17

Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. . . 21, 1725 (2007)
DOI: 10.1002/ptr
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PHYTOTHERAPY RESEARCH
. . 21, 1725 (2007)
Published online 6 November 2006 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/ptr.2023
REVIEW ARTICLE
Moringa oleifera: A Food Plant with
Multiple Medicinal Uses
Farooq Anwar
1
, Sajid Latif
1
, Muhammad Ashraf
2
and Anwarul Hassan Gilani
3
*
1
Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan
2
Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan
3
Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University Medical College, Karachi-74800, Pakistan
Moringa oleifera Lam (Moringaceae) is a highly valued plant, distributed in many countries of the tropics
and subtropics. It has an impressive range of medicinal uses with high nutritional value. Different parts of this
plant contain a prole of important minerals, and are a good source of protein, vitamins, -carotene, amino
acids and various phenolics. The Moringa plant provides a rich and rare combination of zeatin, quercetin, -
sitosterol, caffeoylquinic acid and kaempferol. In addition to its compelling water purifying powers and high
nutritional value, M. oleifera is very important for its medicinal value. Various parts of this plant such as the
leaves, roots, seed, bark, fruit, owers and immature pods act as cardiac and circulatory stimulants, possess
antitumor, antipyretic, antiepileptic, antiinammatory, antiulcer, antispasmodic, diuretic, antihypertensive,
cholesterol lowering, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, antibacterial and antifungal activities, and
are being employed for the treatment of different ailments in the indigenous system of medicine, particularly
in South Asia. This review focuses on the detailed phytochemical composition, medicinal uses, along with
pharmacological properties of different parts of this multipurpose tree. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd.
. ; phytomedicine; food plant; medicinal uses; pharmacological properties; natural coagulant.
INTRODUCTION
Lam (syn. . Gaertn.)
is one of the best known and most widely distributed
and naturalized species of a monogeneric family -
(Nadkarni, 1976; Ramachandran . , 1980).
The tree ranges in height from 5 to 10 m (Morton, 1991).
It is found wild and cultivated throughout the plains,
especially in hedges and in house yards, thrives best
under the tropical insular climate, and is plentiful near
the sandy beds of rivers and streams (The Wealth of
India, 1962; Qaiser, 1973). It can grow well in the
humid tropics or hot dry lands, can survive destitute
soils, and is little affected by drought (Morton, 1991).
It tolerates a wide range of rainfall with minimum
annual rainfall requirements estimated at 250 mm and
maximum at over 3000 mm and a pH of 5.09.0 (Palada
and Changl, 2003).
, native of the western and sub-
Himalayan tracts, India, Pakistan, Asia Minor, Africa
and Arabia (Somali . , 1984; Mughal . , 1999) is
now distributed in the Philippines, Cambodia, Central
America, North and South America and the Caribbean
Islands (Morton, 1991). In some parts of the world
. is referred to as the drumstick tree or the
horse radish tree, whereas in others it is known as the
kelor tree (Anwar and Bhanger, 2003). While in the
Nile valley, the name of the tree is Shagara al Rauwaq,
which means tree for purifying (Von Maydell, 1986).
In Pakistan, . is locally known as Sohanjna
and is grown and cultivated all over the country (Qaiser,
1973; Anwar . , 2005).
is an important food commodity
which has had enormous attention as the natural
nutrition of the tropics. The leaves, fruit, owers and
immature pods of this tree are used as a highly nutri-
tive vegetable in many countries, particularly in India,
Pakistan, Philippines, Hawaii and many parts of Africa
(Dsouza and Kulkarni, 1993; Anwar and Bhanger, 2003;
Anwar . , 2005). leaves have been reported
to be a rich source of -carotene, protein, vitamin C,
calcium and potassium and act as a good source of
natural antioxidants; and thus enhance the shelf-life of
fat containing foods due to the presence of various types
of antioxidant compounds such as ascorbic acid, avo-
noids, phenolics and carotenoids (Dillard and German,
2000; Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003). In the Philippines,
it is known as mothers best friend because of its uti-
lization to increase womans milk production and is
sometimes prescribed for anemia (Estrella . , 2000;
Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003).
