Neurological Examination

A GUIDE TO NEUROLOGICAL EXAMINATION
Starting in medical school neurologic examination has remained intimidating for many
physicians. The examination has been perfected over many decades thanks to our French
and German founding fathers. It has led to eponyms (e.g. - Babinski sign, Hoffmann reflex)
different techniques of detecting subtle signs of weakness (e.g. - hand rolling, foot tapping)
and even a wide collection of reflex hammers that can be proudly displayed in the office.
How is one to summarize a skill or tool that can be directly used in daily practice? As with
many medical specialties, the history is dependent on specific knowledge of neurologic
disorders. And it has become a clich to think that neurologic examination is dull and time
consuming involving meticulous assessment of reflex asymmetries, sensory deficits and
mental function. Some may argue whether a MRI would not suffice. Diagnostic tests have
grown tremendously over the last decade and may have left the impression that
neurologists, despite their acumen, may be inferior to them. Nothing seems further from
the truth.
The level of this chapter will be for the medical student but also recently qualified
physician in their first years of specialty training. Using the basic tenets of a comprehensive
history, examination of the major components of brain, spinal cord, and neuromuscular
unit function, a tentative diagnosis should be possible in approximately half of the cases.
The principle of neurologic examination is localization of the lesion followed by a
differential diagnosis of the cause of the lesion. This is a sacrosanct principle and cannot be
ignored despite rapid development in technology. This chapter, however, has to ignore
failure of some patients to describe a particular symptom, information forthcoming after
repeated history and recognition of malingering. This chapter should have a practical value
for the vast majority of physicians seeing patients in the clinic.
The History
General Issues
Sometimes one is not off to a good start. Patients may present their medical history
illustrating a plethora of physician encounters, interpretation of diagnostic tests in layman
terms, and multiple diagnoses often contradicting each other. As expected, many of the
requests for a neurologic examination pertains to the infinite symptoms of dizziness,
weakness, fatigue, facial numbness, confusion, and longstanding headache. The physician
task is using a series of leading questions to obtain the overriding presenting symptom,
onset and time, and its progression. Neurologic diseases may have different evolution over
time. The onset can be acute which may be defined in seconds to rapidly progressing in
hours, fluctuating typically over weeks, a relenting rapidly progressing course and a
fluctuating, remitting and relapsing course such that is seen in multiple sclerosis and
myasthenia gravis. In any presenting symptom, associated symptoms are of the utmost
importance and many of them may involve systemic features such as fever, nausea and
vomiting, or weight loss. The neurologic history remains time consuming but with quick
Professor Yasser Metwally
www.yassermetwally.com
pointers, one should be able to categorize a reliable account of the presentation. Family
history is important in many neurologic disorders. A long list of genetic disorders has been
described with a predominant neurologic presentation but many more of the common
neurologic disorders run in families. These include hereditary peripheral neuropathy,
multiple sclerosis, but also epilepsy, migraine, and cerebrovascular disease particularly
intracranial aneurysms. The technique of history taking should remain respectful but may
include prodding questions, constant verification of the answers, repetitive summaries to
the patient and verification with family members.
Some leading questions are
1. Where in the body did it start?
2. When was the last time you were without any symptoms?
3. Why did it occur and are triggers known?
4. What did you do to relief the symptom?
5. How did it progress, evolve, came to a halt or improve?
6. Who was helping you out when it happened and what was done?
Specific Complaints
There are many, but only a few are common.
Headache
The cardinal features of headache are quality, severity, localization, relieving and
precipitating factors, associated phenomena such as nausea or scotoma, as well as
recurrence over time. The distinction between an acute and chronic persistent headache is
usually easily apparent. Acute headache is often severe in intensity but acute should be
further defined as split second (such as in a ruptured aneurysm), rapidly progressing (such
as in migraine), or jabbing and jolting (such as in cluster headache and trigeminal
neuralgia). The severity of pain is difficult to judge but it is important to know whether the
pain is throbbing, lancinating, electric, stabbing, radiating, involving the entire head or
unilateral, or more circumscript spots such as in a psychogenic headache. Factors that may
aggravate the pain should be identified such as posture, straining, sneezing, coughing,
movement, prior alcohol and even consumption of ice cream. Headache that changes with
position is important. Many headaches associated with an increased intracranial pressure
do worse with lying down and are severe at awakening in the morning and headaches
associated with CSF hypotension are worse with standing up and immediately relieved
with lying down. Headaches relieved with knee-chest position may be due to third ventricle
obstructive tumors. The severity of the headache is difficult to measure. For example, a
severe neck strain from overzealous gardening may look like an acute subarachnoid
hemorrhage. Associated symptoms are important. Nausea and vomiting with acute new
onset headache is commonly due to a structural lesion. Migraine may have specific features
that may further classify the type of migraine such as aura (flickering lights, geometric
distortions and even visual hallucinations), photophobia and sonophobia, and inability to
accept any kitchen smells. Ptosis, nasal stuffing, redness of the conjunctiva may suggest a
cluster headache. Electric lancinating pain in the cheek, ear, or jaw mimicking a molar
abscess may suggest a trigeminal neuralgia. Touching the face with make up, a cold breeze,
chewing or toothbrushing may trigger a brief lancinating electric stab as if a finger is put in
a socket. It is sometimes a spot diagnosis. A patient who requires a dark room likely has
migraine or chronic tension headache. A tendency to move, rock back and forth, is
characteristic of a patient in the middle of a cluster headache, and a patient with trigeminal
neuralgia may assume a typical posture in which the palm of the hand is held close to the
cheek supported by the other arm but without touching it. It is important to find factors
that may precipitate or aggravate headache and factors that may provide relief. Certain
drugs may cause immediate relief and can be used as a diagnostic test. This includes several
liters of nasal oxygen for cluster headache, any of the tryptans for classic migraine, and
NSAIDs for paroxysmal hemicrania. Nonetheless it is important to mention that a rapid
response to over-the-counter pain medications and even narcotics do not exclude the
possibility of a more severe disorder such as brain tumor.
Dizziness and Vertigo
Neurologists are sometimes disillusioned when their clinic day only involves patients with
dizziness and vertigo. As an isolated symptom it is rarely due to a neurologic cause.
Dizziness is often described by the patient as wooziness, giddiness or faintness. In
elucidating these umbrella terms it is important to determine whether the dizziness is true
vertigo, in which the patient experiences a true rotational effect, or whether it consists of a
light-headedness or presyncopal sensation. It is important to inquire about vertigo with
other signs of brain stem dysfunction such as diplopia, dysarthria, dysphagia, hypesthesia,
and acute ataxia. On the other hand the presence of ringing in the ear, hearing loss and
violent vomiting may suggest a peripheral (labyrinth) rather than a central (brainstem)
cause. vertigo with position change is commonly due to a peripheral cause as well.
Intermittent "dizzy spells" are commonly hyperventilation. Failure to perform a
hyperventilation test (have the patient breathe in and out for one to two minutes trying to
produce patients own recognizable symptoms) in these patients must be considered a
mistake. In these dizzy patients who do not have the classic tingling fingers and tight lips
during the attack a series of expensive MRI and ENT tests have been performed but they
are only waiting to be recognized by an astute physician. Similarly it should be noted that
some patients describe dizziness to point out a gait disorder and we have seen patients with
early Parkinsons disease and instability undergo several ENT evaluations until the
tendency to pro- or retropulse or cogwheel rigidity is detected.
Sensory Symptoms
Numbness is vague term used by patients and may indicate weakness, pain or itching. True
tingling, in which the patient describes a constant pins and needles sensation should be
differentiated from a tight band, tight shoe, walking on air or rough surface sensation
which indicates an abnormality in the posterior columns. Typically numbness has been
present for quite some time in extremities. Extremity numbness expanding in a clockwise
fashion, although sounding functional, may indicate a cervical spinal cord lesion. Lack of
temperature sense needs to be addressed. Often patients are unable to distinguish hot and
cold while taking a shower. Failure to recognize objects in a purse or in a pocket may also
indicate significant loss of proprioception and is commonly found in a cervical spine lesion
such as cervical spondylosis or syringomyelia. Some of these patients may demonstrate
spontaneous finger movements in an attempt to orient them in space (pseudoathetosis).
Cognitive Decline
Typically memory decline is a gradual process over years, but an alleged acute worsening
may sometimes prompt early evaluation. Sometimes it is a child from out of state that visits
after a while, only to find out that personal hygiene has tumbled downhill. In some patients
family members are surprised that the patient does not know the date, the name of the
president or any recent encounter when specifically asked. Memory decline often involves
consistent difficulty with finding words, names, way to ones own house, inability to
describe routes to the clinic, but also more subtle problems such as inability to maintain a
coherent conversation or failure to complete complex dinners.
A history of nocturnal confusion with wandering through the house and opening of
drawers without a purpose may be obtained in a patient with advanced Alzheimers disease
or any of the other dementias. Transient focal signs including dysarthria, aphasia, or
hemiparesis may point to a multivascular dementia. A recent head trauma, often a car
accident in the months before memory decline may indicate a subdural hematoma, and as
expected it is not volunteered by the patient. Complete loss of memory is known as
transient global amnesia and essentially the patient has no recollection of this episode.
During this period the patient is constantly asking for where he is, whom he is with, and
what he has been doing to be in this place. Complete loss of memory with a defined period
of time, (or example, memory loss of three months) is typically psychogenic. Loss of moral
behavior and critical judgment may indicate an advanced stage of dementia but depending
on the underlying personality. Loss of a patients own identity is a very late stage of
dementia often emerging when patients become bed - bound. Its early presentation should
indicate pseudodementia. It is important to inquire about depressive symptoms such as
anhedonia, weight loss, and suicidal thoughts to exclude the possibility of a treatable
depression but patients with Alzheimers, particularly high strung individuals, may become
depressed when defects are becoming noticed.
