Energy Efficient Opearation of Boilers
Energy Efficient Opearation of Boilers
Energy Efficient Opearation of Boilers
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Contents
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Introduction Boiler operation and maintenance Water treatment TDS control and boiler blowdown Heat recovery from boiler blowdown Boiler and burner management systems Variable speed drives for combustion air fans Flue shut-off dampers Economisers 03 09 14 20 23 25 30 31 33 36 38 39 40
10 Combustion air preheating Other sources of information Glossary Appendix: Example calculations for a natural gas-fired boiler
Action Energy gratefully acknowledges Spirax Sarco, BIB Cochran and all other organisations that contributed to this guide.
Contents
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1 Introduction
This guide provides users and owners of steam boiler plant with practical advice on how to optimise energy efficiency through proper operation of the boiler and its associated systems. The guide is designed for use by energy managers, engineering staff and maintenance teams, involved in the day-to-day operation of industrial steam boiler plant with a thermal output in the range 5MW to 30MW. The information could also be used to specify the standard of maintenance requirements for those who decide to outsource their boiler management. Steam is used throughout industry, commerce and the public sector for a wide range of process and space heating requirements, and can represent a significant proportion of an organisations energy costs. It is therefore important for owners and operators of steam boilers to ensure that the plant is designed, installed, commissioned and operated with due regard to energy efficiency as well as safety and reliability. This guide provides an introduction to the key issues that users and operators should consider. It deals mainly with shell boilers, as most existing UK boiler plant is based on this type of boiler design, although much of the advice is applicable to other types of boilers.
These and other Action Energy publications listed in this guide can be obtained free of charge by calling the helpline on 0800 58 57 94 or by visiting www.actionenergy.org.uk.
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Technique/method
Operation and maintenance of boilers Water treatment and boiler water conditioning Total dissolved solids (TDS) control and boiler blowdown Blowdown heat recovery Boiler and burner management systems, digital combustion controls and oxygen trim Variable speed drives (VSDs) for combustion air fans Flue gas shut-off dampers Economisers Combustion air preheating
* It is not usual to relate this method to the total boiler plant efficiency, but to a saving with respect to the electrical consumption of the boiler combustion air fan.
Types of boiler
In general terms, a boiler is a device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (e.g. gas, coal or oil) into a useful heat output, such as steam or hot water. Typically boilers heat water or a thermal fluid (e.g. mineral oil), or generate steam. In most cases, boilers have a furnace chamber, where heat is largely transferred directly from the flame by radiation, and flue gas passages, where heat is transferred primarily by convection. There are many different types of boiler design and construction, but all boilers are derivatives of two basic types: The water tube type, where water is contained in tubes and hot combustion gases pass around them The shell or fire-tube type, where combustion gases pass down a furnace tube and subsequent tube bundles immersed below water level within the shell. Most existing UK boiler plant is based on this type of boiler design.
Introduction
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Steam and pressurised hot water boiler plants in industry range in duty from 100kW to over 30MW. This guide provides information directly relevant to shell boilers generating steam in the middle of this duty range, although much of the advice is also relevant to other boiler types and duties. The mechanisms for handling and burning fuel differ markedly for solid, liquid and gaseous fuels and the design of a shell boiler depends on the intended fuel type(s). However, this guide does not distinguish between fuel types. Converting a boiler to run on a cheaper or more readily available fuel may require significant modification to provide safe and efficient operation. Multi-pass shell boilers may be designed for firing using any of the conventional fuels or may be suitable for dual-fuel operation (e.g. interruptible gas and oil back-up).
When operated correctly, all modern steam boilers are capable of achieving an efficiency of around 80% (based on the gross calorific value of the fuel). Higher efficiencies are possible for condensing gas boilers and for plant fitted with economisers (see section 9), but many older steam boilers will be unable to operate at these levels. Boilers should have an operating efficiency of over 75% (based on gross calorific value) and, if they do not, action should be taken to achieve at least this level of performance. Figure 1 shows the main sources of energy losses and areas for improving the efficiency of steam boilers.
