of o t g r e a t e r than 45O.

- Determination of

f r o m known B and S and of

(84).

6-9. - Standard diagonal check weir for capacities up to 500 l / s (84).

6- 10.

6- 11.
6-12.

Duckbill w e i r , (Italy). Standard duckbill weir design type "Giraudet" for capacities up to Duckbill weir for 260 to 280 11s capacity (Spain). (State of

1000 11s.

6-13. Check s l a b s in a channel s t r e t c h with steep grade. St. L u i s P o t o s i , Mexico). 6- 14. 6-15. 6-16. 6-17. 6-18. 6- 19. 6-20. 6-21. 6-22. 6.23. 6-24.

Determination of spacing of check s l a b s Data for design of check slab s t r u c t u r e s Stop plank grooves (54). Concrete check s t r u c t u r e for average soil conditions (13). Small concrete check (33). Ordinary flashboard check. Typical d r o p b a r check s t r u c t u r e (52). Drop b a r s t r u c t u r e (Australia). Hand operated check gate ( F e r r a r a , Italy). Concrete check.

(u. S. A . )
- dimensions

Check s t r u c t u r e m a d e of sheet m e t a l

L i s t of F i g u r e s Cont'd. Figure 6-25. 6-26. 6-27. 6-28. 6-29. Page 38 38 39 40 41 42 43

- Check constructed f r o m prefabricated s t e e l p a r t s (75). - Single wall check' with side walls only f o r protection of banks (65).

Double wall check (74)

- P o r t a b l e check for f a r m ditches (46). - P o r t a b l e canvas check, sleeve type (13).

6- 30 ( a ) . 6-30(b).

Radial check gate ( T h e Netherlands).

- Downstream view of r a d i a l gate check (The Netherlands).

6- 31. - Typical medium s i z e u p s t r e a m constant level gate, (NEYRPIC AMIL). 6-32.

- Typical downstream constant level gate (NEYRPIC

- AVIS).

45 46 47 49 50 51 51

6-33. - Typical downstream constant level gate for discharge through an orifice (NEYRPIC - AVIO). 6-34.

D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AMIL gate.

6-35 ( a ) . 6- 35 (b),

D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIS gate f r o m 561106 to 901190.

- D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIO gate.

6-36 ( a ) . - B a s i c draw- s t r i n g check fitted with wing walls and bottom cut-off f o r u s e in an unlined ditch. 6- 36 (b). 6-37. 6-38.

Semi automatic check installed in an unlined ditch.

Rectangular weir d r o p - relationship between H(crt), d i s c h a r g e 6- 39. per m e t r e width of c r e s t and coefficients 0.32, 0 . 3 6 and 0.40. 6-40. 6-41. 6-42. 6-43.

S a r d a type f a l l (U. P. ) Rectangular weir d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t .

57

62
64 67 68 74 75 77 83

- Concrete v e r t i c a l check with 1 . 5 f t drop.

Concrete v e r t i c a l check with 3 . 0 ft d r o p D r o p s t r u c t u r e in s m a l l flume channel (Cyprus).

- YMGT type d r o p

and notations for sill height, t r a j e c t o r y 6-44. - YMGT type d r o p of jet and dimensions of stilling basin 6-45. 6-46.

- sill w a l l - symbols

and stilling basin.

Height of hump r e q u i r e d to give proportionality for variation in 6-47. discharge. 6-48. 6.49.

YMGT fall

- type 300.

Details of a standing wave flume fall.

87
92 94 98

Height of hump to attain bulk proportionality. Details of deflectors.

L i s t of F i g u r e s Cont'd.
'

Figure 6-50. 6-51.

Page Standing wave f l u m e f a l l . Sketch of a f l u m e type f a l l with a d r o p of u p t o 0 . 9 0 m . CDO type f a l l ( P u n j a b ) , h y d r a u l i c d r o p u p t o 1.00 m. CDO type f a l l ( P u n j a b ) , h y d r a u l i c d r o p m o r e than 1 .OO m . R e c t a n g u l a r inclined d r o p (U. S. A. ) D e s i g n of USBR inclined d r o p . Rubble c a s c a d e type f a l l (India). P i p e and s t r u c t u r e s . Well d r o p r e g u l a t o r ( f o r c r o s s s e c t i o n s s e e F i g u r e 6-59). D e t a i l s of well d r o p r e g u l a t o r ( a s shown i n F i g u r e 6-58). P i p e d r o p spillway. Well type d r o p 99 102

6-62. 6- 63. 6- 64. 6- 65. 6- 66. 6-67. 6-68. 6- 69. 6-70. 6-71. 6-72. 6-73. 6-74.

P i p e d r o p without c o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n s . P i p e d r o p with c o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n . 149 15 1 161 168 169 170

- Check a n d pipe inlet. - C o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n ( s u p p l e m e n t t o F i g u r e 6- 63).

Pipe drop regulator.

- P r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e h e a d wall d r o p (60). - C e m e n t block check a n d d r o p s t r u c t u r e ( C a n a d a ) .

C o n c r e t e check d r o p ( U . S . A. ) V e r t i c a l wooden d r o p , d = 8".

=

- V e r t i c a l wooden d r o p , d - Steel b a r r e l drop.

12".

P l a n f o r a c o r r u g a t e d m e t a l pipe d r o p .

- Sloping r o c k d r o p s t r u c t u r e ( C a n a d a ) .

7- 1. - S t a n d a r d t r a p e z o i d a l (Cipolletti) m e a s u r i n g w e i r of 61 c m ( 2 ft) c r e s t length i n s t a l l e d a t a f a r m outlet. 7-2. - D i a g r a m of f r e e d i s c h a r g e c o n t r a c t e d w e i r showing position of staff gauge u p s t r e a m . 7-3.

P e r m a n e n t t r a p e z o i d a l w e i r d i s c h a r g i n g u n d e r f r e e flow conditions

7-4. - D i s c h a r g e o v e r a s u p p r e s s e d r e c t a n g u l a r w e i r p e r m e t r e of c r e s t length.

L i s t of F i g u r e s Cont'd. Figure 7 - 5 ( a ) and (b). - Small t e m p o r a r y V-notch w e i r s made of sheet m e t a l (being u s e d for studies on i r r i g a t i o n efficiency and water l o s s e s ) . 7-6. 7-7. 7-8. Page 20 1 202 204 205 209 21 0

- Example of a design f o r a 90 V-notch weir plate.

Romijn b r o a d - c r e s t e d w e i r , sliding blades and movable weir c r e s t Romijn b r o a d - c r e s t e d weir, hydraulic dimensions of w e i r abutments.

7-9. - Values of Cd a s a function of the r a t i o Hcrt : L c r t for the Romijn weir. 7- 10.

- Approach velocity coefficient, Cv, f o r rectangular approach channel.

7- 11. - The Romijn movable measuring/regulating weir (drawing) (with supplement, L i s t of M a t e r i a l s ) . 7-12. - Approach velocity coefficient, Cv, a s a function of the total head over the movable weir c r e s t (H,,~) in the stage - d i s c h a r g e equation 2 2 1.5 Q = 5 C d C v ( j g ) 0 5 BtHcrt. 7- 13.

7-14. - P l a n and elevation of a concrete P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume showing component p a r t s (82). 7-15. - D i a g r a m showing the r a t e of submerged flow in l / s and in f t 3 / s , through a 15.2. c m ( 6 inch) P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume. 7- 16. - D i a g r a m showing the r a t e of submerged flow, in 11s and ft3/ s, through a 23 c m (9 inch) P a r s h a l l flume.

Small standard P a r s h a l l flume in operation.

7- 17. - D i a g r a m 'for computing the r a t e of submerged flow through a 30. 5 c m ( 1 ft) P a r s h a l l flume (82).

7- 18.

- Effect of submergence on P a r s h a l l flume - f r e e d i s c h a r g e (81).

7- 19. - Section of a P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume illustrating the determination of the p r o p e r c r e s t elevation (82). 7-20. - D i a g r a m for determining the head l o s s through the P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume (82). 7-21. - P a r s h a l l flume of 152 c m ( 5 ft) throat width a s s e m b l e d f r b m prefabricated sheet m e t a l p a r t s . 7-22. 7- 23.

P a r s h a l l flume of 183 c m (6 ft) throat width a t full discharge.

- Commercially available P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume.

7-24. - Standard concrete P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume 1 f t to 8 f t . 7- 25. 7-26.

t h r o a t width

Standard concrete P a r shall flume.

- Sketch of Cut-throat flume (85)

L i s t of F i g u r e s Contld. Figure 7-27. Page F i n a l design of a 61 c m (2 ft) rectangular Cut-throat flume (90). 246

Cut-throat flume of 30.5 c m (1 ft) throat width, with automatic 7-28. recording device, operating under f r e e flow conditions. 7-29. - Generalized f r e e flow coefficients and exponents and St for Cut-throat flumes, in m e t r i c units. 7-30.

- Installation of a Cut-throat flume.

7-31 ( a ) and (b). - Trapezoidal m e a s u r i n g flume with a r a i s e d bottom c a s t in a concrete ditch. The discharge i s about 34 11s (1. 2 ft 3 1 s ) a t a submergence of about 70% (87). 7-32. 7-33.

P o r t a b l e s t e e l forin used to c a s t trapezoidal concrete flumes 7-34. in concrete ditches (8;'). 7-35 ( a ) and (b).

Trapezoidal flume f o r 1 f t i r r i g a t i o n channels. Typical parallel flow c r i t i c a l depth flume.

M e t e r gate for pipe outlets (64).

7-36. - Sketch of pipe outlet with sliding gate for delivery control and m e a s u r e m e n t (88). 7- 37. 7-38. 7-39. 7-40.

Range ability of a propeller m e t e r and the selection of m e t e r 7-41. d i a m e t e r (+ 4% accuracy). 7-42.

Rating c u r v e for pipe outlet (8s). Sketch of a propeller m e t e r for open flows. P r o p e l l e r m e t e r installed a t a pipe outlet R e g i s t e r of a propeller m e t e r .

Standard design of open type propeller m e t e r .

Example of a deflection m e t e r with a pointer indicating against 7-43. a fixed v e r t i c a l scale (Rajasthan, India). 7-44. 7-45. 7-46. The Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r in u s e .

- Commercially available deflection m e t e r .

Sketch of the Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r .

7-47. Sample calibration curve for 30 c m ( 12 inch) Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r .

PREFACE

This publication i s the r e s u l t of a joint effort by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) in producing a Handbook on small hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s and devices used in open-channel irrigation distribution s y s t e m s . There h a s been general recognition of

a need to review the abundant information and experience available on the subject and to condense and dovetail them into a comprehensive and practical Handbook. Much b a s i c

m a t e r i a l for the Handbook h a s been generously provided by National Committees of the ICID and by F A 0 projects and contacts in Member Countries, while complementary data and information have been assembled f r o m the extensive survey of the l i t e r a t u r e . The scope of the Handbook i s confined a s the title suggests to small s t r u c t u r e s used a t the f a r m level in fields, and in networks with small discharges a t the intakes, such a s f r o m small surface o r ground water r e s o u r c e s . Such s t r u c t u r e s , having

capacities of l e s s than 1 cubic m e t r e p e r second, and, indeed,many of them having capacities of l e s s than 300 l i t r e s per second, account for m o r e than 70 p e r cent of a l l the hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s installed in many irrigation networks.

In the past these s m a l l s t r u c t u r e s have not always received the attention they
d e s e r v e f r o m planners and designers. It should be recognized that irrigation head

works, and other irrigation engineering works, however spectacular, would have little value without an efficient distribution system (requiring small s t r u c t u r e s ) extending right down to the f a r m e r s ' fields. The heavy investments normally involved in an

i r r i g a t i o n system can be justified, through conversion into cash benefits and the social welfare of the r u r a l population, only by paying full attention to the function and place of each of the small s t r u c t u r e s described in this Handbook.

xiv.

The Handbook i s published in t h r e e volumes. 1 to 5.

Volume I c o m p r i s e s Chapters

The types of s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s available, and t h e i r importance for

efficient distribution of i r r i g a t i o n water supplies a r e discussed in Chapter I. Chapter 2 d i s c u s s e s the operation of irrigation s y s t e m s and how this governs the choice of the type of s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e b e s t suited to the purpose. Chapters

3 to 5 deal with s m a l l intake s t r u c t u r e s , s m a l l flow-dividing s t r u c t u r e s , and outlets

o r f a r m and field turnouts. Volume I1 c o m p r i s e s Chapters 6 and 7. Chapter 6

d e a l s with s m a l l water-level and velocity control s t r u c t u r e s (i.e . checks o r c r o s s r e g u l a t o r s , falls o r d r o p s , and chutes) and Chapter 7 with s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s and devices useful for m e a s u r i n g flow in i r r i g a t i o n networks. Volume 111, which will

be i s s u e d a t a l a t e r date, will cover s m a l l c r o s s - d r a i n a g e works, e s c a p e s and miscellaneous s t r u c t u r e s and will include a chapter on the detailed design of gates. F o r definitions of t e r m s , r e f e r e n c e should be made to the ICID Multilingual Technical Dictionary on Irrigation and Drainage. Units of m e a s u r e m e n t a r e generally

e x p r e s s e d in the units f r o m which the formulae, designs, tables and graphs have been derived (and a r e thus best known in that s y s t e m ) but in certain c a s e s i t h a s been considered advantageous to convert English to Metric units for application in countries using only the M e t r i c s y s t e m .

Since the Handbook attempts to a s s e m b l e and d e s c r i b e many types of s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s which have proved successful in certain countries, and which may be used elsewhere under s i m i l a r conditions, i t i s hoped that i t will prove useful to young engineers, technicians and extension w o r k e r s involved in the remodelling of existing irrigation s y s t e m s o r in the design of new projects. It i s a l s o hoped that

the Handbook will stimulate exchanges of ideas and information on techniques and designs which have often been evolved in isolation.

The p r e s e n t edition i s a provisional version;

i t i s intended that an updated

version covering Volumes I to I11 will be printed in final f o r m a t a l a t e r date. Any comments o r further contributions which r e a d e r s might like to offer will be gratefully received and will be considered for incorporation in the next edition.

xv.

Acknowledgments a r e due to the many who have a s s i s t e d in the production of this Handbook, some with systematic contributions, such a s the ICID National Committees of :

Arab Republic of Egypt Australia Bulgaria Canada Colombia Czechoslovakia Republic of Korea Malaysia Mexico Philippines

Ecuador F e d e r a l Republic of Germany Guyana Hungary India Japan Republic of China S r i Lanka Turkey

U. S. A. U. S. S. R

and personnel of F A 0 and individual contacts who have rendered valuable information and advice, and to Mr. I. Constantinesco for h i s lucid eaiting of the manuscript.

Dated

Edouard Saourna Director Land and Water Development Division Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

K. K. F r a m j i Secretary General International Commission on Irrigation & Drainage

6.

WATER LEVEL AND VELOCITY CONTROL STRUCTU'RES

6.1

INTRODUCTION The w a t e r level and velocity control s t r u c t u r e s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s chapter c o m p r i s e a group of engineering works installed in open channel i r r i g a t i o n networks designed t o regulate the w a t e r l e v e l in a channel, to control the quantity of water . passing through it, to dissipate energy and enable w a t e r to be delivered a c c u r a t e l y and safely to the fields without causing erosion. c r o s s - r e g u l a t o r s , d r o p s ( o r f a l l s ) and chutes. Such s t r u c t u r e s include checks o r F o r example, a check o r c r o s s

r e g u l a t o r will r a i s e the u p s t r e a m w a t e r level in a canal above i t s n a t u r a l flow l e v e l during p e r i o d s of low d i s c h a r g e sufficiently to feed an offtake canal. A check will

a l s o h e l p to t e m p o r a r i l y a b s o r b fluctuations of w a t e r supply in v a r i o u s sections of t h e canal s y s t e m , o r to control velocities and prevent b r e a c h e s in the t a i l r e a c h e s . D r o p s ( o r f a l l s ) and chutes n a r r o w the difference in slope of the land and that r e q u i r e d f o r the canal. Generally, a d r o p o r a fall will be used to obtain a When the distance i s g r e a t e r and the

reduction in slope o v e r a s h o r t distance.

slope m o r e gentle, but s t i l l s t e e p enough for the w a t e r t o flow a t too high a velocity, control m a y be achieved by employing chutes.

A.

CHECKS OR CROSS REGULATORS

6.2

GENERAL FEATURES O F CHECKS OR CROSS REGULATORS Checks o r c r o s s r e g u l a t o r s m a y be fixed overflow w e i r s with no movable controlling device, o r they m a y be provided with r a d i a l gates, slide gates, stoplogs, checkboards (flashboards), o r combinations of t h e s e , o r include a device to maintain a given u p s t r e a m water level. These s t r u c t u r e s may be fixed o r portable

(the f o r m e r should have provision f o r overflow) and they m a y be used in both lined and unlined canals, ditches o r water c o u r s e s . Where check gates a r e fitted, t h e s e

m a y be hand o r hydraulically o p e r a t e d (such a s the automatic Neyrpic g a t e s ) o r equipped with automatic and t i m e controlled r e l e a s e devices. Wherever possible,

and in the i n t e r e s t of economy, a permanent check should be combined with a d r o p o r fall, o r a division box, o r a m e a s u r i n g device located above o r below an intake,

outlet o r escape.

FIGURE 6.1. - Flow through check s t r u c t u r e s : ( a ) f r e e overflow; (b) submerged o r i f i c e flow.

A check may be designed to function a s an overflow weir, a s an orifice o r a s

a combination of both. When a constant u p s t r e a m water level i s d e s i r e d an overThe flow over such a check

flow type check i s normally used ( s e e F i g u r e 6. l ( a ) ).

m a y be calculated f r o m the equation:

where

Q
C B(t)

.= = =

discharge in m

p e r second d i s c h a r g e coefficient ( m (m)

2

7P

.&

/ a)

overflowcrestlength

(4

head o r water depth above the c r e s t , m e a s u r e d u p s t r e a m f r o m the check ( m )

Values of C a r e given below: F o r m of Weir C r e s t C

/----a,

broad c r e s t e d with rounded edges, horizontal

1.5 to 1 . 6

AL

s h a r p c r e s t e d with a e r a t e d b e a m rounded with v e r t i c a l u p s t r e a m face and inclined downstream slope

1.9
2.2

When the c r e s t length,

B(t),' i s l a r g e , variations ifl discharge r e s u l t in relatively

s m a l l changes in the u p s t r e a m water level. The above formula (derived f r o m Poleni) i s valid only for f r e e flow conditions. The values of C a r e a c c u r a t e enough for design purposes, such a s dimensioning w e i r s f r o m given d i s c h a r g e s and water l e v e l s , but not for exact water m e a s u r e m e n t . Also; a number of types of check s t r u c t u r e s have been individually r a t e d and flow formulae developed for them, a s will be seen below. The u s e of checks for water

m e a s u r e m e n t would r e q u i r e them to be constructed to standard dimensions for which ratings a r e available o r to be calibrated individually. Check s t r u c t u r e s m u s t be designed to c a r r y the full design discharge of the canal a t maximum water l e v e l . The velocity of flow through check s t r u c t u r e s with

flashboards should not exceed 1 m / s because of the difficulty of placing and removing the flashboards. Checks with gates can t o l e r a t e velocities g r e a t e r than

1.5 m/s.

F r o m the selected design velocity the r e q u i r e d opening and the c o r r e The total head l o s s , h$)

sponding head l o s s a r e determined.

through a check

s t r u c t u r e can be estimated a t 0 . 5 of the difference in the velocity heads of the u p s t r e a m canal section and the check opening, thus:

When the water level i s to be controlled downstream f r o m a s t r u c t u r e , an orifice-type check i s m o r e desirable because of i t s m o r e constant discharge ( s e e F i g u r e 6. 1 (b) ). general equation: 1 The discharge through an orifice may be determined f r o m the

Q
where C A and H (orf)
= =

C A

(orf)

( '8

(crt) )

coefficient of discharge a r e a of opening ( m2) head causing flow ( m )

(4=

The coefficient C r a n g e s f r o m 0 . 6 to 0 . 8 , depending on the position of the orifice relative to the sides and bottom of the s t r u c t u r e and on the roundness of the orifice edge. F o r f r e e discharge the head, H(crt), i s the u p s t r e a m water F o r submerged flow, the

depth m e a s u r e d f r o m the centre of the opening.

effective head i s the difference between the u p s t r e a m and downstream water surface l e v e l s . Because of i t s head-di scharge relatianship, an orifice-type

check i s not so well adapted for u p s t r e a m water level control since fluctuations in flow r e s u l t in relatively l a r g e u p s t r e a m water level variations.

6.3

CHECKS WITH FIXED OVERFALL CREST WITHOUT MOVABLE CONTROLS

6. 3. 1

General

A fixed overfall c r e s t o r weir controls the water level a t a given height

within relatively n a r r o w l i m i t s . This height and the c r e s t length, B(t), a r e

determined in relation to the discharge to be passed over the weir c r e s t and to the control requirements ( e . g. maximum permissible level fluctuations, etc. ).

FIGURE 6. 2 ( a ) and (b). c a n a l s (Spain).

Duckbill w e i r s on distribution

The n a r r o w e r the tolerances, the g r e a t e r m u s t be the c r e s t length.

In d i s t r i -

bution channels the available width i s usually insufficient to accommodate a t r a n s v e r s a l weir with a c r e s t long enough to p a s s the full supply discharge within the level tolerances. Usual tolerances a r e in the o r d e r of 5 to 10 c m .

These conditions have led to the development of: the diagonal w e i r ; the duckbill weir; and the Z-type o r other specially shaped w e i r s . Of these the

duckbill weir i s the m o s t commonly used because i t i s , under m o s t conditions, the m o s t economical one, providing optimum discharge capacity in relation to length of s t r u c t u r e and amount of construction m a t e r i a l . show different types of duckbill w e i r s . F i g u r e s 6 - 2 to 6-4

FIGURE 6 - 3 . - Small duckbill weir installed in a concrete flume distribution system, (Kiti Dam P r o j e c t , Cyprus).

The g r e a t advantage of fixed weir c r e s t s i s t h e i r simplicity in construction and maintenance and their reliability in operation. impossible. Tampering i s a l m o s t

However their ability to t r a p silt so efficiently prohibits t h e i r u s e

where i r r i g a t i o n water i s permanently charged with silt.

If the silt load i s small

o r t e m p o r a r y , siltation can be avoided by providing a flush opening in the weir a t the floor of the s t r u c t u r e . The provision of a gate i s advantageous on l a r g e r

FIGURE 6 - 4 ( a ) . - Double duckbill w e i r f o r 480 l / s d i s c h a r g e capacitv.

FIGURE 6 - 4 (b).
capacity.

Duckbill w e i r f o r 160 l / s d i s c h a r g e

s t r u c t u r e s t o enable evacuation of the u p s t r e a m r e a c h .

Hydraulic Design The following d i a g r a m s and c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m the handbook " L e s o u v r a g e s d ' u n petit r e s e a u d ' i r r i g a t i o n " p r e p a r e d by the Societe G e n e r a l e d e s Techniques H y d r o - A g r i c o l e s (SOGETHA) a n d published u n d e r the s e r i e s "Techniques R u r a l e s e n Afrique" by the F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t in 1 9 7 0 . The calculation of the d i s c h a r g e o v e r a diagonal o r a duckbill w e i r o r a Z - t y p e w e i r i s b a s e d on the f o r m u l a : 3 -

where

d i s c h a r g e coefficient length of c r e s t w a t e r depth, i. e . h e a d on the c r e s t ( s e e F i g u r e 6-5)

B(t) H (crt)

=
=

FIGURE 6-5. - D i a g r a m of flow o v e r diagonal, duckbill o r Z-type w e i r s .

The valu& of m depends on the shape of the c r e s t a n d t h e angle of 6 For l a r g e r than 45' the v a l u e s shown i n F i g u r e 6-6 a r e u s e d :

Diogond weir Unrounded crest: m

:

Duckbitl weir 0.32

Z type weir
0.31

0.34

Crest rounded I I ~ B ~ ~ ~ U I m: I I :

0.38

0.36

0.34

FIGURE 6-6. - Determination of coefficient ' m ' f o r angles of H g r e a t e r than 45O. The graph, F i g u r e 6-7, can be u s e d to d e t e r m i n e the d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e of c r e s t and f r o m this the total length of c r e s t r e q u i r e d . F i g u r e 6-8 i s an aid f o r determining the angle length. f r o m the r e q u i r e d c r e s t

If

oC

i s below 45O i t i s recommended, f o r r e a s o n s of economy, that an Above 45O u p to 70 the u s e of

inclined w e i r be u s e d r a t h e r than a duckbill w e i r . a duckbill w e i r i s p r e f e r a b l e .

The end of the duckbill w e i r c r e s t i s fixed a t If the t i p of the duckbill i s

40 c m independent of the bottom width of the canal.

shaped s e m i - c i r c u l a r with a d i a m e t e r of 40 c m , the c r e s t length will be approximately 60 c m . Example: Given Canal d i s c h a r g e side s l o p e s bottom width w a t e r depth Maximum w a t e r l e v e l variation i.e. c r e s t height 0. 13 m , 0 . 1 3 m for 0.40 150l/s = = 0.27 m 1.30 m ( f r o m F i g u r e 6-7) 150'1/s 1.5: 1 0.50 m 0.40 m

(4

0. 13

Available t r a n s v e r s a l c r e s t width m m

(t)

0 . 3 8 (rounded c r e s t , diagonal type ) 0 . 3 6 (rounded c r e s t duckbill t y p e )

D i s c h a r g e ( I / s ) p e r m e t r e of c r e s t length

FIGURE 6-7. - G r a p h f o r determination of d i s c h a r g e o v e r diagonal, duckbill, o r Z-type w e i r s (84).

F r o m F i g u r e 6-7

q q

= =

80 l / s p e r m e t r e of c r e s t (diagonal type)

75 l / s p e r m e t r e of c r e s t (duckbill type)

total length r e q u i r e d (diagonal type)

F r o m F i g u r e 6-8 the inclination of the w e i r

i s found t o b e equal t o 47

T h e r e f o r e t h i s would call for a duckbill w e i r r a t h e r than f o r a diagonal one.

Required length f o r a duckbill w e i r :

FIGURE 6-8.
and of d

Determination of [ f r o m known B and S

(84).

Section A-A

Section 0-0 Ronqe of suitoble dimensions for copocities up to 5 0 0 L/s

B
f
y,

= 0 . 2 0 t o 1.00

= =

0.20 to 1.00

0.10 t o 0.70lupstreom woter depth)

0 . 0 5 to O.IS(difference between upstream woter level ond crest level)

yCItl=
s
c

= 0.10 to 0 . 6 0
= 0.15 (thickness of weir)
(width of ovoiloble upstreom woter surface)

f =

9
4

B(t)C (crest length) = C X

o<

&

(ongle between weir crest and cross section

Plon

FIGURE 6-9. - Standard diagonal check weir for capacities up to 500 l / s (84).

S e c t ~ o n E-F

Offtake

canal-

S e c t ~ o n C-D

F A 0

ICID

DUCKBILL

WEIR

P r c j e c t , R e g ~ o n ,Country Agency for A g r o r ~ a n R e f o r m , C ~ c ~ l y

Secrlon

A-8

ltoly F ~ g u r e N o 6-10

+I

-----I
Section A - A

Section 8-8

Range of suitable dimensions for copocitlCs up to \ooo c/s

6 = 0 . 2 0 to 1.00 f = 0.20 to 1.00

4 = 0 10 to 0.70 (upstream woter depth)

IfCrf, = 0 0 5 to 0.15 (difference between upstream woter

level and crest level)

3
C
: 0.10

t o 0.60

= 0.15 (thickness of weir)

= (width of ovoiloble upstream woter surface) L = (tot01 lenqth of crest :0.40 2 A )

f

o< :(angle

between weir crest ond cross section

of chonnel)

m = 1.5 f
p

- 1.5s + 0.20

k = A sinw
:2 . 5 f

s f

FIGURE 6- 1 1 . - Standard duckbill weir design, type IqGiraudet" for capacities up to 1000 l / s.

030

3 80

1.00

Plan

t I .-.........
0 59

01 5
0-44

+
I

3 \
j 01 5

I
Cross section

' f -

lb " ' /
Concrete Iron

-5 $ 5

per running metre

5 per running metre

= 7 . 3 cbm
= 25:5 kg

F A 0

ICID

DUCKBILL W E I R

FOR 2 6 0 to 280 t / s
tr

CAPACITY

.
Project Detail 6-6

, Region , Country
Spoin

Detail A-A

Figure No

6 -12

F r o m F i g u r e 6-8

al eirs) Design E x a m p l e ( ~ i a ~ o n W F i g u r e 6-9 shows a s i m p l e but efficient design f o r i n situ c o n s t r u c t i o n of a diagonal w e i r i n u n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e .

Design E x a m p l e s (Duckbill W e i r ) S t a n d a r d d e s i g n s f o r duckbill w e i r s have b e e n developed in s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n B a s i n . F i g u r e 6-10 shows a type u s e d in Sicily. The

D i m e n s i o n s of c a p a c i t i e s between 110 a n d 370 l / s a r e given in the d r a w i n g . w e i r i s u s u a l l y combined with one o r m o r e f a r m o u t l e t s . They a r e u s u a l l y The

provided with m a s k m o d u l e s but a l s o s i m p l e m e t a l g a t e s a r e in u s e . s t r u c t u r a l design i s adapted to lined c a n a l s .

R Bouillon e t a l . (55) r e p o r t on a duckbill w e i r of 24 m total c r e s t length. With a h e a d of only 8 c m the w e i r d i s c h a r g e s 1, 100 l / s . F i g u r e 6- 11 shows a s t a n d a r d d e s i g n developed by the SOGETHA (84) f o r l i n e d and unlined c h a n n e l s . It can be c o n s t r u c t e d e i t h e r in c o n c r e t e o r m a s o n r y .

D i m e n s i o n s shown a r e f o r u n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e . F i g u r e 6-12 i l l u s t r a t e s a design a s developed in Spain. 1/ Check Slab S t r u c t u r e (Mexico)General The check slab s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n , developed and in u s e in

6. 3. 5 6. 3 . 5 . 1

" Based

on i n f o r m a t i o n provided by J . A n s h e r t o Manobe Galvan, D e p a r t m e n t of S m a l l I r r i g a t i o n , S e c r e t a r i a t of H y d r a u l i c R e s o u r c e s , Mexico.

Mexico, i s an example of a check which controls depths and velocities in r e a c h e s of field l a t e r a l s o r ditches which have steep g r a d e s , t o enable water to be delivered to the field through siphons ( ~ i ~ u 6-13). r e The slab i s adapted for

u s e in lined channels and can a l s o be used a s a water m e a s u r e m e n t device.

FIGURE 6- 13. - Check slabs in a channt . etch with s t e e p grade. (State of St. Luis Potosi, Mexico)

6.3.5.2

Structural and design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s The check slab s t r u c t u r e consists of a slab made of concrete, wood,

o r other m a t e r i a l s and placed a t convenient i n t e r v a l s a c r o s s the lined channel sections in r e a c h e s of steep g r a d e s . Each check slab o p e r a t e s a s an independent

spillway where heads depend on the geometry of the slab. T h e r e i s an orifice a t the lower p a r t of the check slab d r o p to allow drainage and evacutation of sediments.

The thickness of the slab m a y be 5, 10 o r 15 c m . slab above the channel bed may b e 20, 30 o r 40 cm.

The height of the

The section of the channel

m a y be rectangular, o r trapezoidal with side slopes of 1 : 1 F o r smooth flow and to facilitate operation of the spillway, a minimum w a t e r cushion of 10 c m a t the b a s e of each check slab i s required. conditions, the spacing, Under these

X,

of check s l a b s (in m e t r e s ) will be given by the

following formula (where s i s the grade):

FIGURE 6-14.

- Determination of spacing of check s l a b s .

Thus, for example where H( slab) of the check s t r u c t u r e i s 0.30 m, the spacing will be :

0.30

- 0.10
S

0.20
S

(m)

F r o m t h i s X can be determined f o r different g r a d e s : X (metres)

S i m i l a r tables can be p r e p a r e d f o r other values of H(slab) 6.3.5.3 Application a s water m e a s u r i n g device

I t h a s been proved by experiments that the check slab s t r u c t u r e can a l s o be u s e d a s a w a t e r m e a s u r i n g device by designing i t according t o the following formulae:

where Q B(t)
H

=
=

d i s c h a r g e of the canal, in m 3 / s width of spillway slab a c r o s s the a x i s of flow, in m e t r e s head on the spillway c r e s t , m e a s u r e d a t a distance not l e s s than five t i m e s i t s approximate value u p s t r e a m f r o m the check slab s t r u c t u r e , i n m e t r e s

f o r a trapezoidal section

will b e e x p r e s s e d a s H(crt) H(slab) T( slab)

0.5 t 0.04

and f o r a rectangular section:

r"
where: H(slab) T(slab)

0.6 t 0.01

H( c r t )

H (slab) T( slab)

height of the check slab above the bed of the channel, in m e t r e s thickness of slab, in m e t r e s .

6.3.5.4

Numerical example Design a suitable check slab s t r u c t u r e f o r a canal with r e a c h e s having g r a d e s of 0.0005 (length 100 m , joints a t 30 m i n t e r v a l ), 90 m ) and 0.02 (length 90 m ) a s shown in F i g u r e 6-15. 0.005 (length

A s s u m e a trapezoidal

section with side slope 1 : 1, channel bed width 0. 30 m , lined with plain concrete,

discharge 0.074 rn3/ s and N (roughness coefficient) = 0.01 6

Reoch A

Reoch B

Reoch C

FIGURE 6-15.

Data for design of check slab s t r u c t u r e s .

Using the above data, and Manning's Formula, the depths' and velocities in the three reaches of the canal will be:

Reach

y (water depth of channel ( m ) )

Hydraulic conditions of the canal in r e a c h e s B and C show relatively high velocities and, consequently, insufficient depth for l a t e r a l irrigation with siphons. One solution to the problem would be reduction of the grade and introAn alternative i s to maintain the g r a d e s but to The l a t t e r has been found

duction of falls in the channel bed.

introduce check slabs a t appropriate distances. economical in Mexico.

While reach A has favourable hydraulic conditions and needs no check structures, i t i s essential to apply such s t r u c t u r e s to reaches B and C. Reach B Assume a check slab with H(slab) = 0.30 m and T(slab) = 0.05 m , then the maximum spacing of check slabs will be :

and

(t)

0.9 m .

This spacing m a y eventually be reduced to 30.00 m and s o the check s l a b s may be located a t the construction joints of the concrete lining.

Now

(4
=

and if

$rfi
0;30 m and T(slab) 1.477 = 0.05 m

where Then

7.885 H

(4

For

0.074 and

Therefore

This equation i s solved by t r i a l s , a s s u m i n g different values of H(crt), a s shown in Table 6- 1.

H
section, etc.
B

(4

being 0. 11 m , the channel will have the following c r o s s

0.30 m 1.12 m

*(ws)

TABLE

6-1

col 4

+5

Reach C

In t h i s r e a c h the c r o s s section of the channel will be the s a m e a s in

r e a c h B, the difference being the spacing of check s l a b s due to the different slope. Thus the m a x i m u m spacing in t h i s c a s e will be :

The hydraulic dimensions of t h i s r e a c h will be the s a m e a s above except that s = 0.02.

6.4 6.4.1

CHECKS REGULATED B Y STOP PLANKS (DROP BARS) OR FLASHBOARDS General Stop planks o r d r o p b a r s a r e used in checks with capacities l e s s than

1 . 5 m 3 I s , where operational changes a r e infrequent.

The water p a s s e s freely

over the top of the planks which a r e fixed horizontally, in slots, in the s t r u c t u r e . Flashboards should not be used in openings g r e a t e r than 1.5 m wide o r with water depths over 2 m . The guides o r grooves should be vertical. F o r stop planks of

thicknesses above 5 c m the groove design shown in F i g u r e 6- 16 i s recommended.

-lct

Headed anchors welded to ongle; for dio. and length,

L,

Lonper leg of ongle

,
Y
n

..

fi

n
U

All dimensions in inches Stop plank thickness Dimensions A 1 2 2

Angle for groove 1 2-x2

2

Weight p e r ft

Anchor

3
4 5

2
3 -

x 4

3. 62

3 8 dia.
1 . dia. 1 2 dia.

x 4 x 5 x 5

3
3

3 3

x2-x2 16 x2-x2 16
1 5

5.60

3 4

, ,

5.60

FIGURE 6- 16.

Stop plank grooves (54).

F i g u r e s 6-17, 6-18 and 6-19 show simple concrete check s t r u c t u r e s for s m a l l flows.

e ~ n ~ o n PU ~ I Ie OJ~
P Y ~ O ~ W Op Ou n P ~ I I * l~ l v 6 n w o q I .q p l n o w 1111 4 1 1 0 3

101s 40 *.PIS p u n s p u e u o O ~ U O J O-+ ~ ) ~ e d w plnoqs e p ~ n o q q s q j pOpUOLUUlO3OJ #I U!OlIOq V i 4 I P UDeJ4SU*OP "1 d o l d l l W O ( l 1e.11 ~ Y I S J O J U I ~ a J q 101 ~ pe4n~1)sqns e q l n w UJOJ etJ) YO OIqOBMD OJD lDq4 SJDq UOJl

elf

UWCO@

1 ;

I)(;Un39 PA J O ~d n3 c

I W o S El / D l d / W JO l)UflOY/V O I D Y I X O J ~ ~ V

. .. nY3
eel=
19 J MI

,CCD~,CS I :a6 I ,CCO<Qax,* IIP*PO*H ,FCOZE I~,E a r a *IID**PIS ,csor,gar,sz I IOADJ6 U J O d + p u o e *IJW a ~ u o w e o4 ~ o . i 1 e ~ n 4 l lP~I P U ~ U I Y ~ O ~ ~ Y

S311UN Wfk9 11383N03

FIGURE 6-19.

- Ordinary flashboard check.

6.4. 2 6.4.2.1

1I Drop B a r Check Structure (Victoria, Australia) -

General Check s t r u c t u r e s f o r irrigation canals a r e currently being standardized in Victoria, Australia. Under the prevailing conditions a trapezoidal weir

fitted with drop b a r s , a s shown in F i g u r e 6- 20, h a s proved an effective and economical m e a n s f o r controlling velocity a t o r below 60 c m p e r second. s t r u c t u r e maintains minimum water levels and depths of water for delivery through f a r m outlets and minimizes l o s s of water when r a i n c a u s e s a shutdown of irrigation. Under suitable conditions and with appropriate The

modifications such checks may a l s o be used to m e a s u r e flows with a reasonable degree of accuracy.