Speech Disorders
Speech disorders can be grossly distinguished between a dysarthria in which there is a
major disturbance of articulation and aphasia in which the patients speech is distorted
and words or letters become substituted. A dysarthria is not only slurring of words but also
output is hesitant, explosive, and staccato. A fluent aphasia can be so severe ("word salad")
that no content is discernible. The patient also then has difficulty with repetition and
naming. A nonfluent aphasia is present when the speech is fragmentary, telegram style,
with many substitutions and neologisms. Failure to speak (muteness) is uncommon but may
occur in extreme advanced forms of Parkinsons disease and due to bifrontal cerebral
infarcts. Muteness with retained ability to recognize objects by word recognition and
complete retention of writing is rarely structural and commonly psychogenic.
Weakness
Weakness may involve one or two extremities. Unilateral weakness has more significance
than a generalized sensation of weakness. In many patients, weakness is progressive;
fluctuating weakness should point to the possibility of myasthenia gravis, particularly when
it occurs after fatiguing the muscle. Again the time frame of weakness is important. Rapid
onset weakness within days may indicate a Guillain - Barr syndrome, inflammatory
myopathy, or a vasculitis. Unexplained weakness without any sensory symptoms in one or
two limbs should point to the possibility of ALS and often the patient is not aware of
associated fasciculations or muscle atrophy and will only indicate weight loss.
Visual abnormalities
Visual abnormalities may involve blindness in one or both eyes, double vision, or blurring
of vision. Blurring of vision in itself may indicate an intrinsic ophthalmological cause or
inability of the patient to express diplopia. Diplopia is binocular, meaning that covering one
eye will lead to its disappearance. In addition, degree of diplopia increases as the gaze
proceeds in the direction of the action of the paralyzed muscle. Monocular blindness can be
due to transient ischemic attack in the retina. This disorder presents with the gradual onset
(minutes) of a full gray or black field and sometimes with a small peephole indicating
macular sparing. In other patients an altitudinal hemianopia is seen in which the defining
line between visual loss and normal vision is horizontal. An hemianopia is often
homonymous, typically the left eye deals with vision to the left and the right eye to the right
and examination will often delineate the visual fields defect. It is important to additionally
inquire about eye pain. Optic neuritis or painful ophthalmoplegia due to cavernous sinus
syndrome or migraine may all present with blindness.
Miscellaneous historical facts
Similar as in other branches of medicine, the occupation of the patient needs to be noted.
Several neurologic disorders can be caused by poisons and heavy metal exposure. Lead,
arsenic, insecticides, nitric oxide may all cause peripheral neuropathy. Drug-induced
neurologic disorders are rare but many prescription drugs may have neurotoxic side
effects. (An important reference is Neurotoxic Side Effects of Prescription Drugs.) A history
of a recent infectious diseases, insect bite, tropic travel, and previous hospitalizations
should be included as well as a survey of the marital history, alcohol and drug use (alcohol
causes subdural hematomas and ectasy or cocaine causes intracranial hemorrhages) when
assessing a patients personality. Family history should be scrutinized for possible
hereditary neurologic disorders (e.g. - Charcot - Marie -Tooth polyneuropathy, Huntington
disease).
THE NEUROLOGICAL EXAMINATION
Neurologic examination follows a standardized pattern. Experience may tailor the full
examination and result in focusing more on the most pertinent signs and symptoms. In
addition often certain abnormalities should be reexamined over and over again to assure
the abnormality.
Consciousness and Evaluation of Cognition
Level of consciousness is measured with the Glasgow Coma Scale. This simple scoring
system does not indicate the cause of decreased level of consciousness or coma but only
indicates the depth of coma using three simple components. The spontaneous verbal eye
and motor response is assessed followed by response to voice and pain. The pain stimulus is
standardized using compression of the supraorbital nerve, nailbed, or temporomandibular
joint. These noxious stimuli can produce standardized responses and these are outlined in
the following table.
Table 1 - The Glasgow Coma Score (GCS)
Eye opening Spontaneous (4)
To speech (3)
To pain (2)
Remain closed (1)
Best verbal response Oriented (5)
Confused (4)
Inappropriate words (3)
Incomprehensible words (2)
Mute (1)
Best motor response Obeying commands (6)
Localizing pain (5)
Quick withdrawal to pain (4)
Flexion (coordinated movement to the chest;
decorticate) to pain (3)
Extension (endo rotation and stiffening; decerebrate)
to pain (2)
None (1)
Paradoxically the most severe form of coma, persistent vegetative state, the patient has the
eyes open and will appear to look about but is unable to track any visual object (awake but
not aware). Apart from determining the depth of coma it is important to evaluate hourly
fluctuations. Fluctuation in level of consciousness may be caused sedative drugs, sleep
deprivation but also by a disorder called nonconvulsive status epilepticus in which
fluctuating level of consciousness is associated with eye lid jerking, staring as well as
fumbling with hands and picking at clothes and bed linen. Overt jerking of extremities is
not seen despite continuous electrographic spike and wave activity.
Cognitive function is tested using a series of batteries. Cognitive decline, as alluded to
earlier, starts insidiously. In the very old (more than 85) a dividing line between dementia
or some decline in memory function remains often difficult to draw. Several memory scales
have been developed which test not only memory but also orientation, general knowledge,
calculation, abstract thinking and so forth. Table 2 shows the individual components that
are evaluated with a comprehensive bedside mental status examination.
Table 2 - Mental Status Examination (MSE)
1. Orientation: Patient needs to state her full name, address, building, city, and state and current
date.
2. Attention: is tested by giving a patient a series of numbers. The patient needs to repeat seven
digits forward, usually using a full phone number.
3. Learning: the patient is asked to repeat and memorize four words that are unconnected to each
other, such as, apple, shoe, crying, and Mr. Murphy.
4. Calculation: is tested by subtracting 7 from 100 including other arithmetic problems. For
example, asking to multiply 5 x 13 or add 11 and 29.
5. Abstraction: is tested by having the patient interpret similarities such as orange, banana,
horse, dog, table, bookcase, and to ask the patient to explain common proverbs such as people
who live in glass houses shouldnt throw stones or dont cry over spilled milk.
6. Judgment: can also be investigated by asking the patient what to do if he would see a person
collapse while crossing the street.
7. Construction: is tested by having a patient draw a cube and a clock showing the hands
directed at a certain time.
Failure to perform any of those tests, but usually a combination, may indicate a cognitive
decline and would justify more extensive psychometric testing. Other investigations of
higher cortical function are important. Apraxia is due to a disturbance of skilled movement
or due to a disconnection of the speech area in the area of cortex that integrates motor
tasks. Patients are unable to perform tasks such as a salute, form interlocking fingers,
comb hair, stick out tongue, or pucker as if to kiss.
Speech and language
Spontaneous speech, naming, repetition and reading is assessed. It requires experience and
often a speech pathologist is needed to carefully categorize the abnormality. The major
abnormalities are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Aphasia
Types Fluency Repetition Comprehension Lesion
Global - - -
Frontoparietal
lobe
Broca - - +
Posterior part of
inferior frontal
gyrus
Transcortical - + + Watershed infarct
Wernicke + - -
Superior temporal
gyrus
Conduction + - + Arcuate fasciculus
Anomic + + +
Angular gyrus,
temporal lobe
Table 3 Dysarthria
Type Disorder
Hoarse, nasal Myopathy, Myasthenia gravis
Tremor, irregular; variation in loudness Cerebellum
Strained hyper nasal mono pitch Corticobulbar tracts / bilateral
Weak phonation, poor fluency, breathy Extrapyramidal
Cranial Nerve Examination
The examination of 12 cranial nerves is simple in its execution but complex in
interpretation.
Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory Nerve)
Smell and taste is often impaired due to other systemic illnesses including banalities such as
the flu. It is uncommonly tested during a routine neurologic examination but smell cards
have been devised. Standard odors include peppermint, cloves, musk, and floral powders,
as well as coffee and lemon extracts. The distinction between odors has more importance
than its precise recognition. Anosmia can be excluded if the patient appreciates at least one
odored powder. The abnormalities of the olfactory nerve are typically caused by severe
traumatic brain injury or a meningioma arising from the olfactory groove.
Cranial Nerve II (Optic Nerve)
The optic nerve is examined using several tests starting with visual acuity. Each eye is
tested separately using Snellen test card. The letters and the line designated 20 should be
read at 20 feet recording 20/20 vision. When a refractory error is considered, the patient
needs to view these letters through a pinhole using a piece of paper and creating a hole of
approximately 1 mm. Marked deterioration of vision is recorded using several standard
landmarks. For example a vision of 1/60 is present when a patient is able to see finger
counting at 1-m distance, 1/200 when moving of the hand is observed. 1/ when only light
perception is present and zero when completely blind. These abnormalities are typically
seen in patients with a lesion of the optic nerve, often due to optic neuritis or anterior
ischemic optic neuropathy. The visual fields are tested with a confrontation method in
which the patient faces the examiner, covers one eye with his hand, and fixes his gaze on
the examiners nose. The examiners wiggling finger is then brought in along all four
quadrants and mentioned by the patient when it comes into view. Visual field defects are
named hemianopsia when there is loss of vision in one half field of one eye. Loss vision in
corresponding halves of both visual fields is called homonymous hemianopsia. Localization
of a homonymous hemianopsia is typically in the occipital cortex. However, macular
(central) sparing may occur due to significant collateral branches from the middle cerebral
artery. Lesions in the temporal lobe produce a "pie in the sky" homonymous defect. A
lesion in the parietal lobe produces a lower quadrant defect. Examination is followed by
fundoscopy in which the optic disk is assessed. Dilatation of the pupil is not needed for most
purposes but when in doubt a more complete examination with assessment of the macula
should follow. Disk swelling is apparent with loss of the normal venous pulse first followed
by loss of sharp temporal or nasal margins. Papilledema in advanced forms assumes the
configuration of a champagne cork and peripheral hemorrhages are seen. Papilledema
indicates increased intracranial pressure from a mass or due to cerebral venous
obstruction. It may also seen in a central venous occlusion and may at times be difficult to
distinguish from congenital lesions such as a drusen optic disk or anomalous elevation.
Figure 1. Keep both yours and the person's eyes Have the patient focus on a distant object
Look at right fundus with your right eye Ophthalmoscope should be close to your eyes.