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Steam Feedwater
Shell boiler
Minimise by insulation
Radiation losses
Minimise by plant scheduling
Blowdown losses
Minimise blowdown heat recovery
Introduction
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Measures of efficiency
The percentage of the fuel input energy that is eventually delivered as useful heat output is a measure of the efficiency with which the boiler is operating. Not all the heat released when the fuel is combusted can be used. Some heat is never released due to incomplete combustion. Some heat is lost as hot flue gases leave the boiler and some heat is lost from the boiler to its surrounds. Many measures of performance can be used to define efficiency. Two common measures are combustion efficiency and boiler efficiency. Combustion efficiency is defined as the percentage of energy in the fuel that is released after combustion within the boiler. Some of the energy contained in the fuel is lost due to incomplete combustion. Combustion efficiency (%) = Actual energy released during combustion x 100 Total energy content of the fuel or Combustion efficiency (%) = 100 percentage heat lost due to incomplete combustion of fuel Combustion efficiency for gas and liquid fuels is usually quite high (around 99%). Boiler efficiency is defined as the proportion of useful heat output compared with the heat input. It takes account of heat losses to the flue gases, heat losses due to incomplete combustion of the fuel, radiation losses (from the exposed boiler surfaces, etc.), convection losses, conduction losses and other ancillary losses. Boiler efficiency (%) = 100 [Flue gas losses + Radiation and other losses (unaccounted)] Flue gas losses, which are dependent on the excess air, are the major contributor to a reduction in boiler efficiency. The efficiency of a boiler is quoted as the percentage of useful heat available expressed as a percentage of the total energy potentially available by burning the fuel. This may be expressed as either gross efficiency or net efficiency, depending on whether the gross or the net calorific value of the fuel is used when calculating the energy content of the fuel. A realistic target is an overall boiler efficiency of 80% (based on the gross calorific value of the fuel).
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Readers new to steam boilers are encouraged to read the guide in its entirety to gain an understanding of the key efficiency issues, operational issues, maintenance implications and potential energy savings. Experienced boiler operators who are seeking a reminder of energy efficiency issues should refer to the summaries of key operational considerations and energy savings potential. This will help with reviewing and maintaining effective maintenance procedures and plant operations.
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Boiler losses
It is generally more useful in terms of energy efficiency to determine the overall boilerhouse performance by taking into account all the relevant factors (combustion efficiency, boiler blowdown, standby boilers, low load operation and other losses). The main losses in efficiency are due to a combination of the following: Not all the energy stored in the fuel can be usefully recovered. Unburned or partially combusted solid, liquid or gaseous fuel may be ejected from the boiler. Most fuels contain hydrogen and this combines with oxygen to produce water vapour. The latent heat contained in this vapour is usually lost as it exhausts from the boiler flue (except in condensing boilers). Too much combustion air increases flue gases losses. The boiler shell is hot and significant quantities of heat are radiated from the boiler to its surroundings. Heat is lost in the boiler blowdown necessary to maintain an acceptable TDS content. All these losses must be taken into account when considering boiler efficiency and the potential for energy and cost savings. A steam energy efficiency cost calculator is given in ECG066 Steam generation costs.
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Type Type Grid electricity Natural gas Gas/diesel oil Heavy fuel oil Coal
Units Units kWh kWh Therms kWh Litres kWh Tonnes kWh Tonnes
kg CO2 per kg CO2 per unit unit 0.43 0.19 5.50 0.25 2.68 0.26 3,117 0.30 2,419
* Data from Defra publication Environmental Reporting Guidelines for company reporting on greenhouse gas emissions, available on Defra web site (www.defra.gov.uk).
Fouling
Fouling of the heat transfer surfaces of a boiler can occur on either the gas or water side of the tubes. The gas side can become fouled with soot or other products of combustion. Both types of fouling reduce the amount of heat transferred from the flue gases to the boiler water. This increases flue gas temperatures and hence reduces boiler efficiency. Poor control of water treatment, poor control of combustion, operation at low load or frequent stop/starts will necessitate more frequent cleaning. Section 3 considers water side fouling in more detail and examines the impact of increased temperatures on the need for cleaning.