A number of medicinal properties have been ascribed
to various parts of this highly esteemed tree (Table 1).
Almost all the parts of this plant: root, bark, gum, leaf,
fruit (pods), owers, seed and seed oil have been used
for various ailments in the indigenous medicine of South
Asia, including the treatment of inammation and
infectious diseases along with cardiovascular, gastro-
intestinal, hematological and hepatorenal disorders
1 00
1 00
1 00
* Correspondence to: Professor Anwarul Hassan Gilani, Department
of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Aga Khan University Medical
College, Karachi-74800, Pakistan.
E-mail: [email protected]
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. . . 21, 1725 (2007)
DOI: 10.1002/ptr
18 F. ANWAR .
(The Wealth of India, 1962; Singh and Kumar, 1999;
Morimitsu . , 2000; Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003).
The seeds of are considered to be anti-
pyretic, acrid, bitter (Oliveira . , 1999) and reported to
show antimicrobial activity (The Wealth of India, 1962).
The seed can be consumed fresh as peas; or pounded,
roasted, or pressed into sweet, non-desiccating oil, com-
mercially known as Ben oil of high quality. The unique
property is the ability of its dry, crushed seed and seed
press cake, which contain polypeptides, to serve as natu-
ral coagulants for water treatment (Ndabigengesere and
Narasiah, 1998).
So far no comprehensive review has been compiled
from the literature encompassing the efcacy of this
plant in all dimensions. Its versatile utility as a medi-
cine, functional food, nutraceutical and water purify-
ing potential motivated us to bridge the information
gap in this area, and to write a comprehensive review
on the medicinal, phytochemical and pharmacological
attributes of this plant of high economic value.
PHYTOCHEMISTRY
is rich in compounds containing the
simple sugar, rhamnose and a fairly unique group of
compounds called glucosinolates and isothiocyanates
(Fahey . , 2001; Bennett . , 2003). The stem bark
has been reported to contain two alkaloids, namely
moringine and moringinine (Kerharo, 1969). Vanillin,
-sitosterol [14], -sitostenone, 4-hydroxymellin and
octacosanoic acid have been isolated from the stem of
. (Faizi . , 1994a).
Puried, whole-gum exudate from . has
been found to contain L-arabinose, -galactose, -glucuronic
acid, and L-rhamnose, -mannose and -xylose, while a
homogeneous, degraded-gum polysaccharide consisting
of L-galactose, -glucuronic acid and L-mannose has been
obtained on mild hydrolysis of the whole gum with acid
(Bhattacharya . , 1982).
Flowers contain nine amino acids, sucrose, D-glucose,
traces of alkaloids, wax, quercetin and kaempferat; the
ash is rich in potassium and calcium (Ruckmani . ,
1998). They have also been reported to contain some
avonoid pigments such as alkaloids, kaempherol,
rhamnetin, isoquercitrin and kaempferitrin (Faizi . ,
1994a; Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003).