Your head and the scope should move together Set the lens opening at +8 to +10 diopters.
With the ophthalmoscope 12-15 inches from the patient's eye, check for the red reflex and
for opacities in lens or aqueous. While adjusting the diopter setting, approach the patient
more closely and systematically inspect the disc, noting the color, shape, margins and cup-
to-disc ratio. Inspect the vessels, noting obstruction, caliber and arterial/venous ratio. Note
the presence of arterial/venous nicking and arterial light reflex. Check the background by
inspecting for pigmentation, hemorrhages and hard or soft exudates. Next, try to identify
the macula. Have the patient look at light Normal: Disc margins are sharp color: yellowish
orange to creamy pink shape: round or oval Cup to disc ratio: less than half Vessels AV
ratio AV crossing: no indentation No arterial light reflex Fundus background No exudates
or hemorrhages color : red to purplish Macula macula is located 2.5 disc distance temporal
to disc no vessels are noted around Macula it may be slightly pigmented .
Figure 2. Position yourself in front of the patient. Test the patient's visual acuity, each eye
separately, covering one at a time. Snellen's chart is used by Ophthalmologists. Visual
acuity is recorded as a fraction. The numerator indicates the distance (in feet) from the
chart which the subject can read the line. The denominator indicates the distance at which
a normal eye can read the line. Normal vision is 20/20. A pocket screener is used at the
bedside. Hold the pocket screener at a distance of 12-14 inches. At this distance the letters
are equivalent to those on Snellen's chart. In children the techniques used are "E" card: If
the child cannot read letters or numbers Fixation and following: In infants. Have the child
follow a toy. Pinhole test: To differentiate refraction errors from organic disease. If vision
improves with pinhole it is refractory error.
Figure 3. By confrontation Position yourself in front of the patient. The nose normally cuts
off the medial field of vision. Hence, compare the patient's right eye to your left eye and
vice versa. Instruct the patient to look straight at you and not to move their eyes. Compare
your field of vision with the subject's. Bring your finger from the right field of vision until
it is recognized. Test one quadrant at a time. Wiggle your fingers to see whether the patient
can recognize the movement. Some like to have the patient count fingers, i.e., 1, 2 or 5. Test
all four quadrants in a similar fashion. When abnormality is detected , would require
automated methods of testing in the lab Normal: Assuming the examiner has normal field
of vision, patient should have the same extent of field of vision.
Cranial Nerves III, IV, and V (Oculomotor, Trochlear, and Abducens)
The pupil size and reflexes are tested typically in a darkened room. Pupils are normally
equal in size, although a 1-mm difference may be physiologic. Bright light will produce
constriction except in a blind eye. The differential diagnosis of myosis or mydriasis is
shown in Table 4.
Table 4 Myosis, Mydriasis, and Horner Syndrome Differentials
Myosis
Narcotic drugs
Acute metabolic encephalopathy
Acute pontine lesion
Nonketotic hyperglycemia
Mydriasis
Delirium, anticholinergic agents, magnesium excess
Norepinephrine
Horner syndrome
Carotid dissection
Brachial plexopathy
Lateral medulla oblongata lesion (Wallenberg syndrome)
When anisocoria is noticed on should determine change in dim or bright light. As a general
rule, increase in difference in bright light indicates an abnormality in the sphincter (iris
damage, atropine), decrease in bright light indicates iris dilator weakness (Horner
syndrome, Adie syndrome, uveitis).
The ocular movements are investigated by having the patient turn the eyes in a horizontal
and vertical plane tracking the physician finger. Vertical gaze tends to diminish with age. It
is important to record saccades which are "stammering" eye movements often caused by
drugs, also degenerative neurologic disorders such as Parkinsons disease or progressive
supranuclear palsy. In addition, convergence is examined. The examination may also be
further examined using the optokinetic nystagmus in which the patients look in front of a
drum containing a series of lines. Particularly patients with parietal lesions have an
abnormal optokinetic nystagmus. Diplopia is difficult to assess but certain rules can be
applied. These are the following:
1. The distance between the true and the false image increases with direction of action
of the paretic muscle. (In a sixth nerve palsy on the right the images are widest
apart when looking to the right.)
2. Horizontal diplopia occurs with lesions of the medial or lateral recti muscles.
3. Vertical diplopia occurs with a superior or inferior recti or oblique muscles. The
more peripherally seen image is always the false image.
Nystagmus is noted as well. Typically a nystagmus is a pendular movement in which the
movements are of equal velocity. Eye jerk is divided into a fast and slow phase. First degree
nystagmus to the right is revealed on a right lateral gaze and shows fast phase to the right.
Nystagmus on forward gaze is second degree and on left lateral gaze is called third degree.
Nystagmus in the vestibular nucleus is jerk type rotation. The differentiation between a
central and peripheral nystagmus is difficult. Central vestibular nystagmus is often
vertical, purely torsional and worse looking down and out. In addition vision does not
suppress the centrally mediated nystagmus and vertigo is mild. nystagmus from a central
lesion often is part of a symptom complex with other brain stem signs. In some patients a
congenital nystagmus is found and is recognized by irregular conjugate, horizontal and in
up gaze, accentuated by fixation and anxiety and significantly diminished by convergence.
Figure 4. Inspect the eyes. Look for symmetry of eyelids. Note the alignment of the eyes at
rest. Ductions: Movement of one eye at a time Versions: Both eye movement Have the
patient follow an object into each of the nine cardinal fields of gaze. Note that both eyes
move together into each field. Eye movements should be smooth and without jerking.
Eyelids should be gently lifted up by the examiner's fingers when testing downward gaze.
Jerky, oscillatory eye movements (nystagmus) may be abnormal, especially if sustained or
asymmetrical. Hirschberg light reflex test: Use a penlight in middle of field of vision. Note
light reflection on both cornea. Let patient gaze in different directions, while noting the
position of light reflection in cornea. If they are asymmetrical it indicated there is
strabismus. Look up how to perform cover-uncover test to evaluate non paralytic
strabismus. Normal: Full conjugate eye movements.No nystagmus in any direction
Figure 5. Have the patient look at a distant object Look at size, shape and symmetry of
pupils. Shine a light into each eye and observe constriction of pupil. Flash a light on one
pupil and watch it contract briskly. Flash the light again and watch the opposite pupil
constrict (consensual reflex). Repeat this procedure on the opposite eye. Normal: Pupils are
subtle, mild anisocoria (unequal in size) by itself and not necessarily an abnormal findings.
Pupil size is 3-5 mm in diameter. They react briskly to light. Both pupils constrict
consensually.
Figure 6. Ask the patient to follow
your finger as you bring it toward
the bridge of his nose. Note the
convergence of the eyes and
pupillary constriction. Normal:
Convergence should be
sustainable to within 5-8 cm and
both pupils constrict.
Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal Nerve)
The trigeminal nerve consists of motor and sensory fibers. The sensory dermatome involves
the scalp close to the line of the ear to forehead, eye, cheek, and chin. It can be tested by
light touch using a cotton Q-tip, pin, and temperature using hot and cold tubes. The
corneal reflex is tested using a cotton ball gently striking the outer rim rather than
centrally on the cornea causing a reflective blink. The patient should also indicate touch. In
addition, the jaw jerk is elicited by tapping on the apex of the jaw. The response is only
significant when it is exaggerated and may indicates a brain stem lesion.
Figure 7.Trigeminal nerve has motor and sensory components
Motor
Have patient clench teeth and feel the Masseters and Temporal muscles and compare sides.
Note the strength of contractions. Edentulous patients may not be able to clench "teeth".
Sensory
With a light touch of cotton, check the patient's ability to detect light touch in all areas which are supplied by
the three divisions of the fifth cranial nerve. Instruct the patient to close his eyes and respond by saying "yes"
every time he feels the sensation of cotton touching his face.
Compare corresponding contralateral segments of his face.
Test pain sensation with a pin in each of the three divisions, comparing both sides.
Test corneal (blink) reflex with a wisp of cotton lightly touched to the edge of the cornea.
There should be a consensual eyeblink normally.
Figure 8. A, The corneal reflex, B, examination of the sensory part of the trigeminal nerve
Cranial Nerve VII (Facial Nerve)
This is tested having the patient elevate eyebrows, closing eyelids forcefully in which the
eyelashes disappear, and producing a voluntary smile. When a paralysis of the facial nerve
exists, pronounciation of sounds that require closure of the lip such as pot and boy is
disturbed. In a peripheral seventh nerve palsy the platysma is also abnormal and can be
examined after the patient draws the lower lip and the angle of the mouth downwards.
Taste may be abnormal but only when the lesion is peripheral to its junction with the
cordae tympany. It is examined using sugar, salt, and sometimes tartaric acid but the
results are difficult to interpret. A common peripheral facial paralysis called Bells palsy
can be recognized by involvement of all three branches, inability to blink and close the
eyelid, tearing, and a so-called Bells phenomenon in which with forceful closure of the eye
the globe turns upward.
Figure 9. Inspect the face. Look for asymmetry at rest, during conversation and when
testing various muscles. Ask the patient to wrinkle his forehead or raise his eyebrows,
enabling you to test the upper face (frontalis). Next, have the patient tightly close his eyes.
Test the strength of the orbicularis oculi by gently trying to pry open the patient's upper
eyelid. Instruct him to puff out both cheeks. Check tension by tapping his cheeks with your
fingers. Have the patient smile broadly and show his teeth, testing the lower face. Normal:
No facial asymmetry. Wrinkling of the forehead and smiling are equal and symmetrical.
Cranial Nerve VIII (Acoustic Nerve)
Hearing is tested with a whisper voice. The examiner stands in front of the patient and
whispers words (e.g. - 66, Boston) while covering patient eyes with one hand and blocking
the ear that is not tested with the other hand. Several tuning fork tests are available. The
Weber test is a test in which tuning fork is placed in the middle of the skull in which
hearing normally should be observed in both ears. Lateralization occurs on the same side
in the middle ear involvement, on the opposite side when the cochlear nerve is involved.