Emissions
A close relationship generally exists between energy efficiency and waste emissions. Energy efficiency and waste minimisation objectives are therefore complementary as efficient operation ensures that pollution levels are minimal. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the products of combustion and has been identified as one of the six main gases of concern with respect to global warming. CO2 emissions can be minimised by ensuring optimum combustion efficiency. Typical CO2 emissions from common fuels are given in Table 2. Other pollutants from combustion can include particulates, sulphur oxides (SOX) and nitrogen oxides (NOX).
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Radiation losses
These losses refer to the heat losses from the surface of the boiler and are a combination of convection and radiation heat transfer. The radiation loss from modern boilers should be only around 1% of the heat input rating, but it may be considerably higher on older boilers and could be as high as 10% of fuel input on plant with poor or damaged insulation. The radiation loss is fixed while the boiler is firing and therefore represents a higher overall proportion of losses if firing is sustained at low load levels. Radiation losses can be assessed by monitoring the boilers fuel consumption under hot standby conditions.
Record-keeping
Regular analysis of records of boiler and water treatment parameters can help to determine whether the boiler is operating properly or showing any signs of problems that require attention. Such records are normally kept in the form of daily logbooks. Examples of suitable logbooks are given in Figure 2 and in: Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Plant and Machinery Guidance Note PM5 Automatically controlled steam and hot water boilers BS2486:1997 Recommendation for treatment of water for steam boilers and water heaters. In addition, a water treatment specialist should undertake independent monthly tests and inspect trends in the daily water treatment logs.
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Date:
Steam
Water
Time
Boiler no.
Pressure (bar)
Temp. (C)
Total
No. of readings
Average
Daily summary Feedwater Meter reading (start of day) ......................................................................................litres Meter reading (end of day) ........................................................................................litres Difference ............................................................................................................litres Make-up water................................................litres Blowdown (total) time.......................................... = ..........................% of evaporation Quantity ....................................................................
Fuel used............................................................kg
= ..............................................................% of fuel
Operators on duty
Shift 1
Shift 2
Shift 3
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3 Water treatment
This section contains advice on how to optimise energy efficiency through the application of good water treatment.It explains the need for water treatment and conditioning regimes and focuses on those aspects that affect the efficient operation of steam boiler plant (notwithstanding the overriding requirement for safety and reliability). The issues addressed in this section include: Reasons for water treatment Types of water treatment Scale and water side fouling Corrosion TDS control and blowdown Carryover Chemical cleaning and boiler storage regimes.
Water treatment
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The water used in steam boilers can be supplied from many different sources and will contain various contaminants and impurities. If water is used directly in steam boilers without treatment, then these contaminants and impurities can cause water side fouling and corrosion, and, ultimately, plant failure. Hard water contains mainly calcium and magnesium salts and, when heated, results in scale formation (see below). Soft water is preferable for use in boiler plants because it is easier to make slightly alkaline, helping to prevent corrosion. Poor water treatment and boiler water conditioning can: Reduce the steam generating efficiency of boiler plant through fouling of water side heat transfer surfaces and increased blowdown Increase the cost of routine boiler cleaning operations (chemical and mechanical) and the need to repair/replace corroded parts Result in carryover and reduced heat delivered to components using the steam system Result in catastrophic plant failure if sustained over a significant period In addition, insurance, warranties, guarantees or leasing terms may require the demonstration of appropriate water treatment.
Types of water treatment Modern boilers tend to be compact and have a high rating, so they may require closer control of water side parameters than older or moderately rated plant, which can tolerate more extreme water conditions. Treatment is generally divided into two forms: External treatment applied before the water enters the boiler to remove or modify problem mineral salts Internal treatment (sometimes referred to as boiler water conditioning) chemicals are added directly to the feed or boiler water to prevent scale formation and corrosion. For more information about the different types of water treatment, see GPG221 Improving boiler energy efficiency through water treatment.