Antihypertensive compounds thiocarbamate and
isothiocyanate glycosides have been isolated from the
acetate phase of the ethanol extract of pods
(Faizi . , 1998). The cytokinins have been shown
to be present in the fruit (Nagar . , 1982). A new
-ethyl-4-(-L-rhamnosyloxy)benzyl carbamate [11]
Table 1. Some common medicinal uses of different parts of Moringa oleifera
Plant part
Root
Leave
Stem bark
Gum
Flower
Seed
Medicinal Uses
Antilithic, rubefacient, vesicant, carminative, antifertility,
anti-inammatory, stimulant in paralytic afictions; act as a
cardiac/circulatory tonic, used as a laxative, abortifacient,
treating rheumatism, inammations, articular pains, lower
back or kidney pain and constipation,
Purgative, applied as poultice to sores, rubbed on the
temples for headaches, used for piles, fevers, sore throat,
bronchitis, eye and ear infections, scurvy and catarrh; leaf
juice is believed to control glucose levels, applied to reduce
glandular swelling
Rubefacient, vesicant and used to cure eye diseases and for
the treatment of delirious patients, prevent enlargement of
the spleen and formation of tuberculous glands of the neck,
to destroy tumors and to heal ulcers. The juice from the root
bark is put into ears to relieve earaches and also placed in a
tooth cavity as a pain killer, and has anti-tubercular activity
Used for dental caries, and is astringent and rubefacient;
Gum, mixed with sesame oil, is used to relieve headaches,
fevers, intestinal complaints, dysentery, asthma and
sometimes used as an abortifacient, and to treat syphilis and
rheumatism
High medicinal value as a stimulant, aphrodisiac,
abortifacient, cholagogue; used to cure inammations,
muscle diseases, hysteria, tumors, and enlargement of the
spleen; lower the serum cholesterol, phospholipid,
triglyceride, VLDL, LDL cholesterol to phospholipid ratio
and atherogenic index; decrease lipid prole of liver, heart
and aorta in hypercholesterolaemic rabbits and increased
the excretion of faecal cholesterol
Seed extract exerts its protective effect by decreasing liver
lipid peroxides, antihypertensive compounds thiocarbamate
and isothiocyanate glycosids have been isolated from the
acetate phase of the ethanolic extract of Moringa pods
References
The Wealth of India,
1962; Padmarao
et al., 1996;
Dahot, 1988;
Ruckmani et al., 1998
Morton, 1991; Fuglie,
2001; Makonnen et al.,
1997; The Wealth of
India, 1962; Dahot, 1988
Bhatnagar et al., 1961;
Siddhuraju and Becker,
2003
Fuglie, 2001
Nair and Subramanian,
1962; Bhattacharya et
al., 1982; Dahot, 1998;
Siddhuraju and Becker,
2003; Mehta et al., 2003
Faizi et al., 1998; Lalas
and Tsaknis, 2002
19
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. . . 21, 1725 (2007)
DOI: 10.1002/ptr
together with seven known bioactive compounds, 4(-
L-rhamnosyloxy)-benzyl isothiocyanate [3], niazimicin
[4], 3- -(6- -oleoyl--D-glucopyranosyl)--sitosterol
[15], -sitosterol-3- --D-glucopyranoside [16], niazirin
[12], -sitosterol [14] and glycerol-1-(9-octadecanoate)
[13] have been isolated from the ethanol extract of
the seed (Guevara . , 1999). Figure 1
shows the structures of selected phytochemicals from
.
Lately, interest has been generated in isolating
hormones/growth promoters from the leaves of .
. Nodulation of black-gram ( L.)
Fiqure 1. Structures of selected phytochemicals from Moringa: niazinin A 1], 4-(4-O-acetyl--L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)benzyl isoth-
iocyanate 2], 4-(-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)benzyl isothiocyanate 3], niazimicin 4], 4-(-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)benzyl glucosinolate
5], benzyl isothiocyanate 6], aglycon of deoxy-niazimicine (N-benzyl, S-ethylthioformate) 7], pterygospermin 8], niaziminin 9 + 1 ,
O-ethyl-4-(-L-rhamnosyloxy)benzyl carbamate 11], niazirin 12], glycerol-1-(9-octadecanoate) 13], -sitosterol 14], 3-O-(6-O-oleoyl-
-D-glucopyranosyl)--sitosterol 15], -sitosterol-3-O--D-glucopyranoside 16].
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. . . 21, 1725 (2007)
DOI: 10.1002/ptr
20 F. ANWAR .
has been shown to increase vigorously with the appli-
cation of an aqueous-ethanol extract (Bose, 1980) of
. leaves, although the nature of the active
ingredient is still unknown. leaves act as a
good source of natural antioxidant due to the presence
of various types of antioxidant compounds such as ascor-
bic acid, avonoids, phenolics and carotenoids (Anwar
. , 2005; Makkar and Becker, 1996). The high con-
centrations of ascorbic acid, oestrogenic substances and
-sitosterol [16], iron, calcium, phosphorus, copper, vi-
tamins A, B and C, -tocopherol, riboavin, nicotinic
acid, folic acid, pyridoxine, -carotene, protein, and in
particular essential amino acids such as methionine,
cystine, tryptophan and lysine present in leaves
and pods make it a virtually ideal dietary supplement
(Makkar and Becker, 1996).