The Rinne test is performed after placing the vibrating tuning fork against the mastoid and
when it can no longer be heard it is held in front of the ear. Positive result is when the
tuning fork is heard longer by air than bone conduction. An abnormal test is a sign of
middle ear defect or a blocking of the external auditory canal. Vestibular function can be
examined with laboratory and caloric testing but also using the Barany test. The patient is
seated on examining table and will be reclined backwards with the head hanging over the
edge of the table. After a brief interval vertigo will set in and at the same time a brief
rotary nystagmus appears. The patient is asked to look downwards. The test is sensitive for
a benign positional nystagmus. BPPD is due to dysfunction of the vestibular organ. It is
common and often misdiagnosed as vertebral - basilar insufficiency.
Figure 10. With eyes closed, the patient should be instructed to acknowledge hearing the
gentle rubbing of the examiner's fingers approximately 3-4 inches away from his right and
left ear. A watch, which the examiner can hear at a specific distance from his ear, is placed
next to the patient's ear. Ask him to note when the watch sound disappears. Note that the
examiner has to have normal hearing to do this exam (in at least one ear). Normal: In a
quiet room, the patient should be able to hear the physician's fingers rubbed lightly
together 3-4 inches from his ear. With aging Progressive bilateral Presbycusis (old
hearing): Sensory neural loss Difficulty appreciating consonants
Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal Nerve)
This nerve is tested by putting a tongue depressor in the back of the throat which will
produce a gag reflex. Midline elevation of the soft palate occurs. Its significance is dubious
because many normal individuals have no gag with stimulation.
Cranial Nerve X (Vagus Nerve)
The patient is asked to say "ah" and the soft palate will rise symmetrically. When there is
weakness on one side, deviation will be to the intact side. Swallowing should not be
impaired with unilateral involvement of the vagus but hoarseness occurs with involvement
of the vocal cord on the affected side.
Figure 11. Have patient say "ah"
and observe movement of palate
with flash light Stimulate
posterior pharynx (gag reflex)
with cotton tipped probe one side
at a time Have the patient cough
Observe patients voice Normal:
No hoarseness is noted in voice
and the cough is effective. Palate
moves symmetrically and the
uvula stays in mid line Pharynx
moves forwards with retching on
stimulation of posterior pharynx.
Cranial Nerve XI (Accessory Nerve)
Accessory nerve is examined by having the patient turn the head forcefully against
examiner hand and shrugging both shoulders against resistance. Paralysis of the trapezius
muscle or sternocleidomastoid muscle can be observed and often is due to a peripheral
nerve damage associated with a lymph biopsy lateral in the neck.
Figure 12. Inspect Trapezius and Sternocleidomastoid muscles Note muscle size (bulk).
Look for asymmetry, atrophy and fasciculation. Determine muscle power by gently trying
to overpower contraction of each group of muscles. Have patient shrug shoulder against
resistance and evaluate strength of Trapezius muscle. Have patient turn head to one side
against resistance and evaluate strength and observe contracting sternomastoid muscle
Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal Nerve)
The patient is asked to protrude the tongue and then also the tongue is investigated
carefully for atrophy and fasciculations. Tongue fasciculations are strong indicators of ALS
in the appropriate setting. It may a appear like a bag of worms. The patient then is asked
to rapidly move the tongue from left to right and the strength is tested by pushing the
tongue against a tongue blade or against the cheek.
Figure 13. Pay attention to articulation . Inspect Tongue. Note muscle size (bulk). Look for
asymmetry, atrophy and fasciculation. Determine muscle power by Having the patient to
protrude the tongue and side to side, up and down. Note the resistance offered by the
tongue to your finger pressing on the tongue through each cheek.
Cranial nerve palsy examples
CN III Palsy (a) CN III Palsy (b) Right CN VI Palsy Gaze left
CN VII (Bell's) Palsy (a) CN VII (Bell's) Palsy (b)
Right CN XII Palsy
Left CN XII Palsy
Tongue Atrophy
Ptosis in primary position of gaze
Ptosis on upgaze
Myasthinia Gravis
Post Tensilon
Myasthinia Gravis
More Ptosis
Paralysis of Upgaze
Parinaud's
Syndrome
Examination of Muscle Function
Muscle examination includes inspection for atrophy, fasciculations, and tone. Tone can be
rigid or decreased. Typically proximal and distal muscles are tested and are graded using
the Medical Research Counsel (MRC) scale.
Table 5 - MRC Scale
5 = Normal power
4 = Reduced power, but still contracting muscle against resistance
3 = Movement against gravity but not resistance
2 = Movement with gravity eliminated
1 = Flicker of movement only
0 = No movement
Muscle atrophy is seen in many diseases of the peripheral nerve but also in advanced
myopathies. Generally muscle weakness in myopathies involves muscles in a proximal
distribution and peripheral nerve in a distal distribution (hand and foot muscles).
Muscle weakness may involve a nerve root or single nerve. It is summarized in Table 8.
Fasciculations are fine twitches in parts of muscle and typically do occur at areas of the
limb that the examiner is not looking at ("the shooting star phenomenon"). Muscle tone is
assessed after passive movement of the muscle and often muscle tone becomes clear to
resistance. Hypotonia is apparent when a limb is shaken by the examiner documenting
significant flailing. Loose and toneless muscles not only can be seen in peripheral nerve
abnormalities also in the setting of acute cerebellar lesions. Spasticity is diagnosed with
increasing resistance to passive movement followed by a sudden release of resistance,
typically called a clasp knife reaction.
Table 6 - Nerve Roots and Peripheral Nerves Supplying Arm / Leg Muscles
C
4
Levator scapular
C
5
-
T
1
Pectoralis major
C
5
-
C
6
Deltoid (axillary nerve)
Biceps (musculocutaneous nerve)
Brachioradialis (radial nerve)
Supinator (radial nerve)
C
6
-
C
7
Pronator teres (median nerve)
C
6
-
C
7
-
C
8
Triceps (radial nerve)
Extensor carpi ulnaris (radial nerve)
Flexor carpi ulnaris (median and ulnar nerve)
C
7-8
Digit extensors (radial nerve)
C
7-8
- T
1
Digit flexors (median and ulnar nerves)
C
8
-
T
1
Thenar (median nerve)
Hypothenar (ulnar nerve)
Interossei (ulnar nerve)
L
2-3-
4
Iliopsoas (femoral nerve)
Adductor thigh (obturator nerve)
L
4-5
- S
1
Hamstrings (sciatic nerve)
Toe extensors (peroneus nerve)
L
2-3-
4
Quadriceps (femoral nerve)
L
4-5
Anterior tibial (peroneal nerve)
L
5
-
S
1
Extensor hallucis longus (peroneal nerve)
Peronei (peroneal nerve)
Posterior tibial (tibial nerve)
Toe flexors (tibial nerve)
L
5
-
S
1-2
Gluteus maximus (inferior gluteal nerve)
Gastrocnemius / Soleus (tibial nerve)
Figure 14. Inspect the muscles of the shoulder, arm, forearm and hand. Note muscle size
(bulk). Look for asymmetry, atrophy and fasciculation. Look for tremor and other
abnormal movement at rest and with arms outstretched. Determine muscle power by
gently trying to overpower contraction of each group of muscles. Shoulder: Abduction
(Deltoid), Adduction ( ), Shrug (Trapezius) Elbow: flexion (Biceps) and extension (Triceps),
Wrist: Flexion ( )and extension(). Hand: Grip, opposition of thumb and index finger,
opposition of thumb and little finger and finger abduction and adduction. Determine limb
tone (resistance to passive stretch). With the patient relaxed, gently move the limb at the
shoulder, elbow and wrist joints and note whether tone is normal, increased or decreased
Normal: Muscles are symmetrical in size with no involuntary movements. In some, muscles
may be slightly larger on the dominant side. Muscle power obviously varies. You should
not be able to overpower with reasonable resistance. You have to learn to appreciate the
normal tone from practice.
Figure 15. Inspect the muscles of the hip, knee and ankle. Note muscle size (bulk). Look for
asymmetry, atrophy and fasciculation. Look for abnormal movement. Determine muscle
power by gently trying to overpower contraction of each group of muscles. Hip: Flexion
(Iliopsoas), Extension (Gluteus maximus), Abduction, Adduction. Knee : Flexion
(Hamstrings), Extension (Quadriceps) Ankle : Dorsiflexion (Tibialis anterior), Plantar
flexion (Gastronemius). Determine limb tone (resistance to passive stretch). With the
patient relaxed, gently move the limb at the hip, knee and ankle and note whether tone is
normal, increased or dicreased. Flex the hip and knee. Support the knee, dorsiflex the
ankle sharply and hold the foot in this position checking for clonus.
Examination of motor power
Motor examination
Deltoid C5 Axillary N.
Biceps C6 Musculocutaneous
N.
Triceps C7 Radial N.
Brachioradialis C6 Radial N.
Extensor Carpi Ulnaris C7
Radial (Posterior
Interossious)
Extensor Digitorum C7
Radial (Posterior
Interossious)
First Dorsal Interossious T1
Ulner Nerve
Abductor Pollicis Brevis T1
Median N.
Psoas L1,2
Hamstring S1 Sciatic
Tibialis Anterior L4,5 Deep
Peroneal N.
Ext. Hallucis Longus L5
Deep Peroneal N.
Extensor Digitorum Brevis
L5 Deep Peroneal N.
Extensor Digitorum Longus
L5 Deep Peroneal N.
Gastrocnemious S1 Tibial N.
Reflexes
Tendon reflexes localize to various segments in the spinal cord. The biceps reflex (C5-C6),
triceps (C6-C7), knee (L2, L3, and L4), and ankle (L5-S1). Deep tendon reflexes are also
classified using a simple grading system (Table 7).