According to BS2486:1997 (Recommendation for treatment of water for steam boilers and water heaters), the complementary objectives of water treatment are to: Contribute to the overall safety of operation of the boiler Assist in the maintenance of high heat transfer efficiency by preventing scale and corrosion Maintain the quality of the generated steam. This section deals primarily with the second objective.
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Scale
Scale forms in boilers when various dissolved constituents in boiler feedwater come out of solution and deposit on the heating surfaces due to changes in temperature, density and concentration as the water evaporates in the boiler. The dissolved constituents that cause the most problems in boiler systems are calcium and magnesium salts. As the water is heated, these salts become less soluble and precipitate out. Part of the purpose of water treatment is to prevent this from happening, or to ensure that the precipitate does not adhere to the metal surfaces and can be safely removed by blowing down the boiler. The type of water side fouling depends upon the chemical constituents of the water, as well as the water treatment and conditioning regime. The impact on boiler efficiency of common scaleforming compounds is illustrated in Figure 3, which shows that even very thin layers of these compounds can be significant. These scales also increase metal wall temperatures and, in extreme cases, can reduce the metals tensile strength, resulting in overstressing and failure of the metal. Silicon-based deposits are particularly problematic, but detailed consideration of this topic is outside the scope of this guide.
Figure 3 The effect of scale on boiler efficiency 4.5 90
3.5
70 60
Ca lc iu m
50 40 30 20 10 0
e Iron oxid
0.25
0.5
0.75
Silic ate
80
ca rb on at e
Water treatment
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Corrosion
Most boilers are constructed from various grades of steel. Some metal oxides form stable coatings that adhere to the base metal and protect it from further attack. Other metal oxides are porous, unstable and easily broken down; these do not provide protection. The aim of boiler water conditioning is to promote conditions within a boiler that encourage the formation of the protective and stable iron oxide, magnetite, rather than the porous and unstable iron oxide, haematite. Magnetite can form haematite in the presence of oxygen in the boiler water; acidic conditions provide the electrolyte required for the corrosion mechanism. Corrosion eats away the metal, reducing its overall strength and leading to eventual failure. The aim of water treatment and conditioning regimes is to control dissolved oxygen and pH levels to within the levels recommended by the boiler manufacturer or a relevant standard (e.g. BS2486:1997 or an American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA) or European equivalent. Such a programme should be developed with the support of a water treatment specialist. Numerous corrosion mechanisms can occur in boiler and feed systems, but further discussion of this topic is outside the scope of this guide.
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Carryover
Water entrained in the steam leaving the boiler is called carryover and contains TDS from the boiler water and water treatment chemicals. Carryover can be caused by chemical or mechanical means. It should be avoided or reduced to a practical minimum as it can cause deposition in the plant and steam distribution system, thereby reducing performance and efficiency. Foaming due to high levels of TDS and alkalinity in the boiler water can also cause operational problems, such as salt deposits and pipework corrosion. Carryover can be limited by correct plant control by operators. Operators can influence the chemical causes of carryover by: Controlling suspended solids levels Avoiding high alkalinity levels Avoiding the introduction of oils and soap-like substances. Operators can influence the mechanical causes of carryover by: Avoiding operation at lower than design pressure Avoiding operation at high water levels to minimise risk of priming Ensuring internal steam baffles or external steam separators operate properly Matching the burner firing rate to the load Controlling the feed water by means of a modulating control valve rather than an on-off feed pump. For rapid load changes a two element level control system based on measuring the steam flowrate can be considered.
Water treatment
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Smoke and water tube up to 10bar High pressure water tube Packaged and economic
* These figures are recommended as a guideline, but the boiler manufacturers recommendations may differ and should be followed at all times.
What is blowdown?