I'

Based mainly on information f r o m the Australian National Committee of ICID.

CROS SECTION

Prwa-t plmr* am4 diopraghm

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

FIGURE 6-20.

Typical dkop b a r check structure (52).

Design considerations These checks a r e construtted with C6. trapezoidal shape to fit the canal c r o s s section; this i s then divided bf p i e r s

which m a y be p r e - cast

into

openings that a r e blocked by easily Handled timber d r o p b a r s , to the required c r e s t height. The normal width of bpening between p i e r s i s 183 cm. This

width gives an easily handled b a r of 196 cm length with a c r o s s section of 10 cm height and 7 c m width. The limit of discharge for these checks i s 1,400 11s per 183 cm opening, but i t i s m o r e usual to design for 850 11s per opening. Downstream from the concrete apron, r i p - r a p i s placed on the bed, and b a t t e r s f o r some 6 m . The r i p - r a p on the bed i s dished in shape. End sills

a r e not provided a t the end of the concrete apron. There i s some problem in adapting the trapezoidal regulator to small channels. F o r regulation, checks should be evenly spaced where possible, and

a t such intervals that when a channel i s shut down, the wedge volumes a r e small enough to be successively passed down the channel within a reasonable period. Spclting of checks must be such that the d r o p in water level i s generally l e s s than

one m e t r e and the minimum water depth immediately downstream i s 30 cm. F o r d r o p s in water level of above 30 c m a s many openings a s possible should be used to p a s s the flow, provided that the minimum depth of water below the outer openings i s 60 cm. F o r s m a l l drops in water level, the water s t r e a m s through the openings and the velocity energy i s not dissipated in the drop. In this c a s e the length

of c r e s t spilling the water should not be g r e a t e r than the channel water width downstream, and water should not fall d i r e c t on to the concrete batter ; i t should have a water cushion of some 60 c m in depth. The average channel velocity a t

the'downstream end of the s t r u c t u r e i s limited to 60 c m p e r second. The s t r u c t u r e becomes v e r y l a r g e relative to capacity, particularly when i t i s r e q u i r e d to provide a l a r g e d r o p in water level, but with p r e - c a s t units i t i s still fairly econdmical. 6.4.2.3 Ratings f o r calculation and m e a s u r e m e n t Because the previously used "Gibson" formula was considered to be insufficiently a c c u r a t e and because of the i n c r e a s e d need to u s e d r o p b a r checks f o r flow m e a s u r e m e n t s , model t e s t s were undertaken in o r d e r t o obtain m o r e exact ratings f o r f r e e and submerged flow f o r a variety of s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e ments. The t e s t e d model check had openings of 61 c m width. Ratings w e r e

based on the total u p s t r e a m head applied t o the full c r e s t length. The t e s t s showed that, for consistent and accurate r e s u l t s , special attention m u s t be given t o the condition of the top b a r and, f o r f r e e flow w e i r s , to aeration of the nappe. It was found that if the top u p s t r e a m edge of the c r e s t

d r o p b a r became rounded to 12 m m radius, the discharge could be i n c r e a s e d by 10%. F o r m o r e a c c u r a t e measurement, i t i s recommended that a m e t a l plate

with s h a r p edge be fixed to the u p s t r e a m face of the top t i m b e r b a r s . Under f r e e weir flow, non-aeration of the overfall nappe may i n c r e a s e the coefficient of discharge by up to 7%. w e r e tested. Different methods of providing aeration

The s i m p l e s t a r r a n g e m e n t suggested is the fixing of 7 . 5 c m x 3 c m The

t i m b e r wedge deflector s t r i p s t o the drop b a r guides, ( F i g u r e 6-21 (b) ).

other method is t o u s e an open m i l d s t e e l section, with a slotted inside face, a s

I ( a ) Port longitudinal section of

typical structure ( b ) and (c) Plan view of aeration arrangements ( d Dipstick measurement of total head (el , ( f ) and (9) Pier nose arrangements ( i Timber drop bars (ii) Drop bar guide (iii) Dsflector strip (iv) Slotted steel guide aerator ( v ) Average run-up on dipstick (vi) Sharp upstream edge

I
DROP

FA 0

- ICID

B A R STRUCTURE

Project, Region, Country Victoria, Austrolio Fi,gure No. 6- 21

the drop b a r guide, ( F i g u r e 6-21 ( c ) ). A s well a s these two important f a c t o r s , the pier shape, position, number of openings in the s t r u c t u r e and number of d r o p b a r s i n s e r t e d (i. e . c r e s t height) a l s o affect the rating. Thus i t was found n e c e s s a r y to p r e p a r e s e p a r a t e

ratings for t h r e e different s t r u c t u r a l designs because of differing p i e r nose arrangements:

23 cm thick concrete pier with a mild steel flat plate and d r o p b a r r e (e) ) slot a t the u p s t r e a m edge of the pier, ( ~ i ~ u 6-21

23 c m thick concrete p i e r with square front face, except for 2.5 cm chamfers on the edges, and drop b a r slot 33 cm in f r o m the u p s t r e a m edge

present standard,(Figure 6-21 (f) )

30 c m thick concrete p i e r with u p s t r e a m edge rounded to a 15 cm radius fofiowed immediately by the drop b a r slot, ( F i g u r e 6-21 ( g ) ).

With each s t r u c t u r a l design, different ratings were a l s o found to be required for multi-opening s t r u c t u r e s , a s ratings differed between e x t r e m e outer and inner openings and these in turn differed f r o m single opening s t r u c t u r e s . Separate ratings were a l s o found to be required for inner openings with six b a r s o r m o r e in place ( c r e s t height approximately 60 cm) and with five bars or less. The various ratings a r e close for low heads, but for heads f r o m 30 cm up to 76 c m a s tested, t h e r e i s a variation f r o m 670 up to 1170 between and within ratings f o r different s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s . The multiple opening trapezoidal check i s the c u r r e n t standard used. F o r accurate m e a s u r e m e n t this s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e s t h r e e tables, one for extreme outer openings and two f o r inner openings related to number of drop b a r s in place. If the top d r o p b a r s have s h a r p u p s t r e a m edges, f r e e flow has proper aeration, a dipstick ( s e e below) i s used for u p s t r e a m total head m e a s u r e m e n t and the downstream gauge i s correctly located for submerged flow. ratings a r e considered to have a maximum probable e r r o r of The model t e s t

+ 2.5 70.

A detailed s e t of t a b l e s f o r f r e e and submerged flow and different p i e r and bay a r r a n g e m e n t s i s given in a r e p o r t "Rating of D r o p B a r Structures" by C. Kirkham, September 1967. accurate measurement. 6.4.2.4 F r e e flow w e i r formula The t a b l e s f o r f r e e flow w e i r s over d r o p b a r r e g u l a t o r s w e r e plotted, and an a v e r a g e curve was interpolated and r e l a t e d t o the b a s i c weir formula: This r e p o r t a l s o s e t s out r e q u i r e m e n t s for

where, Q B(t) H(crt) C

= = = =

discharge in 11s full c r e s t length of opening in c m total head in c m coefficient related to head a s given below.

The coefficients C calculated f o r an a v e r a g e rating w e r e a s follows:

This rating i s within - 5 0/0 of the rating'tables f o r the c u r r e n t standard s t r u c t u r e f o r heads up to 76 cm. It a g r e e s within s i m i l a r l i m i t s f o r the

o t h e r two s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s , except at heads over 60 cm the difference i s up to 7 % in s o m e c a s e s .

6.4.2.5

Submerged flow formula The submerged flow r a t i n g s w e r e related to a coefficient C1 in the formula :

where H

i s the total u p s t r e a m head m e a s u r e d to the top of the d r o p b a r s and

HDR i s the difference between w a t e r l e v e l s u p s t r e a m and downstream, both m e a s u r e d in feet. The coe'fficient C1 v a r i e s f r o m 0.58 t o 0.72 over the range of subm e r g e n c e and different s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s tested, and i s s m a l l e s t a t 40 % submergence, where submergence = H(crt) - H(dr) , H(crt) The C1 values w e r e

plotted against the submergence f i g u r e s and a n a v e r a g e C1 rating interpolated a s follows :

70 submergence

10

20

30

40

50.

60

70

80

90

The average rating i s within regulator and 6.4.2.6

+ 5%

of the various ratings for the c u r r e n t standard

+ 770

to+- 5% of the other a r r a n g e m e n t s .

Measurement of head The common method of m e a s u r i n g u p s t r e a m head i s the u s e of a dipstick held vertically on top of the d r o p b a r . The head i s taken a s the depth of This method i s liable to The

w a t e r !!run-up" on the b a r a s shown in F i g u r e 6-21 (d).

e r r o r s if the dipstick' i s not of a standard width and i s not held vertically.

w a t e r height should be taken to the m e a n of the fluctuations in run-up and not to the highest w a t e r m a r k . The model t e s t s indicated that the use of a 5 c m dipstick i s a s a t i s factory method of obtaining head and gives a head v e r y close to the total head a s indicated below: .dipstick reading total head 19 c m 18.5 31.4 c m 30.6 46.5 c m 45.7 61.1 c m 61.0 75.5 cm 76. 3

Because of this, the total head was used a s a b a s i s for the rating tables. The head m a y a l s o be r e a d f r o m staff gauges s e t some 3 m u p s t r e a m and close to the side of the channel. F o r submerged flow conditions, the head difference between u p s t r e a m

and downstream water levels i s taken f r o m staff gauges s e t u p s t r e a m and downstream. The downstream gauge in the model t e s t s was placed immediately downstream of the s t r u c t u r e behind the p i e r in s t i l l water. This location i s not

possible with some trapezoidal regulators and the t e s t s indicated that a staff gauge placed some 4 5 m downstream, close to the side of the channel in a back flow section and facing downstream against the back flow, would give a close reading.

6.5 6.5.1

CHECKS EQUIPPED WITH HAND OPERATED GATES General Gated checks a r e commonly used in channels where water level adjustment i s r e q u i r e d m o r e frequently o r where the higher cost, compared to stop-logs a r e justified (e. g. saving of labour). These checks a r e usually

fitted with hand-operated slide gates ranging f r o m simple wooden s h u t t e r s to hand-wheel noprated adjustable orifice type gates ( F i g u r e 6- 22).

FIGUdE 6-22.

Hand operated check gate ( F e r . ,ra,

Italy).

e wall, reinf. not shown

Extend c u t o f f concrete as di

concrete deck

C.L. Pipe hondroil post connections.

Pipe hondrail post connection details

(Handroil requlred when

H,k

is qreoter

than 16 inches) Assembly pole guides w ~ t h flotheod bolls

Section A-A

CONCRETE

CHECK

The s i l l of the gate i s usually made level with the bottom of the channel.

Slide

gates a r e usually operated a s an orifice with the exception of w e i r , g a t e s , such a s the Romijn gate ( s e e 6.5.7 and Chapter 7 ) which can be used a s an overfall weir. Also, if checks a r e combined with a d r o p in the channel bed the gate may be designed a s an overflow weir. The design of gates i s discussed in detail in

Volume 111 of this Handbook, while in this section discussion will concentrate on the functional a s p e c t of gates and the design of the supporting s t r u c t u r e . Checks may be stationary o r portable.

A l a r g e variety of conventional

stationary checks exist, each of which have been developed to suit a given s e t of conditions. These checks can be dimensioned a s outlined in section 6.2.
A

few examples a r e described in 6.5.2 to 6.5.4 below and portable checks a r e mentioned in 6.5.5.
1/

6.5.2 6.5. 2.1

Standard Check (USBR)-

General design f e a t u r e s This check h a s been developed by the USBR for u p s t r e a m water level control f o r maximum discharge capacities f r o m 300 l / s up to 2,400 l / s . The structure, ( F i g u r e 6- 23), consists of:

an u p s t r e a m approach of 3 m (10 feet) with gradually widening transition f r o m the width of the n o r m a l channel section to the width of the check ( a c r o s s the axis of flow) and with the bed sloping down to the c r e s t of the check

a check wall with guides f o r a slide gate (the slide gate i s not shown in the drawing), and wing walls

a middle section with a p r e - c a s t concrete deck with handrail on the downs t r e a m side downstream wing walls and a 3 m (10 ft) transition returning back to n o r m a l channel section.

I ' See a l s o under drops.

TABLE 6-2 Dimensions of Standard Check (USBR) Slide gate Str. No: Max. .Standard dimension E s t i m a t e d Quantities ( T(ww) ~ T ~( ) 4 ~ T(CHW) Concrete Tcoff 3 in in m Reinf. steel Misc. metal kg 30 90 100 110 95 105 110 130 125 145 125

Q
11s ft3/s

Width Heighdl H ( f r a m e )

B~~

ywk)

L(str) B(str)top

X(vhr)

L 1

in

ft

kg
150 170 195 245 185 210 260 300 220 280 240

1 2 3 4 5

283 425 595 735 595 792 990

10 15 21 26 21 28 35

36 x 12 36x18 36 x 24 36 x 30 48 x 18 48 x 24 48 x 30 48x36 60 x 24 60x30 72x24

5 5 6 6 5 6 6 6 6 6 6

31 0" 31
on

1411 41 6" 2011 41 6" 21 2" 21 8" 51 0" 61 0"

101 6" 121 0" 131 6" 151

on

51 6" 61 3" 71 0" 61 2" 6111" 71 8" 51 7" 71 5" 51 5 1 1 7111"

24" 24" 24" 21 6" 24" 24" 21 6" 21 6" 24" 21 6~ 24"

6
6

6'
6 6 8 6 6 8 8 6 8 ' 6

2.1 2.5 2.9 4.5 2.7 3.1 4.7 5.7 3.3 5.0 3.4

31 o w 31
ow

6
6

4' 0" 41
ow

2111 41 6" 21 3" 21 9"

31 3"

131 3" 141 9" 161 3" 171 9" 151 9" 171 3" 161 9"

6
6

6
7

51

ott

41 0" 41 0" 51 0" 51

OH

61 0" 71 51
OH

6
7 6 6 6

8
9 10 11

1190 42
II

990

35

21 3" 21 9"

ott

1220 4 3 1190 42

61 0"

61 o w

21 311 51 0 1 1

L 1 ~ h e na gate of specified height i s not available a gate with the next height available m a y be used with appropriate f r a m e height.

The whole s t r u c t u r e i s of reinforced concrete except the gate. Transitions a r e in e a r t h but the bed i s protected by a l a y e r of c o a r s e gravel. The e s s e n t i a l dimensions of the check a r e given in Table 6- 2 f o r 6 different standard s t r u c t u r e s . follows. Size of s t r u c t u r e and elkvation i s determined a s

The c r e s t i s s e t s o that the top of the check wall (adjacent to the gate) This i s the level to be held by the check and i s usually

is a t control w a t e r level.

equal to the n o r m a l level of the w a t e r s u r f a c e a t the check f o r design discharge. F o r a known d i s c h a r g e ' Q 1 a s t r u c t u r e i s selected f r o m Table 6-2 and i t s c r e s t ( a t elevation B in F i g u r e 6-23) is s e t s o that the top of the check wall i s a t control water level. E x c e s s i v e flow can p a s s over the concrete check wall. Numerical example Given Elevation

Q
A
y1

575 l / s 310.25 m 45 c m

=
=

a s s u m e n o r m a l water surface = control w a t e r surface Refer to Table 6-2.

control water surface 310.25

0.45

310.70 m

T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e number for a Q of 575 l / s , s o

Q = 21 f t 3 / s = 595 11s. S t r u c t u r e s Nos 3 and 5 both 3 Select s t r u c t u r e No 5 because i t h a s a have a maximum discharge of 21 ft / s .

s e l e c t the next highest,

working head (h(wk)).which m o r e n e a r l y suits the given canal section and i t h a s l e s s concrete than s t r u c t u r e No 3. Dimensions : h(wk) ElevationB

= =

21 inches 310.70-0.53

= =

53cm 310.17 m

l leva ti on

of B m u s t not be higher than that of C )

Elevation C i s normally set 1. 5 to 3 c m lower than Elevation A to

allow for hydraulic head l o s s through the structure.

Therefore,

Elevation

C = 310.23 m.

Check Structure made of Sheet Metal A prefabricated steel check structure i s shown in F i g u r e 6-24. i s g l a s s coated to reduce corrosion. The steel

The joints a r e bolted and sealed with a The data given below a r e for a

special m a s t i c to help eliminate seepage. 122 cm (4 ft) wide opening.

Model Number 4 ft wide 4W4442

Dimension (ft) L F B E C

Arsa ft

Wt. lb

List ~ r i c e l / $ us

160

1075

380

FIGURE 6-24.
dimensions.

Check s t r u c t u r e made of sheet metal

FIGURE 6-25. - Check constructed from prefabricated

steel parts (75).
6.5.4

Wooden Checks Designs of small wooden checks a r e shown in Figures 6 - 2 6 and 6-27.

Shutter .,

f
ft3/s 3
6

Recommended S i z e s
A

71011 21'611 31011 11611 21011 31011 91011 31011 31011 21011 31011 31611 1010" 31011 41011 21011 31011 31611

9
FRONT VlEW

12 16

111011 31611 51011 21011 3lOl1 31611 1110" 480" 51011 21611 31011 4toll

. ^ ------I

REAR VlEW

FIGURE 6-26.

Single wall check with side walls only for

protection of banks (65).

Minimum dimensions in inches

FIGURE 6-27.

Double wall check (74).

The s t r u c t u r e s can be improved by adding an apron at the downstream end. Aprons can be made of almost any convenient m a t e r i a l ranging f r o m burlap sacks to concrete. The tables in F i g u r e s 6-26 and 6-27 give dimensions recommended for The capacities for the double wall

various flow capacities o r opening widths.

check in Figure 6-27 range f r o m 0 to 1,000 11s.

6.5.5

Portable Checks Often i t i s desirable to use a ditch in sections, filling sections lower downs t r e a m a s irrigation progresses.

A s e r i e s of permanent structures for this

purpose would be costly ; but a portable dam o r stop in the form of a f r a m e of canvas, plastic o r butyl rubber, o r a metal panel that can be driven into the earth and a c r o s s the ditch, can be used repeatedly to control flow. applicable only to earth ditches. These devices a r e

To permit the same control in lined systems,

slots f o r the checks can be cast into the sides of the channels a t any desired interval. F i g u r e s 6-28 and 6-29 show two simple designs for local manufacture.

Ditch bonk

AL

L C O ~ O Ibottom
Angle bar 4 0 x 40

Section A-A

FIGURE 6-28.,

Portable check for f a r m ditches (46).

6.5.6

Radial Gate Check The radial gate check i s used successfully for level control purposes in the Netherlands. Its g r e a t advantages a r e that: the gate a c t s a s an overflow weir,

which requires l e s s frequent adjustment should the discharge of the channel fluctuate; i t allows debris to p a s s the weir; and the gate can be lowered for periodical cleaning of the upstream channel section. The gate i s operated with a

portable screw-thread b a r and i s then kept in the required position by a chain on

FIGURE 6-29.

Portable canvas check, sleeve type ( 1 3 ) .

FIGURE 6-30 ( a ) .

Radial check gate

h he

Netherlands).

FIGURE 6- 30 (b).

D o w n s t r e a m view of r a d i a l g a t e check ( T h e N e t h e r l a n d s ) .

e a c h side.

(See F i g u r e s 6-30 (a) and 6-30 (b).)

L a r g e gates a r e operated by a

fixed hoisting device.

6.5.7

The Romijn Gate The Romijn gate i s a hand-operated broad c r e s t e d weir used for: level cont r o l a t intakes t o distributing o r other subordinate channels; o r f o r level control within a channel; o r a s a measuring device. The gate h a s been thoroughly

laboratory t e s t e d and r a t e d for water m e a s u r e m e n t and is t h e r e f o r e discussed in detail under Chapter 7

S t r u c t u r e s and Devices f o r Water Measurement in

Volume I1 of this Handbook.

6.6

HYDRAULICALLY AUTOMATED CHECKS (NEYRPIC) General Structure and Application The need f o r m o r e a c c u r a t e water level control than i s possible with handoperated check gates h a s , among other needs, l e d to the development of the Neyrpic automatic gates. Their operation r e l i e s entirely on the f o r c e s in the The devices

6 . 6.1

s y s t e m itself, such a s hydrostatic t h r u s t and the weight of the device. to be discussed h e r e a r e the standard AMIL, AVIS and AVIO gates.

The AMIL gate, a s shown in F i g u r e 6-31, i s designed f o r constant level u p s t r e a m control. leaf. I t consists of a balanced radial gate with a float attached to the

The gate i s designed s o that the f o r c e s acting oneit position the leaf to With the constant level

maintain the u p s t r e a m water level a t the height required.

downstream gate (AVIS) a s shown in F i g u r e 6-32 a float automatically positions the gate leaf over the gate opening to maintain a predetermined and n e a r l y constant level downstream. F i g u r e 6- 33 shows the AVIO gate, a variant of the downstream The AVIO variant i s

level gate, which i s placed behind an orifice type outlet.

required when the discharge of the supply canal i s l a r g e and the discharge to be taken off i s small. I t i s m o r e generally used on water offtakes that a r e controlled The choice

f r o m the level variations of a body of water such a s a storage pond.

between the open and the orifice type gate i s solely determined by the maximum level differential likely to occur between the u p s t r e a m and the controlled levels. With the constant level u p s t r e a m gate the branch canal o r f a r m outlet i s placed

u p s t r e a m of the gate and with the constant level downstream gate downstream of the gate. (See a l s o Chapters 2 and 3 . )

FIGURE 6-31. - Typical medium s i z e u p s t r e a m constant level gate, NEYRPIC - AMIL. (1. Servo-tab, 2. float, 3. gate leaf, 4. hinge, 5. adjustable counterweight)

FIGURE 6-32.

Typical downstream constant level gate (NEYRPIC - AVIS)

FIGURE 6-33. - Typical downstream constant level gate for discharge through an orifice, (NEYRPIC-AVIO). (1. Opening, 2. gate leaf, 3 . adjustable counterweight, 4. hinge, 5. float, 6. chamber communicating with the downstream level. )

When comparing constant level gates with conventional gates the higher initial cost of constant level gates h a s to be weighed against i n c r e a s e d water u s e efficiency in the entire irrigation system. Other aspe*cts to consider a r e the

labour saving automatic operation v e r s u s the i n c r e a s e d attention n e c e s s a r y to p r e vent jamming of and tampering with the device. Because of t h e i r relatively high

cost and susceptibility to clogging by debris, the constant level gates a r e especially suited t o h a r d surface lined canals o r flume irrigation s y s t e m s . between u p s t r e a m and downstream control s e e Chapter 2. F o r a choice

6. 6.2

Range of Standard Gates Available The information given in the following available standard AMIL, AVIS and AVIO gates only. indicates the range of F o r selection of s i z e of

gate within each category the following data m u s t be known:

maximum r a t e of flow minimum head maximum head a t z e r o flow maximum head a t maximum flow.

F o r design and o t h e r complementary information r e f e r e n c e should be m a d e to the abundant information available with the manufacturers.

AMIL gates AMIL gates a r e described by the dimension indicated by IDt, which i s approximately the width of the water s u r f a c e , a s shown in F i g u r e 6-34.

FIGURE 6-34.

- Diagrammatic layout of AMIL gate.

The depth of water u p s t r e a m i s 0.45 D ; the gate r i s e s to a maximum of 0.225 D ; 2 the a r e a of the p a s s a g e through which the water p a s s e s i s about 0 . 2 D ; and the a r e a of wetted section of canal immediately u p s t r e a m f r o m the gate i s 0. 35 D 2

Table 6-3 s u m m a r i s e s the m a j o r p a r a m e t e r s of s m a l l AMIL gates.

TABLE

6-3

Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small AMIL Gates Approximate minimum head l o s s a t maximum discharge (cm) 5 6 7 7 8 9 10

Type D (cm) D 80 D 90 D-100 D-110 D-125 D-140 D-160

,

Water depth Y1

Cross section (cm) a 85 95 106 118 132 150 170 b 65 50 56 63 71 80 90 c 60 45 50 56 63 71 80

U

Overall (cm)
V W

Approximate maximum discharge (11S ) 190 250 330 420 570 770 1100

R (cm)
63 63 63 63 90 90 90

(cm) 36 40 45 50 56 63 71

70 70 70 70 100 100 100

56 56 56 56 80 80 80

71 80 85 95 106 118 132

6. 6. 2. 2

AVIS gates AVIS gates a r e identified in t e r m s of float r a d i u s

r

and bottom

sluice k i d t h

I,

both in c e n t i m e t r e s ( s e e F i g u r e 6-35 ( a ) ).

Two groups of

gates a r e available, one f o r high heads and another f o r low heads. In the 3 capacity range below one m 1 s t h e r e a r e only two different s i z e s of the high head type available, a s shown in Table 6-4. TABLE 6-4

Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small High Head AVIS Gates AVIS high head gate No (r/c) Appr ox: min. head loss at maximum discharge (cm)

O v e r a l l dimensions (cm) A B

Max. head ( cm) R r

Sluice

(4
C 106 H L

Jrn
40 50

Approx. max. discharge (l/s) 800 1400

561106 164 135 121

90 102 62

9058

96 138.5

6
7

711132 205 165 155 110 127 78 112 71

132 121 180

downstream level

Sluice dimensions

- Diagrammatic layout of AVIS gate from 56/106 to 90/190.

FIGURE 6-35 (a).

6.6.2.3
-

AVIO g a t e s AVIO g a t e s a r e identified in t e r m s of float

outside r a d i u s in c m and

sluice c r o s s sectional a r e a s ( h x L ) in s q u a r e d e c i m e t e r s ( s e e F i g u r e 6-35(b) ). A s an example the float r a d i u s and sluice c r o s s section of a n AVIO 56/25 gate a r e 3 56 cm and 25 dm 2 respectively. In the capacity range f r o m z e r o to one m / s t h e r e a r e 6 gate s i z e s available f o r high h e a d s and 4 for low heads a s shown in Table 6-5. TABLE 6-5

Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small t o Medium Size AVIO g a t e s AVIO gate NO. Approx. min. head loss at m a x . discharge (cm) 14 16 20 12 26 15 33 20 40 24

Low head

O v e r a l l dimensions (cm) A
I .

High head 281 6 36/10 451 1 6

Max. head (cm)

J~

Opening (cm) h 25 32 40 40 50 50 63 63 80 80
I.,

Approx. max. discharge (11s) 80 110 280 410 49 0 750 900 1350 1500 2030

45/32 5 6/ 25 56/50 71/40 71/80 90163 90/125

85 60 65 35 50 105 75 85 45 63 135 90 100 55 80 135 90 100 55 80 165 115 130 7 0 1 0 0 165 115 130 7 0 1 0 0 210145170 90125 210 145. 170 90 125 265 180 210 110 160 265 180 210 110 160
Moximum upstream level

28 36 45 45 56 56 71 71 90 90.

142 140 180 . 90 224 112 280 140 355 180

25 32 40 80 50 100 63 125 80 160

>

Constant downstreorn level

FIGURE 6- 35 (b)

. - D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIO gate.

FIGURE 6-36 ( a ) . - B a s i c d r a w - s t r i n g check fitted with

side wing walls and bottom cut-off f o r u s e in an unlined ditch.

FIGURE 6- 36 (b). unlined ditch.

Semi automatic check installed in an

6.7

SEMI AUTOMATIC TIME CONTROLLED CHECK The u s e of t i m e controlled checks i s a s yet in the experimental stage and t h e r e i s little field experience available. level control in f a r m distribution ditches. The method i s s o far. confined to water After allowing the water t o r i s e t o a

predetermined level f o r a given t i m e an automatic gate i s r e l e a s e d , allowing the water to flow on to the next check. A s e m i automatic portable check f o r u s e in Similar checks a r e

unlined ditches i s shown in F i g u r e s 6-36(a) and 6-36(b). available for lined ditches.

The check consists of a nylon reinforced butyl

rubber dam s ~ ~ , ~ o r in te ad m e t a l f r a m e designed t o fit the ditch c r o s s section. In the closed position the top edge of the flexible dam i s supported by a draws t r i n g threaded through g r o m m e t s . draw-string. A plastic covered s t e e l cable i s used for the

The draw-string i s r e l e a s e d a t the end of the d e s i r e d i r r i g a t i o n This device, which i s commercially available, cont i m e indicator, a tripping m e c h a n i s m The t i m e r i s

period by a timing device.

s i s t s of a wind-up spring, d i r e c t reading

and an escapement r e l e a s e which i s operated by a small float. mounted in a sealed casing.

It o p e r a t e s a s soon a s water e n t e r s the ditch

immediately u p s t r e a m f r o m the check, when the timing mechanism i s tripped into action by the r i s i n g float, hour periods. T i m e r s a r e available f o r two, five o r twelve

Checks have been manufactured for 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 c m Design details of the gates a r e given in Volume I11 of this

design water depths. Handbook.

Humpherys (58) s t a t e s that the portable d r a w - s t r i n g check i s ideally suited f o r u s e in an automatic cut-back furrow irrigation s y s t e m , i n a t h a t the a c r e a g e one i r r i g a t o r can manage can be i n c r e a s e d up to ten o r m o r e times, while keeping run-off a t a minimum. (See a l s o Chapter 2)

6.8

CHECK STRUCTURES COMBINED WITH A FALL, DROP OR CHUTE Sometimes, it i s n e c e s s a r y to combine check s t r u c t u r e s with falls, drops o r chutes, particularly when i t i s n e c e s s a r y to control the u p s t r e a m w a t e r level and i t s velocity, in addition t o achieving a reduction in grade and velocity downstream. Examples of checks combined with falls a r e given in p a r t B of this

chapter, which follows.

6.9

GENERAL FEATURES OF DROPS (OR FALLS) AND CHUTES

Drops, o r falls, and chutes a r e control s t r u c t u r e s required a t suitable intervals in canals o r channels which m u s t have a m o r e gentle slope than that of the adjacent land, so a s to reduce the water level downstream, and reduce the velocity of flow. They also provide for the safe dissipation of surplus energy.

Generally such a control structure i s called a drop, o r a fall, when the lowering of the water level i s accomplished over a short distance. When the water i s

conveyed over long distances a t slopes which a r e still steep enough to maintain high velocities (shooting flow), the structure generally used i s a chute. Chutes

may also be used on sloping land where a single drop, o r a s e r i e s of drops (i. e. cascades), would be m o r e expensive o r otherwise undesirable.

In the c a s e of main canals, branch canals o r sub-branch canals, which do

not directly i r r i g a t e any a r e a , the site of a drop i s determined in consideration of the cost of canal construction, including balancing cut and fill and the cost of the structure itself.

In the case of distributing canals, the falls a r e located so a s to

The

s e r v e the commanded a r e a without having to build the canal banks too high. possibility of combining a drop with an intake, c r o s s regulator, measuring

device, bridge o r some other canal structure must be given due consideration, a s such combinations often r e s u l t in economy and better regulation. Drops a r e

usually provided with a low c r e s t wall, hump o r check gate upstream to prevent shooting flow in the upstream approach section.

In this Handbook drops a r e subdivided into three categories: vertical drops,

inclined drops and piped drops. category a s inclined drops. The choice between vertical and inclined drops i s governed mainly by the difference in water level to be controlled by the structure, in other words, the energy to be dissipated. However, local conditions, traditional practices, e t c . , Chutes a r e regarded a s being in the same

do not allow for generalization of the c r i t e r i a for this choice on a world-wide scale. The n e c e s s a r y drop in level and dissipation of energy can be achieved

either by one o r only a few l a r g e d r o p s o r by s e v e r a l m o r e small drops over the s a m e distance. The choice again i s much dependent on m a t e r i a l and labour

available and the total cost of construction. The inclined d r o p o f f e r s the alternative of dissipating energy through a standing wave (hydraulic jump) whereas the shock of the overfall jet of the vertical d r o p i s dissipated. Where the fall r e q u i r e d i s considerable the whole

s t r u c t u r e of the inclined drop r e q u i r e s l e s s m a t e r i a l and labour input than the wall and dissipator basin s t r u c t u r e of the vertical drop. Drops can be used to m e a s u r e the quantity of water flowing over them. example, a vertical d r o p may be equipped with a calibrated weir section; and inclined drops may be designed so a s to include a calibrated flume section. Pipe drops a r e often found useful and economical where a d r o p can be For

sited so a s t o t r a v e r s e a road o r other crossing of an irrigation canal. Drops in f a r m channels a r e basically of the s a m e type and function a s those in distribution canals, the only difference being that the drops in f a r m channels a r e s m a l l e r and simpler in construction and equipment. They a r e m o r e often

provided with a check gate, which may be a simple slide gate o r a wooden shutter. Both vertical drops and pipe drops may be employed, although v e r t i c a l drops a r e the m o s t commonly used. In the sections which follow in this chapter, e x a y p l e s of'drops and chutes applicable to main irrigation distribution s y s t e m s a r e given in 6. 10 to 6.12, while examples of drops for f a r m irrigation channels a r e described in 6.13.

6.10

VERTICAL DROPS (OR. FALLS)

6.10.1

General Energy dissipation by a vertical drop i s usually r e s o r t e d to where the drop i s small, although the interpretation of "small" differs in various p a r t s of the world. According to the USBR standards, a small vertical drop i s one which
3 ft ( say 1 m )

does not exceed

except where the canal i s lined with a h a r d

surface downstream of the structure, when the d r o p may be up to 6 ft ( s a y 2 m ) .

In Australian usage a small vertical drop does not exceed 1.05 m from c r e s t to
downstream bed (52). The vertical drop structure generally incorporates a stilling basin and some form of sill o r baffle, o r both, combined with side wall arrangements, to dissipate the jet. These structural arrangements should create a r e v e r s e rolling flow

a t ground level to reduce scouring of the bed immediately downstream of the structure. erosion. Rip-rap i s also usually placed on the downstream side to prevent The dimensions of the stilling pool o r energy dissipator depend upon the

height of fall and the discharge over the crest. Of a large number of designs available examples of t h r e e diverse designs a r e described here, namely, the "Sarda" type used in India, the rectangular weir drop proposed by SOGETHA (84), the standard USBR drop-check and the YMGT type drop used in flumed systems in Japan. In addition to these i t m u s t be pointed

out that extensive r e s e a r c h has been c a r r i e d out in the U. S. A. on small vertical drop structures, which a r e dealt with in detail in a special r e p o r t under 'the CUSUSWASH water management s e r i e s of Colorado State University (106).

6.10.2 6.10.2.1

Sarda Type F a l l (India) General The Sarda type fall i s a vertical drop structure, developed on the Sarda Canal P r o j e c t in Uttar P r a d e s h (India) to replace the notch fall. It has been

tested by hydraulic experiments in the laboratory and by observations on the prototype. It i s both simple and economical and therefore i s widely used in It i s not adapted to flow measurement but i t may s e r v e a s a

Uttar Pradesh.

meter-fall when calibrated. There a r e two types of Sarda fall, one with a vertical c r e s t wall for discharges below 15 m 3 / s , and another with a trapezoidal c r e s t wall for discharges above 15 m 3 1s. Only the vertical c r e s t type i s described herein. At f i r s t no depressed cistern flaring in the downstream wing walls were provided. While the behaviour of this prototype was, on the whole, very

satisfactory, erosion of the banks downstream of the structure was noticed in

some c a s e s .

Model experiments w e r e c a r r i e d out a t Bahadarabad R e s e a r c h

Station ( ~ t t a P r r a d e s h ) to eliminate the defects,and the design c r i t e r i a given below follow the recommendations based on those experiments. 6.10.2.2 S t r u c t u r a l design The Sarda fall i s a r a i s e d c r e s t fall with vertical impact (F'igure 6- 37). It consists essentially of u p s t r e a m wing walls, a c r e s t wall, downstream expansion and wing walls, an impervious floor and a cistern, and downstream side and bed protection. The u p s t r e a m wing walls a r e generally shaped a s a segment of a c i r c l e with a radius equal to 5 to 6 H(,,t) and subtending an angle of 60, and

c a r r i e d tangentially into the b e r m of the channel for a minimum of one m e t r e . The foundations of the wing walls should be laid on an impervious concrete floor ( a t the level of the downstream bed), which should be extended on both sides for the purpose. One o r two drainage holes (15 cm width and 15 cm height) should be provided in the c r e s t a t bed level to drain out the u p s t r e a m bed during a closure of the canal. The top width of the c r e s t wall, (along the axis of flow) L i s given by

(crt)

L(crt)

55

H(c-b)

in m e t r e s

The bottom width (along the axis of flow) of the c r e s t wall, ( T ) ~ ~ ~ i s given by where H canal. The c r e s t breadth, B(crt),(across the axis of f1ow)is given by the expression B(crt)

(T)bot

(min)

qc-b

in m e t r e s ,

(c-b)

i s the height of the c r e s t above the downstream bed level of the

B1

Y1

The downstream wings a r e kept vertical over a 1;ngth varying f r o m 5 to 8 t i m e s

, and then stepped down to their required level. They (Hdr) a r e then flared, i. e . the water face i s gradually sloped f r o m vertical to 1.5 : 1 o r

. f1 '

lea 0 1 5 x 0 1 5

Downstreom F. S. L.

Downstreom bed

Longitudinal section

(All dimensions ore in metres)

SARDA TYPE F A L L (U.P)

1 : 1.

If the wings be discontinued a f t e r they attain the slope of 1 : 1, the warping

m u s t be continued by the side pitching until i t h a s a slope of 1.5 : 1. The total length of the impervious floor should be determined by Bligh's theory, on the b a s i s of which the safe hydraulic gradients for different kinds of soils a r e given hereunder :Type of soil sand mixed with boulders and shingles, and loamy soils light sand and mud fine micaceous sand c o a r s e grained sand The maximum hydraulic gradient will occur when the water i s headed up to the top of the c r e s t on the u p s t r e a m side with no flow on the downstream side. of soil. The total length of floor required i s 1 H(c,b), s(H) dependihg on the type Hydraulic gradient

1 to
9
1 8

1 5

Of the total length, the minimum length of floor on the downstream side

in m e t r e s should be

2 (water depth u p s t r e a m

1.2)

drop.