Table 7 - Classification of Deep Tendon Reflexes
0 = Absent
+/- = Present with enforcement
+ = Just present
2+ = Normal reflex
3+ = Brisk reflex, additional beat but still within normal limits
4+ = Pathological brisk reflex and clonus
Reflexes in patients may be depressed without any pathological meaning and in many
patients voluntary contracting a muscle in other limb will facilitate the reflex (Jendrassik
maneuver). Important reflexes are a normal plantar reflex (toes curling down), Babinski
sign (unfortunately often called reflex, response or worse "the Babinskis") typically when a
piece of metal or wood is applied to lateral surface of the foot or moved in a hockey stick
curve from the heel to the front. It results in flexion of the great toe, spreading of the toes in
a same response as flexing the knee and contraction of the tensor fascia lata (so called triple
response). Other reflexes that need to be examined are abdominal reflexes, stroking the
surface of the abdomen in four segments. Contraction is seen, but in elderly obese, and
patients with lax abdominal muscles, reflexes are most of the time absent. When the two
lowest abdominal responses are absent, a localized spinal cord lesion is at the T10 level.
Many other reflexes have been described. They include snout reflex by stimulating the lips,
grasp reflex with persistent flexion of the fingers after insertion of two fingers in the palm,
palmomental reflex with pressure on the palm causing a contraction of the ipsilateral
mentalis muscle, all potentially indicating cortical inhibition. The Hoffmann-Tromner
reflex is obtained by snapping the terminal phalanx of the middle finger causing the flexion
response of all fingers. The abnormality has been falsely considered "the Babinski of the
arm" but only asymmetries are of importance. It is often difficult to elicit.
Figure 16. Patient should be relaxed and positioned symmetrically, preferably lying supine.
Biceps reflex: (C5-C6) With the arm gently flexed at the elbow, tap the biceps tendon with
a reflex hammer. It may help to locate this tendon with your thumb, and strike your own
thumb with the hammer. There should be a reflex contraction of the biceps brachii muscle
(elbow flexion). Triceps reflex: (C7-C8) With the elbow in flexion, tap the triceps tendon,
just proximal to the elbow, with a reflex hammer. The arm could also be abducted at the
shoulder for this maneuver. There should be a reflex contraction of the triceps muscle
(elbow extension). Brachiradialis reflex: (C5-C6) Knee reflex: (L2-L4) Slightly lift up the
leg under the knee, and tap the patellar tendon with a reflex hammer. There should be a
reflex contraction of the quadriceps muscle (knee extension). (If performed in a sitting
position, have the legs dangle over the edge of the chair or table). Ankle reflex: (S1) Slightly
externally rotate at the hip, and gently dorsiflex the foot, tapping the Achilles tendon with a
reflex hammer. There should be a reflex contraction of the gastrocnemius muscle (plantar
flexion). When the reflexes are absent try eliciting it after re-enforcing (Jendrassik
maneuver0, by asking the patient to interlock and pull flexed fingers. Deep tendon reflexes
should be graded on a scale of 0-4 as follows: 0 = absent despite reinforcement 1 = present
only with reinforcement 2 = normal 3 = increased but normal 4 = markedly hyperactive,
with clonus
Figure 17. With the patient
supine, support the weight of the
foot at the ankle.With a pointed
object, stroke the lateral aspect of
the sole of the foot, from the heel
up and across the ball of the foot.
Normal: Note plantar flexion of
the toes.
Sensory Examination
Sensory testing involves assessment of light touch, pinprick, vibration sense, and joint
position sense, and in occasional situations temperature assessment. Light touch involves
wisp of cotton ball. The skin is touched, not moved, along it. Pinprick is tested with a sterile
pin. Vibration using a tuning fork has similar meaning as joint position sense. Typically
movement of the toe up or down is assessed or the patient imitates the same movement in
the other limb. When a sensory level is noted by the patient the margins of abnormality
needs to be carefully localized. Important pointers are shoulders (C4), nipples (TH4) and
navel (TH10). Significant loss of proprioception will cause pseudoathetosis in which the
fingers constantly try to orient themselves in space. A 2-point discrimination is also
assessing the posterior column and normally stimulus separated by 2 mm should be
distinguished.
Figure 18. Test light touch with a wisp of cotton. Test pain sense with a blunted, disposable
safety pin or splintered cotton tip applicator. For light touch and pain: Have patient close
eyes and report each test stimulus. Test over sides of each foot, leg, thigh, hand, forearm
and arm. Compare the right and left and distal with proximal. Test the trunk where
indicated. Test position sense by moving the toe or finger up and down, held by its sides,
and have the patient report its position with eyes closed. Vibration sense is tested with a
vibrating tuning fork placed over bony prominences of the feet (ankles) and hands
(knuckles). Ask the patient to report when the vibration sense is lost. Sensation is tested by
comparing the right and left sides In cases of suspected root or nerve lesions, sensation in a
dermatomal or peripheral nerve distribution is carefully tested. If a spinal cord lesion is
suspected, check for sensory loss over the trunk and sacral areas. Normal:Light touch,
pinprick, vibration and position sense are intact throughout.
Cerebellar Function
Cerebellar function is tested with a finger-to-nose test or finger-to-finger test typically
using additional turning in the wrists to further test coordination. The most commonly
neglected investigation in bed bound patients is a sitting position in which patient may fall
to one side with a midline vermis lesion. Dysmetria is noted when the patient cannot
smoothly touch the nose and becomes shaky when reaching target.
Figure 19. Ask the patient to alternately reach out and touch your extended finger and his
own nose. Test both hands. Ask the (supine) patient to touch his heel to the opposite knee,
and slide it smoothly down he shin of that leg. Test both legs. Normal: Patient can touch the
target and perform movements in a smooth, coordinated manner. Heel to knee to shin are
performed smoothly and accurately.
Gait
A favorite pastime of neurologists is to investigate gait. Typically the patient is asked to
walk on the hallway and several components are investigated - stability, stride, initiation of
gait, and turns. Typical abnormalities in a Parkinsons patient is stooped gait, reduced arm
swing, fragmentary turning. In a patient with a hemiplegia the affected leg is swung
outwards with a tendency for the foot to catch on the ground. Profound loss of sensory
information from the feet is actually heard due a stamping gait.
Table 8 - Gait
Type Features
Cerebellar ataxia Wide based, staggering steps, leans forward. Abnormal
turning the corner.
Sensory ataxia Romberg (+); wide based; high stepping.
Frontal lobe ataxia Hesitating start, shuffling, freezing with corners.
Spastic Bouncing wide - based, "tin-man"-like
Akinetic Shuffling, no arm swing, small steps
Figure 20. Ask the patient to walk back and forth across the room. Observe for equality of
arm swing , balance and rapidity and ease of turning. Next, ask the patient to walk on his
tiptoes, then on heels. Ask the patient to tandem walk. Test patient's ability to stand with
feet together with eyes open and then closed. (Romberg's test). Reassure patient that you
will support him, in case he becomes unsteady. Normal: Person can walk in balance with
the arms swinging at sides and can turn smoothly. Person should be able to stand with feet
together without falling with eyes open or closed.
Some abnormal gaits
Steppage Gait
Hemiplegic Gait
Parkinsonian Gait
Retropulsion
Localization Principles
This document is not designed to give a complete evaluation of the localization techniques
and the reader should be referred to the book by Brazis, Masdeu, and Biller, Localization
in Clinical Neurology, Lippincott Raven, 3
rd
Edition. Some generalities should be
mentioned. Lesions of the upper motor neuron will give paralysis, distally more involved in
than the proximal muscles as well as increased reflexes and clonus, and loss of cutaneous
reflexes and a Babinski sign. Lesions of the lower motor neuron involve atrophy, flaccid
paralysis, fasciculations and weakness is segmental in character. The segmental
distribution is noticeable. Specific muscles are innervated through a single cord segment
because the spinal cord is arranged through separate reflex arcs. Absence of sensory
abnormalities are seen when the lesion is entirely anterior horn. Lesions of the
extrapyramidal system will produce bradykinesia with slowness of movement, tremor,
shuffling walking with small steps, slow movements, resting tremor, and slowing of
mentation as well as initiating movements. Posterior column syndromes involve ataxia,
dysmetria with impossibility of coordinated smooth movements, overshooting the mark
and increase in symptoms after elimination of vision. Syndromes of cerebellar
abnormalities involve decomposition of movement, inability to perform movements
smoothly, hypertonia, excessive rebound, and intention tremor.
Clinical skills in Neuro Evaluation
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this course the learner will be able to:
Describe the major components of the neurological exam.
Identify 3 common neurological disorders tested during a neurological evaluation.
Identify the major components of the motor exam.
Describe the two sensory modalities tested using the sensory exam.
Describe three common tests used to assess cerebellar dysfunction.
Introduction
The purpose of this course is to summarize the main parts of the neurological exam.
Familiarity with this material will allow you to diagnose common neurological disorders,
identify neurological emergencies and make referrals to appropriate specialists.
Any health professional faced with the task of assessing a person with an emergent, acute
or even long-standing neurological deficit knows the importance of a quick and reliable
neurological exam. Your knowledge of neurological evaluation techniques will allow you to
gather accurate information about your client's medical condition and help you to create
an accurate plan of care. Once you are familiar with the neurological exam, you should be
able to complete the exam in 10 to 15 minutes. Additionally you will learn some of the tests
that are used to identify certain types of common neurological dysfunctions. The course
will cover the following parts of the neurological evaluation:
Index
Tools
Patient History
Physical Exam
Cognitive Assessment/Mental Status
Cranial Nerve Assessment
Motor Exam
Sensory Exam
Coordination Exam
Tools
The following tools will be used during the neurological exam:
Reflex hammer (tomahawk model)
Penlight
Tongue blade
Safety pin
Cotton swab
Ophthalmoscope
Eye chart
Tuning fork
Dermatome chart
Patient History
As with all other nursing examinations, the neurological exam begins with the gathering of
an accurate patient history and information about the course of the present injury. This
will help to create a baseline as well as providing you with valuable information about the
course and characteristics of the present illness. The following information is gathered
during the patient history portion of the neurological exam:
Personal and family history
Description of the current problem
Past medical history
Prior level of function
Medication review
Review of other major systems
Personal and family history.
The personal history should include a brief personal profile and description of the patient.
A brief family history should be included, the source of the information indicated and the
mental status of the patient noted. Included in this section are the following items:
Date
Age
Gender
Racial background
Place of birth
Marital status
Occupation
Religion
Description of the current problem.