To maintain the TDS concentration below the maximum recommended level, water at the steam temperature must be blown down from the boiler and replaced with cooler make-up water with a lower TDS content. This process removes some of the suspended and dissolved solids in the boiler water. Typically between 1% and 5% of the energy input to the boiler is lost in blowdown. Before discharge to drain, it is also necessary to cool blowdown water to below 43C (to comply with consent conditions and thus avoid detrimental effects at sewage treatment works). This is
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Automatic TDS control systems should be inspected, cleaned and calibrated regularly (particularly the probe as it operates in arduous service conditions). Figure 4 indicates the extent of the energy losses associated with blowdown, while the fuel savings from reduced blowdown are given in Table 4.
Boiler pressure Boiler pressure Percentage Percentage fuel saved saved (barg)for (barg) 1% reductionfor in 1% reduction in blowdown blowdown 7 10 17 25 0.19 0.21 0.25 0.28
16
17
12
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
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Condensate return
Condensate carries with it a significant proportion (around 20%) of the original heat input from the fuel. Maximising the amount of condensate returned therefore leads to economies in respect of boiler blowdown (saving energy) and in water treatment costs (less pretreatment and conditioning is needed, because the condensate has been treated and has low TDS level). Figure 5 shows the savings obtained for different percentages of condensate (return) and condensate temperature.
Figure 5 Fuel saved by condensate returned 14
In situations where feedwater contamination can occur, the quality of the condensate can be monitored (e.g. by measuring conductivity or for the presence of oil) and, if contamination is detected, the condensate can be discharged to drain automatically.
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% condensate return
100
10
75
8
50
25
2
0 0 10 20 30 40 50
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Heat recovery can be affected using flash steam recovery vessels, heat exchangers or both. Such measures save energy by increasing the temperature of the feedwater to the boiler and reducing the amount of fuel consumed in the boiler. Figure 6 shows a typical system with recovery of both flash steam and residual heat from blowdown water.
Isolating valve
p Pressure gauge
Flash vessel
Isolating valve Residual to blowdown vessel or drain Strainer To drain Heat exchanger extracts remaining useful heat from residual blowdown water Thermostat
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25
Type Condensing gas High efficiency modular Shell boiler (hot water) Shell boiler (steam) Reverse flame Cast iron sectional Steam generator Water tube with economiser
* Gross calorific value basis
Efficiency (%)* 8892 8082 7882 7882 7480 7076 7578 7884
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BS845:1987 does not describe how to determine the overall boilerhouse performance, as this depends on a range of operational and design parameters such as standby losses, blowdown losses, low load operation, feed heating requirements, etc. Comprehensive metering of steam supply, condensate returned, make-up water and fuel consumption will, however, provide a reliable indication of overall boiler plant efficiency. The losses associated with incomplete combustion and incorrect air supply can be determined by examining the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the flue gases and the temperature of the flue gas. An analysis of the relationship between these three
parameters allows combustion efficiency to be determined and combustion airflow to be corrected. A typical example of this relationship for natural gas firing is shown in Figure 7 (similar charts are available for other fuel types). Provided the carbon dioxide (or oxygen) level in flue gas and its temperature are known, the heat loss to the flue gas can be estimated from Figure 7 as follows: Locate the appropriate point on the carbon dioxide or oxygen curve Move vertically up or down to the correct line for flue gas temperature Read off the corresponding percentage flue gas loss from the right-hand y-axis.
Figure 7 Effects of excess air and flue gas temperature on heat loss to flue gas (for natural gas) 12 35
400C
350C
Carbon dioxide
10 300C 30
Oxygen
0 0 20 40 60 80 100 10
250C
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Differing amounts of excess air are usually required to complete combustion at different firing rates. Fuel/air velocities may be reduced at lower firing rates and good mixing can only be achieved by increasing the amount of excess air supplied. Traditionally, this has been achieved by controlling airflow to the burners with a damper and an adjustable snail cam. Illustrations of the effect of a reduction and an increase in excess air, possible savings or losses due to changes in boiler efficiency and the effect of higher flue gas temperatures are provided in the Appendix at the end of this guide. Combustion quality can be monitored automatically and, with the advent of electronic variable speed drive technology, it is possible to monitor and adjust combustion airflow continuously over the entire firing range to ensure maximum efficiency. For energy efficient operation it is vital that these fundamental, but relatively simple issues are given priority.