The balance of

the total length may be provided under and u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t wall. U p s t r e a m of the c r e s t the uplift p r e s s u r e s a r e m o r e than counter. . balanced by the weight of water standing on the floor. 4 Also the u p s t r e a m floor i s laid below the bed u p s t r e a m of the fall and i s not subjected to flow, and thus a thickness of 0. 3 m i s usually adequate for it. s t r e a m i s generally 0. 3 m to 0.45 m . F o r very s m a l l f a l l s no c i s t e r n i s n e c e s s a r y , but when the hydraulic d r o p w a r r a n t s it, t h e r e should be one, according to the following p a r a m e t e r s : The thickness of the floor down-

length of cistern,

(bas)

[ ~ ( d r ) 'H ( c r t ) ] 2

depth of c i s t e r n

The downstream bed pitching m a y be protected with d r y b r i c k about 20 c m thick r e s t i n g on 10 c m thick b a l l a s t over a length t h r e e t i m e s y2. c u r t a i n wall 35 c m thick and of depth equal to y2 2 , A

subject to a m i n i m u m of

0 . 5 m , and r e s t i n g on 15 c m thick concrete, m a y be provided a t the end of the pitching. F o r downstream side protection a f t e r the wing walls, the side slope: of the channel a r e pitched with 10 c m brick, ( i . e . brick on edge) for a length equal to 3 y2. The pitching should rest on a toe wall having the s a m e dimension^

a s the curtain wall. 6.10.2.3 Design formula Under f r e e overfall conditions:

F o r drowned (submerged) falls:

2

H(,)

i s determined f r o m the formula, (dr) +

H( s )

H(crt) =

6.10.2.4

Numerical example Data given:

B1 y1

B2
& y2

= = =

1.5 m 0.75m 0.90 m

(dr)

Maximum hydraulic gradient

Then B(crt)

1 in 5 1.5+0.75

B1

Y 1

2.25m

Top width of c r e s t wall Bottom width of c r e s t wall

0.55 1. 29 2

= =

0.62 m 0.65m

I n c r e a s e i t to 0.80 m Radius of u p s t r e a m wing walls should be 5H A s s u m e a radius of 2 m . F o r calculating the length of the impervious floor, the maximum hydraulic gradient i s 1 i n 5. F l o o r length = 5 1. 29 = 6.45 m say 6.5 m to (4 6H(crt) o r 1.80 m to 2.16 m .

F l o o r length required on downstream side

2(y1

1.2)

(dr)

2(0.75

+ 1.2) +

0. 90

P r o v i d e a length of 5 m on the downstream side. The remaining length to be provided on the u p s t r e a m side and under the c r e s t

=
The thickness of the floor

6 . 5 - 5

1.5 m

- 0.3 m

for the u p s t r e a m side and under the c r e s t and

0.45 m for the downstream side up to 2.5 m f r o m the toe of the c r e s t wall.

Length of c i s t e r n

H(dr)

(4

2.85 m LH(dr) 2 0.25 (0. 324)3

2 -

Depth of c i s t e r n

0'25

H(crt)

I3

Adopt 0.15 m

Length of downstream bed pitching ~ e n ~ of t h downstream side pitching

=
=

. 0.75

2.25 m

2.25 m .

6.10.3 6. 10. 3.1

Rectangular Weir Drop with Raised Crest-1/ General characteristics The rectangular weir d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t i s a simple s t r u c t u r e for u s e on s m a l l channels which m a y be constructed in concrete o r b r i c k m a s o n r y o r a combination of both. It does not m e a s u r e flow and does not s e r v e a s a check.

It r e q u i r e s little maintenance. The design i s suitable for v e r t i c a l drops up to 7 m, for channel bed widths of f r o m 0.2 to one m e t r e and f o r full supply depths f r o m 0. 1 to 0.7 m . c o n s i s t s of u p s t r e a m bed and side protection, a c r e s t wall, stilling basin and downstream bed and side protection. (See F i g u r e 6- 38)

It

The width of the c r e s t ( a c r o s s the a x i s of flow) may be l e s s than the width of the c i s t e r n by 0.10 m , but where t h e r e i s an offtake on the immediate

u p s t r e a m side of the d r o p the width of the c r e s t (in the c a s e of a rectangular channel) m u s t be equal to the width of the channel.

'I

Derived from SOGETHA (84)

Bank

Bonk

Section A A Bank Bonk

I
FAO-ICID RECTANGULAR WEIR DROP WITH RAISED CREST
Longiludinol section
V

C
Project, Region , Country Developed by S O G E T A H (France) Figure No. 6-38

6. 1 0 . 3 . 2

Design p r o c e d u r e F o r a given discharge, Q, y hydraulic drop, H(dr), u p s t r e a m bed

width, B

and full supply depth,

,
= =

proceed a s follows: *(dr) 150 1.5

Volume of basin, Length of basin,

V L

H(dr)

Area.of c r o s s section of the basin along the a x i s of flow Width of basin

L ( Y 2 + H (bas)

Depth of basin i s f r o m 0. 1 to 0. 3 m In the c a s e of trapezoidal canal, the width of c r e s t

I

B(t)

=
=

B1

O.lom

In the c a s e of a rectangular canal B (t) Discharge formula :

3 -

where

0. 36 for a v e r t i c a l u p s t r e a m face of c r e s t wall and 0.40 for

an u p s t r e a m face rounded off by the quadrant of a c i r c l e of 5 to 10 c m r a d i u s . H(crt), i s determined f r o m F i g u r e 6-39 f o r a given discharge p e r m e t r e and value of C. Height of c r e s t over u p s t r e a m bed level, H(b-,) C r e s t water depth,

Y 1 - H

(4

Other dimensions of the s t r u c t u r e a r e a s given in F i g u r e 6-38.

6.10.3.3

Numerical example 1 Design a rectangular weir d r o p with the following data :

FIGURE 6- 39.

H(,,.),

- Rectangular weir drop - relationship between d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width of c r e s t a n d c o e f f i c i e n t s 0. 32, 0.36 and 0.40.

Volume of basin Length of basin

=
=

v
L

-=

200

0.80 150

= =

1.07 m 1.5

1.5H

( dr)

0.80

C r o s s sectional a r e a of ' t h e basin along the a x i s = of t h e floor

(0.50

+ 0.10)

. 1.20
=
0.72 m 2

Width of basin Depth of basin

f

= H(bas) = = B(t) =

0.10m
B

Width of c r e s t

(bas)

0.10

F r o m F i g u r e 6-39, H(crt) = = 0.19 m

for C = 0.40 and q = 143 l / s ,

..

H(b- c )

0.50 - 0.19

0.51 m

The design of the d r o p i s shown in F i g u r e 6-38.

6.10.3.4

Numerical example 2 Design a d r o p in a rectangular channel with the following

data :

Volume of basin Length of basin Depth of basin

=.
=

v
L 0.10 m

=
=

50

0.50 150

= =

0.167m 0.75 m

1.5

0.5

A r e a of the basin alongtheaxisofflow =

(0.30t0.10)

0.75

Width of basin

Width of c r e s t

= B(t)

0.40m

F r o m F i g u r e 6.39 f o r q = 125 l / s ,

and m = 0.40

6.10.4

1/ Vertical Check-Drop (USBR) The s t r u c t u r e described h e r e i n i s used along canals having steep t e r r a i where functions of both a check and a d r o p a r e r e q u i r e d . allowable fall a t each d r o p i s 3 feet, ( s a y 90 c m ) . The s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e s 6-40 and 6-41) consists of: an u p s t r e a m approach of 1 . 5 t o 3 m (5 to 10 feet) e a r t h transition gradually widening f r o m the n o r m a l waterway section t o the width of the check-drop ( a c r o s s the a x i s of flow) and a l s o with the bed sloping down to the c r e s t of the check; u p s t r e a m bed gravel protection; check wall with guides for a gate f r a m e o r stop-logs and wing walls; a. s t r u c t u r e with a p r e - c a s t concrete deck with a handrail on the downstream side; and downstream reinforced concrete floor with cut-offs on either end; o r a stilling basin and floor with cut-offs on either end, downstream wing walls and a 1 . 5 to 3 m transition converging f r o m the width of the check to the n o r m a l w a t e r The maximum

"Based on information

received through the US National Committee of the ICID.

precast concrete deck

concrete as directed

Place grouting mortor as directed on top of asbestos sheets to provide ,firm bearing surfoces for precast concrete deck. Section D-D

Section

8-8

bock seat and hondwheel +"x 6"onchor bolts with square heods, hex, nuts ond cut woshers. Project

Plan of precosi concrete deck

14.

Normal water surfoce

flothead bolts

4 dio. x 5 headed anchors,weld to

Min. 3 onchors required

angle.

CONCRETE VERTICAL CHECK

WITH 1.5 FEET DROP

Section A-A Gate frome guide details

Notes: Outer face transverse bars to be continuous in walls ond floors. Thickness of concrete to vary uniformly between dimensions shown. Ploce grouting mortar'on top of asbestos sheets to provide firm bearing surfoces for precast deck. Gate frame height measured from centre line of gote opening.

Project, Region , Country U S A

Figure No. 6-40

Precart concrete plonks, see &oils

$' oncha bdts a

<

project

homftr on dl edger of & n & s

1 0 anchor Mi wiih s q w hcod, hex. nut, ond cut ~ S h t r

Reintorcement not shown

Plan
required

Upstream eneqy level Reinf. not shown

Stoplog guide details

( 2 required)

FA 0

ICID

Section B-B

CONCRETE VERTICAL CHECK WITH 3.5 FEET DROP

Project , Region, Country U S A Figure No. 6-41

Longitudinal section

way section with a bed sloping up f r o m the floor t o the n o r m a l bed of the waterway downstream. The side slopes of the downstream transition a r e in e a r t h

but the bed h a s a c o a r s e g r a v e l protection. Overflow i s provided f o r o v e r the check walls a t the inlet on the check with a 0.45 m (1.5 f t ) drop; however, t h e r e i s no provision f o r overflow on the check with a 0.9 m ( 3 ft) drop. Tables 6- 6 and 6-7 give, for a given discharge, the e s s e n t i a l dimension of the various elements of the check- d r o p s t r u c t u r e f o r 0.45 m (1.5 ft) and 0.90 m ( 3 ft) d r o p respectively. F o r d r o p s u p to and including 0.45 m (1.5 ft) the s t r u c t u r e shown on F i g u r e 6-40 i s used. F o r d r o p s g r e a t e r than 0.45 m ( 1 . 5 ft) and through 0.9 m ( 3 ft),

the s t r u c t u r e shown on F i g u r e 6-41 i s used. Numerical example 1 ,

Q
El A 1 v
1

=
= =

3 25ft/s 861. 10 f t (elevation of u p s t r e a m canal invert) 2.00ft 1 . 6 f t / s ( u p s t r e a m canal velocity) 860.00 ft (elevation of downstream canal i n v e r t )

=
=

El C

1 . 6 f t / s (downstream canal velocity)

H i s equal to the difference between the u p s t r e a m and (dr)' the downstream energy l e v e l s 2 1 1. 6L h = - - = 0. 04 ft; V 1 2 (32. 2) 2g The fall,

where g

acceleration due to gravity in feet p e r second p e r second

upstreamenergylevel downstream energy l e v e l

=
=

861.10 860.00

+ 2.00 + 0.04 + 2.00 + 0.04

= =

863.14ft 862.04 f t

Note that u n l e s s the u p s t r e a m water depth and velocity a r e different f r o m the downstream w a t e r depth and velocity, HDR can be solved by simply subtracting the downstream canal i n v e r t f r o m the u p s t r e a m canal invert.

H(dr) i s l e s s than 1 . 5 ft, r e f e r to F i g u r e 6-40 and Table 6-6. T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e for a Q of 25 f t 31 s . Consider s t r u c t u r e No. 4 with a 3 3 m a x i m u m Q of 26 f t / s o r s t r u c t u r e No. 6 with a maximum Q of 28 f t / s . Select s t r u c t u r e No. 6 because i t h a s a "h(wk)" dimension which m o r e n e a r l y s u i t s the canal section and i t h a s l e s s concrete than s t r u c t u r e No.4. A s s u m e n o r m a l water surface Control water surface = 861.10 Set E l B

Since

control water s u r f a c e
=

2.00

863. 10 ft

so that the top of the check wall i s a t

control water surface elevation

( E l B m u s t not be higher than E l C) Other dimensions a r e given in Table 6-6 and Figur.e 6-40.
C

Numerical example 2

Q
El A

=
=

30 f t 3 / s 928. 60 ft ( u p s t r e a m canal invert)

El D y2 v

926.00 f t (downstream canal invert) 2.20ft 1.7ft/s

= =

TABLE 6-6 Dimensions of Cencrete Vertical Check with a 1.5 f e e t Drop (USBR) Slide Gate Standard Dimensions 'CH h (wk)
L

E s t i m a t e d Quantities 1 (T)ww2 in in Conc. Yd3 Re. s t e e l lb Misc. metal lb

Max'
NO.

Width x 1 height 1 in

Frm ht ft

(str)

(str)top

(vhr)

wwl

(T)in

L'

When a gate of specific height i s not available, a gate with next g r e a t e r available height shall b e u s e d with a p p r o p r i a t e f r a m e height.
1 cubic yard = 27 cubic f e e t

TABLE 6-7 Dimensions of Concrete Vertical Check with a 3 f e e t Drop (USBR) Str No.

Max. Q ft3/ s

H (dr)

~ d~~ l

H ww2

-1

(b-c)

(str)

L~~

l'ws or (T)FR

( T ) ~ Z B T R ~ B~~

EI A

EI B

EI

EI D

in

E x a m p l e only

Since y Since

= y2 and v

- v2'

Tdr)

= 928.60

926.00

= 2.60 ft.

Tdr) is g r e a t e r than 1 . 5 f t ,
Select s t r u c t u r e No. 6.

r e f e r to F i g u r e 6-41 and Table 6-7.

A s s u m e n o r m a l water s u r f a c e = control w a t e r s u r f a c e Control water s u r f a c e

= 928.60

2.20 = 930.80 ft

H~~
El C

= =

6. 00 ft, 930.80

HSB

0.67 f t 925.47 f t

6.00

+ 0.67

( E l C m u s t not be higher than E l D) See Table 6-7 for completed example. 1/ YMGT Type D r o p (Japan)General D r o p s of rectangular notch type built i n the p a s t in Japan had suffered f r o m problems of flow turbulence on the downstream of the fall, abnormal waves and overtopping a t the side walls and damage a t the bottom and side walls of the canals

6. 10.5 6.10.5.1

.
In o r d e r to solve t h e s e problems the Yamagata P r e f e c t u r a l Govern-

m e n t evolved a new design of d r o p for i t s land consolidation p r o j e c t s for u s e in flumed distribution s y s t e m s . The design i s b a s e d on the r e s u l t s of hydraulic

model studies c a r r i e d out a t the Agricultdral Engineering ~ e s e a r c h Station, Ministry of Agriculture and F o r e s t r y , Hiratsuka. The s t r u c t u r e , which h a s no provision for a check, i s suitable for s m a l l canals, field channels, o r w a t e r c o u r s e s , and f o r d i s c h a r g e s of l e s s than 3 one m / s. F i g u r e 6-42 shows a d r o p s t r u c t u r e of s i m i l a r design in u s e in Cyprus.

L/B a s e d on information

supplied by the Japanese National Committee, ICID.

S t r u c t u r a l design The YMGT type s t r u c t u r e i s a rectangular notch d r o p o r fall. It

c o n s i s t s of a sill wall and downstream stilling basin with the n e c e s s a r y t r a n sitional bottom slope in the basin m e r g i n g with the n o r m a l bed of the canal on the downstream side. The foundations of the sill wall and the stilling basin a r e of The sill wall and the floor

cobble stones, 15 to 20 c m in depth, s e t in cement.

of the stilling basin a r e of reinforced concrete laid over a 5 c m l a y e r of cement over the cobble foundations. The fall i s connected to a prefabricated r e -

inforced concrete flume channel a s shown in F i g u r e 6-42.

FIGURE 6-42. - Drop s t r u c t u r e in s m a l l flume channel (Cyprus).

The standard design i s intended f o r flumed channels, but if the channels a r e unlined, i t i s e s s e n t i a l to have sufficient protection and suitable approach walls both on the u p s t r e a m and downstream sides.

Longitudinal

'section

Section A

tn

Plan
FIGURE 6-43.

YMOT typo drop

s i l l - w e l l and a t i l l i n g baain.

Design formulae Brink depth, H(br) for a rectangular notch fall without s i l l (elevated c r e s t )

where

Hc

where

H (br) Hc

= =
=

brink depth at the end of the notch

critical depth of flow a t the notch discharge per unit width through the notch acceleration due to gravity

9
g

9.81 m / s 2

Dimension of the jet trajectory The trajectory of the jet can be calculated by the following equation : Without sill

With sill

1 -

where

L(bas)l

horizontal length from sill to the point where the average of the upper and lower nappe meets the downstream water surface line specific energy corresponding to Hc height between the sill line and downstream water surface line

":
H(c-w12)

FIGURE 6-44. - YMGT type d r o p - symbols and notations f o r sill height, t r a j e c t o r y of jet and dimensions of stilling basin.

Angle of the jet Without s i l l tan

oc

0.886

With sill tan

Ot

Velocity of the jet,

V(jet)

where

H(CEL-b)

i s the height between the energy line a t the c r i t i c a l depth over

the notch and the floor of the stilling basin.

Height of the s i l l above the u p s t r e a m bed level The standard values of the height of the s i l l above the u p s t r e a m bed level a r e given in Table 6-8.

TABLE

6-8

Stilling basin
I

Depth of stilling basin

c

(dr)

Length of the stilling basin

where

L(bas) L (bas)

= =

total length of the stilling basin horizontal length f r o m the sill c r e s t to the point where the average of the upper and lower nappe m e e t s the downstream water surface line horizontal length from the point where the average of the upper and lower nappe meets the downstream water surface line and the point where the average of the upper and lower nappe strikes the floor of the stilling basin.
4 .

L(bas)2

=
'

L (bas)3

horizontal length of the stilling basin to dissipate the energy of the jet

4b.4

i s given by equation ( 3 ) or equation (4)

L (bas)

L(bas)

(bas)2

L (bas)2 ,

TABLE

6-9

Standard Design of Small - Size F a l l s (Dimensions and M a t e r i a l s ) in F l u m e d Canals

Dimensions Type No. Discharge

(cm)

Quantity

H
(dr: (t-bflIl

(c-b)

(bas) '(t-bfll2

(TcW) L(baS) '(bas

t)

(OP)

H(cw) (Tbas) B ( b a ~ f)

(bas)