The composition of the sterols of seed oil
mainly consists of campesterol, stigmasterol, -sitosterol,

5
-avenasterol and clerosterol accompanied by minute
amounts of 24-methylenecholesterol,
7
-campestanol,
stigmastanol and 28-isoavenasterol (Tsaknis . , 1999;
Anwar and Bhanger, 2003; Anwar . , 2005; Table 2).
The sterol composition of the major fractions of
seed oil differs greatly from those of most of the con-
ventional edible oils (Rossell, 1991). The fatty acid com-
position of . seed oil reveals that it falls in
the category of high-oleic oils (C18:1, 67.90%76.00%).
Among the other component fatty acids C16:0 (6.04%
7.80%), C18:0 (4.14%7.60%), C20:0 (2.76%4.00%),
and C22:0 (5.00%6.73%) are important (Tsaknis . ,
1999; Anwar and Bhanger, 2003; Anwar . , 2005).
is also a good source of different
tocopherols (-, - and -); the concentration of those
is reported to be 98.82134.42, 27.9093.70, and 48.00
71.16 mg/kg, respectively (Anwar and Bhanger, 2003;
Tsaknis . , 1999).
MEDICINAL USES AND PHARMACOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES
also has numerous medicinal uses,
which have long been recognized in the Ayurvedic and
Unani systems of medicine (Mughal ., 1999). The
medicinal attributes (Table 1) and pharmacological
activities ascribed to various parts of are
detailed below.
Antihypertensive, diuretic and cholesterol lowering
activities
The widespread combination of diuretic along with lipid
and blood pressure lowering constituents make this plant
highly useful in cardiovascular disorders. leaf
juice is known to have a stabilizing effect on blood pres-
sure (The Wealth of India, 1962; Dahot, 1988). Nitrile,
mustard oil glycosides and thiocarbamate glycosides
have been isolated from leaves, which were
found to be responsible for the blood pressure lower-
ing effect (Faizi . , 1994a; 1994b; 1995). Most of
these compounds, bearing thiocarbamate, carbamate or
nitrile groups, are fully acetylated glycosides, which are
very rare in nature (Faizi . , 1995). Bioassay guided
fractionation of the active ethanol extract of
leaves led to the isolation of four pure compounds,
niazinin A [1], niazinin [1] B, niazimicin [4] and niazinin
A + B which showed a blood pressure lowering effect
in rats mediated possibly through a calcium antagonist
effect (Gilani . , 1994a).
Another study on the ethanol and aqueous extracts
of whole pods and its parts, i.e. coat, pulp and seed
revealed that the blood pressure lowering effect of seed
was more pronounced with comparable results in both
ethanol and water extracts indicating that the activity
is widely distributed (Faizi . , 1998). Activity-directed
fractionation of the ethanol extract of pods of .
has led to the isolation of thiocarbamate and
isothiocyanate glycosides which are known to be the
hypotensive principles (Faizi . , 1995). Methyl -
hydroxybenzoate and -sitosterol (14), investigated in
the pods of . have also shown promising
hypotensive activity (Faizi . , 1998).
roots, leaves, owers, gum and the aqueous
infusion of seeds have been found to possess diuretic
activity (Morton, 1991; Caceres . , 1992) and such
diuretic components are likely to play a complementary
Table 2. Sterol composition (grams per 100 g of fatty acids) of the M. oleifera oils
Anwar and Lalas and Tsaknis et al.,
Sterol Bhanger, 2003 Tsaknis, 2002 1999
Cholesterol Not reported 0.10 0.13
Brassicasterol Not reported 0.05 0.06
24-methylenecholesterol 1.49 0.08 0.88
Campesterol 16.00 15.29 15.13
Campestanol Not reported 0.33 0.35

7
-campestanol 0.50 Not reported Not reported
Stigmasterol 19.00 23.06 16.87
Ergostadienol Not reported 0.35 0.39
Clerosterol 1.95 1.22 2.52
Stigmastanol 1.00 0.64 0.86
-sitosterol 46.65 43.65 50.07

7
-avenasterol 0.96 Not detected 1.11

5
-avenasterol 10.70 11.61 8.84
28-isoavenasterol 0.50 0.25 1.40

7,14
Stigmastadienol Not reported 0.39 Not reported

7,14
Stigmastanol Not reported 0.85 0.44
21
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. . . 21, 1725 (2007)
DOI: 10.1002/ptr
role in the overall blood pressure lowering effect of
this plant.