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Boiler sequencing control systems When more than one boiler is available, sequencing control systems save energy by matching the number of boilers and their firing rates to meet and sustain the load demanded by the application(s) for steam. Boiler combustion efficiency generally varies throughout its range and is at a maximum at the higher end of its firing range. Sequence controls maximise efficiency by ensuring that the minimum number of boilers are on-line and that they operate for the longest possible time at the highest firing rates. Standing losses, radiation losses and other factors also need to be taken into account. For example, at low loads, a boiler may operate with a lower exhaust gas temperature and is a more efficient heat exchanger than at high load points. Digital and intelligent boiler sequencing systems can be configured to take account of more factors (e.g. standing losses, and flow signals from steam meters) than standard sequencing control systems.
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Oxygen trim controls Oxygen trim controls measure the oxygen content in the flue gas stream. This value gives a good indication of combustion efficiency. A signal from the control unit alters the amount of combustion air (via damper or fan speed control) to maintain optimum combustion conditions throughout the firing range, in response to changes in ambient conditions and over time. Oxygen trim controls can be added to a conventional combustion control system or can form an integral part of a digital control system. They can take account of changes in air density as ambient conditions alter, airflow is restricted through filters, etc, but air entering the plant as a result of leakage into ductwork can provide false signals. The equipment requires regular inspection, cleaning and calibration (particularly the probe as it operates in arduous service conditions).
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31
Chimney/flue
Damper Boiler
Interlock system
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Damper installation
The use of dampers is particularly suited to situations where intermittent, standby or top-up capacity is required, and it is necessary to operate a boiler in standby mode and cycled to keep the pressure/temperature just below the line conditions. Installation is relatively simple and may be undertaken by either the manufacturer or a suitable contractor. The work involves cutting the flue ducting (if a hot gas damper is chosen), inserting the unit complete with servomotor drive and making the necessary electrical interlock connections. Safety interlocks are fitted to prevent the burner firing with the damper closed (resulting in the potential build-up of unburnt gas and an explosive mixture in the boiler or a build-up of carbon monoxide in the boiler room). Electrical connections are made from the damper to the appropriate control circuit in the burner panel. The installation cost is relatively low compared with the savings obtained and this device is ideal for standby boilers and those with cyclic loads. Air inlet sealing dampers can be a more cost-effective option; these are generally smaller and are not exposed to hot and, occasionally dirty, flue gases.
Economisers
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9 Economisers
What is an economiser?
The flue gas from a boiler is at a higher temperature than that of the steam produced and is typically around 200C in most modern shell boilers, although the potential for heat recovery is often limited when the combustion gases contain acidic elements (e.g. with coal or oil firing). To prevent the condensation of acid, it is then usually necessary to maintain the exhaust gas temperature to ensure that the dew point of the corrosive gases is not reached. Economisers are a tried and tested technology for both shell and water tube boilers. An economiser (see Figure 9) is a gas-to-water heat exchanger located within a purpose built flue section. The hot gases exhausted from the boiler are routed through the heat exchanger and around the economiser tubes en route to the stack. Simpler economisers are available that consist of a water jacket fitted around the stack, but these are less efficient. The most commonly applied function of economisers is to preheat the boiler feedwater before it is introduced into the boiler. The relatively cool feedwater is pumped through the heat exchanger tubes where it absorbs heat from the hot flue gas exhausted from the boiler before being pumped into the boiler. During normal boiler operation, the economiser receives a continuous flow of water, corresponding to the boiler steam production. Condensing economisers use the same principle, but further reduce the flue gas temperature. This improves the boiler system efficiency.