Reinforced m3

~~~t~~ ,3

m 3 ~ s rn

Plain conFrame crete works ,3 m2

Cobble stones m3

11.011 bars kg

)
350 ) 0.060 0.060 0.060 400 0.14 0. 1 4 0.14 0.30 0.50 0.70 0.30 0.50 0.70 37 37 37 46 46 46 45 70 95 45 70 95 15 20 25 15 20 25 37 37 37 46 46 46 15 15 15 15 15 15 150 150 200 250 250 250 50 100 100 50 100 100 15 15 15 15 15 15 39.5 64.5 89.5 34 59 84 15 15 15 15 15 15 95 95 95 106 106 106 45 45 45 56 56 56 0.70 0.97 1.30 1.09 1.44 1. 62

0.021 0.011 0.21 0.11 0.021 0.011 0.029 0.029 0.029 0.043 0.029 0.043 0.029 0.043 0.029 0.102 0.029 0.102 0.055 0.102 0.055 0.195 0.195 0.195 0.324 0.296 0.324 0.296 0.324 0.296

0.12 0.14 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.21

7.05 6.93 10.11 9.99 13.86 13.74 10.53 14. 37 16.80 13.41 13.23 18.54 18.35 20.52 20.34 25.85 25.37 32.59 32.11 39.48 39.00 32.38 40.17 46.03 48.78 48.22 59.76 59.20 73.34 72.77

0.36 0.43 0.50 0.56 0.64 0.64

41.41 57.48 73.67 61.95 80.71 91.25

1
500 ) 0.225 0.225 0. 225 0.30 0.50. 0.70 52 52 52 45 75 95 15 25 25 52 52 52 15 15 15 300 300 300 50 100 100 15 15 15 35.5 65.5 85.5 15 15 15 117 117 117 67 67 67 1.41 1.86 2.00

0.23 0.26 0.26

0.70 0.79 0.79

77.20 98.57 106.38

)
700 ) 0.417 0.417 0.417 800 0.720 0.720 0.720 0.50 0.70 1.00 0.50 0.70 1.00 68 68 68 78 78 78 75 105 135 75 105 140 25 35 35 25 35 40 68 68 68 78 78 78 20 20 20 20 20 20 350 350 400 450 450 450 100 150 150 100 150 150 20 20 20 20 20 20 64.5 94.5 124.5 62 92 127 20 20 20 20 20 20 151 151 151 163 163 163 91 91 91 103 103 103 3.32 4.04 4.77 4.30 5.12 5.62

0.39 0.42 0.46 0.50 0.54 0.54

1.16 1.27 1. 38 1.49 1.61 1.61

161. 63 447.94 510. 62 360.36 544.37 598.23

1
1000 ) 0.996 0.996 0.996 0.70 1.00 1.50 95 95 95 105 145 200 35 45 50 95 95 95 20 20 30 500 500 500 150 200 200 20 20 30 90 130 185 20 20 30 188 188 208 128 128 128 6.27 7.40 12.12

0.67 0.71 0.81

2.00 2.14 2.43

662.60 998.39 1362.83

Connection of the stilling basin to the downstream bed of the canal The downstream end of the stilling basin i s joined to the downstream bed o r bottom of the canal by a slope of 1 : 4. To avoid lengthy calculations, s e e Table 6-9 which h a s been p r e p a r e d to give the various dimensions of the different types of rectangular notch f a l l s in flumed canals a s well a s quantities of construction m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r e d for them.

6.10.5.4

Numerical example 1 Design a YMGT type rectangular notch fall f o r an unlined canal,

without r a i s e d sill and with the following data:

sideslopes, (ss) =

1: 1

Design hvl

2 1 2g

0.009 m

Brink depth a t the notch,

H(br)

=
=

0.72 Hc 0.360m

D e p t h of s t i l l i n g b a s i n

L e n g t h of b a s i n 0.567 L(ba s )

Angle of jet, oi tan

x

0.886

[
)

1
cot 0.433) 1.230

0.763

=
= =

(Y,

+ H
(bas)

6 (

(0.873 1.506.

cot 38'5~'

1.606 m

..

T o t a l l e n g t h of b a s i n

= =
Say 6.10.5.5 Numerical example 2

2 . 5 (0.670 5.690 m 5.70 m

1.606)

D e s i g n a YMGT t y p e r e c t a n g u l a r n o t c h f a l l with t h e following data :

Moteriols Reinforced concrete

'

"ortor

0.70 2 UF 300 0.021 n? UF 350 901t. n? 0.12 4 UF 300 7.05 m3 UF 350 6 9 3 n? 0.36 n?

Plain concrete Frome work

,

~obble>l~nes

Longitudinal section
NO,

Reinforcement bor
~i~

lenpth Unit
2.27

N , .
8

Total lenoth
18.16

H~QM weight

Unit

Total

I 3

1.04

18.89

dio. 9 L.105 n = 2
I ! !

C87-I
Plon

@
L

dio. L . 2 4 0 n . 3

Dio. 13 28.79 kg Dio. 9 12.62 kg

@
dio. 13 C/C 20 dio. 9 C/C 25 dio. 1 3 C/C 20 5 I5

dia. 9 Lz83n.2
k 6 5

-4

k160--/-5

(All dimensions are in cen+imetres,l

F A 0 -ICID

YMGT

FALL-TYPE

300

project

,Region,
J opon

Country

Section A

Section B

Figure No. 6-45

H(dr)

0.30 m

Canal is of flumed section Height f r o m bottom to top of flume section D i a m e t e r of flume section

= =

31.5 c m 31.5 c m

Design R e f e r to Table 6-9. 3 F o r a discharge of 0.060 m / s and a hydraulic d r o p of 0.30 m , the type 300 o r 350 m a y be adopted. The dimensions of the fall a r e a s h e r e u n d e r :

qc-b) H(bas)

=
= =

45 c m 15cm 15cm 39.5 c m 150 c m

( Tcw)
H( cw)
L(bas)

=
=

Thickness of basin floor

15 c m

The design i s shown in F i g u r e 6-45.

6.11

INCLINED DROPS AND CHUTES

6.11. 1

General The g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s and applications of d r o p s and chutes have been mentioned in Chapter 2 and Section 6.9 of t h i s chapter. difference between an inclined d r o p and a chute. T h e r e i s no b a s i c

Small inclined d r o p s and chutes

a r e usually rectangular in c r o s s section, but trapezoidal sections a r e also occasionally used where the whole length of the structure happens to be located in a cutting. The energy dissipation in inclined drops and chutes i s usually effected

by the creation of a hydraulic jump a t the toe of the structure, supplemented by friction blocks and other energy dissipating devices. Inclined drops a r e often

designed to function a s flume measuring devices, notably the Indian Standing Wave Flume. F o r the design of an inclined drop to be effective i t m u s t be based on the design discharge, depth a t the inlet, shape, slope, roughness and length of the channel (or chute o r flume). The slope of the channel section i s usually steep so The next, but most important,

the control section of the flow will be a t the inlet.

step in designing inclined falls (and chutes) i s to compute the water surface profile f r o m the inlet to the bottom of the structure and to design the energy dissipation system.

A number of standard designs of such structures have been developed and

examples described in this Section include the Standing Wave Flume F a l l , the Flume Type F a l l (both from India), the Rectangular Inclined Drop ( U . S. A. ), and the Rubble Cascade Inclined Drop (India). 1/ Standing Wave Flume F a l l (India)General The standing wave flume fall described herein was developed a t the Central Water and Power Research Station, Poona, India, based on the r e s u l t s of experiments which had started a s long ago a s 1.926. L a t e r , the design of the

6.11.2

s t r u c t u r e was standardized by the Indian Standards Institution. The structure i s used when an appreciable fall of water level i s n e c e s s a r y due to the surrounding topography (i.e. relatively steep slopes). It dissipates

energy efficiently and i t can be designed to m e a s u r e the flow of water passing through i t over a range from a few l i t r e s per second up to several hundred cubic m e t r e s per second. Because of the inherent f r e e flow conditions the m e a s u r e -

L'

Based on Indian Standard IS: 6062 - 1971

ment of flow r e q u i r e s only one gauge observation on the upstream side, (whereas venturi flumes require two). Another advantage i s that i t demonstrates

favourable modularity relationships even with the deposition of sediment on the upstream side. The design c r i t e r i a in respect of flow conditions in this type of fall a r e confined to steady flows in open channels dependent only on the upstream head and without consideration of submerged flows beyond modular limits.

In selecting the site for this flume particular attention should be paid
to the following points:

straight channel long enough to accommodate the structure reasonably symmetrical and regular velocity distribution avoidance of super critical flow immediately upstream r i s e in upstream water levels due to the measuring structure absence of conditions downstream which may affect flow conditions in the controlling section ( e . g. submergence by backwater effect originated downstream f r o m a check, o r silting).

6.11.2.2

Structural characteristics The standing wave flume fall consists of an approach channel, a flow

measuring device and a downstream channel.

.

The flow in the approach channel should be f r e e f r o m disturbance and i t s velocity should be distributed a s much a s possible over the cross-sectional a r e a , (which can be verified by measurements). The measuring structure consists of an approach transition, a throat with o r without a hump, an exit transition, a baffle and a platform (between the glacis and cistern) and for better dissipation of energy and exit i t may have either parallel sides o r expanding sides ( s e e Figure 6-46). The entire measuring

structure should be rigid and watertight, for at l e a s t a length given by L(str), a s shown in Figure 6-46. direction of flow. The channel downstream of the measuring structure, i.e. of the conThe structure should be s e t a t a right angle to the general

FIGURE 6-46.

Details of a Standing Wave Flume Fall.

trolling section, i s usually of no importance a s r e g a r d s accuracy of m e a s u r e m e n t provided that the fall h a s been s o designed that i t cannot become submerged when i t i s operating. The effect of a r i s e in the water l e v e l on the downstream side due

t o the possibility of silting would not normally be m a t e r i a l , in so f a r a s rating i s concerned. 6. 1 1 . 2 . 3 Measurement of head The water level u p s t r e a m of the fall may be m e a s u r e d by any suitable type of gauge installed in a stilling well. The stilling well should be located s o a s to m e a s u r e the water level u p s t r e a m of the sill, where t h e r e i s no curvature of flow. by locating the stilling well intake pipe a t a distance of 4 H bell-mouth entrance where (ma4 the sill c o r r e c t e d f o r the velocity of approach.
HI
1

This could be ensured

u p s t r e a m of the (ma4 i s the maximum value of u p s t r e a m head over The stilling well should normally

be vertical and have a minimum m a r g i n of a t l e a s t 15 c m over the maximum water level estimated t o be recorded in the well. The well dimensions should be l a r g e The

enough ( s a y 60 c m x 90 cm) to p e r m i t the bottom of the well to be cleaned. diameter of the intake should generally be 10 cm. Z e r o setting Means f o r checking the z e r o setting of the head measuring device

should be provided, and should consist of a pointer with its point s e t exactly level with the s i l l of the standing wave flume and be fixed p e r p a n e n t l y in the approach channel, o r alternatively in the stilling o r gauge well. periodically checked. Head l o s s The total head l o s s i s composed of l o s s e s in : The z e r o setting should be

approach transition exit transition friction in the s t r u c t u r e hydraulic jump. The l o s s e s in the approach and exit transitions depend on the degree

and gradualness of the fluming.

They a r e e x p r e s s e d a s a fraction C of the

difference in velocity head of flow in the channel and the standing wave flume fall. Accepted values a r e :

0.15 C f o r an approach t,ransition of cylinder quadrant type, and 0.3 0.2

C f o r an exit transition with a splay of 1 in 10, and C f o r a hyperbolic type.

L o s s due to friction i s usually s m a l l , and may be of the o r d e r of 0.015 t o 0 . 0 3 m depending upon the s i z e and the c r i t i c a l velocity. L o s s due to hydraulic jump, h i s given by :

(1,)j

where

H(j)
H(j)2

=
=

depth of flow before jump, and depth of flow a f t e r jump.

The e n t i r e m e a s u r i n g s t r u c t u r e m u s t be finished with smooth (neat cement finish) and t r u e s u r f a c e s . The intersection of the u p s t r e a m curve and the

hump a s well a s the downstream slope m u s t f o r m two p a r a l l e l straight l i n e s a t a right angle t o the direction of flow.

6. 11.2.4

Design procedure and formulae Approach transition The r a d i u s of the side walls of the bell-mouth entrance should be

r n , where H'

i s the u p s t r e a m head above the sill level of the throat But when H' i s l e s s than 0. 3 m , the

c o r r e c t e d f o r the velocity of approach.

f r o m the throat. The curvature should continue until i t r a d i u s may be Z H ' (crt) subtends an angle of 60, f r o m where i t should be continued tangentially to m e e t the side of the u p s t r e a m channel. F o r s m a l l e r head l o s s e s the r a d i u s of m. This curvature should continue

c u r v a t u r e should b e i n c r e a s e d t o 4 . 5 H'
0

(4
until it subtends a n angle of 37 30' beyond which the wall should be continued

straight to meet the sides of the approach channel.

The bed convergence should The radius o f ,

begin on the same c r o s s section a s the side convergence. curvature of the hump in the bed should be :

where

R(hv)

the radius of curvature of the hump, length between the junction of the side wall with the bed of the upstream channel and upstream end of the throat m e a s u r e d along the axis, and height of hump above upstream bed of the channel.

L(app) =

H(hu)

Throat The sides of the throat should be vertical and their length should be
1

'.

where H ~{crt)' (4i s the upstream head above the sill level of the throat corrected for the velocity of approach. The width of the throat may be calculated

f r o m the following formula :

where

= =

discharge, m3/s acceleration due to gravity coefficient for friction having the following values:
<

9f)
B(t)

= = =
=

0.97 for Q from 0.05 to 0.30 m 3 / s , 0.98 for Q f r o m 0.31 to 1.50 m 3 I s ,

'

width of throat,
v

2
1

It should be noted however that too much constriction causes too much head l o s s .
1/

Therefore the throat width should not be l e s s than

1 . 5 ~ ; ~ and ~ ~ )

fluming4should normally be restricted to 50 to 60%. 11 width of controlling section bed width of upstream channel

Fluming

100

Hump The stage discharge relation of a canal i s given b y :

Q
where

cly;

Q
C1 y1 x

= = =

discharge, coefficient, depth of water in the channel, and

an index varying f r o m 1 . 5 to 2.0 a s given in Table 6- 10.

TABLE Values

6-10 of x

Shape of channel 1. Rectangular 2. Trapezoidal

Value of x 1.5 variable and i n c r e a s e s with the flatness of the side slope 1 . 6 to 1.7

3 . Unlined canals with design side slopes 0.5 to 1

4. Lined canals with side slopes 0 . 5 to 1

As compared to equation (4), in the case of a broad weir, Q i s proportional to i s g r e a t e r than the exponent of H I , 1 t h e r e will be draw-down a t low supply levels and ponding n e a r full supply levels,
HI

5.

As the exponent of y

provided the sill of the throat i s at the same level a s the channel bed. be avoided by providing a hump in the throat.

This can

The height of the hump, H(hu),

1

required to give proportionality, that i s , the r a t e of change i n y of change in H a t a particular (4 discharge, i s given by :
1

equal to the r a t e

FIGURE 6-47.

Height of hump required to give proportionality for variation in diecharge.

where, H

(4

= =

depth upstream over the sill of the throat, any particular fraction of discharge.

and

The height of hump required to give proportionality for a small variation in discharge will thus vary according to the magnitude of the discharge. Figure 6.47 gives the height of hump required for various values of m and x. Where channels run with fluctuating discharge, proportionality i s not obtainable for the whole range; i t i s then desirable to design the hump for minimum e r r o r over the range of discharges chosen. This i s called the bulk

proportionality and in this case the height of hump, H(hu), required i s given by the equation ':

Figure 6-48 gives the height of hump required to attain optimum proportionality.
In the c a s e of canals which run either full o r closed, a standing wave

flume fall which gives proportionality a t a full supply discharge i s desirable. the case of channels in which the discharge v a r i e s considerably, ~ro~ortionalit iy s preferable. Glacis The glacis slope should be 2 : 1 and connected with the throat by a curve of radius equal to 2 ~ ; tangential ~ ~ ~to the ) ~ glacis and sill of the flume. optimum

In

The downstream edge of the glacis should also be connected with a baffle platform by a .curve of radius equal to and the baffle platform.
HI

(4

( s e e Figure 6-46), tangential to the glacis

The axial length of the glacis, including the curved

portion, should be equal to :

0.1 Y l
1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9
X

2.0

VALUES OF X IN 0

C1 yl

FIGURE 6 - 4 8 . proportionality.

Height of hump to attain bulk

where

H(c-bpt)

the difference in levels of the c r e s t and baffle platform.

Baffle platform The baffle platform should be fixed a t such a level that a standing wave will form a t the toe of the glacis. occur. If the platform i s too high then hurdling will
In

On the other hand, i f the platform i s too lo.w, surging will take place.

the case of a fall with parallel sides, the level of the baffle platform may be estimated by the following procedure. above the baffle platform in a parallel sided yj , fall i s f i r s t calculated from the following equation: The depth of water,

where H(j)l

= =

the supercritical flow depth at the toe of the glacis immediately upstream of the jump, the discharge per unit width, the coefficient of friction.

Cf

A level of the baffle platform i s assumed which will give y

and

(c-bpt).

Substituting the value of H in equation (8), (c-bpt) This in turn gives a value of y
3

H(j)i i s If the assumed

calculated.

from equation (7).

value does not tally with the one worked out a s above, m o r e t r i a l s a r e needed. The level of the baffle platform i s then obtained by deducting y s t r e a m water level. In the case of a fall with expanding sides, the fall in water level,
A

from the down-

Z(exp), m u s t f i r s t be converted into

A Z(par)' which i s the fall in water level

with parallel sides, by using the following equation:

where

(FR)

the flurning ratio : B1

( s e e Figure 6-46), With known A Z

y3 i s then estimated by t r i a l and e r r o r a s indicated above.

(~ x P ) '

Z(par),

and y 3'

the value of y

4'

which i s the depth of water above the baffle

platform in the c a s e of a fall with expanding sides may be worked out by using the equation:

To ensure that the standing wave will f o r m at the toe of the glacis, a baffle should be provided a t the end of the baffle platform. baffle, H(baf), i s given by : The height of the

where Hc

the critical depth of flow above the sill of the flume a t the controlling section,

that i s

The distance of the baffle f r o m the toe of the glacis should be equal to If the baffle be fixed n e a r to the toe of the glacis then water would 5 ' 25 H(baf)' hurdle over the baffle a t supercritical velocity without forming a p r i m a r y o r secondary wave and the energy would not be dissipated efficiently. The upstream

face of the baffle should be curved with a radius equal to, and ending at, twothirds of the H(baf). (Figure 6-50) Expansion The sides downstream of the baffle platform should expand hyperbolically to ensure uniform distribution of the flow downstream. equation i s : The hyperbola

where B

(Y)

width a t any distance y f r o m beginning of expansion of the hyperbola, distance f r o m beginning of .expansion of hyperbola, width of throat, bed width of downstream channel, length of c i s t e r n ( s e e below). and

Y
B(t) B2

= = =
=

Cistern The depth of the c i s t e r n a t i t s sides below the downstream water level should be 1 . 4 y2, and in the middle

1.75 y

2'

where y

i s the depth of water in

the channel downstream.

The bed of the c i s t e r n a t the s i d e s should not be higher

than the bed of the channel downstream. The recommended lengths of c i s t e r n for different soils follow the following r u l e s : in shingle bed, in good earth, in coherent sand, y2
*

7.5 y

yz

The longitudinal profile of the c i s t e r n should be horizontal. Deflectors At the downstream end of the c i s t e r n deflectors of the following dimensions should be constructed to ensure the formation of a positive bed roller : The height of each deflector should be equal to mid s t r e a m . The gap between deflectors, The length of each deflector, The width of each deflector,
1

12

of"the depth of water in

X
L

(def) (Clef)

=
=
=

(def) (def)

4H

B(def)

H(def)

F o r details see F i g u r e 6:49.

SECTION

L~(d,f)

HEIGHT: LENGTH

DEPTH OF WATER IN MID-CISTERN L(d.f)=4 H(d*f)

BRl3QU-l B[.,O OAP BETWEEN BLOCKS X DISTANCE BETWEEN T W O ROWS : X(d.~ DEFLECTORS

FIGURE 6-49.

Details of deflectors.

6.11.2.5

Modular limit F o r satisfactory functioning of the standing wave flume fall the ratio

of the depth upstream over the sill of the throat td the depth downstream over the sill of the throat should not be l e s s than 0 . 5 . 6.11.2. 6 Maintenance Adequate maintenance of %hemeasuring structure and the approach channel i s important to ensure continual accurate measurements. The approach

channel, the gauge well and the connection to it must be kept clean and free from sediment, and c a r e must be taken during the cleaning process to avoid damage to the structure. Design example
A standing wave flume fall should be designed to satisfy the following

conditions :

Lonqitudinol

section

STANDING WAVE FLUME

- FALL

bulk proportionality between full supply d i s c h a r g e (FSD) and

1
3

FSD,

and

hyperbolic expansion in the c i s t e r n . Data given Bed width of canal ( B Side slope of canal Bed slope of canal Manning and B2)

IN' ( m e t r i c ) f o r canal

F u l l supply depth in canal ( y l and y 2 ) = F u l l supply discharge F a l l in water level

= fall in bed level =

H(dr)

Bed level of canal on the u p s t r e a m side

On the b a s i s of the data given and the procedure s e t forth in 6.1 1. 2 . 4 the design i s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 6-50. 1/ F l u m e Type F a l l (CDO-, Punjab, India) General The flume type fall described h e r e i n i s widely used in Punjab, Pakistan, and in Punjab, Haryana and other s t a t e s in India. It i s a m e t e r fall,

6.11. 3 6.11.3. 1

which i s simple and robust in construction and can con+eniently be built by local labour in b r i c k m a s o n r y . Up to 1 . 0 m e t r e drop, a glacis i s used on the downstream side and if the d r o p exceeds 1 . 0 m e t r e , the c r e s t ends in a d r o p wall. The s t r u c t u r e i s

often combined with a bridge, an intake of a third-degree canal o r both. 6. 11.3.2 S t r u c t u r a l design F i g u r e 6-51 i s a sketch of a flume type fall with a d r o p of up to
0.90 m.

" Central Design

Office.

F.S.L.

Depth of floor below downstream bed

7.5 cm

FIGURE 6-51.

Sketch of a flume type fall with a drop

of up to 0 . 9 0 m.

U p s t r e a m approaches The r a d i u s of the u p s t r e a m side wall i s equal to 3.62 H s t a r t s f r o m the c r e s t side, the curve subtending an angle of 60
0

1.5 (crt)

'

and i t

and continues

tangentially to 0.60 m beyond the s u r f a c e width on e i t h e r side (B1 channel discharge m u s t be l e s s than 2.8 m 3 1 s .

yl)

The

The horizontal length of the side curve, a s well a s the bed curve, 1.5 = 3.74 H joining the c r e s t with the u p s t r e a m bed = L ( a ~ ~ ) (crt) '

The r a d i u s of the bed c u r v e -

R.

L~ app

H~ (b- C )

Length of Throat The length of the throat, Glacis

A 0. 60 m ( 2 ft) curve joins the c r e s t with the downstream glacis.

L(t)

H(crt)

The glacis should have a slope of 2 . 5 to 1 for f a l l s l e s s than 90 c m ( 3 ft). Cistern The length of the c i s t e r n should be y2

H(

dr)

The c i s t e r n floor should be 7 . 5 c m below the downstream designed bed l e v e l of the channel for f a l l s up to 1 m (3.28 ft) and 30 c m (1 ft) f o r f a l l s above 1 m (3. 28 ft). Downstream expansion L(ex~)

r -

BZ

B(t)

o r length f r o m the downstream

edge of the c r e s t to the end of the c i s t e r n , whichever i s g r e a t e r .

In the c a s e of

f a l l s up to 1 m (3.28 f t ) , the expansion should be in a curve with a r a d i u s of expansion.

In the c a s e of f a l l s above one m e t r e (3.28 ft), the downstream expansion

will simply be diverged.

U p s t r e a m protection The u p s t r e a m end of the curved floor i n the approach should r e s t on a m a s o n r y d r o p wall 35 c m thick and of depth equal to 0.33 y subject to a 1 minimum of 27 c m of deep m a s o n r y wall o v e r 15 c m thick concrete. No o t h e r protection either i n the bed o r sides i s required. P r o t e c t i o n downstream The side protection below the downstream expansion should be equal to L(bas) and should consist of dry b r i c k pitching 20 c m thick supported on a toe wall of depth equal to 0. 5 y Z subject to a minimum of 27 c m of deep m a s o n r y wall o v e r 15 c m thick concrete. It i s p r e f e r a b l e to lay roughened pitching. The bed

protection should consist of b r i c k - b a t s of thickness depending on discharge a s given below : Up to 700 l / s 700 1/ s to 1,400 l / s 15 c m 23 c m

This bed protection m u s t be laid horizontal (without d e p r e s s i o n s ) a t bed level, and b e hand packed, and should extend up to a length equal to y beyond the downstream end of the side expansion. Section of walls Standard sections of wing walls and abutments a r e given in Chapter 3 . The f r e e board on the walls u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t , without bridges, should be 15 cm, and with b r i d g e s they should be r a i s e d to the p a r a p e t level of the bridge. The f r e e board on the downstream walls should be 30 % m approximately, the exact dimensions depending on the b r i c k c o u r s e s . Gauges Where t h e r e a r e no b r i d g e s , the bottom of the concrete coping on the wall u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t should be accurately fixed a t designed full supply level. 1 With b r i d g e s the full supply level should be shown in the side wall by a 8 inch s t r i p of s t e e l embedded horizontally in the m a s o n r y joint for a distance of 60 cm, s t a r t i n g f r o m the water s u r f a c e edge, ( a s i t would ultimately be with a 0.5 to 1 slope). NO gauge walls should be provided in addition. B r i d g e s combined with falls When a bridge i s required, the p a r a l l e l s i d e s of the flumes should be 2

(dr)

m a d e longer to s e r v e a s abutments.

The bed of the channel up to the u p s t r e a m

end of the abutments should be i n m a s o n r y . 6. 11.3. 3 Design formula Fluming r a t i o , (FR)

-

= B1

0.60

Depth of w a t e r over c r e s t This i s worked out f r o m the formula

Q
where Q B(t)

.=

1.5 B(t) H(crt)

=
=

d i s c h a r g e in m 3I s , width of t h r o a t in m , height of u p s t r e a m full supply level over c r e s t in m . C C

qcrt)=

F o r d i s c h a r g e s of 0.014 m 3/ s to 0.56 m 3/ s F o r dischar;es of 0.57 m 3/ s to 1 . 4 m 3 / s Numerical examples Example 1

=
=

1.66 1.68.

Design a CDO type fall with the following d a t a :

B1 1

B2 Yz

= = (FR)

2.25 m 0.56 m = = = 60 p e r cent 2.25

Fluming ratio,

..
With

B(t) Q

. 60 100

l.35m

B(t) H ( c r t )

Length of c r e s t

2H

(4

0.8 m

Slope of g l a c i s L

=
1.5 (crt)

2.5:l 3. 74

(~ P P )

3.74H

0.401.5

0.92 m

R a d i u s of u p s t r e a m side

3. 62 H

~ =

3. 62

0. 4 0 1 a 5

=
Depth of c i s t e r n below bed l e v e l Depth of c i s t e r n below c r e s t Length of g l a c i s Length of c i s t e r n
=
-

0.90 m 7.5cm 0.84m 2.10 m 0.56

=
0.84

2.5

= =
=

Y 2 + H (dr)

0. 60

1.16 m

Length of expansion

R a d i u s of expansion

The design i s a s shown in F i g u r e 6-52.

Example 2 Design a CDO type f a l l with the following d a t a :

Fluming ratio

60 p e r c e n t

Hydraulic drop--------0 6 0 m Plon Discharge-

----- ----0-56 m3/s

/A// dimensions ore in metres /

Bank Bank

No.3

Sections No. 2

No. I

FAO- ICID
Longitudinal

sect ion

I
5m

C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( PUNJAB) H Y D R A U L I C D R O P U P T O 1.00 m Country , Region, Project lndio ond Pokiston F i g u r e No. 6-52

hand pocked

Floor 0.12rn Concrete 0 . 1 5 rn

Hydrodic drop Plon

-------- 1.20 m

Discharge------------. 0 5 6 n?/r

Section No. 4 Sect~on Nos l ond

Lonqitudinol

Section
-

..

.-

F A 0

ICID

C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( P U N J A B )
ncrete = 0.15 m

HYDRAULIC DROP ABOVE 1 . 0 0 m Country, Region, Project lndio ond Pokiston Figure No. 6-53

/ A / / o'imensions ore in metres

Hydrodic drop Plon

-------- 1.20 m

Discharge------------. 0 5 6 n?/r

Section No. 4 Sect~on Nos l ond

Lonqitudinol

Section
-

..

.-

F A 0

ICID

C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( P U N J A B )
ncrete = 0.15 m

HYDRAULIC DROP ABOVE 1 . 0 0 m Country, Region, Project lndio ond Pokiston Figure No. 6-53

/ A / / o'imensions ore in metres

TABLE

6-10

Single L a y e r Reinforcement in P o o l F l o o r f o r USBR Inclined D r o p 2/ P o o l Reinf. h t t' N0.0f weep Transv bars in walls & floors 4 @ 12" 4@12" 4@12" 4 @ 12" 4 @ 12" 4 @ 12" 4@12" 4@1zV 4 @ 12" 4@12" 4 @ 12" 4@12" 4@12" 4 @ 12'' 4 @ 1 4@12t1 4@12" 4@12" 4@111' 4 @ 11" 4@101' 4 @ 1.2" 4 @ 12" 4 @ 12" 4@10t' 4 @ 9" 4 @ 8" 4 @ 8" 4 @ 12" 4 @ 11" 4 @ 9" 4 @ 8" 4 @ 8" 4@10t' 4 @ 9" 4 @ 12" 4 @ lof1 4 @ 9" 4 @ 8" 4@1Ott 4 @ 9" 4 @ 8" i f s t r u c t u r e No. 5 - 3 i n d i c a t e s Q = 5 f 3 / s . 2'4 @ 7; Hdr = 3 ft. Longit. Reinf Floors 4 @ 72" 4@7+" 4 @ 7 9 4 @ 74" 4 @ 7+" 4 @ 7i" 4@7f" 4@7+11 4 @ 76" 4@7f" 4 @ 7+" 4@7f" 4@7 " 4 @ 7 " ~ ~7 Q ~" 4@ 4@7$ 4@7+" 4@7Zf' 4 @ 7 " 4@7 " 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 76" 4 @ 7 9 4 @ 79' 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 7 " 4@7+" 4 @ 7i" 4 @ 7%" 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 6f" 4 @ 7f" 4 @ 7ftf 4.@ 7 " 4 @ 7 " 4 @ 7 " 4 8 7 " 4@6+"

Ybas H(dr) Max Q Max Lcrt -(t-chb)

T.

Quantities

-bas

T.

basw

*hw

+
hVbas

Conc.
(CU.

Walls

yd) 31

Reinf. steel (lb)

Misc. Metal (lb)

4 @ 10" 4 @ 10" 4@10W 4 @ 10" 4 @ 10" 4 @ 10" 4@10M 4@10gt 4 @ 10" 4@10" 4 @ 10" 4@1O1I 4@1Ot1 4 @ 10" 4@10t1 4 @ 1 0 ~ ~ 4@10" 4@10" 4@101' 4 @ 10" 4@10" 4 @ 10" 4 @ 10" 4 @ 10" 4@10t' 4 @ 10" 4@10f1 4 @ 10" 4@10M 4 @ 10" 4 @ 10" 4@101' 4@101' 4 @ 8" 4 @ 8" 4 @ 10" 4 @ lost 4 @ 10" 4 @ 10" 4 @ 8" 4 @ 8" 4 @ 8"

i n d i c a t e s 0 . 4 i n . d i a m e t e r b a r s on 7f in spacing. = 27 cubic f e e t

3/1 cubic yard -

2.25

60 .100

= = = =

1.35 m 0.40m 2H(crt)

H(crt) a s in example 1 Length of c r e s t L ( a ~ ~ ) R(b- c ) Radius of upstream side Depth of cistern Length of cistern

0.80m

0.95 m ( a s in example 1)
2 - 9 0 rn ( a s in example 1)

=
= =

0.92 m ( a s in example 1) 0.30m y2

=
=

(Hdr)

0.56

1.20

1.76 m .

The design i s shown in Figure 6-53. 1/ USBR Rectangular Inclined DropGeneral The USBR h a s used standardized drop s t r u c t u r e s f o i many decades. Figure 6-54 shows the m o s t recently published design, which was revised in 1970. The structure i s built entirely in reinforced concrete. Capacities, dimensions

6.11.4 6.11.4.1

and material requirements a r e shown in Tables 6- 10 and 6- 11.

TABLE

6-11

USBR Rectangular Inclined Drop

- Dimensions

I'

Based bn USBR Standards (107)

The rectangular inclined drop (Figure 6-54) coneists of: an upstream 10 ft e a r t h transition converting gradually the normal side slope of the channel to 1 . 5 : 1 a t the upstream end of the structure; an inlet; upstream headwalls;

control section; glacis and pool with chute blocks; expansion; downstream headwalls; and an e a r t h o r concrete lined transition on the downstream side. inlet provides a plank walk-way to operate the gate. The

Overflow i s provided for by

overflow walls, 'or weirs, built into the sides of the inlet. The design of the reinforcement steel i s based on working s t r e s s e s of 24.000 pounds per square inch (psi). Monolithic concrete design i s based on a

compressive strength of 3,750 psi a t 28 days. The standard drop structure i s easily designed, built and operated. There a r e normally no erosion problems downstream i f the stilling pool i s properly set with regard to the downstream canal water surface. Rocks should

not be allowed to remain in the stilling pool for long periods because of their rolling, erosive affect on the concrete floor. 6.11.4.2 Numerical example Refer to Figures 6-54 and 6-55 and Tables 6-10 and 6-11;

the

calculations apply to a 20-11 model structure.

FIGURE 6-55.

- Design

of USBR inclined drop.

Top of s t r u c t u r e

=
=

El B

(F 1

1022.00

3.33

1025.33ft

(The value of H

(F)

i s taken f r o m Table 6-1 1 . ) ( T h i s will reduce the amount the s t r u c t u r e

Lower E l B by 0.20 ft.

extends above the canal bank f r o m 0 . 4 3 ft to 0 . 2 3 f t . )

Refer to Table 6- 10

With

H(dr)

10 ft, s e l e c t S t r u c t u r e No. 20-11

El C

=
=

downstream energy level 1013.57

= =

( Y(bas)

hv ( b a s ) )

- 2.83

1010.74 ft

A s a factor of safety against the possibility of unreliable downstream canal water depths, lower E l C another 0. 10 ft.

and L(gla), which a r e (str) dependent on elevations B and C , a r e given on F i g u r e 6-55 and Tables 6-10 and 6-11 for d i s c h a r g e s f r o m 5 to 40 ft 3 / s .

Standard dimensions, except for L

To i l l u s t r a t e how to s e t elevations B and C , a s s u m e the following :

2. 1 f t / s ( u p s t r e a m canal velocity)

H (b- Cbk)

2 . 9 ft (height of canal bank)

Y2

=
=

1.50 ft 2. 1 f t / s (downstream canal velocity)

Refer t o F i g u r e 6-55.

The fall,

H(dr) i s equal to the difference between the u p s t r e a m and

downstream energy l e v e l s .

where g = acceleration due to gravity in f t / s U p s t r e a m energy level

=
=

1022.00

+ +

1.50

+ +

0.07

1023.57 ft 1012.00 1.50 0.07

Downstream energy level

(Unless the u p s t r e a m canal water depth and velocity a r e different f r o m downstream conditions, f r o m E l A. ) H (dr) can simply be solved by subtracting El D

E l B can be s e t a s high a s E l A provided that the velocity through the inlet does not exceed 3 f t / s , and provided f u r t h e r that the top of the s t r u c t u r e walls do not extend objectionably above the top of the canal bank.

T r y a setting of E l B

El A

1022.00 f t

Check v

A(x)

Q by 1

20 4.5 (1.5)

2.96 f t / s

and being l e s s than 3 f t / s i s satisfactory.

Check top of bank and top of s t r u c t u r e Top of bank Top o f check s t r u c t u r e

=
=

E l A t H
El A
+

(b- Cbk)

HF

On the other hand the length o f the s t r u c t u r e i s :

(str)

2 (El B

E l C)

u s e 22 ft 4 in

See Table on F i g u r e 6-54 for completed example.

6.11.5 6.11.5.1

Rubble Cascade Inclined D r o p General The rubble c a s c a d e type fall i s cheap and can be constructed where stone i s easily available. It i s u s e d for s m a l l d i s c h a r g e s up t o 560 l / s (20 ft3/ s ) It h a s been installed a t a number of places
+

o r s o and f o r f a l l s up to 1. 5 m (5 ft). in India. 6. 11.5. 2 S t r u c t u r a l design

The fall c o n s i s t s of stone pitching u p s t r e a m , c r e s t , downstream glacis, c i s t e r n , curtain wall, and downstream bed and side pitching. The length of the u p s t r e a m glacis i s limited to 5.0 ft. The length of 2H The downstream glacis h a s a slope of 1 : 8. The the c r e s t i s 3 (crt)' c i s t e r n i s 10.0 ft long and h a s i t s floor level 1 . 0 ft below the downstream bed level. The details a r e shown in F i g u r e 6-56.

Spoil

bank

,-a. r

fss/ = I.5 : I
L 7

Berm a t

N. S. L. 5 4 5 . 7 0

8.0'
I

. Y

_519~61_J :hing

I
1.0 thick downst

Long~tudinol section

Upstreom sectlon Spoil bonk

F.S.O. F S.L, F. S. D. B.L. Bed width Free Boord Bank width Bonk level Spoil bonk

8 . 6 6 f?/s 542.62 1.5' 545.12 4.5; 1.5 3'1 3' 548.12 N. S.L. 545-70

8.66 ft3/s 543.1; 1.5 541.65 4.5, 1.5 3'1 3' 5 44.62

scale

2;5

10 feet

I
j

F A O -

I C I D

Flume bed wdth to 3 5 ' o = 3.09 x L r N"' where H : (B.66)'" : 0.86

3-09x 3.5

o=

8.66 t t f r ~ = 3 - i

RUBBLE CASCADE TYPE FALL

Downstream sectton A - B
I

Length af crest 2/3H: 2/3 x 0.86'0.57 keep, Crest level :546.62- 0 86 : 545.76 Cistern to be 1.0' below downstreom bed level Cistern level ;540.62 , Length of cistern = I 0 0 Upstream gloc!s 1 . 5 ond limited to 9.0 length Downsheom glocis I - 8 Cistern to lift r o l l = 1 :3

Project. Region, Country India' Figure No. 6-56

The fall i s flurned 75 to 80% of the u p s t r e a m bed width. 6. 1 1 . 5 . 3 Design formula

3 3.09
3 3

(t)

H' (

where

Q
B(t)

= =

discharge in f t / s width of throat i n ft height over c r e s t

( crt)

Numerical example Design a rubble cascade type fall f r o m the following d a t a :

3 8.66ft/s

Q
Bed width

"

= =

4 . 5 ft

Throat width to be 3 . 5 ft.

Then

3.09

(t)

H2

Length of c r e s t ,

(4

-H

2 3

(crt)

0.86 3 -

Adopt 1. 50 ft. The design i s shown in F i g u r e 6- 56.

6.12

P I P E D DROPS

6. 12.1

General

A piped d r o p is usually the m o s t economical and p r a c t i c a l choice when a

necessity for a d r o p in the canal water level happens to coincide with a road o r

FIGURE 6-57. Pipe end structures: (a) triangular type; (b) extension wall; ( c ) p r e - c a s t type; (d) impact dissipator (baffled outlet); ( e ) broken back; ( f ) subway; (g) diffuser., (52)

similar crossing of the canal.

A piped drop may also be the most suitable and

economical (even without such crossings) compared to an inclined drop for small canals (i. e. for small discharges). gate at i t s upstream end. the pipe by debris.

A piped drop i s usually equipped with a check

Sometimes a grid i s installed to prevent the choking of

There a r e two main types of these drops

- the well drop and

the inclined pipe drop.

The application of these i s governed by topography and

soil and, in the ultimate analysis, by cost.

In the well drop most of the energy

i s dissipated in the bottom p a r t of the well, while in the inclined pipe the energy dissipation takks place by the formation of the hydraulic jump, which f o r m s either in the pipe itself o r downstream of the outlet, depending on the outlet design, the velocity of the water and the relationship between discharge and the pipe characteristics. Piped drops require an outlet which i s designed to dissipate the remaining surplus energy and to adjust the outflow to normal channel flow conditions. A few
*

designs a r e shown schematically in Figure 6-57.

It should be noted that these designs have been developed primarily for capacities between 1 and 10 m 3 1s. Yet some of them ( a s , for example, the baffled pipe outlet in Figure 6-57 (d) ) have also been standardized for smaller discharges, down to 200 11s. In the

following paragraphs three designs of well drops and two designs of inclined drops a r e described.
1/ Well Drop Regulator (U. S. S. R. ) -

6.12.2 6.12.2.1

General The early U. S. S. R. well drop regulators were constructed of r e -

inforced concrete pipes, one m e t r e long, with smooth ends. The well was built of concrete cast in sit.u. covers a t the joints. The pipes had metal

Shortcomings of these early structures were the numerous The l a t t e r resulted in a i r

pipe joints and the absence of an a i r discharge pipe.

getting into the downstream flow, which gave r i s e to turbulence that damaged the slopes and pipe joints. The structures also tended to choke with debris.

L/~ased on information supplied by A. T. Koshkina, E. P. Martin, A. V. Shatalova, D. D. Aliev and B.V. Kazarinov (U. S. S. R. ).

Longitudinal section Grovel bed 1 0 crn Profile of the structure

(All dimensions are in cm)

Country, Region, Project USSR

Figure No. 6-58

Carrying Section 1 - 1 Detoils P- 120 x 180 L i s t o f detoils Type of structure SHPR P R Additional concreting

copocity 85 250 1.12 90

95

I00
1.43

- 6 0 -250

1.20 1.32

Type of detoil
0

PPTR-60 TR-60 TP-80 SHVOO P0-480 120x186 180-3001 80

SH-

I20

Details SH-120

10
( U

s
a

I volume , m3
Weight, kg
*:

0.54

027

1-03

1.05

0.13 325

0.30 750 6

0.371 0.04 0955 928 1 2 100 1 138 6

1.350 675 2 . 1

2.575 2.630 1 2

I :

V)

Number

Detoils P-120x 18

toil TR-80 Volume of moin works

Nome ravel layer 10 cm Detoil SHVOO-0- 4 8 0 Reinforced concrete detoils Cast-in-ploce concrete Gravel- fhling Cost-in-situ concrete Metal construction

Material Concrete Reinforcement Concrete M-200 Grovel

.C

-m3

Type of structure SHPR-60-250 6.55 608.40 1.2

kg

m3
kg

9.6
167.7

Concrete bed 10 cm

FA0 -ICID
Cross section 4 - 4

DETAILS OF WELL DROP - REGULATOR,

AS SHOWN IN F I G U R E I
Grovel layer 1 0 cm

Country, Region, Project USSR

! All dimensions are in cm )

Figure NO.6-59

The new design provides for damping of energy in the downstream end a s well a s discharge of a i r trapped in the pipe, and protection against choking f r o m debris. 6.12.2.2 Structural design The well drop regulator ( F i g u r e s 6-58 and 6-59) consists of a rectangular well, a pipeline and a downstream apron.
In the upper p a r t of the

well t h e r e is an opening fitted with t r a s h b a r s and a metal gate. formed by two welded lengths of channel c r o s s section.

The well i s

The joints between the There i s a

various p a r t s a r e cement grouted and hydraulically sealed. horizontal pipe at the lower part of the well.
