The Lisbon Mummy Project: The employment of non-destructive methods in mummy studies

lvaro Figueiredo

Introduction During research in Lisbon for a PhD (Institute of Archaeology, University College London) on the palaeoepidemiology of Roman Period populations in Portugal and Egypt, I became aware of the fact that the Egyptian mummies in the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia (MNA) had never been the subject of a comprehensive study. Although their present display in the mummification section of the Egyptian Rooms of the Museum had resulted in the study of the objects associated with them (i.e. cartonnage coffin and linen shrouds), a basic scientific examination of the specimens, such as standard X-ray analysis, was never carried out. This situation called for the urgent creation of a research project to study the mummies. Following the example of similar studies (David and Tapp 1992; Harris and Wente 1980; Melcher et al. 1997; Taylor 1995), and inspired by the pioneering work carried out by the team of the Manchester Museum Mummy Project (David 1979), such a project has been created. The Lisbon Mummy Project will have a multidisciplinary approach in the study of the human and animal mummies, and their associated artefacts, and will employ non-destructive analytical methods. The Project will include international specialists from the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia, the Institute of Archaeology (University College London), Instituto Portugus de Arqueologia (Lisbon), the British Museum (London), the American University in Cairo and the University of LAquila (Italy). Methods and aims of the project The research methodologies to be employed in this study will be non-destructive and will rely primarily on the radiographic examination of the specimens. This will be achieved through the use of conventional flat plate radiography and computed axial tomography to derive the maximum possible information concerning sex, age, stature, biological affinity, dietary reconstruction and palaeopathology. Radiography will allow visual access to the interior of the mummies without the need to unwrap or dissect them and the restricted use of endoscopy will permit sampling of human tissue and embalming materials from the interior of the bodies. These will then be prepared for histological, genetic, palaeobotanical and radiocarbon analyses. The cultural context of human and animal mummification will be addressed, whilst conservation and stabilisation of the mummies and associated artefacts will also take place. Finally, the project aims to promote the understanding of the bioarchaeology of ancient Egypt amongst the scientific community and the wider public. To achieve this we hope to present the results of the Lisbon Mummy Project in a series of research articles and through the organisation of a conference and exhibition.

30 The historical background of the collection The Museu Nacional de Arqueologia houses an important collection of Egyptian antiquities collected by various travellers to Egypt during the 19th and early 20th centuries (Arajo 1987; 19901992; 19931994; Guedes 19931994). In 1909, the Museum director, Leite de Vasconcelos, attended the World Archaeological Congress in Cairo, and returned with various artefacts (including prehistoric stone tools and Graeco-Roman ceramics) presented to him by Evaristo Breccia (Dawson and Uphill 1995, 63), the director of the Graeco Roman Museum in Alexandria. These objects formed the beginnings of the Egyptian Collection, which was subsequently greatly enlarged with the addition of objects acquired by Queen Amelia of Portugal during her visit to Egypt (Figure 1) and Palestine in 1903.

Figure 1. The Portuguese Royal party at Giza, 1903. Queen Amelia can be seen in the centre of the group, seated on a camel. The men in uniform are staff of the Portuguese Consulate in Cairo (Photograph courtesy of the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia).

Whilst in Cairo, she was the guest of Khedive Abbas Hilmi II, who presented the royal party with a gift of Egyptian antiquities for the King of Portugals private collection. With the declaration of the Portuguese Republic in October 1910, ownership of this collection reverted to the state, eventually finding its way to the MNA. Gifts from private collections especially those belonging to the last Duke of Palmela added considerably to the Museums collection of Egyptian antiquities.