Steam Chimney/flue
Cold feedwater
Flue gases
Boiler
Economiser
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Uses of economisers
In steam boilers, where a substantial proportion of the condensate is returned to the boiler feed tank, the boiler feedwater may be at a relatively high temperature. Under such circumstances, the potential increase in temperature available from the economiser will decrease and the increase in efficiency will, therefore, be minimal. It is important to use the correct size of economiser. If too much heat is transferred to the feedwater, it may exceed the acceptable operating temperature for the system or it may be flashed off to steam. The fitting of economisers therefore requires careful financial and technical consideration. Attention should be given to the additional controls and bypasses required for varying load and fuels, the risk of potential problems with the flue gas flow, and the possibility of damage to the stack. Economisers are best suited to larger gas-fired boiler plant; it is generally considered uneconomic to install an economiser to recover heat from boilers burning other fuels. With dual-fuel (gas and oil) burners, the economiser is normally bypassed when firing oil to avoid corrosion due to the flue gas temperature falling below the dew point. Economiser installation involves: Locating the heat exchange unit in the flue section Diverting the feedwater pipework to and from the unit Wiring to the bypass damper limit switches (if necessary) Fitting water and flue gas thermometers (to establish performance). Depending upon the size of the boiler, economisers can be quite large. It is therefore necessary to consider the space available within the boiler room at the boiler flue outlet. The boiler feedwater pump may also have to pump water at a higher temperature.
Economisers
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10
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
36
37
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
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Further reading
BS845:1987 Methods for assessing thermal performance of boilers for steam, hot water and high temperature fluids BS2486:1997 Recommendation for treatment of water for steam boilers and water heaters Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Plant and Machinery Guidance Note PM5 Automatically controlled steam and hot water boilers Health and Safety Executive (HSE) Plant and Machinery Guidance Note Guidance Note PM60 Steam boiler blowdown systems Pressure Systems Safety Regulations 2000 (SI 2000/128) (can be downloaded from www.hmso.gov.uk) Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (SI 2002/2677) (can be downloaded from www.hmso.gov.uk) BetzDearborn handbook of industrial water conditioning. 9th edn. ISBN 0913641006. Betz Laboratories (1991) CADDET. Steam production and distribution. Maxi Brochure 13 (March 2001) (can be downloaded from www.caddet.org) Combustion Engineering Association (CEA) A guide to steam plant operation (August 1999) (can be downloaded from www.cea.org.uk) Gunn D and Horton R. Industrial boilers. Longman Scientific and Technical (1989)2 Kemmer FN (ed.) The NALCO water handbook. 2nd edn. ISBN 0070458723. Nalco Chemical Company/McGraw-Hill (1988) Kitto JB and Stultz SC (eds) Steam: its generation and use. 40th edn. ISBN 0963457004. Babcock & Wilcox Co. (1992) Spirax Sarco free on-line learning modules, accessed at www.spiraxsarco.com/learn.
2
Currently out of print; however, it can be borrowed from the British Library Document Supply Centre and other academic libraries.
Glossary
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Glossary
Blowdown High-pressure water at the steam saturation temperature that is released from a steam boiler to control water quality. A rapid chemical reaction between the combustibles in the fuel and oxygen in the air with liberation of heat. In gas and liquid fuels, carbon and hydrogen constitute the combustibles. Air that contains the oxygen needed to burn the fuel. Identified as either primary air (introduced at the point of combustion) or secondary or tertiary air (introduced to the flame). The percentage of heat released that is put to use compared with the total heat energy in the fuel. The pure water formed as steam condenses. Heat transfer that occurs between a surface and a moving fluid when they are at a different temperature. Steam containing no water droplets. The provision of combustion air in greater quantities than is required to provide sufficient oxygen for stoichiometric combustion. The steam produced when the pressure of hot condensate is reduced. The quantity of heat liberated when a fuel is burned, including the heat liberated when water vapour condenses to liquid at room temperature. The quantity of heat liberated when, under practical considerations, the combustion gases are not cooled sufficiently to liberate the latent heat of water. An extreme case of carryover where significant amounts of boiler water get into the steam pipework. Devices to remove the entrained water droplets from wet steam. The quantity of solids dissolved in a known volume of water. A mixture of steam and water droplets.