'

This pipe i s connected with the well

by means of concrete cast in situ, and a m a s t i c packing to provide some mobility. The diameter of this pipe s t a r t s a t 60 cm and then expands to 80 cm. An asbestos cement vertical pipe i s fitted in the 80 c m diameter p a r t to discharge a i r trapped in the main pipe. At the end of the pipe t h e r e i s a

damper of cylindrical f o r m with a diaphragm a t the end. The protecting walls of the well and the downstream p a r t s of the structure a r e fixed by means of triangular slabs and concrete cast in situ. A trapezoidal downstream apron i s made up of and protected by ribbed reinforced concrete slabs, placed on a packed gravel bed. All the pipe joints a r e of bell

and spigot type and the joints a r e packed with tow and mineral wool impregnated with bitumen and cement grouted. The height of the protecting s t r u c t u r e s above

the downstream and upstream water levels i s 40 cm. 6.12.2.3 Design formula The hydraulic design of this structure has been a r r i v e d a t on the b a s i s of the r e s u l t s of laboratory t e s t s on models. a hydraulic drop of 2.5 m e t r e s . The discharge capacity of the drop, which v a r i e s f r o m 1. 10 to 3 1.40 m / s according to different values of H(crt)9 i s given in Figure 6- 59. The length of the protected downstream apron i s defined by the formula: The design i s also based on

where v

(PI,

= =

velocity a t the end p a r t of the pipeline, m / s assumed scouring o r flushing velocity, 0.8 m / s (for medium loam) diameter of the end p a r t of the pipeline, m

"(flu) D(p)2 2.4

= =

'

coefficient, determined f r o m laboratory t e s t results.

The length of the protected section of the apron obtained by the above formula i s decreased by 20 to 30% due to the use of the pipe damper. 6. 12. 2.4 Numerical example
3 Assume a design discharge Q = 1.25 m / s , and a hydraulic drop,
H

(dr)

= 250 cm. It i s n e c e s s a r y to find the length of the protected section on the

downstream side. The table of discharge capacity (Figure 6- 59) indicates that the design discharge of the structure i s possible at a head, H(crt), of 92 cm.

The assumed .scouring velocity i s 0.8 m / s (for medium loam). The length of the protected section i s defined by the formula.

L(prot)

2.4
3

"(P) 2
"(flu)

v (PI, = 2.4 (P)2 0:6 0.8

The length of the protected section i s d e c r e a s e d by 2570 due to the u s e of the pipe d a m p e r . Adopted

L(~rot)

7.9-0.25.

7.9

5.9m

F u l l details of the design with tables of discharge capacities a r e given i n F i g u r e s 6-58 and 6-59.

6.12.3 6.12.3.1

Well Type D r o p (India) General design f e a t u r e s A cheap type of well d r o p consisting of two m a s o n r y wells connected by -a rectangular b a r r e l o r an earthenware pipe h a s been evolved in India. The

d r o p ( F i g u r e 6- 60) c o n s i s t s of an u p s t r e a m bed and stone side protection, a d r o p well with a single notch to p a s s the discharge, an earthenware pipe and downs t r e a m well, and bed and side protection of stone pitching. F o r drops f r o m 4 to 6'ft the downstream well m a y be omitted. Although this type of d r o p i s simple and cheap in construction i t i s prone to choking by floating rubbish and r e q u i r e s r e g u l a r supervision and removal of the rubbish without delay. India. 6.12.3.2 Design formula F o r d i s c h a r g e s f r o m 10 to 20 f t 3 / s (280 to 560 l / s ) , the d i a m e t e r of the wells (both u p s t r e a m and downstream) i s 4 . 0 ft (1.20 m ) . One notch i s provided for these s m a l l d i s c h a r g e s and the formula for f r e e flow u s e d i s :

It i s widely used in s m a l l channels in some p a r t s of

3 -

Q
where

3.645 y;

(L(No)

0.4

C yl )

Q
1

= =

3 discharge of the canal in f t / s

full supply depth u p s t r e a m in ft length of notch in f t

= L (NO)

Plan

Detail of qote Woter level

(All dimensions ore in cm unless otherwise specified)

Upstream water level

Section

A-A

FA0
Earthen bund PIPE Clay rawer w concrete pipe length =3m : 4 , = 30 cm Project

- ICID
SPILLWAY

DROP

, Region , Country
India

Longitudinal

section Figure No. 6-60

2 tan c x

where 6 i s the angle made by the sides of the notch with the vertical. L(NO) and C,

In this equation there a r e two unknown parameters, and i t can be solved i f values of Q, say,
i. e. Y1. 1 and y 1.2 a r e known.

Q l and Q2 for any two values of y 1'

Substituting and solving for C

and

(NO) - *

Q2

3 3.745
y 2 1.2

0.4CYls2

The head required between two wells to pass the required discharge may be calculated from the following formula :

Numerical example Data -

Q
Full supply level upstream Full supply level downstream Hydraulic drop Full supply depth, upstream, y l

Full supply depth, downstream, y2

Bed width upstream, B1 Bed width downstream, B2

F r e e Board, for

(FB)

20ft l.lft 4 ft

10 ft / s ,

Y1. 1

'

=
=

Well diameter U s e 2. 0 ft diameter pipe, length Area of pipe A,

(P)

.,

Water level in the upstream well

Sill of drop

496.10

1.65

y1. 1

1. 65 ft;

y2

2tane

0.93

or

tan

0.465,

say'0.50

say Top width of notch =

2.00 ft

(NO)

( 2 y tan& )

Invert level of pipe Invert level of upstream well

= =
=

482.45 482.45 481.45 485.95 f t

1.00

Invert level of downstream well F o r other details see Figure 6-60.

6. 1 2 . 4 6. 12.4.1

Pipe Drop (Indta) General design features The pipe drop described herein, which i s provided with a check, i s a very simple and economical structure to u s e when a small t e r t i a r y channel, a field channel o r a field watercourse h a s to negotiate an embankment. The

structure (Figure 6-61) consists of a masonry o r concrete apron around the inlet of the pipe to prevent seepage, a pipe gate f o r checking purposes, an earthen-

ware o r cement pipe, a stilling basin in concrete, o r brick o r stone masonry and downstream side protection of the embankment in r i p rap, and bed protection of the channel. The corner o r bend in the pipeline i s of l a r g e radius. The pipe

joints a r e made good with cement m o r t a r . long.

The stilling basin i s 1.2 to 1.5 m

Table 6-12 gives the diameter of concrete pipes for discharges for different hydraulic drops, H(dr). F o r high hydraulic drops, the length of the Its depth should be

stilling basin m a y be 3 m and for small ones 1.2 to 1.5 m . equal to (0.10 m

(P)

0.10 to 0.15 ) m.

Cement concrete 1:s: I

8045

Longitudinal section

emnt conuete I:S:IQ k e m e n t concrete ; i n I: 3 :s

Half pkn ot top and half plan at bottom

Section of pipe

Section through joint

WELL

TYPE

DROP

Elevation of notch Detoil of notch

Project, Region, Country India Figure No.6-61

TABLE

6-12

Discharge Capacities of P i p e Drops using Different S i z e t of Concrete P i p e s Diameter of pipe, c e n t i m e t r e s 7.5'10.0 5.6 10.7 12.5 17.5 15.0 26.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 Discharge Q (11s) 36.4 48.5 62.4 25.0 78.0 27.5 '95.5 30.0 114.8

(dr) cm 30.0

Numerical example Design a pipe d r o p with the following data:

Q
H(dr) B1l B2 YIS Y2 (as)

= = = = =

200 l / s 100cm 0.7m 0.5m 0.5:l

F r o m Table 6- 12, f o r Q = 200 l / s and H(dr) = 100 c m , the d i a m e t e r of the c o n c r e t e pipe, D(~), i s o v e r 29 cm. Adopt D(p) = 30 cm. Other

Make the stilling basin 3 m long, 65 c m deep and 0 . 7 m wide. dimensions a r e a s shown in F i g u r e 6- 61.

6.12.5

Inclined P i p e D r o p (U. S. A.

1-11

1 1 B a s e d on information

supplied by G. N. Thorsky, (USBR. U. S. A. )

6. 12.5. 1

General design f e a t u r e s The pipe drop described h e r e (made of reinforced concrete) i s used up

t o a maximum hydraulic d r o p of 4 . 5 m (15 ft) and i s of non-meter type. of the s t r u c t u r e i s equipped with a check gate.

The inlet

F r o m F i g u r e s 6-62 to 6-65 i t will be seen that the s t r u c t u r e consists of a 10 ft ( 3 m ) transition f r o m the n o r m a l canal section at the u p s t r e a m end gradually changing to 1. 5 : 1 a t the u p s t r e a m end of the inlet s t r u c t u r e . s t r u c t u r e i s fitted with a gate and a plank walk. The inlet

The p r e - c a s t concrete pipe f i r s t There i s

inclines sharply downward, then only slightly and then slopes upwards.

a concrete outlet transition and e a r t h transition (10 ft long) with side and bed protection equal to 2 . 5 y 2 o r 5 feet ( 1 . 5 m ) minimum. In the absence of a

concrete outlet transition, each transition m u s t have c o a r s e ' g r a v e l protection on both the bed and the sides a s shown in F i g u r e 6-63. The inlet and outlet can be

accommodated to either an e a r t h canal o r a lined canal.

Dimensions of standard designs of the inlet p a r t including the gate s i z e s and pipe s i z e s a r e given in Table 6-13 and those of the outlet concrete transition in Table 6-14. Tables 6-15, 6-16, 6-17 and 6-18 show values of H2, H3, H4, L2, 3 L3, L4 for different hydraulic drops for 10 f t 3 / s , 17 ft / s , 25 f t 3 / s , and 34 f t 3 / s . 6. 12.5. 2 Tables for other values of Q a r e apailable but a r e not included h e r e .
I

Design procedure Tables 6-13 to 6-18 may be used for design purposes for discharges

up to 36 f t 3 / s f o r any given conditions.

Pipe drops without a concrete outlet F o r discharges

transition a r e used for a maximum discharge of 22 f t 3 / s . exceeding 22 ft3/ s , a concrete outlet transition i s required. 6.12.5. 3 Numerical example

10ft3/s

Solve f o r H

( dr)

899.98 1.00 0.06 901.04

C

u p s t r e a m energy elevation

891.00 1.00 0.06 892.06

downstr earn energy elevation

901.04 892.06 8 . 9 8 feet

H( d r )

Design check and pipe i n l e t and solve f o r elevations of pipe i n v e r t . Refer to Table 6- 15 f o r and d i a m e t e r of pipe = 24 inches.

3 10ft/s,

(IN)

= 3. 25 ft,

T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e for a Q bf 10 f t 3/ s and Q = 17 ft 3 I s , which i s S t r u c t u r e D(p) = 24 inches, s o s e l e c t the next highest, Refer to Table 6- 13. NO. 24-1. 900.98 -3.25' 897.73 =
=

n o r m a l water s u r f a c e control w,ater s u r f a c e

= = El D ( F i g u r e 6-63)

of 8 . 9 8 ft, go the the next highest H(dr) F o r the computed H (dr) of 9.00 f t (Table 6-15) and obtain H2, Hg, Hq, L 2 , Lg, L4.

L o n q i t u d i n o l section Normal water surface E E l e v a t i o n of energy Original ground surface r s t r u c t u r e length

r Precast

concrete pipe Normal water surface

---

Check and pipe inlet

b i t e r e d pipe bendsJ

~oths . The pipe slopes used will allow the substitution of 7 3 6 precast concrete elbows for the mitered pipe bends. The length of the earth outlet transition equals 3 pipe diameters (j minimum). Precast concrete pipe shown. Other materials may be substituted provided joints are rubber gasketed.

OUTLET. TRANSITIONS
Country

, Region,

Project

F i g u r e No. 6-62

Longitudinal sect ion

, -O r g in ia l Normal water surface rElevation of energy Earth transition ground surface Precast concrete pipe

. L +

~ - - - i , + - ~ ~ ~ , - ~ l
Normal water rElev~ti~n

Check and pipe

LMitered pipe bends

"i
I
I

5minimum) 1 2 coarse gravel protection Concrete transition

For outlet tmnsition details refer to Figure 4. Notes The pipe slopes used will allow the substitution of 7 O 3 0 ' precast concrete elbows for the mitered pipe bends. Precast .concrete pipe shown. Other materials may be substituted provided joints are rubber gasketed.

FA 0- I C I D
PIPE DROP WITH CONCRETE OUTLET TRANSITION
Country, R e g i o n , Project

U S A
F i g u r e No. 6-63

Plan

Typical slide gate assembly

ly qote puides

Section

B-B

#4

0 8. Bend into

hcodroll

0 12,

Both w y s

or horizontolly with

obout rnid-Ienqth

Section A-A

&1 6 bolts's f with squore heods, hex,'nuts

ond cut woshers; project 4"

F A o - IC'ID

CHECK AND PIPE INLET

oround corners

continuous in ,walls ond floor

Country , Region, Project US A

Figure No. 6-64

Plan

Section A-A

woll thickness to be some

. .

einforcement not shown

~onqitudinal section
into sidewalls

Section C-C

Reinforcemenl not shown

4~) 3

L t 4 tronsv.

12

Tronsversc bars continuous in wolb ond floor, rpoced horizontally on structure C. L.

FrGURE 6- 65. Concrete outlet transition (supplement t o F i g u r e 6- 63).

TABLE

6-13

Structure No.

Standard

Dimensions T( sw) (FB) L

Q
ft3/s

(P)

(IN)

(IN)

(IN)

(IN)

Or

( =hw'

(hw)

(Tft) 12" 15" 18" 180 18" 21" 21" 24" 24" 2719 30" 334, 36" 24" 24" 2' 6" 21 69, 3' 0" 3'0" 3' 6" 3' 0" 410" 3 9 6 0 8 31 6" 41 0" 4 , or!
IS

No.of walk / planks

E s t i m a t e d Quantities ConCrete (cu.yd) Reinf. steel (lb) 160 170 Misc. Metal (lb) 110 110 Slide Gate 1.1 Width x Ht. B(ga) H(ga) Frame H(frrn)

12-1 15-1 18-1 18-2 18-3 21-1 21-2 24- 1 24- 2 27- 1 30- 1 33-1 36- 1

5 7 10 15 21 13 28 17 37 21 26 31 36

21 6" 2'61, 2' 61, 3 9 69, 51 001 3, 0,) 5 ' 3" 3' 3" 5 1 6" 31 6" 31 qt? 4, 0" 4' 3"

3' 6" 316,~ 31 68, 4tov 41 6" 4 1 0" 51 0" 4' o w 51 61, 4'6" 4 1 61, 41 6" 58 0"

15" 15" 15" 21" 3' 0" 15" 3' 0 8 , 15" 3to1t 15" 15" 15" 15"

6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6"

6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6'1 6" 6" 6" 6" 6"
,

12" 12" 12" 12" 12" 12" 12" 12" 12" 15" 15" 18" 18"

4' 4' 4' 4' 4' 4' 4' 4'

0" 0" 0" 0" 0" 0" 0" 0" 4' 0" 4'4" 4' 4" 4' 9" 4' 9"

3 3 4 4 5 5 6 5 7 6 6 7 7

1.6 1.7

2.1 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.4

220 230 270 300 340

130 140 150 160 180

!'

1f a gate wlth a speclfled height

not available, an available gate with the next g r e a t e r helght should b e u s e d wlth a p p r o p r i a t e f r a m e h e ~ g h t .

TABLE

6-14

Structure No. 12-1 15-1 18-1 18-2 18-3 21-1 21-2 24- 1 24-2 27-1 30- 1 33- 1 36- 1

D (P)

B (OUT)l

L (OUT)

H
H5 (WW)~

B
H6 (Tft) L(ww) (Ttw)

5 7 10 15 21 13 28 17 37 21 26 31 36

12" 15" 18" 18" 18" 21" 21" 24" 24" 27" 30" 33" 36"

9" 11"

7 ' 6" 9 ' 6"

4' 9" 5 ' 3"

31 0" 31 3"

3' 0"
3' 6"

12"
15"

6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6"

24" 246!?

6" 6" 6" 616" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6" 6"

TABLE

6-15

Pipe Drops with Metre Bends Without Concrete Outlet Transition 3 Q = 10 ft / s Diameter of pipe = 24 inches Dimensions given in the Table are in feet
H

(IN) = 3.25 feet

TABLE

6-16

P i p e D r o p s with M e t r e Bends Without Concrete Outlet Transition

Q = 17 f t 3 / s

D i a m e t e r of pipe =

30 inches

H(IN) = 3 . 75 feet

Dimensions given in the Table a r e in feet

TABLE

6-17

Pipe Drops with Metre Benda with Concrete Outlet Transition

Q = 25 ft / s

Diameter of pipe = 30 inches Dimensions given in the Table are in feet

(IN)

= 3.75 feet

TABLE

6-18

P i p e Drops with M e t r e Bends with Concrete Outlet Transition

Q = 34 ft / s

D i a m e t e r of pipe = 36 inches Dimensions given in the Table a r e i n feet

H(IN) = 4.25 f e e t

3 F o r pipe drops with discharges exceeding 22 ft / s , a concrete outlet

transition i s required. Refer to F i g u r e s 6- 64 and 6 : 65 and Tables 6- 17 and 6- 18. F o r the concrete outlet transition, s e e F i g u r e 6-65. Design procedure for the check and pipe inlet and the pipe d r o p i s the s a m e a s that given above f o r the pipe drop without concrete outlet transition.

,
6.12. 6 6. 12. 6. 1 1/ Inclined P i p e Drop (U. S. S. R. ) General E a r l y pipe drop regulators used in the U. S. S. R. were built of a number of one m e t r e diameter reinforced concrete pipes with m e t a l covered pipe joints. Sudden water level fluctuations in the channels resulted in joint m i s -

alignment and downstream scour. The revised construction now used i s simple and reliable in operation, and provides dissipation of energy downstream. a d r o p and a check s t r u c t u r e . This pipe drop regulator i s both

6. 1 2 . 6 . 2

Structural desipn The s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e 6-66) consists of an inlet siil, an i n c l h e d pipe,

a stilling basin and a downstream apron. The inlet sill i s designed in the f o r m of an inclined wall.

A concrete

L'

Based on information supplied by A . T. Koshkina, E. P. Martin, A. V. Shatalova, D. D. Aliev and B. V. Kazarinov.

Threshold l c o n c r e t e ) ~

Road

Section 1-1 Section 2 - 2

/Reinforced concrete I Concrete, type 100, layer 6 cm

Prefab. concrete slabs

Reinforced concrete

L c o s t -in- dace. concrete, iype ioo

Stilling basin--/ ~ock-fillin~-q-

I/

'(E~o?)

L ~ ~ 100, p e cost -in - place, concrete loyer 6 crn

Concrete slobs
d

Cross section 4 - 4

PIPE DROP
Type 100, cost-in-place concrete layer 1 0 cm (All dimensions are in cm

- REGULATOR

threshold (the height of which i s equal to the difference between the water depth in the channel and i t s critical depth a t threshold) i s provided to prevent a drop of the upstream water level. The inclined pipe, consisting of bell and spigot jointed pipes, 5 m long, 60 cm o r 80 cm in diameter, and the stilling basin, a r e constructed of reinforced concrete. A small length of pipe with bevelled edges i s inserted where the pipe The pipe joints a r e packed with tow and mineral wool,

levels off to the horizontal.

impregnated with bitumen and cement grouted. A cylindrical stilling basin with a ring diaphragm a t the end i s provided a t the end of the pipeline. Reinforced concrete slabs set on a gravel bed secure
A rock-filled support i s

the inlet and downstream p a r t s of the structure in place.

provided'at the inlet and a t the end of the protected section. These s t r t c t u r e s a r e equipped with slide gates and screw jacks and the gate f r a m e s a r e secured to the inlets with bolts and rubber packing. 6. 12. 6. 3 Design formula Maximum discharge capacity i s given by the formula:

where

( P)

diameter of the pipe.

This formula has been deduced on the basis of laboratory t e s t s a t the Central Asia Scientific and Research Institute of Irrigation. The head, Hc, with a f r e e opening, according to laboratory t e s t

data, i s assumed a s follows :

where

C1

0.'8

and

H'
(bas)l

specific u p s t r e a m energy relative to the floor of the stilling basin; equal to the height between the u p s t r e a m energy line and the floor of the stilling basin the depth of flow with n o r m a l discharge a t the beginning of the hydraulic jump, and the discharge downstream p e r m e t r e m e a n width of the channel,

H(j)l

where s s

side slope.

Reciprocal depths downstream a r e calculated f r o m Table 6- 19 using formulas:-11

and

where

H(rec)l

reciprocal depth of flow with a discharge, considered a s controlling, a t the beginning of the hydraulic jump r e c i p r o c a l depths of flow corresponding to discharge, considered a s controlling, a t the end of the hydraulic jump specific u p s t r e a m energy relative to floor of the stilling basin; equal to the height between the u p s t r e a m energy line and the'floor of the stilling basin.

and

H(rec)2

'=

(bas)

'

C' and C"

a r e coefficients whose values a r e given in Table 6- 19.

TABLE

6-19

1/ -

according to Agroskin

It i s a s s u m e d that t h e velocity coefficient i s 0.8; the coefficient of

hydraulic jump submergence C(js)

1.1.

The length of the downstream protected section i s calculated according to the following formula, (deduced a t the l a b o r a t o r y ) : 1 -

where

B2

(ss) YZ

6. 12. 6 . 4

Standard designs

The s t r u c t u r e s a r e designed f o r maximum d i s c h a r g e s of 0 . 4 and 3 0 . 8 5 m / s for d r o p s of 100 and 200 cm. Channel depths a r e a s s u m e d a t 60 and 80 c m according to pipe d i a m e t e r s 60 and 80 c m . The height of the embankment above the u p s t r e a m and downstream w a t e r l e v e l s i s 30 cm. 6.12. 6. 5 Numerical example (for type TPR-80- 100) Data given Pipe diameter,

D(~)
(dr) B2 y2

=
= =

0.60m 1.Om 1.2m 0.6m 1.5 1.1.

Hydraulic drop, H

Downstream bed width, Downstream canal depth, (ss)

=
=

Coefficient of hydraulic jump submergence, C (js)

It i s n e c e s s a r y to calculate the discharge capacity and the length of

the protected section L(~rot)

According t o the formula

The head a t the threshold of the s t r u c t u r e Hc

=

0.86 D

(P)

0.86

0. 60

0.52 m

The depth a t the beginning of the hydraulic jump:

0.8

A f i r s t approximation :

F r o m Table 6-19; f o r H ( ~ ) = 0.15 and for interpolation:

Taking into consideration the coefficient of hydraulic jump submergence

'(j s )

1.1

The length of the protected section

=
=

8 .

0.436. Say

1.1 4.00 m.

3.85 m,

6.13

FARM DROP STRUCTURES General Drops in f a r m channels a r e basically of the same type and function similarly to those in distribution canals, the only differences being that the f a r m drops a r e smaller and their construction and equipment a r e simpler. They a r e

m o r e often than not provided with a check gate, which may be a simple slide gate o r a wooden shutter. Vertical drops a r e the most frequently used. F a r m drops

should comprise: a cut-off wall, long and deep enough to prevent leakage and bypassing of the water a t the flanks; an opening with slots for a check gate; and a stilling pool with some f o r m of end sill.

In 1971 the USDA Soil and Water Conservation Service published r e s u l t s of

field t e s t s of 16 different types of f a r m irrigation drop- check structures (60). Out of the conclusions drawn, the following five m e r i t quotation h e r e . "(1) Although there did not appear to be a consistent relationship between the amount of scour and the end-sill height, visual observation indicated that t h e r e was a greater degree of turbulence with the high sills. ( 2 ) Structures having relatively wide basins performed better than those with narrow basins. The narrow basins contracted and accelerated the flow,

resulting in higher exit velocities; the wide basins provided a l a r g e r flow a r e a and thus a lower velocity. (3) With adequate tailwater depth, a trapezoidal stilling basin gave good

hydraulic performance: without sufficient tailwater, the performance was poor and high velocity caused excessive downstream erosion.

(4) F o r relatively s m a l l s t r u c t u r e s and water depths, a n o n - a e r a t e d nappe

contributed to good stilling within the s t r u c t u r e .

(5) With adequate cut-off depth and head wall length, head wall s t r u c t u r e s
with a gravel-lined b a s i n o r plunge pool w e r e the m o s t economical and the m o s t effective s t r u c t u r e s t e s t e d .
"

6. 13. 2

Head Wall D r o p with G r a v e l B a s i n The s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d in conclusion ( 5 ) quoted above i s p e r h a p s the m o s t economical type of f a r m d r o p under a l l conditions. m a y be m a d e of c o n c r e t e o r m a s o n r y . The head wall o r cut-off wall

The wall should be m a d e considerably

s t r o n g e r than i n the s t r u c t u r e s having supporting walls in the direction of flow. - T h u s , for a m a s o n r y wall the thickness should be a t l e a s t 30 cm, for unreinforced c o n c r e t e 20 c m and for r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e 10 c m . The width of opening r e q u i r e d The length of the g r a v e l

m a y b e calculated f r o m the f o r m u l a given in Section 6. 2.

b a s i n m a y be taken a s approximately 3 to 4 t i m e s the difference between the u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m bed l e v e l s . c r e s t length of the opening. Figure The width should be about 1.5 t i m e s the 6-67 shows t h i s type of d r o p with a

h e a d wall m a d e of p r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e .

FIGURE 6-67.

P r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e head wall d r o p (60).

Cement Block Check and Drop Figure 6-68 shows a design of a cement block check and drop a s developed and used successfully in Canada. the c r e s t height above the pool. The length of the stilling pool i s about twice This relatively short .distance i s compensated

for by the downstream gravel protection.

Wooden door

Flow Wooden doo

Concrete

8xbi 1 6 block8

6 x 8 x 16 blocks Directions I. Dig down os shown by survey. . 2 . Stock blocks t o desired shope for correct locotion of 'woll ond h e i ~ h t of sill. 3. Pour concrete in cores of blocks-eoch row seporotely. 4 . Pour remoining concrete for splosh ond floor. . 5. Any steel (spud links,etc.) in cores will ( A l l dimensions i n inches ) greotly strengthen the structure.

FIGURE 6-68. (Canada). Concrete Check Drop

Cement block check and drop structure

The structure shown in Figure 6-69 i s widely used in the U. S. A. where i t i s usually made in p r e - c a s t reinforced concrete with a wall thickness of 7.5 to

to 10 cm.

The main dimensions are shown in the figure and in the tables below:

FIGURE 6-69. - Concrete check drop ( U . S. A. ).

Capacity of ditch in 11 s Width of opening W cm

H
cm
*

C
cm

A cm

60 170 230 280 400

30 60 75 90 105

30 30 38 46 46

'

15 15 15 20 20

60 60 60 75 90

Drop (D)
-

Length of Apron (L)

rn

30 45 60 90

75 90 120 180

6. 13.5

Wooden D r o p F i g u r e s 6-70 and 6-71 show designs of wooden d r o p s for d i s c h a r g e capacities of 100 l / s t o 250 l / s . These designs w e r e introduced some 30 y e a r s

ago by the USDA Soil Conservation Service and they have proved suitable and economical. The wood u s e d for the s t r u c t u r e should b e thoroughly impregnated

before assembly.

6. 1 3 . 6

Piped ~ r o ~ s A simple pipe d r o p s t r u c t u r e recommended by the USDA Soil Conservation Service f o r f a r m i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s i s shown in F i g u r e 6-72. The figure a l s o

provides the n e c e s s a r y data f o r design capacities f r o m 45 11s ( 1 . 6 f t / s ) to 105 11s ( 3 . 7 f t 3 / s ) . Protection by r i p - r a p , g r a v e l o r concrete lining m a y be The corrugated m e t a l pipe m a y be substituted by a

r e q u i r e d on e r o s i v e s o i l s . concrete pipe.
1

The s t e e l b a r r e l d r o p shown in F i g u r e 6-73 i s a simple and cheap pipe d r o p recommended by the Alberta Department of Agriculture, Canada.

The following formula and table m a y be used for design purposes :

where

= =

discharge in f 3 / s pipe a r e a f t 2

head differential

L C

= =

pipe length head l o s s coefficient.

lide. See below

g-ODMin.

I-

PLAN

subst~tutedhere

DETAIL OF GATE GUIDE

Use when drop serves as a check

Pressure treat oll lumber w ~ t h creosote and use cement c o o t ~ dn o ~ l s Corr~ogebolts moy be substl tuted for n o ~ l s where ~ndlcoted, ~f deslred Upstreom jolnts moy be covered w ~ t h loth bottens to moke structure more water-t~ght Bs Bottom w~dth of openlng b = Bose width of dltch d =Depth of water In d~tch H =He~ght of fall In woter surfaces L = Lengf h of opron Q= Cublc feet per second

WOODEN DROP STRUCTURE FOR CHANNEL DEPTH 20 cm ( 8 inches )

OMETRIC VIEW

SECTION X- X

DETAIL OF GATE GUIDE

Use when drop serves as a check

Corr~ogebolts may be substituted cooted nolls for nolls where lnd~cated~f deslred Upstream joints moy be covered w ~ t h loth battens to make structure

water surfaces

PLAN
water Surfoc*

ISOMETRIC VIEW OF CONCRETE SLAB

(See no*

No.

(I)

Top of Ditch Bonk -, water Surfac*>

SECTIONAL ELEVATION ON CENTER LlNE

- -..
I

1.

3.

U.

5.

NOTES SELECT A PIPE S I Z E THAT W I L L PROVIDE A GREATER CAPACITV THAN I S REQUIRED TO DISCHARGE THE NORMAL STREAM USE0 W E N IRRIGATING. TRY TO KEEP THE VELOCITY I I THE P l P E B E L W 3 FPS BASE0 ON I O R W L I R R l G A T l I G STREAM. W E R THE CMlRUGATEO METAL P I P E OROP I S U S I D AT A D I T C H CROSSIIG. INCREASE WIDTH OF TOP OF DAY AND DIMENSIOI L2 BY 8'-0' THE OROP (H) FOR ANY SPECIFIC STRUCTURE C A I BE IICREASED 3 IICHES BY PLAClIGrTHE TOP OF THE RISER PIPE 3 l n c n c s BELW THE TOP OF THE CONCRETE FLOOR OF THE INLET THE THICKIESS OF THE FLOOR SLAB ~OJICEIT TO THE PIPE s n o u L o BE INCREASED 3 INCHES TO MAKE A WATERTIGW CMlNECTlOI WITH THE PIPE. THE I N L E T TO THE P l P E SHOULD BE ROUNDED TO A 3 I I C H RADIUS TO SAVE FORMING AN0 IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE INLET THE DROP STRUCTURE I S FORMED BY CUTTING A STANDARD LEIGTH OF CORRUGATED WETAC P l P E w n l c n IS M~IUFACTUREO I I MULTIPLES OF 2 FT. IX LEIGTH. 01 A u 5 O &#OLE AND WELDING THE C U i JOINTS TOGETHER TO F M l M A 90 BEN0 P l P E TO BE 1 6 GA CORRUGATED MET L JOINT BETWEEN HORIZONTAL A I D VERTIC&L PIECES OF P l P E TO BE BUTT WELOEO AND WATE!TlGIIT SIX l N c n n r n o PLACEO RIP-RAP w r r BE s u s s r l r u r r o F ~ R SLAB.

cowrf

NOMENCLATURE d o E n n OF WATER IN o l i c n F FREEBOARD I I DITCH 0 DIAMETER OF P l P E R LEIGTH OF VERTICAL P I P E ALONG CEMTER L l N E 12-LENGTHOFHORIZONTALPIPEALMGCENTERLIRE V VELOCITY OF PIPE FPS V O I S C L R G E THROiJCH PIPE C.F.S. I I DROP OF WATER SURFACE

FAO-ICID

CORRUGATED METAL PIPE DROP Project, Region, Country US A Figure No. 6-72

T A B L E OF CONCRETE Q U A N T I T I E S O=IO' 0.15 CU.VDS. 0-12" 0 . 2 6 CU VOS D=15. 029CUYOS

FIGURE 6-7.3.
P i p e diameter inches 10 12 14 16

Steel b a r r e l drop.

Values of C Concrete pipe Corrugated metal pipe 0.053 0.042 0.034 0.028 0.134 0.107 0.087 0.073

-6.13.7

Sloping Rock Drop Another cheap drop design f r o m Canada i s shown in Figure 6-74. It i s

suitable where greater falls, say 1. 5 to 3 m, a r e encountered, and where suitable rock o r stone i s available locally. Gravel-fill between the rocks, o r grouting,

improves greatly the durability of the structure.

. "

to N --- ,

under 12 -Ditch bed line

bc-

l+or more

Note:

I.Grovel (if ovoiloble) should be used to fill between rocks. 2.Rocks con be grouted.

Ditch crosa section

FIGURE 6-74.

Sloping rock drop structure (Canada).

. 7.

STRUCTURES AND DEVICES FOR WATER MEASUREMENT

7.1

INTRODUCTION

7.1.1

Scope of this Chapter The scope of this chapter i s restricted to the measurement of water in irrigation systems and to methods of measurement which need only inexpensive, but reliable and easily operated equipment. Almost any kind of obstacle that

partially r e s t r i c t s the flow of water in an irrigation channel can be used a s a measuring device, provided that i t can be calibrated. However, the calibration

t e s t s n e c e s s a r y to detelop accurate ratings can be r a t h e r costly and time consuming and justifiable only where the calibrated device i s to be utilized for a number of different purposes, o r in the case of l a r g e structures outside the scope of this Handbook. F o r measuring small flows (say below 1000 11s) i t i s

nearly always preferable to use one of the numerous standard measuring devices o r ratings already d e ~ e l o p e d . In this chapter emphasis i s placed on standard devices, which a r e defined a s those which have been fully described, accurately calibrated, correctly installed and have proved to be consistently successful in operation. Before proceeding to the descriptions of these various measuring

devices i t i s appropriate to r e c a l l a t this stage the reasons for the measurement of irrigation water and where in the system such measurement should take place.

Why Measure ? F o r efficient water distribution Increased demand on available water r e s o u r c e s and ever increasing irrigation development costs require that water be used economically and without waste, and experience shows that this cannot be accomplished without water measurement. Measurements s e r v e to ensure the maintenance of proper delivery

schedules, t o determine the amounts of water delivered, to single out anomalies, and t o estimate and detect the origin of conveyance l o s s e s .

F o r efficient water use at the f a r m level More advanced knowledge of soil properties and soil m o i s t u r e / plant relationships permits irrigation systems to be designed so that water can be applied in the right amount and at the right time in relation to the soil moisture status thereby obtaining maximum efficiency of water use and minimum damage to the land. This knowledge can be utilized m o s t effectively only by reasonably

accurate meagurement of the water applied. F o r applied r e s e a r c h To establish c r i t e r i a for efficient water use and management,field t r i a l s and evaluation of existing irrigation a r e required f o r a number of i e a s o n s such a s the evaluation of the efficiency of existing irrigation and to determine intake r a t e s , s t r e a m sizes required, length of furrows and border runs, w a t e r l o s s e s , etc. Accurate water measuring devices a r e indispensable for such

t r i a l s and evaluations.

F o r socio-economic factors Whether water be public o r private property, water m e a s u r e m e n t ' i s an important means f o r implementing a distribution pattern to meet actual requirements o r legal rights o r both, and for providing a reasonable b a s i s for estimating water charges. If the charge to the u s e r i s based on the r a t e of

flow, then rate-of-flow measurements and adequate r e c o r d s a r e required. Charges on the b a s i s of volume necessitate a volumetric measuring device, o r a rate-of-flow device combined with a time recording device. Ideally,

water flow should be measured at intakes from storage r e s e r v o i r s , canal headworks, at strategic points in canals and l a t e r a l s and a t delivery points to water u s e r s .

7.1.3

Where to Measure In the terminal distribution system facilities for water measurement may be required, o r be desirable at intakes to l a t e r a l canals (distributaries, e t c . ) o r at other bifurcation points. Clearly the m o s t important point for m e a s u r e -

ment i s the f a r m outlet ( o r turnout) which i s the meeting point between the management and the water u s e r s .

The degree of need for a measuring device at the outlet v a r i e s according to the delivery system employed. Delivery on demand usually r e l i e s upon the

measurement of water a s a basis for equitable distribution a s well a s for computing possible water charges. Where water i s distributed by rotation

among f a r m e r s along a l a t e r a l ( o r distributary o r "minor" canal) and where the amount of water supplied to each f a r m e r m a y be different, a measuring device at the turnout i s required. On @e other hand, i f f a r m e r s along a l a t e r a l receive

water on the b a s i s of a r e a of land o r crops irrigated measurement i s not entirely necessary, but may still be desirable for other purposes, such a s improvement of irrigation efficiency. Similarly, in all systems based on constant flow,

measurement i s not entirely n e c e s s a r y but may be advantageous. Where s e v e r a l f a r m e r s s h a r e the water of each outlet and the flow in the canal fluctuates considerably, each such outlet should be equipped with a measuring device, ,even i f equitable distribution among outlets i s practised, so that each group of f a r m e r s will know the flow available at any one time f r o m their respective outlet. It follows that i f all the irrigation water f r o m an outlet i s to be delivered to one field ( o r f a r m ) a t a time, the measuring device on the outlet may be the only one needed. But, i f the supply i s divided between two o r m o r e ditches i t

m a y be desirable to install some kind of simple measuring device a t each offtake. ( F o r a comprehensive description of f a r m outlets s e e Chapter 5. )

7. 1 . 4

Limitations Water measurement i s a difficult problem in many irrigated a r e a s : the head available in the irrigation system may be too small to allow accurate measurement; the varying water requirements on the f a r m s and supply variations cause fluctuations in the levels of the water in canals o r variations in velocity, o r both; the presence of weeds and silt, the difficulty of maintaining close tolerances during construction and many other factors may reduce the accuracy of water measurement. Considering that there may be a l a r g e number of outlets on an irrigation scheme, the introduction of a delivery system based on water measurement a t turnouts may require a l a r g e and costly operating organization which may involve

problems of personnel, recruitment, training, etc. The cost factor i s particularly important where f a r m units a r e small o r economic r e t u r n s low.

In such c a s e s , simple devices with l e s s accuracy should

be selected ( e . g. calibrated shut-off gates a s discussed in Section 7. 8).

7.1.5

Methods, Structures and Devices Available The weir i s the most practical and economical device for water m e a s u r e ment, provided t h e r e i s sufficient head available. The three most commonly

used sharp-crested weirs a r e discussed in Section 7 . 2 . Measuring flumes a r e extensively used in irrigation networks, where they ape applicable to almost any flow condition. Their m o s t significant advantages

a r e small head l o s s e s , reasonable accuracy over a l a r g e flow range, insensitivity to velocity of approach, and little affected by sediment and debris transport. this category of measuring structure the P a r s h a l l flume i s treated in detail in Section 7.4, and the Standing Wave Flume (India) in Chapter 6 because of i t s other main application a s a drop. Because of i t s future potential the Cut-throat Of

Flume, (on which experimental work has almost been completed) may become a strong competitor to the P a r s h a l l and other flumes, and i s described for f r e e fall conditions in Section 7 . 6 . The cast-in-place Trapezoidal Flume i s also quoted

(7. 7), being a cheap and easily constructed device. The use of the submerged orifice for the measyrement of water i s not discussed h e r e since i t does not offer any advantage over the use of weirs (when sufficient head i s available) o r flumes (for small head l o s s e s ) . discussed in reference (81). Propeller m e t e r s a r e commercial flow measuring devices which have been in use for a number of y e a r s and their advantages and limitations a r e discussed in Section 7 . 9 . They a r e particularly suited to systems where no head l o s s e s It i s however

can be permitted for water measurement and where water i s sold on a volumetric basis. F o r water measurement in small s t r e a m s , particularly in field ditches and furrows and where head l o s s e s must be very small, the Deflection o r Vane Meter h a s proved to be a useful device. Two types of such m e t e r s a r e presented in

Section 7 . 10. As pointed out e a r l i e r , the m o s t important point of flow restriction in the terminal portion of an irrigation system i s the f a r m outlet ( o r turnout). Many

outlets have been designed and calibrated to enable water measurement besides the basic function of regulating the flow. Some of the m o r e common ones a r e

the Flume Type Outlet, the Double Orifice Turnout, the Neyrpic Distributor, the Meter Gate for culvert-type outlets, the Weir Box Turnout and the Dethridge Meter Outlet. The e r r o r of these devices under operational conditions i s

usually within the 5 5 % range but may exceed

+ 107'.

(A comprehensive

discussion of these outlets appears in Chapter 5. ) There a r e however a number of other outlets which have either not been calibrated o r a r e not suitable for water measurement. Where such s t r u c t u r e s

a r e used the installation of a separate standard type measuring device, located some distance dowhstream of the outlet may be the best solution to obtain sufficient accuracy in measurement without incurring further development o r construction costs.

Trends The evolution of water measurement techniques and devices h a s prog r e s s e d independently in many p a r t s of the world, the result being an abundance of types and designs, each one developed to suit certain local conditions. However, many such devices could serve a s well in other a r e a s . There i s

also scope for certain desirable features of one device to be integrated with those of another device to improve overall performance. Refinement in

accuracy may be achieved by better calibration and by building structures m o r e exactly to standard dimensions. Structures may be further modified so a s to

become cheaper and e a s i e r to construct, such a s the Cut-throat Flume. F u r t h e r standardization and calibration of distribution and control structures could add to economies in water measurement, such a s for example the use of culverts a s measuring devices.

7.2

SHARP CRESTED MEASURING WEIRS-i /

7.2.1

Synopsis Weirs a r e probably the most extensively used devices for the measurement of the r a t e of flow of water in open channels. crested weirs, and broad crested weirs. a r e discussed, Weirs may be divided into: sharp

In this section only s h a r p c r e s t e d weirs

Broad crested weirs a r e commonly incorporated in irrigation