31 At present, the Museum has 560 artefacts of Egyptian provenance, representing all the (Arajo 1993). main phases of ancient Egyptian civilisation Of these, around 300 objects are exhibited in the Egyptian Rooms of the Museum, making it the largest collection of its kind in Portugal. The exhibition, arranged according to subject (i.e. sculpture, daily life, funerary), displays objects of a highly diverse nature, ranging in time rom f the Prehistoric to the Coptic Periods. Whilst flint tools represent the Mesolithic, objects such as pallets, pottery, mace heads and flint knives illustrate the Predynastic Period c (.50003050 B.C.E.). There are also a number of stone vases, pottery an d objects of daily use, such as footwear, combs and jewellery dating from the Old Kingdom (2663 2195 B.C.E.) to the New Kingdom (1550 1069 B.C.E.). Funerary relief sculpture and various pieces of statuary dating from the Middle Kingdom (2066 1650 B.C.E.) t o the New Kingdom are also exhibited, together with some interesting examples of wooden funerary models dated to the First Intermediate Period (2195 2066 B.C.E.) and Mi ddle Kingdom (20661650 B.C.E.) ,as well as wooden funerary statuettes dating from the La te Period (525323 B.C.E.) and Ptolemaic Period (30430 B.C.E.). Coffins, coffin fragments, canopic equipment, inscribed funerary cones, scarabs, ushabtis and amulets, together with the mummies, complete the section on funerary practices. A number of Late Period bronzes also form part of the collection. The Graeco-Roman Period (332 B.C.E. 395 C.E. is represented by objects such as votive stelae, terracotta figurines, pottery, glass and coins. The exhibition of the collection ends withCoptic Period (after 395 C.E.) pottery, ostraca, papyri and textiles.

Materials of study As for the focus of t he Lisbon Mummy Project it will examine the Museum s entire collection of ancient Egyptian mummified remains which comprisesof two human and six animal mummies, as well as a sandstone canopic vessel containing organic matter. One of the human mummies (MNA 217, Figure 2), is enclosed in a painted cartonnage coffin characteristic of the Third Intermediate Period (1070712 B.C.E.), probably belonging to the 22nd Dynasty (948 743 B.C.E.). The deceased is identified by the name Irtierw, at the end of an htp d nsw inscription painted vertically along the front of the coffin, between its legs. The head of the anthropoid coffin wears a large black wig, framing the face whichis painted red-brown and once wore a false beard (now lost). A large floral pectoral is depicted on the chest and shoulders. The body of the coffin is covered with representations of funerary deities arranged horizontally and painted on a white background. The upper portion shows a stylised representation of the Osiris sanctuary at Abydos surmounted by the winged solar disc, crowned by two kachuti plumes. On both sides of the sanctuary are represented, in two registers, the deities responsible for the prot ection of the body and its internal organs. In the upper register to the left are Isis and Selqet, and on the opposite side, Nephthys and Neith. Thoth is represented in the second register to the left, followed by Imseti and Duamutef, and opposite Horus who is followed by Hapy and Qebehsenuef. They all face towards the sanctuary in adoration. In the middle of the coffin is a large representation of a falcon with outstretched wings. The vertical inscription that stretches

32

Figure 2. The cartonnage mummy of Irtierw. 22nd Dynasty (948 743 B.C.E.), Third Intermediate Period, Provenance unknown (Photograph courtesy of the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia).

Figure 3. Ptolemaic Period (304 30 B.C.E.) mummy. Provenance unknown (Photograph courtesy of the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia).

33 from this point down to the area between the feet of the coffin is surrounded on either side by large winged figures of Isis andNephthys, first in human and then in bird form. The foot base of the coffin was closed by a wooden bo ard with a painted representation of the Apis bull in its centre. This has now been removed and is undergoing restoration. The back of the coffin is almost entirely covered by a largedjed pillar , painted on a white background and surmounted by the upper p ortion of the body of Osiris. The hieroglyphic inscription identifieshim as Osiris, Lord of Busiris. The second mummy (MNA 215, Figure 3) is an unnamed individual bearing a cartonnage mask and dates to the Ptolemaic Period. It is still fully wrapped inlinen bandages with a painted linen shroud decorated with a short htp d nsw inscription and representations of Isis, Nephthys and the Four Sons of Horus. The external wrappings are unfortunately damaged in the area of the right shoulder and feet. The canopic vase (MNA 221222, Figure 4), made of sandstone with traces of black paint, dates to the early Late Period. Its huma n-headed lid represents Imseti, one of the Four Sons of Horus. With the lid, it measures approximately 26.5 cm in height; the middle of the vessel is about 13 cm in width. Organic material of a black appearance, probably the remains of internal organs, is still preserved in the interior of the vessel. The animal specimens consist of four juvenilecrocodile mummies and two bird mummies. One of the crocodile specimens (MNA 231) still has some of its resin - impregnated linen bandages intact, while the other three (MNA 232, 2 33 and 234) appear to have been unwrapped in the recent past. They date to the Graeco -Roman Period (332 B.C.E. 395 C.E.) a nd may have come from Kom Ombo, a cult centre dedicated to the crocodile god Sobek. The bird mumm ies include a wrapped falcon (MNA 230, Figure 5), and a sealed pottery coffin (MNA 235) that probably contains an ibis. The falcon mummy, which dates from the Late or Ptolemaic Period has lost part of its outer wrappings and seems to have been mummified in a standing position, in a manner resembling representations ofHorus and other bird deities. The pottery coffin resembles specimens from the catacombs at Tuna elGebel (Hermopolis), which like the ibis itself were sacred to the god Thoth (El - Mahdy 1989, 162; Ikram and Dodson 1998, 135 136).