The crude extract of leaves has a signicant
cholesterol lowering action in the serum of high fat
diet fed rats which might be attributed to the presence
of a bioactive phytoconstituent, i.e. -sitosterol (Ghasi
. , 2000). fruit has been found to lower
the serum cholesterol, phospholipids, triglycerides, low
density lipoprotein (LDL), very low density lipoprotein
(VLDL) cholesterol to phospholipid ratio, atherogenic
index lipid and reduced the lipid prole of liver,
heart and aorta in hypercholesteremic rabbits and
increased the excretion of fecal cholesterol (Mehta
. , 2003).
Antispasmodic, antiulcer and hepatoprotective
activities
. roots have been reported to possess anti-
spasmodic activity (Caceres . , 1992). leaves
have been extensively studied pharmacologically and it
has been found that the ethanol extract and its con-
stituents exhibit antispasmodic effects possibly through
calcium channel blockade (Gilani . , 1992; 1994a;
Dangi . , 2002). The antispasmodic activity of the
ethanol extract of . leaves has been attrib-
uted to the presence of 4-[-(L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl]-
o-methyl thiocarbamate [3] (), which forms the
basis for its traditional use in diarrhea (Gilani . ,
1992). Moreover, spasmolytic activity exhibited by dif-
ferent constituents provides pharmacological basis for
the traditional uses of this plant in gastrointestinal
motility disorder (Gilani . , 1994a).
The methanol fraction of . leaf extract
showed antiulcerogenic and hepatoprotective effects in
rats (Pal . , 1995a). Aqueous leaf extracts also showed
antiulcer effect (Pal . , 1995a) indicating that the
antiulcer component is widely distributed in this plant.
roots have also been reported to possess
hepatoprotective activity (Ruckmani . , 1998). The
aqueous and alcohol extracts from owers were
also found to have a signicant hepatoprotective effect
(Ruckmani . , 1998), which may be due to the pres-
ence of quercetin, a well known avonoid with hepato-
protective activity (Gilani . , 1997).
Antibacterial and antifungal activities
roots have antibacterial activity (Rao . ,
1996) and are reported to be rich in antimicrobial agents.
These are reported to contain an active antibiotic prin-
ciple, pterygospermin [8], which has powerful antibac-
terial and fungicidal effects (Ruckmani . , 1998). A
similar compound is found to be responsible for the anti-
bacterial and fungicidal effects of its owers (Das . ,
1957). The root extract also possesses antimicrobial
activity attributed to the presence of 4--L-rhamnosyloxy
benzyl isothiocyanate [3] (Eilert . , 1981). The aglyc-
one of deoxy-niazimicine (N-benzyl, S-ethyl thiofor-
mate) [7] isolated from the chloroform fraction of
an ethanol extract of the root bark was found to be
responsible for the antibacterial and antifungal activi-
ties (Nikkon . , 2003). The bark extract has been
shown to possess antifungal activity (Bhatnagar . ,
1961), while the juice from the stem bark showed anti-
bacterial effect against (Mehta
. , 2003). The fresh leaf juice was found to inhibit
the growth of microorganisms (
and ), pathogenic to man (Caceres
. , 1991).
Antitumor and anticancer activities
Makonnen . (1997) found leaves to be
a potential source for antitumor activity. -Ethyl-
4-(-L-rhamnosyloxy)benzyl carbamate [11] together
with 4(-L-rhamnosyloxy)-benzyl isothiocyanate [3],
niazimicin [4] and 3- -(6- -oleoyl--D-glucopyranosyl)-
-sitosterol [15] have been tested for their potential
antitumor promoting activity using an assay
which showed signicant inhibitory effects on Epstein
Barr virus-early antigen. Niazimicin has been proposed
to be a potent chemopreventive agent in chemical car-
cinogenesis (Guevara . , 1999). The seed extracts
have also been found to be effective on hepatic car-
cinogen metabolizing enzymes, antioxidant parameters
and skin papillomagenesis in mice (Bharali . , 2003).