A description of the current problem or "chief complaint" and the reason the patient is
seeking medical care should be noted. Ask for an explanation of current signs and
symptoms including any physical or psychological changes. Ask about the presence of
dizziness, headaches, visual disturbances, speech or motor control problems. Inquire about
the onset and duration of symptoms and remember that in an emergent neurological event
the progression of symptoms may help to identify the part of the brain that has been
affected. The following items are included in this section
Present illness including onset of the problem, the setting it developed in,
manifestations and past treatment for the problem.
Analysis of the "main symptom" including location, quality, severity, onset,
duration, frequency and factors that aggravate or alleviate the condition.
Past medical history.
Ask about the person's past medical history, previous illnesses and psychological history.
Include educational background and any recent change in personality or behavior.
Included in this section are the following items:
Childhood illnesses
Psychological illnesses
Past accidents and injuries
Operations
Previous hospitalizations
Current health
Allergies
Family history
Prior level of function.
Prior level of function is a critical piece of information that helps to establish the extent of
the current neurological damage and helps you to differentiate between longstanding and
emergent signs and symptoms. Ask about the person's level of daily activities and use of
assistive devices prior to the onset of the current medical problem.
Medication review.
Ask the patient for a list of over-the-counter and prescription medications as well as use of
recreational drugs and alcohol.
Review of other major systems.
Ask the patient about any problems with the other major systems of the body including
heart, lungs and abdomen.
The Physical Exam
The physical exam includes inspection of the skin and neck, carotid and heart sounds,
blood pressure, heart rate and respiratory rate. The following items are inspected in this
section:
Presence of weakness, fatigue or fever
The condition of the skin - color, sores, rash, lumps
Eyes - visual changes, spots, double vision, cataracts, blurred vision, glasses or
contact lenses
Ears - pain, tinnitus, vertigo, discharge or infection
Nose and sinuses - presence of cold, stuffiness, discharge or bleeding
Mouth and throat - general condition of the teeth and gums, sore throat, bleeding,
sores, hoarseness or dryness
Neck - presence of stiffness, pain, lumps or swollen glands
Respiratory and cardiac systems
Gastrointestinal urinary systems
Genitals - presence of pain, discharge, swelling, sensory changes
Cognitive Assessment/Mental Exam
The mental exam starts when the patient enters the medical setting and includes your
observations and conversations with the patient. If the patient demonstrates cognitive
functioning that is grossly intact including level of consciousness, alertness, speech, memory
and judgement, there is no need to do a more formal cognitive assessment. If it appears
that any of the cognitive functions are impaired it will be necessary to do a more detailed
cognitive assessment. The following items are included in the cognitive assessment:
Level of consciousness
Orientation
Speech and language
Memory
Fund of information
Insight and judgement
Abstract thought
Calculations
Level of consciousness.
There are many acceptable methods to determine level of consciousness including the
Glascow coma Scale, the Mini-Mental State or by categorizing the level of consciousness
using descriptive cognitive scales.
Glascow Coma Scale
A coma is defined by Jennett and Teasdale as "not obeying commands, not uttering words
and not opening the eyes". The Glascow Coma (table 1) scale was first developed in 1974 as
a way to assess and monitor levels of consciousness. A Glascow score of 8 or less out of a
possible score of 15 defines coma in 90% of cases. The Glascow Coma scale may be used in
conjunction with the Glascow Outcome scale (table 2) to determine level of recovery.
Table 1: Glascow Coma Scale
Parameter Score Response
Eye opening Spontaneous 4
To voice 3
To pain 2
No response 1
Best verbal response Oriented, converses 5
Disoriented, converses 4
Inappropriate words 3
Incomprehensile sounds 2
No response or intubated 1
Best motor response Follows commands 6
Localizes response 5
Withdraws 4
Abnormal flexion 3
Abnormal extension 2
No response 1
Highest score = 15 Lowest score = 3
Table 2: Glascow Outcome Scale
Vegetative state
No cerebral cortical function that can be judged by
behavior
Severe disability Conscious but dependent
Moderate disability Independent but disabled
Good recovery
Able to participate in normal social life and able to return
to work
Table 3: Glascow Coma Scale Scores vs. Glascow Outcome Scale
Glascow coma scale at 24
hours
Good recovery or moderate
disability by %
Vegetative or dead by %
11-15 91% 6%
8-10 59% 27%
5-7 28% 54%
3-4 13% 80%
Another scale used to descriptively assess the level of cognitive functioning in a person with
a brain injury is as follows:
Alert
Obtunded or confused - a slight but noticeable decrease in alertness with decreased
interest in what is happening in the environment, decreased attention span and
memory.
Stupor - the person appears to be in a deep sleep but can be aroused by noxious or
vigorous stimuli.
Coma - eyes closed, no directed motor or verbal activity and unarousable.
Orientation.
Orientation is generally determined by asking the patient to answer a few common
questions such as the name, place and time. Other questions might include the year, date,
day or the name of the president or vice president. Time is often the first part of orientation
that is affected. The inability to remember one's name may be evidence of a psychiatric
condition.
Speech and language.
A detailed assessment of speech and language function is the job of a specialist. During the
initial neurological assessment, however you will be trying to establish the presence of a
speech disorder that did not exist prior to the onset of the current medical problem. During
this gross assessment, it is most common to look for the presence of aphasia, a problem
with the understanding of speech or the inability to communicate via speech. Additionally,
it is important to note the quality, clarity and fluency of speech. The following items are
contained within a speech and language assessment:
Articulation - look for difficulty with the pronunciation of words, especially words
containing "p", "l" and "ch" sounds.
Rate and rhythm - look for changes in the rate and rhythm of speech.
Prosody - aprosodia occurs due to a lesion in the right parietal lobe - the part of the
brain that is involved with the tone and musicality of speech. A patient with a lesion
to this part of the brain will have flat intonation and a loss of pitch. There will also
be a change in the accentuation and stress of words and syllables.
Aphasia - aphasia is an acquired communication disorder often caused by vascular
insult that affects a person's ability to speak and/or comprehend the spoken word.
Aphasia can affect modalities other than speaking such as writing, gesturing and
other non-verbal aspects of communication. For the purpose of a basic neurological
exam it is sufficient to classify the aphasias as receptive, conductive or expressive.
Receptive (Wernicke's aphasia).
Speech is often clear and fluent and language is normal in rate, rhythm and melody but
there may be errors in words as well as the presence of added syllables. Language may be
excessive and convey little meaning. Comprehension is usually severely affected.
Conductive aphasia.
Speech is clear, but the patient is unable to repeat words. There is the ability to follow
commands because comprehension is usually preserved. Naming and repeating is severely
impaired. Reading aloud is impaired but reading silently is conserved. Speech is fluent but
with many incorrect words or sounds substituted for correct words.
Expressive (Broca's aphasia).
Comprehension is usually well preserved but speech is unclear and non-fluent. Patients
tend to use only key words and omit many nouns and verbs. Neurological damage may
extend to the frontal lobe motor control areas adjoining Broca's area.
Memory.
The portion of the exam that tests memory skills is usually divided into three parts -
immediate, recent and past memory.
1. Immediate - ask the patient to recall a few objects over the span of 3 to 5 minutes.
2. Recent - ask the patient to recall events within the last several hours to several days.
Common questions might include, "What did you have for breakfast?" "Where do
you live?" and "When did you start to feel ill?"
3. Past - ask about events from childhood or long ago events.
Fund of information.
Ask about current events, name of the president, geography, etc.
Insight and judgement.
Ask about the patient's understanding and awareness of the current illness.
Abstract thought.
Ask the patient to compare and contrast two objects such as a car and a bus or a cucumber
and an apple. Ask the patient to interpret a complex concept or political event.
Calculations.
Ask the patient to do a calculation such as counting backwards from 100 by increments of
7 or count upwards by threes. Ask how many dimes are in a dollar or how many weeks in
two years.
The Cranial Nerves
Assessment of the cranial nerves provides information about the function of the nerves in
the head and neck region. With practice this part of the neurological exam can be
completed in just a few minutes. Testing is usually done in numerical order starting with
CNI and proceeding to CNXII. The cranial nerves are arranged along the brainstem in
descending order from 12 to 1. (CN I is located just above the olfactory epithelium on the
inferior surface of the frontal lobe. CN II is located on the inferior surface of the cerebrum
behind the eyes.)
Cranial nerves 12 - 9 are located in the medulla oblongata, the part of the brainstem
contiguous with the spinal cord. Cranial nerves 8 - 5 are located along the pons, the next
portion of the brainstem. Cranial nerves 4 and 3 are located in the area of the midbrain,
the uppermost portion of the brainstem.
CN I - The olfactory nerve.
The olfactory nerve is a sensory nerve responsible for smell.
Assessment of CNI is often omitted unless it is suspected that there is damage to the
inferior frontal lobe - the area where the olfactory nerve is located. First make sure the
nostrils are patent. CN I is usually tested by holding coffee, rubbing alcohol or some other
pungent or aromatic substance under the nose of the patient. Compare one side to the
other.
CN II - The optic nerve.
The optic nerve is a sensory nerve responsible for vision. Always test this cranial nerve
because it will give you information about visual acuity and visual fields deficits. Test visual
acuity, visual fields and fundi.
1. Visual Acuity. Use the eye chart from your toolkit and test the patient's corrected
vision in good light. Have the patient stand 20 feet from the eye chart then read the
smallest line possible. Test both eyes. Compare the results of this test to the patient's
prior level of function.
2. Visual fields. It is important to test for the presence of visual field deficits if you
suspect a disorder that is located in front of the optic chiasm. The visual fields are
tested by positioning your finger or a pencil beside the patient's temple in the area
of the peripheral vision. Slowly bring the object forward and ask the patient to say
when the object becomes visible. Move the pencil or finger up, down, right, left and
diagonally to the upper right, lower right, upper left and lower left. Keep your
movements small and slow - it is easier for the eye to detect motion and will make
the test less sensitive to visual field defects. Common visual field deficits include: 1)
homonymous hemianopsia in which 1/2 of the visual field on the same side is
affected i.e. the nasal side of the right eye and the temporal side of the left eye, 2)
bitemporal hemianopsia in which either the nasal side or the temporal sides of both
eyes are affected, and 3) unilateral blindness in which one eye is blinded.