structures but a r e not usually used to determine flow, with the exception of the broad crested weir often known a s the "Romijn Gate", described in Section 7-3. The types of sharp c r e s t e d weirs commonly used for measuring irrigation water a r e the :

s h a r p crested contracted rectangular w e i r s

II I. 1
I'

suppressed

11

"

and sharp sided trapezoidal (Cipolletti) weirs

s h a r p sided 90 V-notch weirs.

Each of these weirs h a s characteristics appropriate to particular operating and site conditions. (Figure 7- 1). The Cipolletti i s perhaps the most frequently used type,

However, a considerable number of rectangular weirs may be

found in irrigation systems, notably at the f a r m level since they a r e simple in construction and operation.
The 90'

V-notch weir gives the most accurate

r e s u l t s when measuring small discharges and i s particularly adapted t o the measurement of fluctuating flows. Measuring w e i r s require comparatively high

heads, considerable maintenance of the weir o r stilling pool and protection of the channel downstream of the c r e s t . good. The accuracy of measurement i s comparatively

The selection of type and dimensions of the weir should in the f i r s t

instance be based on the expected r a t e of flow, o r the limits of the r a t e s in the case of fluctuating s t r e a m s . (i) Consideration should be given to the following.

The head should be no l e s s than 6 cm (0.2.ft) for the expected r a t e of flow and should not exceed 60 cm ( 2 ft).

L/~he information presented i s based largely on the US Bureau of Reclamation Standards (81).

(ii)

F o r rectangular and trapezoidal weirs, the head should not exceed one-third of the weir length.

(iii)

,The weir length should be selected.so that the head for design discharge will be n e a r the maximum subject to the limitations in (i) and (ii).

(iv)

The c r e s t s should be placed high enough so that the water flowing over them will fall freely, leaving an,airspace under and around the jets.

A weir, together with a turnout gate, operated with a f r e e falling nappe and
without submergence, may be considered a s a semi-module. upstream level results in a change of discF-rrge. Calibration curves and tables have been developed for the standard type weirs mentioned above and discharge through the weirs can be estimated readily by reading the head recordedon a staff gauge against the table to obtain the actual r a t e of flow. Any change in

FIGURE 7 - 1 . - Standard trapezoidal (Cipolletti) measuring weir of 61 cm ( 2 ft) c r e s t length installed at a f a r m outlet.

Hydraulic Properties When the water surface downstream from the bulkhead i s far enough below the crest so that a i r moves freely to the area below the nappe, the weir i s said to have free discharge, when the rate of flow can be determined from only the . upstream gauge stick and a knowledge of the weir size and shape. (Figure 7-2).

Point t o rneosure depth H

Elevation of

Shorp- crested weir

--A

FIGURE 7-2. - Diagram of f r e e discharge contracted weir showing position of staff gauge upstream.

If the water surface in the downstream channel does not permit free aeration around the nappe the discharge may increaseddue to low pressure. When

the water level r i s e s above the elevation of the c r e s t the flow i s considered to be submerged; this may o r may not affect the discharge rate to a measurable degree, but dependable measurements under these conditions cannot be expected. However, when the downstream water level r i s e s above the weir c r e s t a distance of about 66 per cent o r more of the head on the crest, the degree of submergence will appreciably affect the rate of flow through the weir notch. The rate of flow

can be determined under these submerged conditions provided that both the upstream and downstream heads be measured and reference be made to submerged flow tables. Submerged and non-ventilated flows a r e not desirable for

standard conditions and, except in unusual cases, should be avoided.

In most

c a s e s therefore weirs should be placed so a s to obtain ventilated and free-flow discharge conditions. If the weir notch be made of a relatively thin plate with a sharp upstream edge and it be mounted on the supporting wall so that the water does not contact the wall a s i t p a s s e s (i.e. i t "springs" past it), the weir i s called a s h a r p crested weir. If the weir notch be mounted in a wall too thick for the water to "spring" Discharge coefficients and

past it, the weir i s classed a s broad crested.

discharge tables a r e usually obtained for broad crested weirs by calibrating the weir in place. Most measuring weirs a r e constructed a s sharp crested weirs.

When the distances from the ends o r sides of the weir notch to the sides of the weir pool a r e great enough t o allow the sheet of water a f r e e and unconstrained approach to the c r e s t , the water will flow uniformly and relatively slowly toward the weir ends. As the water from the sides of the channel n e a r s the notch, it This turning effect

accelerates and turns to pass through the notch opening.

cannot occur instantaneously and a curved flow path o r contraction r e s u l t s with the water "springing1' f r e e to form a jet narrower than the weir opening. When

approach conditions allow contraction a t both the ends and a t the bottom of the jet the weir i s called a contracted weir. F o r contracted conditions, the ends of the

weir should not be closer to the sides of the channel than twice the head on the weir. F o r complete bottom contraction the weir c r e s t should be placed no closer

than 2H from the bottom of the channel (Figure 7-2).

Setting of Weirs The setting of weirs according to accepted standards i s a s important a s the use of standard dimensions and shapes. Only then can the available rating tables

and graphs be applicable and individual calibrations be avoided.

Standard contracted rectangular weirs The conditions and settings recommended for standard contracted rectangular w e i r s a r e set forth below.

(i)

The upstream face of the bulkhead should be smooth and perpendicular to the axis of the channel.

(ii)

The upstream face of the weir plate should be smooth, straight and flush with the upstream face of the bulkhead.

(iii)

The entire c r e s t should be a level, plane surface with a sharp, right-angled edge facing upstream. The thickness of the c r e s t should Both ends of

be between 1 and 2 m m (about 0.04 to 0.08 inches).

rectangular weirs should be. truly vertical and of the same thickness a s the c r e s t . (iv) The upstream c o r n e r s of the notch m u s t be sharp. They should

be machined o r filed perpendicular to the upstream face, and f r e e of b u r r s o r scratches. difficult to maintain. (v) The downstream edges of the notch should be chamfered i f the plate i s thicker than the prescribed c r e s t width (iii). should be a t an an angle of 45
0

Knife edges should be avoided because they a r e

This chamfer

o r more.

(4

The distance of the c r e s t f r o m the bottom of the approach channel should preferably be not l e s s than twice the depth of water above the c r e s t and in no case l e s s than 30 cm.

( vii)

The distance f r o m the sides of the weir to the sides of the approach channel should preferably be no l e s s than twice the depth of water above the c r e s t and never l e s s than 30 c m .

(viii)

The overflow sheet (nappe) should touch only the upstream edges of the c r e s t and i t s sides.

(ix) nappe

Air should circulate freely both under and at the sides of the

.
The measurement of head of the weir should be taken a s the

(x)

difference in elevation between the c r e s t and the water surface at that point upstream f r o m the weir which i s at a distance of four t i m e s the maximum head on the c r e s t . (A staff gauge i s usually installed h e r e

having a graduated scale with zero placed at the same elevation a s the weir c r e s t . ) (xi) The cross-sectional a r e a of the approach channel should be a t l e a s t eight t i m e s that of the overflow sheet a t the c r e s t for a distance

upstream from 15 to 20 times the depth of the sheet,.

(If the weir pool

i s ernaller than defined by these criteria, the velocity of approach may

.
7.2.3.2

be too high and the staff gauge too low. ) Standard suppressed rectangular weirs The standard suppre seed rectangular weir requires the same con-

ditions for accuracy of measurement a s the contracted rectangular weir, except for the conditions relating to side contraction. In the suppressed weir the sides of the approach channel should be coincident with the sides of the weir, and should extend downstream beyond the c r e s t to prevent horizontal expansion of the nappe. 7.2.3. 3 Standard trapezoidal (Gipolletti) weirs The standard trapezoidal weir, for which the discharge tables given herein a r e applicable, has a trapezoidal shape (see Figure 7-3) with the sides inclining at a slope of 1 (horizontal) to 4 (vertical). All conditions for accuracy listed'in 7.2.3.1 for the contracted rectangular weir apl)iy to the trapezoidal weir.

FIGURE 7-3. Permanent'trapezoidal weir discharging under free flow conditions.

7.2.3.4

Standard 90 V-notch w e i r s The c r e s t of the standard 90 V-notch weir consists of a thin plate, the sides of the notch being inclined 45O f r o m the vertical. This weir o p e r a t e s a s

a contracted weir and all conditions for a c c u r a c y stated f o r the standard contracted rectangular weir apply again. The minimum distances of the s i d e s of the weir

f r o m the channel banks should be a t l e a s t twice the head on the weir, and should be m e a s u r e d f r o m the intersection points of the maximum water surface with the edges of the weir. The minimum distance f r o m the notch to the pool bottom

should be a t l e a s t twice the head on the w e i r , m e a s u r e d f r o m the point (apex) of the notch t o the channel floor. Because of the shape of this weir the head required f o r a s m a l l flow through i t i s g r e a t e r than that required with the other types of w e i r s with a long horizontal c r e s t . high accuracy. This m a k e s i t particularly suited to m e a s u r e s m a l l flows with

7.2.4 7.2.4.1

Hydraulic F o r m u l a e and Discharge Measurement Standard contracted rectangular w e i r s Numerous formulae have been developed for computing the discharge of rectangular, s h a r p c r e s t e d w e i r s with complete contraction. and generally accepted one i s the F r a n c i s f o r m u l a : The m o s t popular

where Q L H

= = =

discharge in m 3 p e r second length of c r e s t in m head in m o r the vertical difference between the elevation of the weir c r e s t and the elevation of the water surface in the weir pool.

Equivalent in English units : 3

where Q L

= =
=

discharge in ft 3 p e r second length of c r e s t in ft head in ft

TABLE

7-1

11 Discharge of Standard Contracted Rectangular Weirs' (in m 3 per s e c ) Head H(cm)

.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2. 50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4. 50 5.00

Length of Weir L (cm)

15.00 .0001 .0003 .0005 .0008 .0011 .0014 .0017 .0021 .0025 .0029 25.00 .0002 .0005 .0008 .0013 .0018 .0023 .0029 .0036 .0042 .0049 50.00 .0003 .0009 .0017 .0026 .0036 .0047 .0059 .0072 .0086 .0101 75.00 .0005 .0014 .0025 .0039 .0054 .0071 .0089 .0109 .0130 .0152 100.00 .0006 .0018 .0033 .0051 .0072 .0095 .0119 .0145 .0173 .0203 125.00 .0008 .0022 .0042 .0064 .0090 0 118 .0149 .0182 .0217 .0254 *150.00 .0009 .0027 .0050 .0077 .0108 .0142 .0179 .0219 .0261.0306 175.00 .0011 .0032 .0059 .0090 .0126 .0166 .0209 .0256 -0305 .0357 200.00 .0013 .0036 .0067 .0103 .0145 .0190 .0239 .0293 .0349 .0409

TABLE 7- 1 (Cont'd.)

Head H( c m )

Length of Weir L ( c m )
15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00

TABLE 7-1 ( C o n t t d . )

Head H( c m )

Lkngth of Weir L ( c m ) 15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00

42.00 42.50 43.00 43.50 44.00 44.50 45.00 45.50 46.00 46.50 47.00 47.50 48.00 48.50 49.00 49.50 50.00

.4583 ,4660 .4738 .4815 .4893 .4971 .5050 .5129 .5208 .5287 .5366 .5446 .5526 .5607 .5687 .5768 .5849

.5834 .5934 .6034 .6134 .6235 .6336 .6437 .6539 .6642 .6744 .6847 .6951 .7055 .7159 .7264 .7369 .7474

.7085 .7207 .7330 .7452 .7576 .7700 .7825 .7950 .8075 .8202 .8328 .8456 .8583 .8712 .8840 .8970 .9099

.8336 .8481 .8626 .8771 .8917 .9064 .9212 .9360 .9509 .9659 .9809 .9960 1.0112 1.0264 1.0417 1.0570 1.0724

.9587 .9754 .9921 1.0090 1.0259 1.0429 1.0599 1.0771 1.0943 1.1116 1.1290 1.1465 1.1640 1.1816 1.1993 1.2171 1.2349

1/ -

Values determined partly experimentally, partly f r o m the formula

Q = 3. 33 (L

- 0.2H) H'

and convertbd to m e t r i c unit? (81)

Table 7 - 1 gives the discharges of standard contracted rectangular weirs for 9 different lengths and for heads ranging f r o m 0 . 5 to 50 cm. The table

i s intended to be used for discharge measurements of standard rectangular weirs but may serve a s well for their design. The discharge data may be interpolated

for other lengths of weir if their corresponding heads do not exceed one-third of the c r e s t length. An improved. method for computing r a t e s of flow through rectangular thin-plated .weirs h a s been developed by Kindsvater and C a r t e r .

In their formula

they have introduced the effective coefficient of discharge, the effective weir length and the effective weir head in o r d e r to take account of effects of relative depth and width of approach channel and of velocity of approach. Since the

formula i s hardly ever used in the measurement of irrigation water with small s t r u c t u r e s i t i s not elaborated on h e r e , but reference may be made to (61) and (81). 7.2.4. 2 Standard suppressed rectangular weirs F o r computation of discharge of the standard suppressed rectangular weir the Rehbock formula and the F r a n c i s formula a r e commonly used. diagram shown in Figure 7-4 i s based on the Rehbock formula: The

where
Q

= = = =

d i s c h a r g e i n m 3 per second discharge coefficient length of weir c r e s t in m headinm i s determined from:

u ,
L H

The discharge coefficient u ,

where

D
H

distance from the c r e s t to the bottom of the approach channel in millimetr e s head in m i l l i m e t r e s

Somplc calculation Given: Measured: Wanted:

D =60

L = H=
9 =

80 38

0 =

P = 4 6 0 x 0.80 3 6 8 1/r

0
@ @

'
1 0
I00

2 20 200

3 30

4 40 400

6 7 8 9 1 0 60 loo 600 8 0 0 1000

per m crest length

FIGURE 7 - 4 .

- Discharge over a suppressed rectangular weir per metre of creet length.

According to Swiss standard (SIA No. 109) D should not be s m a l l e r than H, Dmin Hmin Hm,

(- 6

H D

1 ),

=
= =

300mm 25 m m 800 m m

The US B u r e a u of Reclamation (81) recommends that D should be a t l e a s t 2 t i m e s H,

(D 2 Z H ) ,

Hmin

60 m m (below this the nappe may not spring f r e e of the c r e s t )

The US Bureau of Reclamation u s e s the F r a n c i s formula

where

Q
L H

=
= =

discharge in f t 3 p e r second length of weir c r e s t in ft headinft

F o r discharge t a b l e s in English units r e f e r e n c e m a y be made to (81).

Standard trapezoidal (Cipolletti) w e i r s Taking the F r a n c i s formula a s a b a s i s , Cipolletti h a s developed the following formula f o r t h i s type of weir :

where
Q

d i s c h a r g e in ft

p e r second

=
=

length of the c r e s t in ft head in ft o r the v e r t i c a l difference between the elevation of the weir c r e s t and the elevation of the water surface in the weir pool

TABLE

7-2

Discharge of Standard Trapezoidal Weir e (CIPOLLETTI)

1/ (in m 3 per sec) -

Head H( cm)

Length of Weir L (cm)

15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00

TABLE 7 - 2 (Contld.)

Head H(cm)

Length of Weir L ( c m )
15.00 25.00 50.00 75.00 100.00 125.00 150.00 175.00 200.00

TABLE .72 (Conttd.)

Head

Length of Weir L (cmf

H( 4 15.00

25.00

50.00

75.00

100.00

125.00

150.00

175.00

200.00

1/ -

Values determined partly experimentally, partly from the formula

P = 3. 367 LH

and converted to metric units (81)

Metric equivalent :

where
Q

=
=

discharge in m

per second

L H

length of c r e s t in m headinm Table 7-2 computed f r o m this formula and partly f r o m experiments

gives discharges over standard trapezoidal weirs of nine different c r e s t lengths and for heads f r o m 0.5 cm to 50 cm. Discharge measurements using the Cipolletti weir and the above formula a r e not a s accurate a s those obtained from rectangular weirs using the F r a n c i s formula, but accuracy i s sufficient for general irrigation use.
The discharge figures m a y be interpolated for other lengths of weir

if corresponding heads do not exceed one-third of the c r e s t length. 7.2.4.4 Standard 90 V-notch weirs Of the several well known formulae used to compute the discharge over 90 V-notch quoted h e r e : weirs the formula recommended by the WMO (Ref. 61) i s

<

where
Q

=
=

discharge in m

per second 2

g
Cd

acceleration due to gravity in m / s e c coefficient of discharge headinm

=
=

Cd i s a function of H and fluid property.

3 Table 7 - 3 gives discharges in m / s multiplied by 10 for heads from 5 to

38 cm.

TABLE
Discharge of

7-3

3 90 V-notch Weirs (in m / s x 10)

Computed from the Formula Q =

BJG~
15 H Head m'

5 -

(61)

Head m

Discharge m 3 / s x 10

Head m

Discharge m 31 s x 10

Discharge m 3 / s x 10

F o r the English system of units the Cone formula, recommended by the USBR, i s quoted :

where
Q

= =

discharge in second-feet head in feet o r the vertical distance between the elevation of the vertex o r lowest p a r t of the.notch and the elevation of the water surface in the weir pond.

Table 7-4 i e computed f r o m the Cone formula f o r heads f r o m 0.20 t o 1.25 f t ( 6 1 t o 380 mm).

TABLE
Discharge of 90'

7-4

V-notch Weirs (in second-feet) 2.48 Computed f r o m the F o r m u l a Q = 2.49 H (81)

Head in feet

Discharge in secondfeet

Head in feet

Discharge in secondfeet

Head in feet

Discharge in secondfeet

FIGURE 7 - 5 (a) and (b). - Small temporary V-notch w e i r s made of sheet metal, (being used for studies on irrigation efficiency and water l o s s e s ) .

7.2;5

Construction of Measuring Weirs Measuring w e i r s m a y be t e m p o r a r y o r permanent. be portable. Temporary w e i r s may

F o r e a r t h channels portable w e i r s m a y be made f r o m sheet steel

cut approximately t o the shape of the c r o s s section of the channel but r a t h e r larger., of weirs). The weir opening in the sheet m u s t be cut carefully ( s e e 7. 2. 3 on setting F i g u r e 7-5 (a) and (b) shows portable 90 V-notch w e i r s m a d e of

3 m m and 5 mm sheet m e t a l respectively and F i g u r e 7-6 gives an example of a

suitable design.

FIGURE 7-6. w e i r plate.

Example of a design f o r a 90 V-notch

In lined channels temporary measuring w e i r s may be installed in a bulkhead made of wood o r other m a t e r i a l that has been sealed in place. Another possibility

i s to use existing structures, such a s division boxes o r checks for measurements by temporarily substituting the gate with a weir plate. Permanent measuring weirs may be constructed in almost the same way a s check o r drop s t r u c t u r e s (Chapter 6) and by applying standard proportions between weir opening, bulkhead and weir pool a s indicated above. Again for accuracy the

weir c r e s t should always be formed of a thin plate of strong m a t e r i a l such a s sheet steel. Measuring weirs a r e sometimes built a s an integral p a r t of f a r m

outlets, (an example of a design for this type i s given in Chapter 5). Maintenance of weirs i s very important i f dependable measurements a r e to be obtained over a long period of time. Maintenance involves :

keeping the pool f r e e f r o m excessive deposits and weeds

preventing leakage through and around the weir structure checking the elevation of the gauge in relation to the c r e s t checking the condition of the c r e s t and r e - d r e s s i n g i t if required.

7.3

THE ROMIJN BROAD CRESTED WEIR-1/

7.3.1

General The Romijn weir was developed by the irrigation service in Indonesia a s a regulating and measuring device for use in relatively flat irrigated regions where the water demand i s variable because of different requirements during the growing season.

A description of the weir was published for the f i r s t time in 1932 by D. G.

Romijn (134), after whom the structure has been named.

The Romijn weir consists of two sliding blades and a movable weir, c r e s t which a r e mounted in one steel guide frame, (Figure 7-7). The bottom blade,

" Based on information provided by M. G.

Bos, Irrigation Design Engineer, Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, The Netherlands.

which i s locked in place under operational conditions acts a s the bottom terminal for the movable weir. The upper blade, which i s connectdd to the

bottom blade by means of two ateel s t r i p s placed in the frame grooves, acts a s the top terminal for the movable weir. steel strips to a horizontal lifting beam. The movable weir i s connected by two The horizontal weir c r e s t i s

perpendicular to the water flow and slopes 1 : 25 upward in the direction of flow. Its upetream nose i s rounded off in such a way that flow separation does not occur. The operating range of the weir equals the maximum upstream head (Hcrt) which hae been selected for the dimensioning of the regulating structure.

Upper slide

Grooves

y Lcr? = 0.78 Hlcrtl'lmox

Zero level -----of crest

Movoble weir crest Stobilizinp console

.-

FIGURE 7-7. - Romijn broad crested weir, sliding blades and movable weir crest.

Weir Abutments The weir abutments a r e vertical and a r e rounded in such a way that flow separation does not occur. regular velocity distribution. There i s a rectangular approach channel to ensure The total upstream head over the weir (Hcrt) i s

measured in this approach channel a t a distance of between two and three t i m e s Hicrt)max upstream of the weir.

The dimensions of the abutments should comply with those indicated in Figure 7-8.

Aeration groove-

Diverted flow

Side s l o v of c o n a l

FIGURE 7-8. Romijn broad crested welr, hydraulic dimensions of weir abutments.
Undet certa* circumstances the radius ( r ) of the rounding-off of the bbiutriients may be reduced, so that r instance, if :

>,

Hot.

This will happen, for

(a)

the average flow velocity, v, in the undivided main canal i s low so that t h e r e i s little danger of flow separation; in other words, 1 -

i f the Froude Number, F r =

v (

%)',

i s equal to o r l e s s than
A i s the c r o s s -

0.10, where g i s the acceleration due to gravity,

sectional a r e a of flow, and B i s the channel width at the f r e e water surface; (b) the centreline of the weir structure i s parallel to o r coincides with the centreline of the undivided supply canal (in-line structure); (c) the water i s drawn directly from a storage basin. 'If several movable weirs a r e combined in a single structure, intermediate p i e r s should be provided so that two-dimensional flow i s preserved over each weir unit, allowing the upstream head over the weir to be measured independently p e r unit. The parallel section of the pier should therefore commence at a.point
1

located at a distance of H(crt) max upstream of the head measurement station and extend to the downstream edge of the weir c r e s t . P i e r s should have streamlined To avoid

noses, i. e. of semi-circular o r semi-elliptical profile ( 1 to 3 axes).

s h a r p curvatures at the cut-waters, the thickness of the intermediate p i e r s should be equal to o r m o r e than 0 . 6 5
HI

( crt)max

with a minimum of 0. 30 m .

Measurement of Head
. I

To limit the effects of draw-down and to ensure that the energy l o s s between the section of measurement and the upstream edge of the weir c r e s t i s negligible, the total upstream head over the weir ( H ~ , ~ must ) be measured at a point located at a distance of between two and three times the total maximum energy head over the weir upstream of the (imaginary) weir face. Since.the weir c r e s t moves up

and down, a fixed staff gauge cannot be used to obtain a value for the upstream head over the c r e s t .
A variety of devices for measuring head requiring two readings for the

calculation of the upstream head have been developed, but these a r e l e s s accurate and m o r e liable to lead to e r r o r s in the determination of Hcrt than a device that r e q u i r e s one reading only. Of the latter type, the most simple and reliable i s a

staff gauge that t r a v e l s up and down with the weir c r e s t .

Zero level of this gauge

coincides with the downstream edge over the weir c r e s t (control section), s o that the upstream head over the c r e s t equals the degree of immersion of the gauge. Depending on circumstances, t h e r e a r e two ways in which the gauge can be fixed to the movable weir : (i) Where the water surface in the approach channel i s smooth (no waves), where n a r r o w intermediate p i e r s a r e to be used, o r where no g r e a t accuracy of gauge readings i s required, the gauge may be located in the approach channel a s n e a r a s possible to one of the abutments. A steel

beam i s then welded o r bolted perpendicular to the lifting beam and extended to the head measurement section. A second beam i s welded o r

bolted to the movable weir 0. 15 m below c r e s t level, and this i s also extended to the head measurement section. The ends of the beams a r e

connected via a steel o r hardwood support to which the gauge i s mounted. (ii) Where wave action in the approach channel makes i t difficult to make gauge readings; o r where t h e r e i s a r i s k of the gauge o r i t s support being damaged by floating debris, the gauge should be located in a rectangular stilling o r gauge well. In such circumstances the lifting beam should be

extended on either the left o r right hand side of the guide f r a m e to just above the well. Attached to the end of the extended beam i s a vertical

support to which the gauge i s mounted. To ensure accurate gauge readings, the length of this rectangular well a s measured f r o m the face of the gauge should be equal to o r g r e a t e r than two times the maximum depth to the water surface in the well; i t s width should not be l e s s than 0. 20 m . If desired, the m e t r e scale on the vertical staff can be replaced by a scale in m

/s

o r l i t r e s / s so that the immersion of the scale equals the weir discharge;

(i.e. any changes in the upstream head over the c r e s t , and thus any changes in

the weir discharge caused by the vertical movement of the weir and/or a change in water level in the approach channel, can be read direct without a time l a g . ) Since the f i r s t gauge arrangement (i) i s liable to damage by floating debris and to some extent by vandalism, i t i s advisable to use the latter arrangement (ii) a s a standard solution.

If the rectangular gauge well i s used a s a stilling well t o prevent oscillations of the water s u r f a c e caused by surging water and wave action, the d i a m e t e r of the inlet pipe o r slot width (D ) i s limited by the minimum c r o s s P sectional a r e a of flow a t the head m e a s u r e m e n t station (A,~,) a s follows :

The pipe o r slot should have i t s opening a t l e a s t 0 . 5 m below the lowest c r e s t level and i t should t e r m i n a t e flush with and perpendicular to the boundary of the approach channel.

7.3.4

Provision for F r e e Flow Conditions The flow over the weir i s independent of variations in the tailwater head over the weir c r e s t ( H ~ provided ~ ~ ) this downstream head does not r i s e above a c e r t a i n amount of the u p s t r e a m head over the weir (Hcrt). c r i t i c a l flow in the tailwater channel, provide f r e e flow (modular flow). the ratio If we a s s u m e sub-

Hdwl
Hcrt

should not exceed 0. 66 to

7.3.5

Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s The shape of the weir c r e s t a s introduced by Vlugter ( 1 3 6 ) in 1940 h a s the following advantages over a truly flat and horizontal round-nosed weir : a. the length of the weir in the direction of flow ( L ~ , ~required ) to produce a m o r e o r l e s s constant value of the d i s c h a r g e coefficient (Cd) can be reduced, so that the r a t i o H

~ :~ L c ) r t~ i~ s le , ss

than 0.78, which c o r r e s p o n d s with a reduction of L c r t by about 40%; b. the l o s s of head due t o friction above the weir c r e s t i s reduced, resulting in a 4% higher discharge coefficient; c. d. the movable p a r t of the s t r u c t u r e i s s m a l l e r and thus m o r e rigid; both the s t e e l s t r u c t u r e and the weir abutments a r e m o r e economical. The general stage discharge equation for a b r o a d - c r e s t e d weir with rectangular control section r e a d s

where Cd i s the discharge coefficient,

C;,

i s the approach velocity coefficient,

g i s the acceleration due t o gravity, and Bt i s the width ( o r breadth) of the weir a c r o s s the direction of flow. The value of the discharge coefficient, laboratory t e s t s , (Vlugter. Cohen, Groot). of the r a t i o H' crt Cd

h a s been determined in

Variation of Cd values a s a function

. Lcrt

i s illustrated i n e ~ i g u r 7-9. e

e
U .u .'C

l.06 1.05
1-04

ope rot in^ ronge of the movoble ROMIJN rneor~ring/re~ulotingweir 1

.+I

I
* ,0 0

"u 1.03 8 1.02 U

.- 1.00
0-99
i

1.01

Averoge Cd reduction due to friction/

1
I

- W q t

101

0.4 0'2 Heft/ Lcrt 0'3 (dimensionlesr) Rotio

0.3

0.6

Doto offer d a Groot (19721,

= 0-60 m

Doto of ter Cohen (19531, Lcrt = 0-30 m

FIGURE 7-9. - Values of Cd a s a function of the r a t i o Hcrt : Lcrt f o r the Romijn weir.

F o r field s t r u c t u r e s with concrete abutments, i t i s advisable to u s e an a v e r a g e value f o r Cd, equal to unity. The maximum percentage e r r o r in Cd can be expected to be l e s s than 3% if an average value Cd = 1.00 i s used. Values f o r the approach velocity (Cv) a r e shown in F i g u r e 7- 10 a s a Hb-c ) where H i s the height (b- c) of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the rectangular approach channel. function of the r a t i o Cd Hcrt : (Hcrt

FIGURE 7- 10. - Approach velocity coefficient, for rectangular approach channels.

Cv,

Limits of Application The practical lower limit of Hcrt i s related to the roughness of the sloping
'

weir blade, to the fluid properties, and to the accuracy a t which gauge readings can be made. i s greater. The width (or breadth) of the weir c r e s t (Bt) should not be l e s s than 0. 30 m , nor l e s s than the maximum value of the total energy head over the weir c r e s t . The height of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the approach channel H(b-c) should not be l e s s than 0.15 m , nor l e s s than 0.33 whichever i s g r e a t e r .
HI

The recommended lower limit i s 0.05 m or 0.12 Lcrt whichever

(crt)max

'

In o r d e r to obtain a reasonably constant discharge coefficient, Cd, the

r a t i o Hcrt : Lcrt

should not exceed 0.78.

7.3.7

Commonly Used Weir Dimensions It will be noted that a l l dimensions given h e r e of both the weir and i t s abutments a r e r e l a t e d to the maximum value selected for the total energy head over the weir c r e s t
(HI

( c r t ) m a x)

The l o s s of head (hc) r e q u i r e d f o r modular flow i s a l s o r e l a t e d to the total energy head a s h c

>

0.33 H' (crt)max

'

Since a limiting factor in m o s t relatively flat i r r i g a t i o n a r e a s i s the available head for open canal and weir flow, the maximum value of Hcrt i s limited to a p r a c t i c a l value of approximately 0.47 m . the direction of flow), L(crt), The length of the weir c r e s t (in

consequently equals 0.60 m , of which 0.50 m i s

s t r a i g h t and sloping 1 : 25 upward in the direction of flow, while the remaining 0. 10 m f o r m s the rounded nose, i t s r a d i u s being a l s o 0. 10 m . Theoretically, the width ( o r breadth) of the weir, Bt, which m a y be used i s flexible over a relatively wide range ( s e e l i m i t s of application), but differences in t h i s dimension should be limited in the i n t e r e s t of standardization of the s t r u c t u r e s of an i r r i g a t i o n project. It i s often p r e f e r a b l e for Bt not to exceed

1 . 50 m so that a c e n t r a l hand wheel can be mounted to move the weir in a simple

n a r r o w (0.01 m ) groove a r r a n g e m e n t . given in F i g u r e 7- 1 1.

Drawings of constructional details a r e

7. 3 . 8

Rating Tables f o r Standard W e i r s F o r the standard weir shown in F i g u r e 7- 11 the following values f o r C d' and Hb-c apply : Cd 0.05 m

Hcrt

=
Hcrt

1.00 0.45 m
t

, (
/ +

0 . 5 5 4 0.60m

Hb-, (Hcrt + H b - c )

( 0.95 m
l.00m

<

Due t o the regulating function of the movable w e i r , both the u p s t r e a m head (H,,~)

Ring

Welr toMe and

L o c k ~ n g handle L50x100x8 Strip 100x8 @

Deto~l top corner frome

Detoils cross sectlon A-6

Cond~tlons e q u ~ r e d from dellvery I

ex- workshop

F A O -

ICID

Surface of plates to be perfectly fiat Bottom of scourlnq qote to joln onqle Iron

2
3

correctly

Holes for bolts and locklnq wedges to be sufftciently overd~menstoned (even ~f "red

- ieoded*)

THE

ROMIJN MOVABLE

All metol work l o be twlce red - leaded Eoch qote (measurement

MEASURING

REGULATING

WEIR

scourtnq) to be provlded wtth 2 sets of

padlocks (copper and steel, 2 inches) Project.

Reg~on, Country
lndones~o

The Netherlonds /

F~gureNo 7-11

FIGURE 7- 11 SUPPLEMENT.

- L i s t of Materials.

B = breadth of approach canal

W = design freeboard

Mark on Drawing

~e~uired Amount

Dimensions o r Breadth Profile Thickness Length W

Remarks

1 1a 2 3 4 5 6
7

2 2 1 1 2
t

L50xlOOx8 L50xlOOx8 L50xlOOx8 L50xlOOx8 L50x100~10 L80x12OxlO 128x10 100x8 45x1 0 38x6 482 665 492 W 8 8 8 8

1950

W t 1850

B t B t B

600 550 20 10

1 2 2 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

150 925 925

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

100 100 10 100 180 10 476 308

Welded t o f r a m e

B + B
B

- 132
50x10 50x8 50x8 100x8

B
B W

+ +
-

+
100 150

W t

L50xlOOx8 Stem f3 32 c r 38 Steel housing with bronze nut Hand wheel Wedge Blocking wedge

1
)

1 1

See drawing

and the height of the weir above the bottom of the approach channel (Hb-c) a r e variable. Consequently, the Cv values range between the broken l i n e s shown

in F i g u r e 7-12.

In i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e i t i s confusing to work with s e v e r a l Cv values f o r the

s a m e u p s t r e a m head. Therefore, the u s e of an average Cv value, a s a function By using this a v e r a g e value, an e r r o r of

of the u p s t r e a m head only, i s advised.

l e s s than 0.57'0 i s introduced in the r a t e of flow, with a maximum when Hcrt

0. 29 m .

3 This d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width (breadth) of weir c r e s t , ( q in m / s / m ) can

be calculated with the aid of F i g u r e 7- 1 2 . Values of q for each 0.01 m of Hcrt a r e presented in Table 7-5. If no bottom slide i s used and the movable weir i s lowered behind a d r o p in the channel bottom, the height of the weir c r e s t above the approach channel bottom (Hb-c) i s l e s s than in the previous (standard) c a s e . Consequently, the

approach velocity and thus the approach velocity coefficient (Cv) a r e significantly higher. F o r the standard weir with a length of weir c r e s t Lcrt, in the direction of flow, of 0.60 m the values of Cd, value s : Hcrt and Hb-c range between the following

Values of the ratio Cd Hcrt : (Hcrt t Hb- c ) thus range m o r e widely than before, a s do Cv values a s a function of Hcrt. Cv values a r e shown again. i s introduced in the discharge. In t h i s context i t should be noted that the a v e r a g e accuracy of the discharge m e a s u r e m e n t i s l e s s if the height of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the Minimum and maximum possible

By using the average Cv value, an e r r o r of 3.3%

Note: T h e totol upstreom head over t h e welrfHcrt) should b e meosurtd - between 0 . 9 0 m ond 1.35m upstreom of t h e foce of t h e weir in o rectongulor opprooch chonnel whose the width equols t h e f t h e weir fq)ond t h e woter depth equols width o

f&t

+ be,).

The flowwise length of t h e weir crest is

Lot - 0 . 6 .

1.00

0.05

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.45

0.50

Upstream t'otal head over the weir crest /HCrt)

FIGURE 7 - 1 2 .

- Approach velocity coefficient, C , , a s a function of the total head over the -movable weir crest (HCrt) in the stage discharge equation 2 2 0.5 1.5 - C C = 3 d v (7') BtHcrt

TABLE

7-5

Discharge p e r Metre Width (Breadth) of Weir C r e s t for the Romijn MeasuringfRegulating Weir

L~~~ = 0.60 m and. 0.60 m

,< (Hcrt +

H ~ - , ~ ( ) 1 - 0 0 m.

Head Hcrt m

Discharge q m3/ s / m

Head Hcrt m

Discharge q m3/s/m

Head Hcrt m

Discharge q m3/s/m

NOTE :

The width (breadtkS of the weir (Bt) should be equal to o r g r e a t e r than 0.30 m and g r e a t e r than the total maxi'mum energy head over the weir ( H : ~ ). ~ The total upstream head over the weir (HCrt) should be m e a s u r e d between 0.90 m and 1.35 m upstream of the weir face in a rectangular approach channel, the width of which equals the width ) whose water depth equals (Hcrt Hb-c). of the weir ( B ~ and

The number of significant figures given in the column for the discharge should not be taken to imply a corresponding accuracy of the values given, but only to a s s i s t in the interpolatioti'dnd rounding off for various values of Bt.

a p p r o a c h channel (Hb-c) and t h e w a t e r depth in the approach channel

~ Hb-c) ~ v a~ r y in such a way t h a t the r a t i o

Hcrt : ( H , , ~

+ Hb-=)

moves

in a wider r a n g e of v a l u e s while Hcrt

r e m a i n s constant.

The d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width ( o r breadth) of t h e w e i r c r e s t (q) can b e calculated with t h e aid of F i g u r e 7- 12. e a c h 0 . 0 1 m of Hcrt Values of q, in m 3 / s / m , f o r

a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table 7-6.

TABLE 7 - 6
D i s c h a r g e p e r M e t r e Width ( ~ r e a d t h of ) Weir C r e s t (q) f o r the Romijn MeasuringlRegulating ~ e k : Lcrt
=

0. 60 m and 0.20 m

(Hcrt

+ Hb-c)

0.60 m.

Head Hcrt m

Discharge q m3/?/m

Head Hcrt m

Discharge q m 3 / s/ m

Head Hcrt m

Discharge q m3/s/m

S e e Footnote Table 7- 5.

7.4 7.4.1

THE PARSHALL FLUME-11 General Description The P a r s h a l l flume i s a critical depth measuring device which may be installed in a canal, ditch o r furrow to m e a s u r e the r a t e of flow of water. It i s a

particular f o r m of venturi flume and i s named after i t s principal developer, the late R. L . P a r s h a l l . The flume ( F i g u r e 7-13) has been standardized and

calibrated f o r a wide range of capacities in the United States.

FIGURE 7-13.

- Small standard P a r s h a l l flume in operation.

The flume consists of three principal sections: a converging o r contracting section at i t s upstream end; leading to a constricted section o r throat; and a diverging o r expanding section downstream (Figure 7-14).
'

The l a r g e r sized The floor of The floor

flumes have an approach floor and wing walls a t the upstream end. the converging section i s level, both longitudinally and transversely.

of the throat inclines downward, and the floor of the diverging section slopes upward. L'Based on information in USBR Water Measurement Manual and USDA National Engineering Handbook Chapter 9 - Measurement of Irrigation Water,(81 and 82).

SEC n O N N-N

SECTION L-L

FIGURE 7 - 14. - Plan and elevation of a concrete Parshall measuring flume showing component parts ( 8 2).

TABLE

7-7

S t a n d a r d D i m e n s i o n s a n d C a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e P a r s h a l l F l u m e f o r V a r i o u s T h r o a t Widths (W) f o r F r e e F l o w
I

Throat Width W 1. E n g l i s h u n i t s 2. M e t r i c u n i t s 6 in 15.2 c m 9 in 22.9 c m 1 ft

A in cm ft

B in
c m

I
ft

C in cm 1 1-32 50.8 ft

D in cm

K
in

l
ft

X
i n

Y
in cm 3 7.6 3 7.6 3 7.6 3 1. 2.

Free-Flow Capacity Minimum ft3/, 0.05 1.42 0.09 2.55 0.11 3.11 0.15 4. 29 0.42 11.89 0. 61 17.26 1.3 36.79 Maximum 1. f t 3 / s 2. 11s 3.9 110.4 8.9 251.8 16. 1 455.6 24.6 696.2 33.1 936.750.4 1426 67.9 1922 85.6 2422 103.5 2929

f t i n f t in f t i n
c m

in cm

c m . cm)cm 1 - 0 ' 2 - 0 1 3

cm

2 4 . 5 63.0

5 1-35 2 - 0 44.3 61.0

1 0 - 4 ~2 11.4 1 0-42 11.4 0 - 9 5.1 2 5.1 2 5.1 21

3 0 . 5 6 1 . 0 7.6 1 - 0 ~ 2 . 6 1 3 I 3 0 . 5 1 76.2; 7.6

2-10 86.4
I

i
/
1

1 - 3 I I - l $ z - 6 38.1 2 - 0 61.0 2 - 6 76.2 3 - 0 57.5 76.3

1 ft 30.5 c m 1 1 2 ft 45.8 c m 2 ft 61 c m 3 ft 91.5 c m 4 ft

3 -

'

7 4-43 134.4 7 4-75 142.3 7 4-1% 149.6

91.5 3 2

1 3 - 0 2 - Q 84.5 91.5 3 - 0 91.5