A seed ointment had a similar effect to neomycin against
in mice (Caceres and
Lopez, 1991).
It has been found that niaziminin [9 + ++ ++ 10], a thio-
carbamate from the leaves of . , exhibits inhi-
bition of tumor-promoter-induced EpsteinBarr virus
activation. On the other hand, among the isothiocyanates,
naturally occurring 4-[(4- -acetyl--i-rhamnosyloxy)
benzyl] [2], signicantly inhibited tumor-promoter-
induced EpsteinBarr virus activation, suggesting that
the isothiocyano group is a critical structural factor for
activity (Murakami . , 1998).
Other diverse activities
has also been reported to exhibit other
diverse activities. Aqueous leaf extracts regulate thy-
roid hormone and can be used to treat hyperthyroidism
and exhibit an antioxidant effect (Pal . , 1995a; 1995b;
Tahiliani and Kar, 2000). A methanol extract of .
leaves conferred signicant radiation protec-
tion to the bone marrow chromosomes in mice (Rao
. , 2001). leaves are effective for the regu-
lation of thyroid hormone status (Tahiliani and Kar,
2000).
A recent report showed that . leaf may be
applicable as a prophylactic or therapeutic anti-HSV
(Herpes simplex virus type 1) medicine and may be
effective against the acyclovir-resistant variant (Lipipun
. , 2003). Table 1 depicts some common medicinal
uses of different parts of this plant. The owers and
leaves also are considered to be of high medicinal value
with anthelmintic activity (Bhattacharya . , 1982).
An infusion of leaf juice was shown to reduce glucose
levels in rabbits (Makonnen . , 1997).
is coming to the forefront as a re-
sult of scientic evidence that is an important
source of naturally occurring phytochemicals and this
provides a basis for future viable developments. Differ-
ent parts of . are also incorporated in various
marketed health formulations, such as Rumalaya and
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. . . 21, 1725 (2007)
DOI: 10.1002/ptr
22 F. ANWAR .
Septilin (the Himalaya Drug Company, Bangalore,
India), Orthoherb (Walter Bushnell Ltd, Mumbai, In-
dia), Kupid Fort (Pharma Products Pvt. Ltd, Thayavur,
India) and Livospin (Herbals APS Pvt. Ltd, Patna,
India), which are reputed as remedies available for
a variety of human health disorders (Mehta . ,
2003).
seeds have specic protein fractions for
skin and hair care. Two new active components for
the cosmetic industry have been extracted from oil cake.
Purisoft

consists of peptides of the seed. It

protects the human skin from environmental inuences
and combats premature skin aging. With dual activity,
antipollution and conditioning/strengthening of hair, the
. seed extract is a globally acceptable innova-
tive solution for hair care (Stussi . , 2002).
WATER PURIFYING ATTRIBUTES OF
M. OLEIFERA SEED
Moringa seeds as coagulant
seeds are one of the best natural coagulants
discovered so far (Ndabigengesere and Narasiah, 1998).
Crushed seeds are a viable replacement of synthetic
coagulants (Kalogo . , 2000). In Sudan, seed crude
extract is used instead of alum by rural women to treat
the highly turbid Nile water because of a traditional
fear of alum causing gastrointestinal disturbances and
Alzheimers disease (Crapper . , 1973; Miller . ,
1984; Martyn . , 1989; Muyibi, 1994).
seeds are very effective for high turbidity
water and show similar coagulation effects to alum
(Muyibi and Evison, 1995b). The coagulation effective-
ness of . varies depending on the initial tur-
bidity and it has been reported that . could
reduce turbidity by between 92% and 99% (Muyibi
and Evison, 1995b). seeds also have softening
properties in addition to being a pH correctant (alka-
linity reduction), as well as exhibiting a natural buffer-
ing capacity, which could handle moderately high to
high alkaline surface and ground waters. The
seeds can also be used as an antiseptic in the treatment
of drinking water (Obioma and Adikwu, 1997).