3. Fundi. Look closely at each eye and check for symmetry, clarity, color, contour,
retinal abnormalities and the condition of the blood vessels in the eye.
CN III, IV and VI - The oculomotor, trochlear and abducens nerves.
The oculomotor, trochlear and abducens are motor nerves responsible for control of all eye
movements and innervation of all the extraocular eye muscles. CN III controls most of the
extraocular eye muscles, eye opening and pupillary constriction. CN IV controls downward
and inward eye movements. CN VI controls lateral eye movements.
These cranial nerves are responsible for motor control of the eye muscles, eyelids and the
pupils. They are tested in a group because they work together to control eye movement.
Check the eyelids for drooping and symmetry. An eyelid drooping over the pupil (CN III)
may indicate the presence of myasthenia gravis or 3rd cranial nerve palsy. Hold your
finger in front of the patient and ask her to follow your finger as you move it through the 6
cardinal fields. The cardinal fields are: 1) lateral and medial along the horizontal plane and
2) superior and inferior in far lateral gaze.
Check pupil function for response to light. With the room darkened shine a penlight into
one eye and look for pupil constriction - this is called a direct response. The opposite pupil
should also constrict - this is known as a consensual response.
Next ask the patient to look at a distant object and then at your finger which is held about 4
inches in front of the patient's nose. The pupils should constrict and the eyes converge
when the eyes shift from the distant object to your finger. Dilated or constricted pupils may
indicate neurological disease, glaucoma, drug abuse or reaction to certain medications.
Finally check for the position of the eyes in primary gaze by having the patient look
straight ahead, then shine a bright light into the pupils. The reflection of the light should be
the same in each pupil. A deviation suggests the presence of a strabismus - the inability to
align the visual axes so they are directed at the same point.
In addition to checking these functions remember to look for the presence of horizontal and
vertical nystagmus. Have the patient hold a lateral gaze for 5 to 10 seconds. If a brainstem
lesion is suspected, vertical nystagmus is often present and is almost always an indication of
central nervous system damage as opposed to vestibular dysfunction.
CN V - The trigeminal nerve.
The trigeminal nerve is a mixed motor and sensory nerve that innervates the muscles of
mastication and sensation from the skin, muscles and joints in the face, mouth and teeth
and lateral jaw movement. Both motor and sensory components should be assessed.
The motor portion of the trigeminal nerve is tested by palpating the masseter muscles while
the patient clenches the jaw and by testing the strength of the jaw while opening and
closing the mouth. If a weakness is present the jaw will deviate to the weak side.
The sensory portion of the trigeminal nerve can be tested for temperature sensation using
the metal surface of your tuning fork or using test tubes filled with warm and cold water.
The corneal reflex should be tested in a patient with suspected brainstem or hemispheric
lesions by having the patient look up and away from the examiner. Approaching the eye
from the side, lightly touch the cornea of one eye with a piece of cotton. Repeat in the other
eye. A symmetric blink reflex should be present. Absence of the blink reflex indicates a 5th
or 7th cranial nerve lesion.
CN VII - The facial nerve.
The facial nerve is mixed motor and sensory. The motor portion innervates the muscles of
facial expression, the lacrimal and salivary glands. The sensory portion is responsible for
taste sensation from the anterior 2/3rds of the tongue and the skin of the external ear.
The facial nerve can be tested by asking the patient to smile, wrinkle the forehead, puff out
the cheeks and close the eyes tightly. Look for symmetry from side to side and differences
between the upper two-thirds and the lower one-third of the face. Weakness in the upper
part of the face may indicate a central nervous system lesion while weakness in the lower
one third may indicate a peripheral nervous system problem.
CN VIII - The vestibulocochlear nerve.
The vestibulocochlear nerve is sensory for hearing, balance and orientation in space.
Cranial nerve VIII is responsible for two main functions - control of vestibular function
and hearing. It is usually only tested in patients with symptoms of vertigo, imbalance or
suspected lesions in the cerebellopontine angle or brainstem.
Hearing can be screened initially by asking whether of not the patient hears your questions.
To test hearing acuity, cover one ear and test the other with a watch held close to the ear or
by whispering.
The vestibular portion of CN VIII is more complicated but should be tested if the patient
reports symptoms of nausea, vertigo, anxiety or if there are signs of nystagmus, sweating,
hypotension, vomiting, hypotension or postural deviations. Use the caloric test in which the
patient is placed in supine with the head elevated to 30 degrees. Irrigate the ear canal with
cold water. If the vestibular pathways are intact and the patient is awake the caloric test
will cause nausea, horizontal nystagmus and vertigo to the irrigated side.
CN IX and X - The glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
The glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves are both mixed motor and sensory nerves. CN IX
is involved with control of swallowing, sensation to the posterior 2/3rds of the tongue and
innervation of the parotid gland. CN X innervates the smooth muscle of the heart, blood
vessels, trachea, bronchi, esophagus, stomach and intestines. The motor portion innervates
the muscles of the larynx, pharynx, palate and muscles of speech. The sensory portion
innervates visceral sensation from the pharynx, larynx, thorax and abdomen.
These cranial nerves supply motor control to the larynx as well as sensory control to the
tongue. Observe the position and symmetry of the palate at rest and as the patient pants of
says "ahhh". Test the gag reflex by lightly touching the posterior wall of the pharynx on
each side with a tongue blade - this is an indication of both glossopharygeal and vagus
function. In addition, listen for a soft breathy voice and ask if the patient has had difficulty
with swallowing. Hoarse sounding speech may indicate vocal cord paralysis while nasal
speech indicates paralysis of the palate.
CN XI - The spinal accessory nerve.
The spinal accessory nerve is a motor nerve that innervates the trapezius and
sternocleidomastoid muscles.
To test the trapezius muscles, ask the patient to shrug the shoulders upward while the
examiner applies a downward pressure. To test the sternocleidomastoid muscles, have the
patient turn her head to the right while the examiner applies a gentle pressure in the
opposite direction. During both of these tests look for symmetry of motion from side to side
and palpate the muscles to look for atrophy, abnormal tone or fasciculations in the muscle.
Also note the strength of the contractions.
Slow, alternating motion may indicate the presence of a central nervous system lesion while
atrophy and fasciculations may indicate the presence of a peripheral nervous system lesion.
CN XII - The hypoglossal nerve.
The hypoglossal nerve is responsible for motor control of the intrinsic muscles of the
tongue.
Check the position of the tongue within the mouth then look for smoothness of movement
and symmetry as the patient protrudes the tongue and moves it from side to side.
The Motor Exam
The motor portion of the neurological exam includes observation of gross motor functions
such as gait, extremity strength, reflexes, abnormal movement and abnormal tone -
especially weakness and floppiness in the distal extremities. Begin by checking the general
appearance of the patient - preferably with the clothes removed. Inspect the muscles
visually and by palpation and note the presence of muscle fasciculations, abnormalities in
muscle bulk and tenderness.
Tone.
The term muscle tone refers to the force with which a muscle resists lengthening. Tone is
present because of two factors - the mechanical elasticity of the muscle fibers and a neural
component called the stretch reflex. Both of these factors resist uncontrolled lengthening of
the muscle and contribute to the natural tone of the muscle.
Tone is assessed clinically by passively flexing and extending the patient's limbs and noting
the resistance of the muscles. Look for the presence of hypotonicity, hypertonicity, rigidity
or spasticity. When checking for tone, make sure the patient is fully relaxed then take hold
of the wrist and shake it back and forth. Raise the arm and drop it onto a soft surface.
Grasp the ankle and shake it from side to side. Finally, with the patient in supine, raise the
knee quickly and observe the movement of the ankle. Normally, when no abnormal tone is
present, the foot will slide along the bed without lifting into the air.
Strength.
Muscle strength is usually assessed on a scale of 0-5 with 0 being no movement and 5 full
movement against strong resistance. The following muscle groups are typically tested:
Ask the patient to squeeze your pointer and middle fingers
Elbow flexion
Elbow extension
Thumb opposition
Hip flexion
Knee flexion
Knee extension
Ankle dorsiflexion (L4, L5)
Ankle plantarflexion (S1)
Use the following scale to rate strength:
0 No movement, no contraction of the muscle
1 Trace, evidence of muscle contraction but no joint movement
2 Poor, complete range of motion with gravity eliminated
3 Fair, complete range of motion against gravity
4 Good, complete range of motion against gravity with moderate resistance
5
Normal, complete range of motion against gravity with maximal resistance without
evidence of fatigue
Neurological dysfunction.
If neurological dysfunction is suspected it is more important to look for patterns of
weakness and changes in tone rather than the strength of individual muscles. Depending
upon the findings a more detailed strength exam may be needed. The general patterns to be
aware of are as follows:
Pyramidal weakness (corticospinal tract) - look for the presence of weakness in the
arm extensors and leg flexors commonly seen in stroke.
Proximal weakness - look for the presence of hip and shoulder musculature
weakness commonly seen in muscular dystrophies.
Distal weakness - look for the presence of weakness in the small muscles of the
hands and feet commonly seen in peripheral neuropathies.
Abnormal movements.
During the motor portion of the neurological screen the examiner should note the presence
of any of the following abnormal movement patterns:
Bradykinesia - excessively slow movement or difficulty initiating movement.
Bradykinesia is a common symptom of Parkinson's disease.
Athetosis - large amplitude uncontrolled movements. Athetosis occurs because of
damage to the basal ganglia (extrapyramidal system). It is common with certain
types of cerebral palsy, head injury, stroke, long-term use of antipsychotic
medications and other disorders that damage the basal structures of the brain.
Chorea and ballism - smaller amplitude abrupt, uncontrolled movements. Also due
to damage to the extrapyramidal system.
Tremors - small amplitude movements that may be present at rest or with
movement. A wide range of neurological disorders may exhibit some type of tremor
including cerebral stroke, cerebellar stroke, Parkinson's disease, basal ganglia
disorders as well as various drug reactions.