Radiographic analysis Petrie (1898, pl. 37) was the first Egyptologist to examine Egyptian mummies using radiography. This approach became more common from the 1960s onwards (Dawson and Gray 1968; Gray 1973), culminating in the work on the royal mummies in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo (Harris and Wente 1980), and the Manchester Mummy Project (David 1979; Isherwood et al . 1979; 1984). Radiography allows for the examination of the interior of a mummy without the need to unwrap or dissect it and usually provides valuable bioarchaeological and cultural information about the specimen. The first step of the Lisbon Mummy Projec t involves the X-raying (conventional flat plate radiography) ofthe human and animal mummies. Since both human mummies are still fully wrapped, the X -ray plates will reveal the bodies internal arrangements, state of preservation and the presence of objects such as amulets and pectoral ornaments located within the wrappings or the body cavity. Computed axial tomography (CT) will then be used to obtain detailed information about the mummies interior. These images will give detailed information on

34 the nature of the cartonnage, linen bandaging, body packing, embalming substances (such as resin), amulets, soft tissue, organ packages (if present) and the skeleton (Brown and Wood 1999; Filer 1997; 1998; 2002; Melcher et al . 1997; Pickering et al. 1990; Ruhli and Boni 2000; Stanworth et al . 1986). Information on the presence of embalmers incisions, subcutaneous packing, removal of the brain, position of the arms, the use of artificial ey es (Gray 1971; 1972; Ikram and Dodson 1998) and organ packages inside the body will also be investigated. This information isimportant as mummy preparation methods can provide valuable data on the social status of the individuals,as well as their age and date.

Figure 4. Sandstone canopic vessel (7th/6th cent ury B.C.E.). Provenance unknown (Photograph courtesy of the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia).

35 Past CT studies have also been able to determine if a body was restored in antiquity, as was sometimes necessary after damage due to disturbances such as tomb robbing (David 1979; Tapp 1979). Individuals will be e sxed on the basis of pelvic and cranial morphology (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994, although if genitalia are preserved, these will be clearly visible in CT scans. Age estimates will be determined using standardmethods (B uikstra and Ubelaker 1994), while stature will also be estimated from the X-rays and CT scans. CT scans also permit the study of dental pathology, developmental disorders, bone trauma, parasite infestation, physical abnormalities and other indicators of health or disease.

Figure 5. Falcon mummy. Late Period (525 332 BCE) or Ptolemaic (304 30 BCE). Provenance unknown (Photograph courtesy of the Museu Nacional de Arqueologia).

36 It is anticipated that the high resolution of CT images (Brown and Wood 1999) willpermit the detection of parasites, such as Schistosoma haematobium which has been identified in the kidneys (Ruffer 1910) and bladder (Isherwood et al. 1979) of mummified remains and skeletal lesions caused by certain diseases (Sandison and Tapp 1998); all without the need to unwrap or dissect the remains.