Combustion
Combustion air
Combustion efficiency
Condensate Convection
Flash steam
Priming
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Parameter Flue gas losses Radiation losses Blowdown loss Other losses Boiler efficiency Flue gas temperature Feedwater temperature Return temperature Steam production (approx) Steam pressure Steam temperature Fuel energy input Carbon dioxide released
Value 18% 2% 3% 2% 75% 195C (383F) 15.5C (60F) Assumes mains water at 8C (47F) and 25% condensate return at 38C (100F) 1.08kg/s (8,000lb/hour); 7,000 hours/year 7barg (100psig) 170C (338F) (dry saturated) 26,102MWh/year 4,959 tonnes/year
If the efficiency of the example boiler is increased from 75% to 76%: Annual energy saving = 26,102MWh x (76 75) = 343.4MWh 76 The equivalent carbon saving (in kg) is obtained by multiplying the energy saved (in kWh) by the appropriate conversion factor. Annual carbon saving = 343.4 x 1,000 x 0.19 = 65,246kg = 65.25 tonnes
Appendix
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Reference condition In the example boiler, the reference operating conditions were 9.75% carbon dioxide at a flue gas temperature of 195C. This equates to 20% excess air and a flue gas loss of 18%. Reduction in excess air from reference condition In the example boiler the reference operating conditions are changed to 10% excess air and this would result in 10.7% carbon dioxide at a flue gas temperature of 195C. This equates to a flue gas loss of 17.4%. Increase in excess air from reference condition In the example boiler the reference operating conditions are changed to 44% excess air and this would result in 8% carbon dioxide at a flue gas temperature of 195C. This equates to a flue gas loss of 19.3%.
Figure 12 Effect of reduction and increase in excess air on flue gas losses (natural gas)
35 12
Carbon dioxide
C 400 C 350
10
30
C 300
25
C 200 C 195
20
C 150
100C
15 2
C 250
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Reference condition In the example boiler the reference operating conditions were 9.75% carbon dioxide at a flue gas temperature of 195C. This equates to 20% excess air and a flue gas loss of 18%. Increase in flue gas temperature from reference condition In the example boiler the reference operating conditions are changed to a flue gas temperature of 251C with the same excess air and flue gas composition. This equates to a flue gas loss of 20.5%.
Figure 13 Effect of higher flue gas temperature on flue gas losses (natural gas)
35 12
Carbon dioxide
C 400 C 350
10
30
C 300
C 200 C 195
20
C 150
100C
15 2
C 250
25
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0800 58 57 94
www.actionenergy.org.uk/getaloan
Action Energy Loans are run by the Carbon Trust and funded by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, the National Assembly for Wales and Invest Northern Ireland. Only Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (within the EU definition) are eligible to apply for the loans. For further details of eligibility criteria refer to www.actionenergy.org.uk/loans. No guarantees or assurances are given that any cost savings will be achieved. Action Energy is a Carbon Trust programme. The Carbon Trust is a company limited by guarantee. Registered in England and Wales Number 4190230. Registered at: 9th Floor, 3 Clements Inn, London WC2A 2AZ.
Tel 0800 58 57 94
www.actionenergy.org.uk
Action Energy is a programme run by the Carbon Trust and funded by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, the Scottish Executive, Invest Northern Ireland and the National Assembly for Wales.
Whilst we have taken reasonable steps to ensure that the information contained within this guide is correct, we give no warranty and make no representation as to its accuracy and we accept no liability for any errors or omissions and nor does the Carbon Trust nor the Government. Action Energy is a programme run by the Carbon Trust. The Carbon Trust is a company limited by guarantee. Registered in England and Wales Number 4190230. Registered at: 9th Floor, 3 Clement's Inn, London WC2A 2AZ