I 2-01 3 - 0 )
5.1i
I

91.51 7 . 6 ' 2 2 . 9 3 7.6 3 7.6

3

1-01 3 - 0 5 . 1 91.5

0 - 9 22.9 0 - 9 22.9 0 - 9 22.9

96.6 1 3 4

5.11 7 . 6 2 5.1 2 5.1 3 7.6 3 7.6

1I 13-11-3-0 12-01 3 - 0

101.7 3 - 8 111.8

1 1
I

9 1 . 5 1 120.711 9 1 . 5 1 3 5 - 4 ~4 - 0 5 122.0

I 5.1,

91.5

164.6

7.6,

5 ft 152.5crn 6 ft 183.0 c m

4 -

1 6 - 471 6 - 0 194.4 1183.0

17-$

3 - 0 91.5 3 - 0

2 - 0 5.1 2 - 0 5.1

3 - 0

0 - 9 22.9

2 5.1 2 5.1

3 7.6 3 7. 6

1. 6 45.28 2. 6 73.58

132.2 4 - 8 142.3

230.3

91.5j 7 . 6 3-01
I

0 - 9 22.9

91.5

91.5 7.6

The flume has a number of significant advantages. relatively small head l o s s . channels with flat grades.

It can operate with

This ability permits i t s use in relatively shallow F o r a given discharge, the l o s s in head through a

P a r s h a l l flume i s only about one fourth that required by a weir under similar f r e e flow'conditions. The flume i s relatively insensitive to velocity of approach. It

also enables good measurements with no submergence, moderate submergence o r even with considerable submergence downstream. maintained accuracies within f 270 for f r e e flow and be obtained. Properly constructed and submerged flow may

+ 5% for

The velocity of fiow i s sufficiently high to virtually eliminate Another advantage i s

sediment deposition within the structure during operation.

that there i s no easy way to alter the dimensions of flumes already constructed or to change the device o r channel in any way to obtain an unfair proportion of water. A disadvantage of the flume i s that standard dimensions must be followed within close tolerances in o r d e r to obtain reasonable accuracy of measurement. This requires accurate construction and a high standard of workman ship which makes the device relatively expensive. A further drawback i s that flumes cannot be used in close-coupled combination structures consisting of turnout, control and measuring devices. The P a r s h a l l flume can be constructed in a wide range of sizes to m e a s u r e discharges from a l i t r e per second to m o r e than 100 m 3 per second. The width The .

of the throat (W in Figure 7-14) i s used to designate the size of the flume.

sizes discussed in this Handbook a r e limited to throat widths of from 15 cm ( 6 inches) to 183 cm (6 ft). This i s the size range especially suited to the measure-

ment of f a r m deliveries and the flow in relatively small s t r e a m s and their capacity range i s 11 11s (3.9 f t 3 / s ) to 2.9 m 3 / s (103.5 ft 31s). The selection of size of flume depends on the range of discharges to be measured. The ranges of

discharges and appropriate standard dimensions for various throat widths a r e shown in m e t r i c and English units in Table 7-7. Care must be taken to construct the devices according to the structural dimensions given for each one, because the flumes a r e not geometrically similar. F o r example, i t cannot be assumed that a

dimension in the 6-ft flume will be three times the corresponding dimension in the 2-ft flume.

Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s Discharge through the P a r s h a l l flume can occur under either f r e e flow o r submerged flow conditions. To determine the r a t e of discharge, two depth gauges,

(Ha and Hb) a r e provided ( F i g u r e 7-14).

Both gauges a r e s e t with z e r o points a t

the mean elevation of the c r e s t of the flume. When the c o r r e c t relation between throat width and discharge i s chosen, the velocity of approach i s automatically controlled. This control i s accomplished by

selecting a throat wide enough t o accommodate the maximum flow to be m e a s u r e d yet n a r r o w enough to cause an i n c r e a s e in the depth of flow upstream. The r e s u l t

i s a l a r g e r cross-sectional a r e a of the approaching s t r e a m and hence a reduction in velocity. F r e e flow Under f r e e flow conditions, the r a t e of discharge i s dependent solely on the length of c r e s t , W, and the depth of water at the gauge point,Ha, in the converging section, this being s i m i l a r to a weir where only the length of c r e s t and head a r e involved in computing the discharge. One of the important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the

P a r s h a l l flume i s i t s ability t o withstand a relatively high degree of submergence, over a wide range of backwater conditions downstream f r o m the structure, without
/

reduction in the indicated r a t e of f r e e flow.

The s t r e a m passing through the

t h r o a t and diverging sections of the flume can flow a t two different stages:
(i) when the water a t high velocity moves in a thin sheet conforming closely to

the dip a t the lower end of the throat (indicated by Q in F i g u r e 7-14), and
(ii) when the backwater r a i s e s the water surface to elevation S , causing a ripple

o r wave to f o r m a t o r just downstream f r o m the end of the throat. The relationship between gauge reading Ha
Q a r e shown in Table 7- 8 in m e t r i c units.

throat width W and discharge

The equation which e x p r e s s e s this

relationship in English units for W f r o m 1 to 8 feet i s :

where Q i s in cubic feet p e r second, and W and Ha in feet. The equation for the 9 inch (22.9 cm) P a r s h a l l flume (Table 7-8) r e a d s : Q = 1.53 3.07Ha

The equation for the 6 inch (15.25 cm) P a r s h a l l flume (Table 7- 8) r e a d s : Q = 1.58 2.06 Ha

TABLE

7-8

F r e e Flow D i s c h a r g e Values f o r P a r s h a l l M e a s u r i n g F l u m e Disch 2 2 . 8 6 c m 30.48 cn (0. 75 ft) .0025 .0032 .0039 .0047 (1. 00 ft .0033 .0042 .0052 .0062 .0072 .0084 .0096 .0108 .0121 .0134 .0148 .0162 .0177 .0192 .0208 .0224 .0240 .0254 .0274 .0292 .0310 .0328 .0347 .0360 .0385 .0405 .0425 .0445 .0466 .0487 .0508 ,0530 .0552 .0574 .0597 .0619 .0643 .0666 .0690 .0714 .0738 .0762 ,0787 .0812 .0838
'

ge, Q, f o r t h r o a t widths, W , of 45.72cm ( 1 . 5 0 ft) .0048 .0060 .0074 .0089 .0105 .0122 .0139 .0157 .0176 .0196 .0217 .0238 .0260 .0282 .0306 .0329 .0354 .0379 .0405 .0431 .0458 .0485 .0513 .054I .0570 .Ob00 .0630 .0661 .0692 .0723 .0755 .0788 .0821 .0854 .0888 .0923 .0957 .0993 1029 . 1065 1101 . 1138 1176 .I214 .I252

(5. 00 ft) ( 6 . 0 0 ft)

0 0 . 9 6 c m 91.44cm 121.92cm (2. 00 ft) (3.00 f t ) ( 4 . 00 ft)

.0116 .0137 .0159 .0182 .0206 .0231 .0257 .0285 .0313 .0342 .0372 .0402 .0434 .0466 .0500 .0534 .0569 .0604 .0641 .0678 .0716 .0755 .0794 .0834 .0875 .0916 .0958 1001 . 1045 1089 1133 . 1179 .0169 .0200 .0232 .0266 .0302 .0339 .0378 .0418 .0459 .0503 .0547 .0593 .0640 .0688 .0738 .0789 .0841 .0894 .0949 1004 .lo61 . 1119 .0348 .0395 .0444 .0495 .0549 .0604 .0661 .0720 .0780 .0843 .0907 .0973 . 1040 .I110 . 1181 1253 1327 .I403 . 1480

.0063 ,0072 .0082 ,0092 .0102 .0112 ,0123 .0135 .0146 .0158 .0170 .0183 .0196 ,0209 .0222 .0236 .0250 .0264 .0279 ,0294 .0309 .0324 .0340 .0356 .0372 .0388 .0405 .0422 .0439 .0456 .0474 .0492 .0509 .0528 .0546 .0565 .0584 .0603 .0622 .0642

.0726 .0805 .0887 .0971 . 1059

.1149

. 1436
.1537

. 1338

. 1242

.1640

..

. 1746 . 1854
.1965
.2078 .2194
.2311 .2431 .2554 .2678 .2805 .2934 .3065 .3198 .3333 .3471

. 1178
. 1238 . 1299
.I361 . 1425 . 1489 .I554 .I620 . 1688 . 1756

. 1803
. 1887 . 1973
.2060 .2149 .2239 .2330 .2423 .2516 .2612 .2708 .2806 .2905 .3005 .3107 .3210 .3314

. 1558 . 1638 . 1720

. . .

. 1225

. . .

. . . . . .

.I271 . 1319 1366 1415 1464 1513 1564 . 1614 1666

. 1825 .I896 . 1967

.2039 .2112 .2186 .2261 .2337 .2413 .2491

.3610 .3752 .3895 .4040 .4188 .4337 .4489 .4642 .4797 .4954 Cont'd.

T a b l e 7-8 ( C o n t t d . )

.
Head
Ha (cm)

D i s c h a r g e , Q, for t h r o a t widths, W , of 15.24cm 22.86cm ( 0 . 5 0 ft) ( 0 . 75 f t ) .0440 .0454 .0468 .0482 .0496 .0510 .0525 .0539 .0554 .0569 .0583 .0599 .0614 .0629 .0645 .0661 .0677 .0693 .0709 .0725 .0742 .0758 .0775 .0792 .0809 .0826 .0843 .0861 .0878 .0896 .0914 .0932 .0950 ,0968 .0986 .lo04 . 1023 1042 1060 ,1079 .0661 .0681 .0701 .0722 .0742 .0763 .0784 .0805 -0826 .0848 .0870 .0892 .0914 .0936 .0959 .0981 1004 . 1027 .lo50 .lo74

.3419 .3525 .3633 .3741 .3851 .3962 .4075 .4188 .4303 .4418 .4535 .4653 .4772 .4892 .5013 .5135 .5259 .5383 .5508 .5635 .5762 .5891 . 6021 .6151 .6283 6416 . 6549 .6684 6820 .6957 .4267 .4400 .4535 .4672 .4810 .4949 .5090 .5233 .5377 .5522 -5669 .5817 .5967 .6118 .6270 .6424 . 6579 .6736 .6893 .7053 .7213 -7375 .7538 .7703 .7869 .8036 .8204 -8374 .8545 .8718 .8891 .9066 .9242 .9419 .9598 .9778 .9959 1.014 1.033 1.051 1.070 1.088 1.107 1.126 1.145 1.164 1.184 1.203 1.223 1.242 .5113 .5274 .5436 .5601 .5767 .5935 .6105 6277 6451 .6626

30.48 45.72 c m 60.96 c m 9 1 . 4 4 c m 121.92 c m 152.40 c m 182.88 c m ( 1 . 0 0 f t ) ( 1 . 5 0 ft) ( 2 . 0 0 ft) ( 3 . 0 0 f t ) ( 4 . 0 0 ft) ( 5 . 00 ft) ( 6 . 00 ft) .0863 .0889 .0915 .0942 .0968 .0995 .lo23 1050 1078 .I106 .I291 .I330 '.I370 . 1410 1450 .I491 . 1532 .1573 . 1615 .I658

25.50 26.00 26.50 27.00 27.50 28.00 28.50 29.00 29.50 30.00 30.50 31.00 31.50 32.00 32.50 33.00 33.50 34.00 34.50 35.00 35.50 36.00 36.50 37:OO 37.50 38.00 38.50 39.00 39.50 40.00 40.50 41.00 41.50 42.00 42.50 43.00 43.50 44.00 44.50 45.00 45.50 46.00 46.50 47.00 47.50 48.00 48.50 49.00 49.50 50.00

. 1718 . 1823 . 1877 . 1931 . 1986

,2041 .2097 .2153 .2210 .2267 .2325 .2383 .2442 .2502 . 2 5 62 .2622 .2683 . 27.44 .2806 .2869 .2932 .2995 .3059 .3123 .3188 .3253 .3319 .3385 .3452 .3519 .3586 .3654 .3723 .3792 .3861 ,3931 .4001 .4072 .4143 .4214 .4286 .4359 .4432 .4505 .4579 .4653 .4727 .4802 .4878

. 1770

. .

.2569 .2649 .2729 .2810 .2892 .2975 .3058 .3143 .3228 .3314 .3401 .3489 .3577 .3667 .3757 . 3848 .3939 .4032 .4125 .4219 .4314 .4410 .4506 .4603 .4701 .4799 .4898 .4998 .5099 .5201 .5303 .5406 .5509 .5614 .5719 .5824 .5931 .6038 .6146 .6254 .6363 .6473 .6584 .6695 .6807 .6919 .7033 .7147 -7261 .7376

. .

.
. .

.I134 .I162 .I191 . 1219 1248 .I278 .I307 .I337 1367 1398

.I700 . 1743 . 1787 .I831 .I875 1919 1964 .2010 .2055 .2101

. .

.6803 .6981 .7162 .7344 .7528 .7713 .7901 .8089 .8280 .8472 .8666 .8861 .9058 .9257 .9457 .9659 .9863 1.007 1.027 1.048 1.069 1.090 1.112 1.133 1.155 1.176 1.198 1.220 1.243 1.265 1.287 1.310 1.333 1.356 1.379 1.402 1.425 1.449 1.473 1.496

.lo97 .I121 .I145 .I169 .I193 . 1218 1242 1267 .I292 . 1317

. .

.I428 . 1459 1490 . 1521 . 1552 . 1584 1616 .I648 .I680 1713

.2148 .2194 .2241 .2289 .2337 .2385 .2433 .2482 .2531 .2580 .2630 .2680 .2731 .2782 .2833 .2884 .2936 .2988 .3040 .3093 .3146 .3199 .3253 .3307 .3361 .3416 .3471 .3526 .3581 .3637

.
.

. 1342
.I368 .I394 .I419 .I445 1471 . 1498 . 1524 1551 .I577 .I604 .I631 .I659 .I686 1713 .I741 1769 .I797 .I825 1853

. .

. .

. . .

.I745 .I778 . 1811 .I845 .I878 .I912 .I946 . 1980 .2014 .2049 .2084 .2119 .2154 .2189 .2225 .2260 .2296 .2333 .2369 .2405

.7094 .7233 .7373 .7513 ,7655 .7798 .7941 .8086 .8231 .8377 .8525 .8673 .8822 .8972 .9124 .9276 .9428 .9582 .9737 .9893

Cont'd.

T a b l e 7- 8 (Cont'd. ) Head D i s c h a r g e , Q, f o r t h r o a t widths, W , of 1 5 . 2 4 c m 22.86 c m 30.48 c m 45.72 c m 6 0 . 9 6 c m 91.44 c m 121.92cm 1 5 2 4 0 c m 1 8 2 8 8 c m (0.50 ft) (0. 75 ft) (1. 00 ft) (1.50 ft) ( 2 . 0 0 f t ) (3. 00 ft) ( 4 . 0 0 ft) (5.00 f t ) (6. 00 ft)

H
( c a 50.50 51.00 51.50 52.00 52.50 53.00 53.50 54.00 54.50 55.00 55.50 56.00 56.50 57.00 57.50 58.00 58.50 59.00 59.50 60.00 60.50 61.00 61.50 62.00 62.50 63.00 63.50 64.00 64.50 65.00 65.50 66.00 66.50 67.00 67.50 68.00 68.50 69.00 69.50 70.00 70.50 71.00 71.50 72.00 72.50 73.00 73.50 74.00 74.50 ,75.00

. 1882 .I910 .I939 .I968 .I997 .2026 .2056 .2085 .21.15 .2144
.2174 .2204 .2235 ,2265 .2295 .2326 .2357 .2388 .2419 .2450 .2481 .2513

.2442 .2479 .2516 .2553 .2591 .2628 .2666 .2704 .2743 .2781 ,2820 .2858 .2897 .2936 .2976 .3015 .3055 .3095 .3135 t 3175 .3215 .3256 .3296 .3337 .3378 ,3420 .3461 .3503 .3544 .3586 .3628 .3671 ,3713 .3755 .3798 .3841 .3884 .3927 .3971 .4014 .4058 ,4102 .4146 .4190 .4235 .4279 .4324 .4369 .4414 .4459

.3693 .3750 .3806 .3863 .3921 .3978 .4036 .4094 .4153 .4212 .4271 .4330 .4390 .4449 .4510 .4570 .4631 .4692 .4753 .4815 .4877 .4939 .5001 .5064 .5127 .5190 .5254 .5317 .5381 ,5446 .5510 .5575 .5640 .5706 .5771 .5837 .5903 .5970 .6036 .6103 .6170 6238 6306 .6373 .6442 .6510 .6579 .6648 ,6717 .6787

.4953 .5030 .5106 .5183 .5261 .5339 ,5417 .5495 .5575 .5654 ,5734 .5814 .5895 .5976 .6057 .6139 .6221 .6304 .6387 .6470 .6554 .6638 .6723 .6808 .6893 .6978 .7064 .7151 .7238 .7325 .7412 .7500 .7588 .7677 .7766 .7855 .7945 .a035 .a125 .a216 .a307 .a399 .8491 .a583 .a675 .a768 .8862 .8955 .9049 .9143

.7492 .7609 .7726 .7844 .7962 .a081 .a201 .a321 ,8442 .a564 .a686 .a809 .a932 .9057 .9181 ,9307 .9433 ,9559 .9686 .9814 ,9943 1.007 1.020 1.033 1.046 1.059 1.073 1.086 1.099 1.113 1.126 1.139 1.153 1.167 1.180 1.194 1.208 1.222 1.236 1.249 1.263 1.278 1.292 1.306 1.320 1.334 1.349 1.363 1.378 1.392

1.005 1.021 1.037 1.052 1.068 1.085 1.101 1.117 1.133 1.150 1.166 1.183 1.200 1.217 1.233 1.250 1.267 1.285 1.302 1.319 1.336 1.354 1.371 1.389 1.407 1.425 1.443 -1.460 1.479 1.497 1.515 1.533 1.552 1.570 1.588 1.607 1.626 1.645 1.663 1.682 1.701 1.720 1.759 1.778 1.797 1.817 1.836 1.856 1.876

1.262 1.282 1.302 1.322 1.342 1.363 1.383 1.404 1.424 1.445 1.466 1.487 1.508 1.529 1.551 1.572 1.594 1.615 1.637 1.659 1.681 1.703 1.725 1.748 1.770 1.793 1.815 1.838 1.861 1.884 1.907 1.930 1.953 1.977 2.000 2.024 2.047 2.071 2.095 2.119 2.143 2.167 . 192 2.216 2.240 2.265 2.290 2.314 2.339 2.364

1.520 1.544 1.569 1.593 1.617 1.642 1.667 1.692 1.717 1.742 1.767 1.793 1.818 1.844 1.870 1.896 1.922 1.948 1.975 2.001 2.028 2.055 2.082 2.109 2.136 2.163 2.191 2.218 2.246 2.274 2.302 2.330 2.358 2.386 2.415 2.443 2.472 2.501 2.530 2.559 2.588 2.617 2. 647 2.676 2.706 2.736 2.766 2.796 2.826 2.856

'

j:
1,
/

1/

Note: -

1 . ' T a b l e taken a n d c o n v e r t e d i n t o m e t r i c v a l u e s f r o m P a r s h a l l , R. L . , M e a s u r i n g w a t e r i n i r r i g a t i o n ' c h a n n e l s , U. S.Dept.Agr., C i r . 843, p. 62, 1950 (out of print). 2. F o r Ha a n d W s e e F i g u r e 7-14 3. T o c o n v e r t m3/ s i n t o c u s e c s multiply above f i g u r e s By 35.3

Submerged flow In m o s t installations, when the discharge i s increased above a critical value the resistance to flow in the downstream channel becomes sufficient to reduce the velocity, i n c r e a s e the flow depth, and cause a backwater effect at the P a r s h a l l flume. It might be expected that the discharge would begin to be reduced a s soon

a s the backwater level Hb exceeded the elevation of the flume c r e s t ; however, t h i s i s n o t t h e case. C a l i b r a t i o n t e s t s s h o w t h a t t h e d i s c h a r g e i s n o t reduced

until the submergence ratio Hb : Ha following values : Width of throat (W) 15.2 to 23 cm ( 6 to 9 inches) 30. 5 to 244cm (1 to 8 feet )

expressed a s a percentage, exceeds the

F r e e flow limit of 60 % 70 %

Hb Ha

The upper limit of the submergence ratio i s 95%.

At this point the flume

c e a s e s to be an effective measuring device because the head differential between Ha and Hb becomes so small that any slight inaccuracy in either head reading r e s u l t s in a l a r g e e r r o r in flow measurement. Approach flow conditions Experience h a s shown that P a r s h a l l flumes should not be placed at right angles to flowing s t r e a m s , such a s in turnouts, unless the flow i s effectively straightened and uniformly redistributed before i t entefrs the flumes. waves of any appreciable size should be eliminated. Surges and

The water should enter the

converging section reasonably well distributed a c r o s s the entrance width, and the flow lines should be essentially parallel to the flume centreline. Also, the flow

at the flume entrance should be f r e e of "white" water and f r e e f r o m turbulence in the f o r m of visible surface "boils" such a s might occur below a control gate. Only then can the flume m e a s u r e water a s intended. Experience h a s also shown that i t i s better to provide standard conditions of approach and exit than to t r y to estimate the effects of non-standard conditions; such flow conditions cannot be described and evaluated in t e r m s of measurement accuracy. Non- standard approach flow conditions should therefore be eliminated'

by deepening, widening, o r straightening the flow channel, o r by resetting o r r e -

arranging the m e a s u r i n g station.

In locations where approach flow conditions have resulted in m e a s u r e m e n t

difficulties, and no u p s t r e a m wing walls have been included in the original construction, the curved wing walls shown in F i g u r e 7- 14 should be considered. Curved wing walls a r e p r e f e r r e d over straight 45O walls, although any a r r a n g e m e n t of walls, channel banks, o r other shapes that achieve uniformity and smoothness in the approaching flow i s acceptable. 7.4.3 Discharge Measurement F r e e flow conditions When the flow i s f r e e , o r when the submergence i s below the l i m i t s quoted in 7.4.2, the discharge m a y be r e a d directly f r o m Table 7-8, using the u p s t r e a m head Ha and the throat width,
W,

of the flume.

To i l l u s t r a t e the determination of the degree of submergence and r a t e of d i s charge, i t i s assumed that f o r a 2 f t flume the m e a s u f e d heads (Ha and Hb) a r e
1

67 c m (2.2 ft) and 40 c m ( 1 . 3 ft) respectively.

The r a t i o of Hb to Ha i s 40 divided

by 67, o r 0. 6, o r 60%. Since this value i s l e s s than 70% ( p a r a . 7.4.2), f r e e flow conditions exist, and to find the discharge i t i s only n e c e s s a r y to u s e the one m e a s u r e d head Ha = 67 cm. Referring to Table 7-8 f o r a 2 ft flume gives a discharge of 768 11s. Submerged conditions When the ratio of the two heads Hb and Ha exceeds the l i m i t for f r e e flow conditions, i t becomes n e c e s s a r y to apply a negative correction to the f r e e flow discharge in o r d e r to determine the r a t e of submerged flow. F o r throat widths of 15.2 cm (6 inches) and 23 cm (9 inches) the submerged r a t e of flow can be r e a d directly f r o m F i g u r e s 7- 15 o r 7- 16 respectively. Example: Given 15.2 cm ( 6 inch) flume m e a s u r e d Ha = 36.6 cm (1.20 ft) m e a s u r e d Hb = 32.9 c m (1.08 ft) Calculate percentage of submergence :

R e f e r to F i g u r e 7- 15.

The submerged flow i s 50.9 l / s o r 1.80 ft 3 p e r s e c .

E
~ ~

E
v

E
9
v u

60

n t o i n ! C

cu

E
v

$
cv
P

C,

C,

C,

C,

C,

h
c\r

n3

t
rr)

C,

0 0
1

0.4
k
I

0.8
I

1-2
I

1-6 2.0 2.4 Discharge in f t /s 40

2.8'
I
I

32
I

3.6
I

4-0
I

1 0

20

30

50 60 ma/ s

70

80

90

100

1 1 0

F I G U R E 7- 15. - Diagram showing the r a t e of submerged flow, in 11 s and in ft3/ s, through a 1 5 . 2 crn ( 6 inch) P a r shall m e a s u r i n g flume

E 0

E o

cu

15

v c\r

0
rr)

nl

rr,

o E v

F 2 rr,

t , 0

&

<o

C,

05

1 . 0

1 . 5

2.0

2-5

30

35

40

4.5

5.0

5.5

60

Discharge in f t /s

FIGURE 7- 16. - Diagram showing the rate of submerged flow. in l / s and f t 3 / s , through a 23 crn (9 inch) Parshall flume.

F o r flumes with throat widths between 1 and 8 ft, the submerged discharge i s determined by using a correction diagram (Figure 7- 17). This diagram i s

for a 1 ft throat width and is made applicable to the l a r g e r fliunes by multiplying the correction for a 1 f t flume by the factor (M) for the size of flume in use. Thiebcorrectioni s then subtracted from the f r e e flow discharge f6r the measured head (Ha), a s obtained from ~ a b l d 7-8. i s tabulated below. Throat width ft cm Multiplying factor (M) The factor M for various throat widths

0.06

0 . 1 0

0.20

050 1 . 0 Correction in f i l s

1.4

2.0 2.5

810

FIGURE 7- 17. Diagram fox computing the r a t e of submerged flow through a 30.5 cm (1 ft) P a r shall flume (82).

Example: Find the submerged discharge through a 3 f t P a r s h a l l flume: Given W

91.5cm

(3ft)

measured Ha measured Hb Percentage of submergence: 2.0 2.1

= =

64 c m ( 2 . 1 ft) 61 c m (2.0 ft)

0.95 o r 95%

F r o m the correction diagram, Figure 7- 17: Correction for a 1 f t throat width = 163 I / s (5.75 ft 3/ s ) Since this correction m u s t be made applicable to a 3 ft throat width, multiply i t by the applicable value of M f r o m the above tabulation

Correction for a 3 ft throat width:

165 x 2 . 4 = 391 11s (13.8 f t 3 / s )

F r o m Table 7-8 find the f r e e flow for W = 91.5 c m and Ha = 64 c m
Q f r e e flow

1086 I / s (38.4 f t 3 / s )
=

Q submerged flow

1086

- '391

= 695 l / s (24.6 ft 31s).

Approximate determination of submerged discharges Figure 7- 18 illustrates the effect of submergence on the discharge r a t e s of various flume sizes. F o r example a t 70% submergence only the .6 inch to 1 ft The 6 inch flume would discharge 94% of the f r e e

flumes would be affected. discharge rate.

At a submergence of 80% the discharge f r o m all flumes will be The f r e e discharge values can be obtained f r o m Table

affected to some extent. 7-8 a s shown before.

The graph may be useful in determining approximately the size of flume required and the beet setting in the channel. The curves represent data obtained

during calibration tests and have a maximum deviation of

+ 7%.

50

60

70

80

90

1 0 0

Submergence

Hb

in per cent

FIGURE 7- 18. Effect of submergence on Parshall flume free discharge (81).

Siting of Flumes Generally i t i s advantageous to have the measuring flume conveniently near the of diversion o r regulating gate i f conditions bf operation require frequent On the other hand the flume should not be placed too

recording of discharge.

near the head gate, a s *e disturbed water just downstream from the outlet may cause surging and unbalanced flow; i t should best be located in a straight section of the channel.

7.4.5

Selection of Flume Size Following the selection of the site, information should be obtained on the maximum and minimum flows to be measured, the corresponding flow depths, the maximum velocity and the dimensions of the channel at the site. These

dimensions should include width, side slopes and depth, and the height of the upstream banks with special reference to their ability to contain the increased depth caused by the flume installation. With this information and the use of

discharge tables for standard flume dimensions the size and proper elevation of the c r e s t can be obtained. Examples a r e given below to a s s i s t in the problem of

size and setting of the measuring flume a s covered by general field conditions usually found in irrigation practice. Example: Given

- A discharge of up to 566 l / s (20 second ft) i s to be m e a s u r e d in

a channel of moderate grade where the water depth i s 77 c m ( 2 . 5 ft) and the channel banks a r e about 3 m (10 ft) apart.

Solution

This quantity of flow can be measured through several s i z e s of flume, but for the sake of economy the smallest practical size should be selected.

F i r s t l e t i t be assumed that a submergence of 70% m u s t not be exceeded in o r d e r that the flow may be determined by the single gauge reading of Ha. As a rule of thumb, the most economical flume size, W , i s from one-third to one-half the width of the channel. Considering the 3 m (10 ft) channel width

the 4 ft (122 cm) flume s e e m s to be the most practical, but the 3 ft and 2 ft flumes should be investigated a s well. 4 ft (122 cm) flume F o r this size and the given maximum discharge of 566 l / s (20 s e c ft) the head Ha i s found to be 35 cm (1.15 ft) f r o m Table 7- 8.

FIGURE 7-19. Section of a P a r s h a l l measuring flume illustrating the determination of the proper c r e s t elevation (82).

F o r a submergence of 70% the r a t i o of Hb gauge to Ha gauge i s 0 . 7 ; hence, Hb for t h i s condition of flow is 25 c m (0.81 ft). At 70% submergence, .the w a t e r

surface in the throat a t the Hb gauge is essentially level with that a t the lower end of the flume. Under t h i s condition of flow, the water depth just below the

s t r u c t u r e will be approximately the s a m e a s before the flume was installed, that i s 77 c m ( 2 . 5 f t ) . 77 cm. InFigure 7-19thedimension D representsthisdepthof

By subtracting Hb, o r 25 c m , f r o m 77 c m , the value of X, o r 52 c m This i s the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the

(1.69 ft) i s obtained. channel.

F o r t h i s s i z e of flume, s e t with the c r e s t a t 52 c m (1. 69 ft), the flow

of 566 11s (20 sec-ft) will be a t 7070 submergence, and the actual l o s s of head (L) o r difference in elevation between the u p s t r e a m and downstream water s u r f a c e s will.be 13 c m ( 0 . 4 2 ft) a s determined by F i g u r e 7-20.
2+4 C m zr3 5 cm 183cm 1525 crn 122 cm 91 5cm 61cm

30 5cm

93

90 85 80 70 Psrcento~eof submergence

6050

OM5002

003004

0.06QO8OlO 015020 Loss of heod L ~n feet

0.30040

06008010

FIGURE 7-20. - Diagram for determining the head l o s s through the P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume (82).

The depth of water upstream f r o m the s t r u c t u r e a t a flow of 566 11s (20 sec-ft) will t h e r e f o r e be 90 c m (2.92 ft). It will b e n e c e s s a r y t o examine the f r e e b o a r d

of the channel, a s well a s the effect of the r i s e of the water surface upon the flow through the head gate, in deciding which s i z e of flume i s the m o s t practical. 3 f t (91.5 c m ) flume F o r t h i s s i z e and the given maximum d i s c h a r g e of 566 l / s (20 second-ft) the head Ha i s found to be approx. 43 c m (1.39 ft) f r o m Table 7-8. Again for

a submergence of 70% the r a t i o of Hb to Ha i s 0.7; hence the Hb for this condition of flow i s 30 c m (0.97 ft). By r e f e r e n c e to F i g u r e 7- 19, the value of X,

o r the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the channel, i s found to be 47 c m ( 1 . 5 3 ft), and the actual l o s s of head through the flume ( F i g u r e 7-20) i s found to be 16 c m (0.52 ft). be 92 c m ( 3 . 0 2 ft). 2 f t (61 cm) flume As before, find the Ha head in Table 7-8 for a f r e e flow of 566 11s The depth of water u p s t r e a m for t h i s s i z e of flume will now

(20 second-ft).

F o r the 2 ft flume t h i s head i s 55 c m (1.81 ft).

At a sub-

m e r g e n c e of 70% the value of Hb i s 39 c m (1.27 ft).

By again r e f e r r i n g to

F i g u r e 7-19 the value of X o r the elevation of the c r e s t above the bed of the channel i s found to be 77

39 o r 38 c m (1. 23 ft).

F o r t h i s s i z e of flume d i s -

charging 566 l / s (20 second-ft) a t a submergence of 70%, the actual l o s s of head ( F i g u r e 7-20) i s 21 c m (0. 70 ft) and the depth of water u p s t r e a m i s 97 c m

( 3 . 20 ft).
If i t i s found that the banks of the channel and entrance conditions through the head gates a r e satisfactory, the 2 f t flume will be m o s t economical because of i t s s m a l l dimensions; however, when the width of the channel i s considered the final selection m a y favour the 3 o r 4 f t flume because m o d e r a t e to long wing walls m a y be r e q u i r e d . In the above analysis of the t h r e e s i z e s of f l u m e s investigated, the actual i n c r e a s e o r r i s e in the depth of water u p s t r e a m f r o m the s t r u c t u r e i s considerably l e s s than the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the channel

(X).

F o r the 4 f t flume the c r e s t i s 52 c m (1.69 ft) above the channel bed, and

the r i s e in water u p s t r e a m will be only 12 c m (0.42 ft). This analysis shows f u r t h e r that a s the s i z e of flume i s d e c r e a s e d , the

elevation of the c r e s t becomes l e s s , and the depth of water upstream f r o m the s t r u c t u r e becomes g r e a t e r for similar r a t e s of discharge and like d e g r e e s of submergence. It i s usually better to s e t the flume high rather than low, to

provide a margin of safety f o r variations of the water surface downstream.

In

irrigation channels, especially those with e a r t h banks and bottom, deposits of sand o r silt may change the downstream flow conditions, and weeds o r other . debris may likewise affect the degree of submergence. Although the above analysis of the f r e e flow data for the 4 ft flume shows that i t would be n e c e s s a r y o r desirable to lower the upstream water surface elevation a s much a s possible, the effect of operating the flume a t 95% submergence ( o r any other value between 70 and 95%) a t the maximum discharge might be investigated. F o r example, a submergence above 70% would lower the

entire structure in the channel and because of reduced headloss could provide m o r e bank freeboard upstream. Using the data from the above example, suppose that the maximum discharge of 566 11s (20 second-ft) i s to be passed with a depth of 77 cm (2. 5 ft) but with 95% submergence (instead of 70% a s previously). F r o m Table 7-8, Ha i s found to be 35 cm (1.15 ft)

F o r 95% submergence,

In Figure 7-19,

Hb

77

- 33

44 cm (1.41 ft)

Therefore, for 95% submergence the c r e s t of the 4 ft flume should be set a t 44 cmabove the bottom of the channel, a s compared with 52 cm for 7070 submergence. F r o m Figure 7-20 the head l o s s i s found to be a s compared with 13 cm (0.42 ft) for 70% submergence.
N

2 cm (0.077 ft),

7.4.6

Deviation f r o m Standard Dimensions

In principle, i f standard measuring procedures, tables and graphs a r e to

be applicable under all flow conditions, the P a r s h a l l flume h a s to be constructed

exactly according to standard dimensions a s given in Table 7-7. However, if the flume i s never to be operated above the 7070 (60% for 6 to 9 inch flumes) submergence limit (i. e . where enough head i s available and no backwater f r o m down s t r e a m i s anticipated in the future) modifications of the standard design downstream f r o m the dip (e. g. different floor shape, stilling basin, wing walls) should have no effect upon .discharge. With this submergence limit i t i s not

necessary to construct the portion of the flume downstream from the end of the c r e s t , shown a s station 1 in Figure 7-19.

When only the upstream portion of the flume i s constructed, the flume i s sometimes r e f e r r e d to a s the Montana flume. The c r e s t of the Montana flume

should be s e t above the channel bottom in the same manner a s worked out in the above examples. This will ensure that the flow profile over the c r e s t section Erosion protection
t

i s not modified by backwater from the downstream channel. downstream f r o m the flume may need to be considered.

In the case of submergence above the 70% ( o r 60%) limit, the effect of
modifications may cause measurements to be inaccurate when using standard discharge tables.
In such a case i t i s necessary to specially calibrate the

modified flume by the current m e t e r o r some other suitable method.

Construction The P a r s h a l l measuring flume may be constructed of sheet metal, timber o r reinforced concrete. Sheet metal flumes (Figures 7-21, 7-22) have proved

very satisfactory, but since the cost usually exceeds that of either wood o r concrete, their use has been restricted to the smaller sizes. common and practical sizes a r e those of l e s s than 6 1 c m ( 2 ft). The most

Sheet metal flumes have the advantage of being portable, can readily be r e s e t and readjusted a s needed.

and they

They have a relatively

long life and a r e immune to f i r e hazards such a s those caused by ditch cleaning.

FIGURE 7- 21. - P a r shall flume of 152 cm (5 ft) throat width assembled f r o m prefabricated sheet metal p a r t s .

FIGURE 7-22. - P a r s h a l l flume of 183 cm ( 6 ft) throat width at full discharge.

Commercially made flumes of this type (Figure 7-23) a r e available in a wide range of capacities.

FIGURE 7- 23. - Commercially available P a r shall measuring flume.

Monolithic reinforced concrete flumes constructed in any of the previously discussed sizes have proved satisfactory. Such flumes have the distinct

advantage of permanence and a r e little subject to expansion o r contraction, thus ensuring uniformity of operation. a s a r e timber structures. initial cost, They a r e not subject to f i r e and other hazards

Their principal disadvantage i s their relatively high

Standard designs, a s used in the U . S. A . , a r e shown in Figures 7 - 2 4 and

7-25.

Where a number of flumes of the same size a r e to be built of concrete, i t will be found economical and practicable to built portable knock-down f o r m s , preferably in sheet iron o r plywood. It i s advantageous to construct the sides

of the flume f i r s t and after the concrete is set, to remove the f o r m s and place the floor. The floor i s screeded to proper grade by iron angles installed

a t the changes in grade along the floor.

Ha gauge i f gauge well not prwided

H b gouge well

gauge well (optional-

if

need*7

Dimensions, and ouantities for vorious throat widths . co~ocities . Free- Flow Dimensions Quantities cawcitv

Flow

.o r d s ,

C/C

set icrete
'

Plon gauge i f gauge well is not pravided-1

Notes : The dimensions X x D depend upon the setting of the crest of the flume with reference to the bed of the channel and will be determined for each setting. To obtain accurate discharge measurements,the flum must be constructed exactly to dimensions listed in table ond given on plans. and X = d d Quontities given in table are for D All reinforcing steel to beg&. rods placed ot centre of sections. gouge not required unless Hb gouge reoding will be over 70 % of the Ha gauge reading. The use of an Ha gouge well is optional. If an gouge well is not used, install the Ha gouge on the side woll of the flume, For discharge tables, loss of head and setting of crest of flume with reference t o the bed . of the chonnel. see Engineering Handbook and U.S.D.A. Farmers Bulletin No. 1683.

=i

die. bolt

set

6 tn concrete

Flow Bottom of chonnel-)

12C

Concrete morto of flume m of chonnel Crest elevotion Provide suitable rip-rop or concrete opron to protect chonnel from scour ot flume outlet

) stirrups

/ C A rods l i c / c i d i a . galvonized pipe : 1 long i f gauge well provided Sectionol elevotion A-A

Ll*common woshers. Top of washers to be ot exact crest elevation Sectionol elevotion 8 - 6 Showing
We

gauge well (optional)

elbow. Set end of pipe with inside face of conc Crest elevotion

~f a fixed gouge is used, install 1 8 din. or lorger vitrified cloy pipe, j long. If removable gouge is used, d dio. pipe may be instolled

FA0 -ICID

STANDARD

CONCRETE PARSHALL

MEASURING FLUME

Throot width I foot to 8 feet

2-6,

i-i

concrete base

Sectional elevation C-C Showing Hb gouge well

Project, Regi0.n , Country U S A

Figure No. 7 - 24

FIGURE 7 - 2 5 . - Standard concrete P a r s h a l l flume. The water depth i s r e a d on the staff gauge in the stilling well and i s converted to r a t e of flow by r e f e r e n c e to a rating table.

7.4.8

Maintenance After a P a r s h a l l flume h a s been properly installed, periodic maintenance i s r e q u i r e d to e n s u r e satisfactory operation. Moss m a y collect on the walls of the

entrance section and in certain channels d e b r i s may collect on the floor of the entrance section and they should be removed. Walls of steel flumes may become Once

encrusted and the encrustation should be removed with a steel wire b r u s h .

the walls have been s c r a p e d clean, applying asphaltic paint will add to the life of the flume. Commonly, P a r s h a l l flumes, o r any other type of flow m e a s u r i n g flumes, placed in unlined channels will "settle" after being in operation f o r a period of time. The levelness of the entrance floor should be checked a f t e r a few months

of operation, and again at the end of the season o r y e a r . E i t h e r settling o r i m p r o p e r installation can cause a flume to tilt sideways. If the settling i s m i n o r , the discharge can still be estimated with f a i r accuracy

by m e a s u r i n g the flow depths on both sides of the flume.

By employing the

a v e r a g e of the two readings when using the d i s c h a r g e equations o r rating tables. the d i s c h a r g e can be determined.

Settlement occurs m o s t commonly n e a r the exit section because of channel erosion immediately downstream from the flume caused by the jetting action of the water. Use of the flow depths Ha o r Ha and Hb to obtain the discharge f r o m Satis-

standard discharge tables will yield values l e s s than the t r u e discharge.

factory solutions to this problem include raising the lower end of the flume so that i t i s level again o r placing a new level floor in the flume. Correction values

for settled "Cut throat flumest1of a few sizes have been determined experimentally and further r e s e a r c h i s being c a r r i e d out (83).

7.5

THE STANDING WAVE MEASURING FLUME

The standing wave measuring flume developed in India i s essentially a drop which has been standardized and calibrated to s e r v e for the measurement of flow. It i s described in detail in Chapter 6, sub- section 6.1 1.2.

7.6
7. 6. 1

THE CUT-THROAT FLUME-1/ General . The Cut-throat Flume h a s been developed recently to overcome some of the shortcomings of other types of flumes already in existence. Figure 7-26 shows the standard shape of this flume which was derived eGperirnentally. has a flat bottom and vertical walls, a s seen in Figure 7- 27. The flume

It can be operated

( a s the P a r s h a l l flume) under both f r e e flow and submerged flow conditions. Since the flume h a s no longitudinal throat section the flume was given the name "Cut-throat" by i t s developers (Skogerboe, Hyatt, Anderson and Eggleston). Figure 7-28 shows a 1 f t flume in operation. pared with the P a r s h a l l flume a r e a s follows. Construction of the flume i s facilitated by the horizontal floor and removal of the throat section. Since the angles of convergence and divergence remain the' same for all Advantages of the flume a s com-

L '

The description i s based mainly on reference (85).

flumes, the s i z e of the flume can be changed by merely moving the walls in o r out. Therefore, ratings for intermediate sized flumes can be developed from the ratings available. This i s extremely helpful when sizes other than those with a

rating a r e required o r a miatake i s made in the throat width during construction.

FIGURE 7-26.

Sketch of Cut-throat flume. (85)

If circumstances allow, i t i s preferable to have the cut-throat flume operate under f r e e flow conditions. degree of accuracy. dition. This facilitates measurement and ensures a high

The following description i s limited to the f r e e flow con-

F o r corresponding information on the submerged flow condition reference As to be expected there a r e similarities in the installation As the former has

(85) may be consulted.

and operation of the P a r s h a l l flume and the Cut-throat flume.

been described in considerable detail, discussion of the Cut-throat flume i s limited to the essentials.

FIGURE 7-27. - F i n a l design of a 61 c m ( 2 ft) rectangular cut-throat flume ( 9 0 ) .

FIGURE 7 - 28. - Cut-throat flume of 30.5 c m (1 ft) throat width, with automatic recording device, operating under f r e e flow conditions.

Determination of Discharge under F r e e Flow Conditions F r e e flow through the Cut-throat flume i s given by the two formulae

where

Q
C Ha

= =
=

flow r a t e in m / s f r e e flow coefficient u p s t r e a m flow depth ( m e a s u r e d a t a distance of throat, s e e F i g u r e 7- 26 )

- f r o m the
9

and where C

= = =

f r e e flow coefficient ( a s above) the flume length coefficient the throat width in m .

K
W

The values of n and K a r e obtained f r o m F i g u r e 7-29 for a given flume length. The d i s c h a r g e can then be calculated for any Ha by using the above two formulae, provided f r e e flow conditions exist in the flume, ( c r i t e r i a for these conditions a r e described in 7.6.3). F o r accurate d i s ~ h a r g e m e a s u r e m e n t s , the

recommended r a t i o of flow depth to flume length (Ha : L) should be equal to o r l e s s than 0.4. Increasing values of this r a t i o r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r i n a c c u r a c i e s .

Example of flow calculation

A f r e e flow rating i s needed f o r a Cut-throat flume of length, L, of 1. 22 m and

width, W, of 0.36 m. F r o m F i g u r e 7- 29 the value of n i s found to be 1 . 7 5 and Then, using equation(2)the value of the f r e e flow coefficient

the value K i s 3. 16.

C i s calculated.
C

= =

K W 3.16

1.025

0.36

1.025

Now, knowing the values of n and C,

the flow r a t e through the flume can

be calculated for any value of Ha using equation (1).

Assuming Ha = 0 . 3 6 6 m

Installation of Cut- throat Flumes for Operation under F r e e Flow Conditions C r i t e r i a for location of the Cut-throat flume a r e identical to those already described for P a r s h a l l flumes ( s e e 7.4.4). n e c e s s a r y to determine the design c r i t e r i a : After the site h a s been selected i t i s