Endoscopic examination and contents of the canopic vessel The interior of a mummified body may also be examined using endoscopes (Tapp et al . 1984; Tapp and Wildsmith 1986; 1992), which can be ins erted into a body through natural orifices and post-mortem damage ( i.e. embalmers incisions), although this is only possible if such openings are exposed and accessible. This technique is inappropriate for the mummy of Irtierw as it is still fully wrappedand encased in cartonnage (Figure 2). Endoscopy will therefore only be used for the Ptolemaic mummy (Figure 3), as access to the thorax and possibly the abdomen can be obtained through a breach in the wrappings over the right shoulder. In addition to providing an opportunity to examine the body s interior, endoscopic techniques also permit the removal of small tissuesamples for further analysis (Tapp 1992; Tapp and Wildsmith 1986). Mummified tissue can be re-hydrated and stained for detailed analysis by b oth light and scanning electron microscopy (Curry et al . 1979; Lewin and Cutz 1976), while immunological tests may also reveal the presence of specific antigens such as those responsible for schistosomiasis andmalaria (Deelder et al . 1990; Miller et al. 1993; Taylor 1995). Samples of embalming agents (such as resin) and packing materials (such as sawdust, linen and mud) may also be retrieved for further study. Insects may also be present, such as the remains of carrion beetles (Dermestes frischii and Dermestes ater ) found in previous studies (Curry 1979; Taylor 1995), which may provide information on the duration of exposure before mummification. Finally, the analysis of pollen samples and plant remains may assist indetermining the season of the individual s death. Histological (Tapp 1992) and chemical techniques will be employed in identifying the contents of the canopic jar (Figure 4). According to the iconography of the lid (representing the human - headed Imseti), remains of a mummified liver package should be found inside. However, while the four organ packages placed in canopic vessels or inside the body ought to contain the remains of the liver, lungs, stomach and intestines, previous research indicates that the contents do not always correspond to the correct organ package. For example, of the four packages found within a mummy (PUM II) in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (Cockburn et al . 1998), three contained pieces of lung, while the fourth contained a mixtur e of intestine and spleen.

The animal mummies While there were numerous motives for ancient Egyptian animal mummification (Ikram and Dodson 1998, 131 136), the animal remains in the Lisbon collection seem to have been mummified as votive offerings. From the Late Period onwards several animal species were mummified at special cult centres and bought by pilgrims who offered the mummies to the gods. These were buried in catacomb-like structures sacred to the deity with whom they

37 were associated, the practice becoming especially popular during the Ptolemaicand Roman Periods. It has been estimated that around 10,000 birds were buried annually in the bird catacombs at Saqqara (Aufderheide 2003, 399 -400; Ikr am and Dodson 1998, 135), while the catacombs at Tuna el-Gebel are thought to contain over four million bird burials (El Mahdy 1989, 162). The animal mummies in the Lisbon collection will also be studied using the same range of techniques applied to the human specimens in order to accura tely determine species, as well as additional information such as age, pathology and cause of death (Filer 1995). The latter is especially important since it is now generally accepted that some of the animal species that were presented as votive offerings, were reared, killed a nd mummified especially to serve that ritual purpose. Mummification techniques will also be addressed, with particular attention being paid to the bird mummies as previous studies have shown some of these to be fakes, containing only a few bones, feather s, reeds, wood, or even pottery (Ikram and Dodson 1998, 135 136). In such cases, the elaborate external wrappings were made up to look like the mummy of a bird.

Conservation One of the main aims of the project entails the stabilisation and conservation of the mummified tissues and associated materials. Intervention will take place only where it is deemed necessary by the team of conservators, and consideration will be given to the reversibility of any processcarried out. Work will begin with a general as s essment of the state of preservation of the materials before handling by the team. Both human mummies, although stable at present, will require conservation before being returned to their exhibition cases. The cartonnage coffin of Irtierw needs particular attention. In the recent past a cut was made along the sides and across the back of the coffin in order to gain access to the mummy in its interior. The wooden board covering the foot end of the coffin has also become separated and, as mentioned above, ha s already been removed for conservation. Once the radiographic study is complete, the board will be returned to its original position. The Ptolemaic mummy also needs urgent conservation to its outer wrappings, which have suffered damage around the area of the right shoulder and feet. Some elements the tarsals of the latter have become detached and have been stored separately. During the work of conservation they will be returned to their original position in the mummy. The condition of the textiles willbe assessed, and where there are areas of deterioration that may suffer further damage, these may be repaired with a supportive textile backing.