Reflexes
Two categories of reflexes are tested:
1. The stretch or deep tendon reflexes
2. The superficial or cutaneous reflexes
Stretch reflexes.
The stretch reflex is a type of spinal reflex also referred to as the deep tendon or myotatic
reflex. Stretch reflexes trigger a contraction when the muscle is stretched or lengthened.
Typically, the following stretch reflexes are tested with the patient in a seated or supine
position:
Biceps reflex (C5, C6)
Triceps reflex (C6, C7)
Brachioradialis reflex (C5, C6)
Patellar reflex (L2,3,4)
Achilles reflex (S1)
Plantar or Babinski reflex (L5, S1)
The Babinski or plantar reflex is a non-specific reflex but is a useful screen for the presence
of a central nervous system lesion. In a normal response there will be a downward flexing
of the toes. If the great toe lifts and the other toes fan upward, the Babinski is positive and
may indicate the presence of upper motor neuron damage. If the Babinski reflex is positive,
a more thorough motor exam should be done.
Scoring of Deep Tendon Reflexes
Grade Response
0 No response
1+ Sluggish or diminished
2+ Active or expected response
3+ More brisk than expected, slightly hyperactive
4+ Brisk, hyperactive, with intermittent or transient clonus
A hyperactive reflex response suggests upper motor neuron damage while a decreased
response suggest lower motor neuron, spinal damage or a disease of the neuromuscular
junction or muscles.
Superficial reflexes.
The superficial reflexes are also referred to as cutaneous reflexes and include the following:
Abdominal reflex. The abdominal reflex is tested by scratching the skin near the
umbilicus in a diagonal manner. In a normal response the umbilicus will pull in the
direction of the stimulation. Loss of this reflex may indicate a central nervous
system lesion or an injury to the nerves that supply the umbilical region (T7 to L1).
Cremasteric reflex. The cremasteric reflex is tested by stroking the skin along the
inner thigh and looking for a lifting of the scrotum on the stimulated side.
Anal wink. The anal wink is tested by stroking the perianal area and looking for a
contraction of the anal sphincter.
Pharyngeal or gag reflex. Test the gag reflex by touching the posterior wall of the
pharynx with a tongue blade - this is an indication of both glossopharygeal and
vagus function.
Gait
Gait is the single most important part of the motor exam because it allows to examiner to
assess muscle strength, coordination, balance and timing - all vital higher cortical
functions. Gait is also a vital functional skill and gives the examiner an idea of the ability of
the patient to perform a complex motor task.
Ask the patient to walk down a hallway. Observe for symmetry, rhythm and speed while
walking. Look for limping, scissoring, staggering, weight bearing and foot clearance during
the swing phase. Ask the patient to walk on the heels and then on the toes - these are goods
tests for peroneal/tibialis and gastrocnemius muscle function. Observe the person walking
toe to heel and note any abnormalities with balance and coordination during this task. If
the patient has difficulty with any of these tasks involving gait or balance a more thorough
balance evaluation should be done by a physical therapist.
Note any of the following common gait disorders:
Ataxic gait - a possible indication of cerebellar dysfunction.
Festinating gait - a possible sign of Parkinson's disease.
Hemiplegic gait with one-sided weakness - a possible sign of cerebral stroke.
Spastic gait - a possible sign of cerebral palsy.
The Sensory Exam
The sensory portion of the neurological exam is very useful if the patient is cooperative and
alert and able to give accurate responses to your questions. If the patient is uncooperative
or unreliable the sensory exam is often skipped. In general keep the following principles in
mind during the sensory portion of the exam:
Compare distal sensation to proximal sensation
Look for symmetry by comparing one side to the other
Test each of the dermatomes by moving the stimulation
The examiner will need a standard dermatome chart to accurately map sensory function.
Begin by applying a light sensation to one side of the body, then compare to the other side.
Gradually increase the intensity of the stimulation. The exam should focus on the suspected
lesion. For example if a central nervous system lesion is suspected the tests should be
directed towards central nervous system sensory tests. Sensory testing is usually divided
into two parts:
1. Primary sensory modalities such as pain, light touch, temperature, vibration and
joint position sense.
2. Cortical sensory modalities such as stereognosis, two-point discrimination,
graphesthesia and double simultaneous stimulation.
Primary sensory modalities.
The purpose of this part of the neurological exam is to test the sensory pathways that
ascend via the spinal cord from the periphery to the sensory processing centers of the
brain. The following sensory modalities are commonly tested:
Pain - have the patient identify a sharp or dull sensation by alternating the point of
a sterile needle with the end of a blunt object such as the rounded end of a paper
clip. The patient should be able to differentiate between sharp and dull.
Light touch - lightly touch an area of the skin with your finger or a small piece of
cotton. The patient should be able to identify the location of the touch.
Vibration - place the stem of the tuning fork on the bony prominence of the ankle,
shin, wrist, elbow, shoulder and sternum. The patient should be able to name the
location of the vibration. Loss of vibration sense suggests the presence of a
peripheral neuropathy.
Joint position sense - hold the joint lightly in a neutral position between your two
fingers. Raise or lower the digit or extremity and ask the patient to identify the
direction of the movement.
Cortical sensory modalities.
Cortical sensory input is processed by the parietal lobes. Processing of sensory input at the
cortical level involves some degree of cognitive processing and control. Because the parietal
lobes receive their sensory input from the primary sensory modalities, cortical modalities
should be tested only if primary modalities are intact. The following sensory modalities
should be tested:
Stereognosis - ask the patient to identify an object placed in the hand. Compare the
results of one hand to the other.
Two-point discrimination - the ability to identify two closely placed stimuli.
Stimulate the skin using an object with two points and ask the patient to identify the
when two points of stimulus are felt versus one point of stimulus. Different parts of
the body will have different thresholds for two-point discrimination.
Double simultaneous discrimination - with the eyes closed, touch one or both hands
and have the patient identify the location of the stimulation. If a parietal lobe lesion
is present the patient will be unable to identify simultaneous stimulation on the
contralateral side of the body.
Minimal Distances for Two Point Discrimination by Location
Body part Minimal distance (mm)
Tongue 1 mm
Fingertips 2-8 mm
Toes 3-8 mm
Palms of hands 8-12 mm
Chest and forearms 40 mm
Back 40 to 70 mm
Upper arms and thighs 75 mm
Coordination
Coordination refers to the ability of the nervous system to organize multiple systems into
organized and efficient patterns of movement. Coordination is affected by a variety of
medical and physiologic factors including medical condition, medications, strength,
alignment, timing and scaling of movements. Alignment refers to the arrangement of body
segments on one another and is affected by both musculoskeletal and neurological factors.
Timing is the ability to apply force with the appropriate speed and precision to prevent loss
of balance or dyscoordination. Scaling a movement properly means that the force output of
the muscles is appropriate to the amplitude of the instability.
The following items are commonly assessed to determine if there are problems with
coordination:
Observe the patient at rest and note the presence of abnormal postures, tremor,
chorea, athetosis or dystonia.
Have the patient hold both arms outstretched with eyes closed and note any
abnormal movement such as tremor, weakness or posturing.
Have the patient perform a simple functional task such as buttoning a shirt or
writing and observe the smoothness and rhythm of the movement.
Have the patient move from sit to stand without use of the hands and observe for
postural instability and loss of balance.
Finally, a series of simple coordination tests should be performed to evaluate cerebellar
dysfunction:
Finger tap - tap the index finger against the thumb or a firm surface. Look for
smoothness of movement.
Finger to nose - ask the patient to touch her nose and then touch the examiner's
outstretched finger. Observe the movement for accuracy, smoothness and presence
of tremor or oscillations.
Rapid alternating hand movement - have the patient pronate and supinate her
hands as quickly as possible. Observe the rhythm and accuracy of the movement as
well as the patient's ability to stop the movement and change direction.
Heel to shin test - while in sitting ask the patient to run the heel of one foot up and
down along the shin of the opposite leg. The patient should be able to perform this
movement smoothly and repeat it easily.
Conclusion
Completion of a neurological evaluation on a person with a suspected neurological injury
will give you a picture of the extent and possible location of the nervous system damage.
This is especially important with sudden onset or life-threatening diseases in which the
outcome is dependent on an accurate referral or timely treatment. With practice you will
refine your evaluation skills and find that you will be able to complete the neurological
exam quickly and efficiently.
References
1. Alpers and Mancall's Essentials of the Neurological Examination, Edition 2.
2. Clinical Examination in Neurology Mayo Clinic and Mayo Foundation, 7
th
Edition.
3. Brazis, Masdeu, and Biller. Localization Clinical Neurology, Lippincott and
Williams.
4. Brust. Neurotoxic Side Effects of Prescription Drugs. Butterworth-Heinemann.
5. Chipps EM, Clanin NJ and Campbell VG. Neurological disorders. Missouri:
Mosby-Year Book; 1992. p. 19-34.
6. Jennett B, Teasdale G and Braakman R, et. al. Predicting outcome in individual
patients after severe head injury. Lancet: 1976; 1 p. 1031-1034.
7. Kandel ER, Schwartz JH and Jessell TM. Principles of neural science. Connecticut:
Appleton and Lange; 1991.
8. Lowenstein DH. Fundamentals of the neurological exam [course notes]. San
Francisco (CA): Univ. of California San Francisco; 1992.
9. Magee DJ. Orthopedic physical assessment. Philadelphia: The WB Saunders
Company. 1987.
10. Malasanos L, Barkauskas V and Stoltenberg-Allen, K. Health assessment, ed St
Louis: Mosby-Year Book. 1990.
11. Minor M and Minor S. Patient evaluation methods for the health professional.
Virginia: Reston Publishing Company, Inc. 1985.
12. Seidel HM, et. al.: Mosby's guide to physical examination, ed 2. St Louis: Mosby-
Year Book. 1991.
13. Shumway-Cook A and Woollacott MH. Motor control: theory and practical
applications. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. 1995.

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A GUIDE TO NEUROLOGICAL EXAMINATION

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