maximum quantity of water to be measured; depth of flow n e c e s s a r y to obtain this discharge; allowable head l o s s through the flume.

F o r design purposes, the head l o s s may be taken a s the change in water surface elevation between the flume entrance and exit. The downstream depth of

flow will remain essentially the s a m e after installation of the flume, a s i t was p r i o r to installation, but the upstream depth will i n c r e a s e by the amount of head loss. ,The allowable increase in upstream depth may be limited by the height of

the canal banks upstream of the flume, and such condition may require an i n c r e a s e in the flume size in o r d e r to bring the water level down to acceptable limits.
<

The flume must be placed level in the channel, both longitudinally and laterally, and be aligned straight with it. The most important dimension i s the throat width, W. (As already

mentioned one of the principal advantages of this flume i s that an e r r o r in constructing the throat resulting in an e r r o r in the width can be taken into account by writing new flow ratings, using equation ( 2 ) ) . If a Cut-throat flume i s to be constructed in concrete, a steel angle can be placed a t the throat cross-section embedded in the concrete and this will fix the width correctly.

In the experience of the developers of this flume a transition structure

between the open channel and the flume i s not necessary. The only guidelines

to follow i s that the ratio of flow depth to flume length (Ha : L) should be 0 . 4 o r

-4 0

0 0

22

0
N

0
W

0
0

I -

Transition submergence, St, in per cent

FIGURE 7 - 2 9 . - G e n e r a l i z e d f r e e flow coefficients and exponents and St for C u t - t h r o a t flumes, in m e t r i c u n i t s .

l e s s a s already pointed out.

F o r the usual installations in channels of gentle

grade this will e n s u r e that approach conditions will satisfy the conditions under which the laboratory ratings w e r e developed. Measurements may be made in the flume by the use of a staff gauge o r stilling well s e t a t the specified location f o r Ha. The staff gauge m u s t be

carefully referenced to the elevation of the flume bottom.

In o r d e r to e n s u r e f r e e flow conditions the ratio between the water depth a t

H ~ should ) not exceed a certain limit, called the the exit and at the entrance ( H : ~
transition submergence, St, which can be determined f r o m F i g u r e 7 - 2 9 .

The procedure to follow for installing a Cut-throat flume t o operate under f r e e flow conditions i s s u m m a r i z e d a s follows :
(i) (ii)

Determine the maximum flow r a t e to be m e a s u r e d . At the site selected f o r installing the flume, locate the high water line on the canal bank and a s c e r t a i n the maximum p e r m i s s i b l e depth of flow.

(iii) Using equation ( I ) , calculate the depth of water that corresponds to the

maximum discharge capacity of the canal for the flume being used. (iv) P l a c e the floor of the flume a t a depth @Ib) which does not exceed Ha multiplied by the transition submergence St (Hb

Hast).

Generally,

the flume bottom should be placed a s high in the kana1 a s grade and other conditions p e r m i t to e n s u r e f r e e flow. There i s no established r u l e f o r proportions between W and L o r W and Ha. Therefore, a s long a s f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s a r e pending i t i s

recommended that the range of proportions which have been laboratory tested be applied, which, adjusted to even m e t r i c values, a r e given in Table 7-9. The procedure i s f u r t h e r illustrated by F i g u r e 7-30 and by the following two example s: Example 1 .A Cut-throat flume of length L = 1. 22 m and throat width W = 0. 36 m i s to be installed f o r f r e e flow operation ( F i g u r e 7-30). The maximum flow r a t e in

the channel is 0.200 m 3 / s .

Maximum water surface after flume installation

surface before

L O r i g i n a l canal bottom

FIGURE 7-30.

Installation of a Cut-throat flume.

The transition .submergence f o r t h i s flume can be determined f r o m F i g u r e 7;29 a s St = 68.2%.

F r o m equations (1) and (2) the value of Ha that c o r r e -

sponds to the maximum flow of 0.200 m 3 / s can be calculated:

1.75 ( F i g u r e 7-29)

TABLE

7-9

F r e e Flow Calibrations for Selected Cut-throat Flumes, Expressed by Throatwidth W x

5

Flume Length L (85)

Discharge Ha

Q (m

per second)

TABLE 7-9 ( C o n t t d . )
Ha (cm)

Discharge Q ( m 3 p e r second)

10 X 90 20 x 90 30 x 90 20 x 180 40 x 180 60 x 180 30 270 60 270 100 270 cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm .019 ,020 .021 .022 .023 .024 .025 .026 .027 .028 .029 .030 .031 ,032 .033 .034 .035 .037 .038 .039 .040 .041 .043 .044 .045 .046 .048 .049 .050 -052 .053 .054 .056 .057 .059 .060 .062 .063 .065 .066 .068 .069 .071 .072 .074 .076 .077 .079 .080 .082 .041 .043 .045 .047 .049 .051 .053 .055 -057 .059 .061 .063 -066 .068 .070 .073 .075 .078 .080 .082 .085 .088 .090 .093 .096 .098 .lo1 .lo4 .lo7 .110 .060 .062 -065 .068 .071 .074 -077 .080 .083 .086 .089 .092 .096 .099 102 .186 109 .I13 .I16 .120 .035 ,036 .038.039 .041 ,042 .044 .045 .047 .049 .050 .052 .053 .055 .057 .059 .060 .062 .064 .066 .067 ,069 . .071 .073 .075 .077 .079 .081 .083 .085 .087 .089 .091 .093 .095 .097 .099 101 103 105 .071 .074 .077 .080 ,083 .086 .089 .092 .096 .099 .lo2 .lo6 .lo9 .112 .116 .119 123 126 .130 .134 .lo8 .112 .117 .I21 .I26 130 .135 140 145 .150 .052 .055 .057 .059 .061 .063 .065 .067 .069 .072 .074 .076 .078 .081 .083 .085 .088 .090 .093 .095 .098 .lo0 .lo3 105 . 108 .I10 .I13 .116 118 .121 107 .111 .I15 .119 123 128 132 .I37 141 146

.205 .210 .215 .220 .225 .230 .235 .240 .245 .250 .255 .260 .265 .270 ,275 .280 .285 .290 .295 .300 .305 310 ..315 .320 .325 .330 .'335 .340 .345 .350

. .

. .

. .

. 201 .209 .216 .223 .231 .238 .246

.254 ,261 .269 .277 .285 .293 .302 .310 .318 327

. 187 . 194

.I80

. .

. .

.155 ,160 .165 170 .I75 .I80 .186 .I91 ,197 .202

. 155 . 159 . 164 .169 . 174 .I79

.I93 .I99 .204 .209 .214 .219 .224 .230 .235 .241 .246 .252 .257 .263 .268 ,274 .280 .286 .291 .297 .303

. 150

. 188

. 183

. 124
.127 .131 . 135 . 139 . 143 .I47 .I51 .I55 .159 .I64 .168 172 177 181 185 190 195 199 .204

. 137
,141 .I45 149 152 .156 .160 164 .168 .172

. .

,208 .213 .219 ,225 .231 .237 .243 .249 .255 .261 ,267 .273 .279 .286 ,292 ,299 .305 .312 ,318 .325 .332 .339 ,345 .352 .359 .366 .373 ,380 .388 .395

.335 .344 .353 .361 .370 .379 .388 .397 .406 .416 .425 .434 .444 .453 .463 .473 .482 .492 .502 .512 .522 .532 .542 .552 .563 .573 .584 .594 .605 .615

.355 .360 .365 .370 .375 .380 .385 ,390 .395 .400 .405 .410 .415 .420 .425 .430 .435 .440 .445 .450

. 115 .118 . 121 . 124 . 127 . 131 . 134

.137 .I40

.112

. . . . . .

. 143 . 147
.150 .153 157 .160 163 .167 .170 . 174

.209 .213 .218 .223 .228 .233 .238 .243 .248 .253

. . . . 108 . 110 .

.176 .180 185 189 ,193 197 .202 .206 .210 .215

.
.

. .

.124 .126 129 132 .I35 138 .140 .I43 . 146 149

. . .

.112 .114 .I16 119 .121 .123 .I26 .128

.219 .224 .228 .233 .237 .242 .247 .251 ,256 .261

. .

.152 .I55 158 .I61 .164 .167 170 173 .176 .179

. 315

.309

.321 .327 .333 ,339 .346 .352 .358 .364

TABLE 7 - 9 (Cont'd.)
Discharge Q ( m3 per second) 10 x 90 20 x 90 30 x 90 20 x 180 40 x 180 60 x 180 3Cx 270 60 x 270 cm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm . 130 .266 .402 .182 .37 1 .133 .270 .409 .185 .377 . 135 .275 .417 189 .383 . 138 .280 .424 . 192 .390 .I40 .285 .432 .195 .396 .142 .290 .439 . 198 .403 . 145 .295 .447 .201 .409 . 147 .300 .454 .205 .416

Ha

( cm)
.455 .460 .465 .470 .475 .480 .485 .490

100 x 270 cm .626 .637 .648 .659 .669 . 681 .692 .703

The downstream flow depth, Hb

Hb,

becomes 0.682

Hast

0.377

0.257 m

T h e r e f o r e the floor of the flume should be placed no lower than 0 . 2 5 7 m below the high w a t e r line in the canal ( F i g u r e 7-30).

Suppose the logical Cut-throat flume s i z e n e c e s s a r y to m e a s u r e a maximum discharge of 350 11s under f r e e flow conditions m u s t be found. P r e s e n t l y , the

maximum flow depth in the channel i s 30 c m and the head l o s s i s not to exceed 15 cm. Under t h e s e conditions, the maximum downstream flow depth would be

30 c m and the maximum u p s t r e a m flow depth 45 c m (30 15 = 45). The 30 submergence would b e 67% ( 45 = 0. 67). F r o m F i g u r e 7-29 i t i s found that the only f l u m e s with a transition submergence g r e a t e r than 67% a r e those with a length of 1.15 m and above. To s e l e c t the p r o p e r flume s i z e r e f e r to Table 7-9.

Tentatively 'select the 40 x 180 c m flume and find the value of Ha which c o r r e s p o n d s to the given d i s c h a r g e of 350 11s. F o r this value the u p s t r e a m

depth i s 54 cm, which i s g r e a t e r than the allowable maximum u p s t r e a m depth of 45 cm. imposed. Consequently a l a r g e r flume s i z e i s n e c e s s a r y to satisfy the conditions F r o m Table 7-9.it i s found that the 60 x 180 c m flume h a s an u p s t r e a m

depth of 42 c m f o r a discharge of 0.350 m 3 / s , and since this value i s l e s s than the r e s t r i c t e d depth of 45 c m i t would be selected f o r u s e in this p a r t i c u l a r situation.
A slightly s m a l l e r flume s i z e could be used, e . g. a throat width, W,

between 40 and 60 c m could be selected, which however would n e c e s s i t a t e preparation of a s e p a r a t e rating table. dimensioned according to F i g u r e 7-26. With known W and L the flume can be

7. 6.4

Maintenance As f o r P a r s h a l l flumes ( s e e 7.4.8).

Experience and r e s e a r c h have 'shown that, in many r e s p e c t s , trapezoidal flumes a r e s u p e r i o r to the rectangular o r P a r s h a l l - t y p e flumes, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r

m e a s u r i n g s m a l l e r flows.

The shape conforms to the n o r m a l shape of ditches, This m i n i m i z e s the amount of transition

particularly those that a r e lined.

section needed a s compared to that r e q u i r e d when changing f r o m a trapezoidal shape to a rectangular one and back to the trapezoidal. The trapezoidal shape i s This m e a n s

a l s o desirable since the side walls expand a s the depth i n c r e a s e s . that one s t r u c t u r e can convey a l a r g e r range of flow. depth f o r a given range of discharge i s s m a l l e r .

Also, the e n t i r e range of

Another d e s i r a b l e feature of

the trapezoidal flume i s the flat bottom throughout r a t h e r than a dropped section such a s with the.Parshal1 flume. The l o s s in head, i. e . total head l o s s , through

the trapezoidal s t r u c t u r e , m a y be l e s s f o r comparable discharges. These f e a t u r e s make the trapezoidal flume particularly suited f o r installation in concrete lined ditches. The flume i s usually put on top of the

lining, thus constricting the flow section to the extent required for f r e e flow conditions over the whole range of discharges up to the design dischargk of the ditch ( F i g u r e 7-31 (a) and (b) ). The elevation of the flume floor above the ditch

bottom depends on the existing grade of the ditch; the lower the' grade the higher the elevation.

FIGURE 7-31 ( a ) and (b). - Trapezoidal m e a s u r i n g flume with a r a i s e d bottom c a s t in a concrete ditch. The discharge i s about 34 11s (1.2 f t 3 / s ) a t a submergence of about 70% (87).

A tentative standard for trapezoidal flumes, coded ASAE S 359 T, was adopted by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (AsAE) in 1972, see (103). Two c l a s s e s of flume a r e included. The f i r s t - c l a s s consists of f o u ~

experimentally calibrated flumes of short length relative to their flow capacity. Some of their characteristics a r e given in Table 7- 10. Figure 7-32 shows a standard design for the No. 1 flume. Flumes Nos. 1 and 2 a r e designed for use Flumes 3 and 4 a r e recommended primarily

in two standard lined ditch sections.

for use in unlined channels.

TABLE

7-10

Some Characteristics of the Standard Calibrated Trapezoidal Flume (Derived f r o m ASAE Standard S 359 T)
I

Flume No.

Width of approach section (= bed width qf ditch) cm

Side slope of approach section ( = side slope of ditch) (horizontal : vertical)

Range of calibrated flow depth cm

Range of calibrated flow l/s

The second c l a s s of flume has a long enough thi-oat 'section to result in parallel flow (in that section) to permit the discharge relationships td be calculated by the solution of equations describing the conservatidn of energy between the flume approach and throat sections, rather than by experimental calibration. The size and shape of the flumes were also selected for use. in Submerged flow ratings

ditches conforming to ASAE standard slipform lining.

a r e not available for this c l a s s of flume since they will operate ilnder f r e e flow conditions in channels with the specified slope o r a steeper one. Table 7- 11

gives some particulars of this c l a s s of flume which h a s been designed in 30 different types divided into five categories. parallel flow critical depth flume. Figure 7-33 illustrates a typical

PLAN VlEW

THROAT SECTION

Fitting for recorder w el I .

kl~5g

+l'-@,'+A
3'-10 g

PROFILE VlEW

E N D VIEW

FIGURE 7 - 3 2 .

Trapezoidal flume for 1 ft i r r i g a t i o n channels.

TABLE 7-11 Some Characteristics of the Standard Parallel Flow Flume (Derived from ASAE Standard S 359 T)

Flume code 11

Bed width of approach section (= bed width of ditch) cm

Side slope of approach section ( = side slope of ditch) (horizontal : vertical)

Range of maximum upstream flow depth cm

Range of maximum measurable flow I/ 8

Each flume codp represents a group of 6 geometrically slightly different flumes ,

Trapezoidal flumes can be used to measure discharge with an accuracy of

+ 5% with free flow conditions. and the flume installation. to throat area e r r o r s .

The accuracy i s however dependent on the

accuracy of the dimensions of the throat cross section, the stage of measurement Discharge e r r o r s will be approximately proportional

For trapezoidal flumes with a wide throat width, the

discharge e r r o r approaches 1.5 times the e r r o r in stage *reading. F o r flumes with a triangular throat section the discharge e r r o r wil1,pe about 2.5 times the e r r o r in stage reading (103). Submerged conditions should be avoided but may

be necessary where head loss through the flume must be reduced to the minimum.

FIGURE 7- 33.

Typical parallel flow critical depth flume.

Although the s t a n d a r d flumes mentioned above m a y be u s e d in unlined ditches if cut-off walls a r e attached t o each end, they have been designed p a r t i c u l a r l y for c o n c r e t e lined d i t c h e s . s t e e l f o r m a s shown in F i g u r e 7-34. Installation i s b e s t accomplished by a

If only a s m a l l n u m b e r of f l u m e s a r e to

be i n s t a l l e d a l i g h t e r f o r m , using plywood and t i m b e r , which a r e c h e a p e r , m a y be s a t i s f a c t o r y . Construction of a c o n c r e t e flume without using a f o r m i s not As with a l l f l u m e s

recommended i f s t a n d a r d r a t i n g t a b l e s a r e t o be applied.

the a c c u r a c y of m e a s u r e m e n t depends to a g r e a t extent on the p r e c i s i o n of construction. The t h r o a t section i s the control section and t h e r e f o r e the exact

dimensioning of t h i s a r e a i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t . F l u m e s in unlined ditches m a y be built of galvanized s t e e l s h e e t o r r e i n f o r c e d p o l y e s t e r r e s i n s . Complementary information such a s complete dimensions and r a t i n g s a r e given in the ASAE Standard (103) a s well a s in ( 5 9 ) and (87).

FIGURE 7-34. - P o r t a b l e s t e e l f o r m used to c a s t trapezoidal c o n c r e t e f l u m e s in c o n c r e t e ditches (87).

7.8

USE O F CULVERTS AS MEASURING DEVICES

7.8. 1

General Numerous c u l v e r t s a r e found in i r r i g a t i o n distribution s y s t e m s a s well a s in f a r m h e a d ditches. They a r e useful for c r o s s i n g w a t e r c o u r s e s , r o a d s o r

railway l i n e s and they a r e commonly placed through canal banks to d i v e r t water into l a t e r a l s (pipe outlets), e i t h e r with a head gate placed a t the culvert inlet to

ROD

HOOK BOLT

CLIP

SPIGOT BACK WITH PlPE ATTACHED

ANCHOR

SEATING' FACE

7 7 1
GROUT
c c

<
0

a
1

' ,

FLAT BACK ATTACHED TO CONCRETE

NOTCH CUT IN LlFT STEM AT TOP OF LlFT NUT WHEN GATE IS AT POINT OF ZERO OPENING

f/

OPENING IS DETERMINED BY MEASURING DISTANCE - GATE BETWEEN NOTCH ON STEM AND TOP OF LlFT NUT
6 MINIMUM TO INSURE COMPLETE SUBMERGENCE OF THE

'DIFFERENCE IN WATER ELEVATION IN WELLS NOT GREATPR T H A N 1 R

XJ
-

OUTLET PlPE AND A POSITIVE WATER MEASUREMENT IN THE WELL CONNECTED TO THE TOP OF PlPE BOTTOM OF OUTLET DITCH

xcIZ

ON TOP OF PlPE 4'MIN f INSTALL PIPE ON LEVEL GRADE

F I G U R E 7 - 3 5 (a) and (b).

(64).

M e t e r g a t e f o r pipe o u t l e t s

control the quantity of flow diverted to the lateral, o r without any control device.

If properly calibrated, culverts with and without control gates can be used for
discharge measurements.

Gated Culverts

A shut-off is, in most instances, required at a farm outlet because of the

manner in which the system i s operated. If properly calibrated the shut-off can

also serve a s a means of measurement and there have been numerous attempts to provide this combination.
A measuring gate used in the U. S. A. and in some other countries i s shown

in Figure 7-35 (a) and (b).

It consists of a circular plate, operated by a screw, Two stilling wells, a s shown, a r e fixed to the

which can shut off the outlet pipe.

outlet; one is connected to the canal and the other to the delivery pipe on the downstream side of the gate. The difference in water levels in the two wells and

the gate opening is measured and the discharge obtained from tables derived from standard calibrations. The head loss i s low but changes in either upstream or

downstream water levels alter the rate of flow so that periodic observations and manual adjustments a r e necessary. The flow through gated culverts may be estimated by using the formula :

where Q = discharge in 11s

C = coefficient = 0 . 7 for short culvert%. (such a s those used for farm outlets)
A = area of orifice in cm 2 g = 981 c m f s2

h Example:

= head in cm causing discharge through the orifice

Aasume orifice a r e a

300 cm2

and

H = 40 cm

Tertiary canal -Sliding iron gate

Farm ditch

L = 300 cm (minimum

FIGURE 7 - 3 6 . - Sketch of pipe outlet with sliding 'gate fdr delivery control and measurement (88)

A simpler form of gate and method of measurement i s used in the installation shown in Figure 7-36. Calibration of this type of concrete pipe

outlet has been conducted by 'the State Hydraulic Works Department in Turkey. The r e s u l t s a r e shown in Figure 7-37. After the water level in the supply canal

has been established by a canal eheck gate, the r a t e of flow through the outlet i s determined by correlating i t s gate opening to the head which i s read f r o m staff gauges up and downstream of the pipe. Although accuracy i s relatively low, the

cost to provide this measuring facility i s negligible.

45

40

35

30

25

20

15 inclined

1 0

Gote opening (cm)

- meorurad

FIGURE 7-37.

Rating curve for pipe outlet (88).

7.8.3

Un~ated Culverts The discharge of a culvert i s dependent on effective head, i t s c r o s s section, degree of submergence of inlet, pipe ( o r b a r r e l ) and outlet, shape of inlet, length, slope, and roughness of the pipe ( o r b a r r e l ) . Of the basic flow conditions that

can exist, downstream conditions ( f r e e surface, o r submerged) usually control the flow in culverts used in irrigation systems. So f a r only approximate dis-

charge formulae a r e available f o r f r e e surface flow affected by downstream conditions, and hydraulic computations a r e involved. Recent r e s e a r c h on

culvert hydraulics conducted a t the Colorado State University, Report No. 17 (96), h a s provided the theoretical b a s i s on which culverts can be accurately rated a s flow measuring devices for t h r e e basic flow conditions. Rating tables have been

produced for a 30.5 cm (12 inch) diametric corrugated metal pipe for various slopes, including horizontal, and pipe lengths of 1.5, 3 and 6 m (5, 10 and 20 ft), and the r e p o r t recommends discharge rating experiments be extended to a variety of culvert sizes and lengths.

PROPELLER METERS

General Propeller m e t e r s a r e commercial flow measuring devices used near the end of pipes o r conduits flowing full (under gravity flow) o r a s in-line m e t e r s in pressurized pipe systems. The latter application will not be discussed h e r e ,

since p r e s s u r e distribution systems a r e excluded f r o m the scope of this Handbook If used for gravity flow the m e t e r i s also known a s an open flow m e t e r . The

propeller rotates about a horizontal axle which i s geared to a totalizing head that r e c o r d s the total number of cubic m e t r e s o r cubic feet, passing the measuring section. Some m e t e r s indicate instantaneous discharge a s well.

Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s Hydraulic properties such a s range of discharge, head l o s s and calibration curves, vary slightly between manufacturers who usually furnish such data for individual types. The data quoted below r e f e r to one make which may be

generally representative of m o s t of the available propeller m e t e r s

FIGURE 7-38.

FIGURE 7-39. - Propeller meter installed at a pipe outlet.

FIGURE 7-40. - Register of a propeller meter.

The diagram in Figure 7-41 shows that the flow velocity should fall within the range from 0.35 m / s (1.15 f t / s ) to 2.5 m / a (8.2 f t / s ) and that *e normal flow velocity should preferably range between the limits 1.3 to 2.0 m / s (4.25 to 6.5 ftfs).

If the velocity falls short of 0.35 m / s accuracy rapidly deteriorates.

Max. test flow velocitv ronoe Min. test flow,

1I

FIGURE 7-41. Range ability of a propeller meter and the selection of meter diameter (t4% accuracy).

Example of determination of required propeller diameter : Given Maximum design flow Minimumdesignflow Normal flow rate Solution
'

0.5 m3/ s 0.15m3/s 0.4 m 3 / s

= =

F r o m Figure 7-41 it i s found that a propeller diameter of 600 mm Its permissible velocity range covers the

would best fit the given flows.

required maximum and minimum flows and the normal flow rate may be diecharged within the normal velocity range.

F r o m the p r o p e l l e r d i a m e t e r required, the suitable pipe d i a m e t e r i s d e t e r mined. The l a t t e r should be f r o m 1. 25 to 2.0 t i m e s a s l a r g e a s the propeller.

F o r n o r m a l velocity distribution in the m e a s u r i n g section the pipe u p s t r e a m of the m e t e r should be s t r a i g h t f o r a length of 15 pipe d i a m e t e r s . Straightening This

vanes may be r e q u i r e d ahead of the device i f spiralling flow i s expected. m a y develop a t the entrance f r o m the canal into the pipe.

F o r p r o p e r r e g i s t r a t i o n the p r o p e l l e r m u s t be completely submerged. Therefore, if occasionally the pipe i s to be run only partly filled, a backwater h a s t o be c r e a t e d a t the outlet. This i s done by installing a submerged weir with a The face of the weir should be a t

c r e s t 10 c m ( 4 inches) above the top of the pipe.

l e a s t 1 m e t r e plus 2 pipe d i a m e t e r s away f r o m the pipe mouth ( s e e F i g u r e 7-42). The head l o s s e s of the m e t e r shown in F i g u r e s 7-38 to 7-40 a r e 10 c m
( 4 inches) for flow velocities below 2.5 m / s ( 8 . 2 f t / s ) and 15 c m ( 6 inches) for

flow velocities f r o m 2. 5 up to 3 m / s (10 f t / s ) . Performance P r o p e l l e r m e t e r s a r e used to a considerable extent in the U. S. A., Japan and Australia, and some other countries have s t a r t e d to introduce them. They

may be used with advantage in s y s t e m s where water i s sold on a volumetric b a s i s since flow volumes a r e given directly without computation. Other advantages However,

a r e s m a l l head l o s s e s , and independence f r o m external power. propeller m e t e r s do suffer f r o m some distinct limitations :

the m e t e r s a r e v e r y susceptible to weeds ahd other d e b r i s in the flowing water; suspended sediments m a y enter into the bearings and reduce the number of p r o p e l l e r revolutions thus resulting in under - r e g i s t r a t i o n ;

the m e t e r s m u s t be submerged under a l l flow conditions; m a n u f a c t u r e r s usually c l a i m a d e g r e e of m e a s u r i n g accuracy which may be obtained under controlled l a b o r a t o r y conditions (e.g. f 2% a c c u r a c y ) but hardly under field conditions; a p a r t f r o m e r r o r s introduced by d e b r i s and bearing problems, considerable registration e r r o r s may be caused by faulty installation. be c l o s e r to Under average field conditions the m e a s u r i n g accuracy m a y

+ 5% than + 2% and even l e s s .

the serviceable life i s relatively short; Japanese s o u r c e s c l a i m a life of 5

Dia. 13 (@ 2 5 0

Front elevation or plane Section B-B

5 0 0 mm 5 = 1,500 mm for 6 0 0 mm 2 The half of the pipe is used for the attachment t o the square box 3 The water vent and top is installed in the inside wolf i f indicated 4 Standard size of 6 1 ,B2 61= 2 4 + 1,000 mm (min. 1,200 mm) B2 if Dl & 5 0 0 mm 5 , = 5 0 0 mm Dl 3 5 0 0 m m 6 , = 1,000 mm

I. B = 1,200 mm for Dl

43

F A O - lClO
Dia. 13 @ 2 5 0 STANDARD DESIGN OF OPEN TYPE Section A-A PROPELLER METER Project , Reqron, Country Unspeclfled , Jopon F~gureNo 7-42

to 8 y e a r s .

7.9.4

propeller m e t e r s require continuous maintenance may cause problems; the r i s k of damage i s high;

- purchase of spare p a r t s

propeller m e t e r s a r e relatively expensive to purchase. Design Example Figure 7-42 shows a standard design developed in Japan for low p r e s s u r e

pipe systems. The design i s easily modified to fit into a pipe outlet to an open ditch.

7.10 7.10.1

DEFLECTION METERS General A deflection m e t e r consists of a vane o r rod dipped in the flowing water and mounted on a horizontal spindle a c r o s s the measuring section in a channel. calibrated scale giving the instantaneous discharge. indication a r e in use: The deflection caused by the f o r c e of the flow against the vane o r rod i s indicated on a At l e a s t two systems of

in the simplest one a pointer indicates the deflection on a

fixed vertical scale ( F i g u r e s 7-43 and 7-44); a m o r e advanced type consists of a bubble glass tube attached to a scale that i s directly fixed on the top of the vane. The discharge i s determined by reading the position of the centre of the bubble against the scale ( F i g u r e 7-45).

FIGURE 7-43. - Example of a deflection m e t e r with a pointer indicating against a fixed vertical scale (Rajasthan, India).

FIGURE 7-44.

The Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r in u s e

Deflection m e t e r s a r e usually manufactured commercially but a s shown in F i g u r e 7-43 and 7-44 can be constructed locally a s well. The m e t e r s a r e The

usually portable and m a y be e a s i l y moved f r o m one station to another.

b e a r i n g s which keep the m e t e r in position a r e usually permanently installed in a trapezoidal o r rectangular m e a s u r i n g section.

Thus one m e t e r head can s e r v e a

number of ditches of about the s a m e flow capacities, provided these ditches a r e

equipped with permanent liner sections.

Each m e t e r handles about 1: 15 range of

flows in a given size of ditch and automatically compensates for different combinations of velocity and depth. Under ideal conditions a measuring accuracy of

+ 2% may be obtained but in Wind i s a m a j o r source

practice the level of accuracy depends on local factors. of inaccuracy and can produce l a r g e e r r o r s .

Since deflection m e t e r s a r e handy and easy to install, they have been used successfully in field t r i a l s for irrigation efficiency and water management studies, a s well a s for water distribution control at the f a r m level.

FIGURE 7-45.

Commercially available deflection m e t e r .

Elevotion

End elevation

Slot to just OllOw, possoge of r o d -

4nti-vortex boffk

Table of dimensions

_IZ.

I
a,:*ionol elevotbn A-A

7-

Rods, needle bearings, lock nuts to be of brass Tube, 60f f le i n d heodwoll t o be of 245 G.I.

f .3 -

Plon

FIGURE 7-46. flow meter.

Sketch of the Rajasthan channel

The m e t e r shown i n F i g u r e 7-44 i s commercially available in 16 standard models. The s m a l l e s t model h a s a capacity range of 3 t o 100 11s ( 0 . 1 to 3.5

ft3/ s ) while the l a r g e s t model i s applicable to a flow r a n g e f r o m 40 t o 850 l / s (1.5 to 30 f t 3 / s ) . The cost (in 1968) ranged f r o m $595 t o $615 f o r the m e t e r s

and f r o m $ 4 3 to $ 8 3 f o r the l i n e r sections; i t i s c l e a r t h e r e f o r e that t h i s type of device i s economic only if one m e t e r can s e r v e a s many m e a s u r i n g stations a s po s sible

7.10.2

The Rajasthan Channel Flow M e t e r The Rajasthan Channel Flow Meter ( F i g u r e s 7-43, 7-44 and 7-46) was developed by the FAO/UNDP P r o j e c t

- Soil and Water Management R e s e a r c h and

Demonstration in the Rajasthan Canal A r e a , in 1970, a s a m e a n s of m e a s u r i n g flows in i r r i g a t i o n efficiency t r i a l s . Design c r i t e r l a for the m e t e r a r e : they should b e operated with a negligible head l o s s in muddy water containing some t r a s h ; they should be simple, robust, capable of manufacture by village c r a f t s m e n and portable; the a c c u r a c y should be of the o r d e r of 10% o r b e t t e r and the indicating device should be simple to r e a d . On this b a s i s four different s i z e s have been developed a s indicated below. M e t e r Size cm inch Measurement Range 11s ft5/ s

A cost of 150 Indian r u p e e s ($20) was quoted (in 1970) for the 30 c m m e t e r .

F i e l d testing showed that in g e n e r a l deflections and discharge corresponded well in the middle r a n g e s of flow, with an a c c u r a c y of high flows r e s u l t s w e r e scattered. 10/o, while a t low o r

It i s concluded that the flow m e t e r a p p e a r s

to be a cheap and useful m e a s u r i n g device, that with reasonable c a r e in manufacture, handling and installation, will attain m e a s u r e m e n t s within accuracy limits.

+ 570

0 0 0.01

Flow

in ft/s
0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11

0.02 0.03

004 0 0 5 0 0 6 0.07 1 ' 1 I 1 3 Flow in m / s

FIGURE 7 - 4 7 . - Sample calibration curve. for 30 c m ( 1 2 inch) Rajasthan Channel flow m e t e r . '

7.11

THE DETHRIDGE METER The Dethridge m e t e r i s a self-integrating m e a s u r i n g device developed in Australia. It i s designed particularly to fit f a r m outlets and i s t h e r e f o r e

d i s c u s s e d in detail i n Chapter 5, F a r m Outlets, Section 5.5.

7.12

THE CONSTANT HEAD ORIFICE TURNOUT The Constant Head Orifice Turnout i s a combined regulating and m e a s u r i n g device that u s e s an adjustable submerged orifice for the m e a s u r e m e n t of d i s -

charge.

The structure may be installed in canal intakes o r (the m o s t common A comprehensive

application) may s e r v e a s a f a r m outlet (or f a r m turnout).

description of the structure i s given in Chapter 3, Section 3.4.

7.13

CALIBRATION O F MEASURING STRUCTURES Calibration of a measuring -structure i s required in o r d e r to establish in numerical values the exact relationships between water stage o r gauge height and discharge for any given water depth o r opening (in the case of orifices). Most of the standardized measuring weirs and flumes have been extensively calibrated through laboratory o r field t e s t s and the r e s u l t s a r e available in published rating tables o r graphs. If the individual measuring s t r u c t u r e s be

built to these standard dimensions, these tables will be directly applicable with a high degree of accuracy, say f r o m

+ 170to + 5%.

However, if in actual

practice dimensions and m a t e r i a l s of in-situ-built s t r u c t u r e s differ so much f r o m standard that application of standard rating tables would cause e r r o r s above

+ 5%, -

individual field calibration may be n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to i n c r e a s e accuracy Calibration i s usually required where ordinary gates,

to acceptable values.

sluices o r other existing s t r u c t u r e s a r e to be used for water measurement.

In calibrating an individual structure, a s e r i e s of discharge measurements

a r e made covering the whole range of water depths o r the whole range of gate openings expected in the future and the working heads a r e recorded simultaneously. F r o m this information curves o r tables have to be prepared.

F o r calibration measurements the current m e t e r method i s commonly used a s described in many textbooks. known dimensions. Measurements a r e made in a rating section of

The rating section should be situated in a uniform channel

reach, f r e e f r o m disturbances caused by upstream conditions such a s bends, waves and other distorting influences. A l a r g e number of current m e t e r

readings a r e required to obtain a good match curve a s individual readings may vary considerably. Another calibration method that, where applicable, will yield accurate r e s u l t s i s the use of a temporary weir o r flume of standard type installed ups t r e a m or downstream of the permanent structure to be calibrated. F o r this

method, however, sufficient fall h a s to be available to ensure f r e e fall conditions.

LIST

OF

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Boyaci, R. and Savaskan, C. F a r m Layout and Distribution S y s t e m s - C u m r a 1964 Karkin I r r i g a t i o n Development P r o j e c t . R e p o r t on the 5th I r r i g a t i o n P r a c t i c e s Seminar, NESA Region, New Delhi. De L o s Rios Romero, D. F. Consideraciones Sobre F u t u r o s P r o y e c t o s de O b r a s 1963 en l a s Zonas Regables. Ministry of Agriculture, Spain. 73. Robinson, A. R. and Hurnpherys, A. S. Water Control and M e a s u r e m e n t on the 1967 F a r m . Irrigation of Agricultural Land. U. S. A. 1967. USDA 'Soil Conservation S e r v i c e - Engineering Handbook Section 1 1 , Standard S t r u c t u r a l P l a n s . Lincoln, Nebraska.
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Ponzoulet, J. M. and P o r c h e r o n , R. Utilization d'un ordinatein pour l e calcul d e s / r e s e a u x m o d e r n e s d'irrigation - calcul pratique d e s debits a l a 1967 "demand" optimisation de s p a r a m e t r e s d e s canalisations. ICID Annual Bulletin. Starosolszky, 0. Measuring Irrigation Water for Investigating the efficiency of 1962 an Irrigation System. ICID Annual Bulletin. Canada

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Va- son-Boonkird. C u l v e r t s a s Flow Measuring Devices. Water Management 1972 Technical Report No 17, Colorado State University, F o r t Collins, Colorado, F e b r u a r y . types de stations de pompage V e r d i e r , J. and ~ a ~ n \ e r e J s., ~ i f f g r e n t s automatiques. L a Houille Blanche, 5: pp 593- 610. Conseil Superieur de llAgriculture Roumaine. Fonctionnement et rGgulation d e s canaux d'irrigation. P e r i m e t r e c a r a s u . FA0 1971

Automated Irrigation. European Commission on Agriculture. Working P a r t y on Water R e s o u r c e s and Irrigation. Tel Aviv, I s a r e l , 1970. Irrigation and Drainage P a p e r No 5. Rome.

Humpherys, A. S., Garton, J. E. and K r u s e , E . G. Auto-Mechanization of Open 1970 Channel Distribution Systems. Proceedings of t h e National Irrigation Symposium, November 1970. 20 p. USDA, U. S. A. Humphery s, A. S. Automatic Equipment f o r Surface Irrigation. Working P a p e r for presentation at 1968 Annual Meeting of the Oregon Reclamation 1968 Congress, USDA, Kimberley, Idaho, U. S. A. Shipley, H. Development of Automation on Salt River P r o j e c t . 1970 Irrigation and Drainage Division, ASCE, June. Journal of the

ASAE Agricultural E n g i n e e r s Year Book - Trapezoidal F l u m e s for Irrigation 197 3 - Flow Measurement. Tentative Standard: ASAE S359 T. Bos, M. G. The Romijn Movable Measuring cum Regulating Weir. Working Paper, International Institute f o r Land Reclamation and Improvement, 1972 Wageningen, the Netherlands. 1972.

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Submerged W e i r s and Standing Wave W e i r s .

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Crump, E . S. Moduling of Irrigation Channels. Punjab Irrigation Branch, P a p e r 1922 No 26, G o v t . P r e s s , Punjab, Lahore. Korea-Agric. E n g r . R e s . Centre. Experiment for PVC Pipe Turnout. Hydraulic Experiment Report No 47, December. 1969 Hamid, Chowdhry Abdul. Distribution and Measurement of Irrigation Supplies 1957 in West Pakistan. ICID, T r a n s . 3rd Congress on Irrigation and Drainage, Vol IV, Q 9, R 18, pp 9. 234 - 9. 250. New Delhi. Inglis, C. C. Modules and Semi-Modules for Irrigation. Congr., Bombay, Vol IX, P a p e r No 8. 192 1 Kruse,E.G. The Constant-Head-Orifice F a r m Turnout. 1955 Publ. ARS 41 -93, January. P r o c . Bombay Engng.

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L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s Cont'd. Mahajan, I.K. and Handa, C.L. Control and Distribution of Water in Irrigation 1957 Systems with Special Reference t o t h e Punjab. ICID T r a n s . 3 r d Congress on Irrigation and Drainage, Vol IV, Q 9, R 25, pp 9.3699.398. New Delhi. Mahbub, S. I. and Gulhati, N. D. 1951 Delhi. Neyrpic 1951 I r r i g a t i o n Outlets. p p 184. Atma R a m & Sons,

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NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS-11

Area A r e a of c r o s s section A r e a of c r i t i c a l section

Breadth o r width (usually a c r o s s the a x i s of flow) Bed width of canal u p s t r e a m a fall, syphon, aqueduct, etc. , and in p a r e n t channel in c a s e of intakes and outlets Bed width of canal downstream a fall, syphon, aqueduct, etc. Bed width i n the offtake channel below the intake o r w a t e r c o u r s e below the outlet Width of t h r o a t o r controlling section o r width of weir c r e s t a c r o s s the a x i s of flow Width of inlet Width a t outlet end Width of gate opening o r sluice opening Wi dth of stilling basin, c i s t e r n , etc.

'/

F o r terminology and definitions r e f e r e n c e should be m a d e to the Multilingual Technical Dictionary on Irrigation and Drainage published by the ICID in 1967.

Coefficient of discharge Coefficient of roughness Coefficient of submergence Coefficient of submergence of hydraulic jump Coefficient in Chezy's formula Coefficient, approach velocity

Depth of canal Designed depth of canal (if distinguished) ~ e ~ oft canal h u p s t r e a m of falls, proportional d i s t r i b u t o r s o r d i v i s o r s , syphons, aqueducts, e t c . , and i n parent channels of outlets and offtake channels Depth of canal downstream of falls, etc. and depth of offtake channels below intakes and of w a t e r c o u r s e s below outlets Depth of stilling basin Diameter D i a m e t e r of pipe Discharge Discharge intensity o r discharge p e r unit width Discharge in the parent canal Discharge of offtake channels o r outlets Small i n c r e m e n t in discharge Distances and spacings

Efficiencies

Flexibility F r e e board Froude number

Height over h a r ding s Head over c r e s t , etc. Working head

*

~ e a d - d u to e velocity of approach Head l o s s Height of gate opening Height of c r e s t above u p s t r e a m bed level Height of c r e s t above bottom level of stilling basin Height of c r e s t above downstream bed level Height of u p s t r e a m water level above soffits of orifices, pipes, etc. Height of orifice above c r e s t o r bottom level of control section Hydraulic d r o p Depth of flow a t the beginning of hydraulic jump o r super critical sequent depth Depth of flow a t the end of hydraulic jump o r subcritical sequent depth Critical depth corresponding to minimum energy

L Length Length of c r e s t along the axis of flow Length of glacis Length of stilling basin Length of pipe Length of jump

Proportionality

Radius Hydraulic radius Ratio

Sensitivity Shear s t r e s s Slope (longitudinal) Side slope

Thickness

Velocity Critical velocity von K a r m a n ' s constant

Weights Specific weight of fluid

.and and econon