Conclusion Outlined in the present paper are the main research objectives of the Lisbon Mummy Project. By employing a combination of non-destructive analytical techniques, coupled with a limitedrange of invasive techniques, the project will provide the maximum possible information concerning each individuals life history, as well as the cultural aspects surrounding the practice of human and animal mummification in ancient Egypt. Although not original (this work is inspired by and closely follows previous research projects in the field of mummy studies), the project is innovative in the sense that it is the fir st of its kind ever to be carried out in Portugal, and will provide a framework for future research projects

38 on mummy studies. The results of the Lisbon Mummy Project will be made available to the scientific community and wider public, and through them we hope to make a valuable contribution to the understanding of the bioarchaeology of ancient Egypt.

Institute of Archaeology, UCL Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Luis Raposo, Director of the Mus eu Nacional de Arqueologia, for his continuing support of the Lisbon Mummy Project, and the Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia (Portugal). Thanks are also due to my colleagues and team members, Daniel Antoine and Lawrence Owens, for their useful comments on sections of this paper.

References
- Arajo, L. M. 1987, A coleco de antiguidades egpcias do Museu Nacional de Arqueologia e Etnologia, O Arquelogo Portugus 5, 241257. - Arajo, L. M. 1990 1992, Cinco cones funerrios egpcios no Museu Nacional de Arqueologia, O Arquelogo Portugus 8/10, 341355. - Arajo, L. M. 1993, Antiguidades Egpcias, I . Museu Nacional de Arqueologia, Lisbon. - Arajo, L. M. 1993 1994, Paletas egpcias pr-dinsticas do Museu Nacional de Arqueologia, O Arquelogo Portugus 11/12, 391 402. - Aufderheide, A. C. 2003, The Scientific Study of Mummies . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. - Brown, K. R. and Wood, H. 1999, The Utility of Minimal CT Scanning in the Study of Two Egyptian Mummy Heads, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 9, 199204. - Buikstra, J. E. and Ubelaker, D. H. 1994, Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey, Fayetteville, Arkansas. - Cockburn, A., Barraco, R. A., Peck, W. H. and Reyman, T. A. 1998, A Classic Mummy: PUM II, in A. Cockburn, E. Cock burn and T. A. Reyman (eds.), Mummies, Disease and Ancient Cultures , 6990. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. - Curry, A. 1979, The Insects Associated with the Manchester Mummies, in A. R. David (ed.), The Manchester Museum Mummy Project , 113118. Man chester University Press, Manchester. - Curry, A., Anfield, C. and Tapp, E. 1979, Electron Microscopy of the Manchester Mummies, in A. R. David (ed.), The Manchester Museum Mummy Project , 103111. Manchester University Press, Manchester. - David, A. R. (ed.), 1979, The Manchester Museum Mummy Project . Manchester University Press, Manchester. - David, A. R. and Tapp, E. (eds.), 1992, The Mummy s Tale : The scientific and medical investigation of Natsef -Amun, priest in the temple of Karnak . Manchester University Press, Manchester. - Dawson, W. R. and Gray, P. H. K. 1968, Catalogue of Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum 1: Mummies and human remains . British Museum Press, London. - Dawson, W. R. and Uphill, E. P. 1995, Who Was Who in Egyptology . (3rd ed., revised by M. L. Bierbrier). Egypt Exploration Society, London. - Deelder, A. M., Miller, R. L., de Jonge, N. and Krijger, F. W. 1990, Detection of Schistosome Antigen in Mummies, Lancet 335, 724.

39
- El-Mahdy, C. 1989, Mummies, Myth and Magic in Ancient Eg ypt . Thames and Hudson, London. - Filer, J. M. 1995, Attitudes to Death with Reference to Cats in Ancient Egypt, in S. Campbell and A. Green (eds.), The Archaeology of Death in the Ancient Near East , 3840. Oxford, Oxbow Books. - Filer, J. M. 1997, Revealing Hermiones Secrets, Egyptian Archaeology 11, 3234. - Filer, J. M. 1998, Revealing the Face of Artemidorus, Minerva 9.4, 2124. - Filer, J. M. 2002, Ancient Bodies, but Modern Techniques: The utilisation of CT scanning in the study of ancient Egyptian mummies, in R. Arnott (ed.), The Archaeology of Medicine , 3340. Oxford, Archaeopress. - Gray, P. H. K. 1971, Artificial Eyes in Mummies, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 57, 125 126. - Gray, P. H. K. 1972, Notes Concerning the Position of the A rms and Han ds of Mummies with a View to Possible Dating of the Specimen, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 58, 200 204. - Gray, P. H. K. 1973, The Radiography of Mummies of Ancient Egyptians, Journal of Human Evolution 2, 5153. - Guedes, N. C. 1993 1994, A mmia Ptolemaica do Museu Naci onal de Arqueologia, memria do Museu de Histria Natural do Marqus de Angeja, O Arquelogo Portugus 11/12, 367 390. - Harris, J. E. and Wente, E. F. (eds.), 1980, An X-ray Atlas of the Royal Mummies . University of Chicago Press, Chicago. - Ikram, S. and Dodson, A. 1998, The Mummy in Ancient Egypt: Equipping the dead for eternity . Thames and Hudson, London. - Isherwood, I., Fawcitt, R. A. and Jarvis, H. 1984, X -raying the Manchester Mummies, in A. R. David and E. Tapp (eds.), Evidence E mbalmed , 4564. Manchester University Press, Manchester. - Isherwood, I., Jarvis, H. and Fawcitt, R. A. 1979, Radiology of the Manchester Mummies, in A. R. David (ed.), The Manchester Museum Mummy Project , 2564. Manchester University Press, Manchester. - Lewin, P. K. and Cutz, E. 1976, Electron Microscopy of Ancient Egyptian Skin, British Journal of Dermatology 94, 573576. - Melcher, A. H., Holowka, S., Pharoah, M. and Lewin, P. K. 1997, Non -Invasive Computed Tomography and Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of the Dentition of a 2,800 Year Old Egyptian Mummy Exhibiting Extensive Dental Disease, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 103, 329340. - Miller, R. L., de Jonge, N., Krijger, F. W. and Deedler, A. M. 1993, Predynastic Schistosomiasis, in W. V. Davies and A. M. Walker (eds.), Biological Anthropology and the Study of Ancient Egypt , 5460. British Museum Press, London. - Petrie, W. M. F. 1898, Deshasheh 1897 . Egypt Exploration Fund, London. - Pickering, R. B., Conces, D. J., Braunstein, E. M. and Y urco, F. 1990, 3 -Dimensional Computed Tomography of the Mummy Wenuhotep, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 83, 4955. - Ruffer, M. A. 1910, Note on the Presence of Bilharzia Haematobia in Egyptian Mummies of the Twentieth Dynasty (12501000 B.C.), British Medical Journal 1, 16. - Ruhli, F. J. and Boni, T. 2000, Radiological Aspects and Interpretation of Post-Mortem Artefacts in Ancient Egyptian Mummies from Swiss Collections, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 10, 153157. - Sandison, A. T. a nd Tapp, E. 1998, Disease in Ancient Egypt, in A. Cockburn, E. Cockburn, and T. A. Reyman (eds.), Mummies, Disease and Ancient Cultures , 3858. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. - Stanworth, P., Wildsmith, K. and Tapp, E. 1986, A Neurosurgical Look In side the Manchester Mummy Heads, in A.R. David (ed.), Science in Egyptology , 371374. Manchester University Press, Manchester. - Tapp, E. 1979, The Unwrapping of a Mummy, in A. R. David (ed.), The Manchester Museum MummyProject , 8394. Manchester University Press, Manchester.

40
- Tapp, E. 1992, The Histological Examination of Mummified Tissue, in A. R. David and E. Tapp (eds.), The Mummy s Tale : The scientific and medical investigation of Natsef -Amun, priest in the temple of Karnak , 121131. Manchester University Press, Manchester. - Tapp, E. and Wildsmith, K. 1986, Endoscopy of Egyptian Mummies, in A. R. Davis (ed.), Science in Egyptology , 351356. Manchester University Press, Manchester. - Tapp, E. and Wildsmith, K. 1992, The Autopsy and Endoscopy of the Lee ds Mummy, in A. R. David and E. Tapp (eds.), The Mummy s Tale : The scientific and medical investigation of Natsef Amun, priest in the temple of Karnak , 132153. Manchester University Press, Manchester. - Tapp, E., Stanworth, P. and Wildsmith, K. 1984, The Endoscope in Mummy Research, in A. R. David and E. Tapp (eds.), Evidence Embalmed , 6577. Manchester University Press, Manchester. - Taylor, J. H. 1995, Unwrapping a Mummy: The life and death of Horemkenesi . British Museum Press, London.