Ongoing research is attempting to characterize and
purify the coagulant components of seeds
(Ndabigengesere . , 1995; Gassenschmidt . , 1995).
It is believed that the seed is an organic natural poly-
mer (Jahn, 1984). The active ingredients are dimeric
proteins with a molecular weight of about 1300 Da and
an iso-electric point between 10 and 11 (Ndabigengesere
. , 1995). The protein powder is stable and totally
soluble in water.
coagulant protein can be extracted by water
or salt solution (commonly NaCl). The amount and
effectiveness of the coagulant protein from salt and
water extraction methods vary signicantly. In crude
form, the salt extract shows a better coagulation per-
formance than the corresponding water extract (Okuda
. , 1999). This may be explained by the presence of
a higher amount of soluble protein due to the salting-in
phenomenon. However, purication of the .
coagulant protein from the crude salt extract may not
be technically and economically feasible.
The coagulation mechanism of the . coagu-
lant protein has been explained in different ways. It
has been described as adsorption and charge neutraliza-
tion (Ndabigengesere . , 1995; Gassenschmidt . ,
1995) and interparticle bridging (Muyibi and Evison,
1995a). Flocculation by inter-particle bridging is mainly
characteristic of high molecular weight polyelectrolytes.
Due to the small size of the . coagulant pro-
tein (6.513 kDa), a bridging effect may not be con-
sidered as the likely coagulation mechanism. The high
positive charge (pI above 10) and small size may sug-
gest that the main destabilization mechanism could be
adsorption and charge neutralization.
Microbial elimination with Moringa seeds
seeds also possess antimicrobial properties
(Olsen, 1987; Madsen . , 1987). Broin . (2002)
reported that a recombinant protein in the seed is able
to occulate Gram-positive and Gram-negative bac-
terial cells. In this case, microorganisms can be removed
by settling in the same manner as the removal of col-
loids in properly coagulated and occulated water
(Casey, 1997). On the other hand, the seeds may also
act directly upon microorganisms and result in growth
inhibition. Antimicrobial peptides are thought to act
by disrupting the cell membrane or by inhibiting essen-
tial enzymes (Silvestro . , 2000; Suarez . , 2003).
Sutherland . (1990) reported that seeds
could inhibit the replication of bacteriophages. The an-
timicrobial effects of the seeds are attributed to the
compound 4(-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl isothiocynate
(Eilert . , 1981).
Moringa seeds as biosorbent
seeds could be used as a less expensive bio-
sorbent for the removal of cadmium (Cd) from aque-
ous media (Sharma . , 2006). The aqueous solution
of seed is a heterogeneous complex mixture
having various functional groups, mainly low molecular
weight organic acids (amino acids). These amino acids
have been found to constitute a physiologically active
group of binding agents, working even at a low concen-
tration, which because of the ability to interact with
metal ions is likely to increase the sorption of metal
ions (Brostlap and Schuurmans, 1988). The proteineous
amino acids have a variety of structurally related pH
dependent properties, generating a negatively charged
atmosphere and play an important role in the binding
of metals (Sharma . , 2006).
FUTURE PROSPECTS
So far numerous studies have been conducted on dif-
ferent parts of . , but there is a dire need to
isolate and identify new compounds from different parts
of the tree, which have possible antitumor promoters
as well as inhibitory properties. Although preliminary
studies are under way in different laboratories to use
the antispasmodic, antiinammatory, antihypertensive
and diuretic activities of . seed, these studies
23
Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. . . 21, 1725 (2007)
DOI: 10.1002/ptr
should be extended to humans in view of the edible
nature of the plant. roots and leaves have been
used traditionally to treat constipation. Studies to verify
these claims need to be carried out in the light of the
reported antispasmodic activities, which are contrary
to its medicinal use as a gut motility stimulant. Earlier
studies on the presence of a combination of spasmogenic
and spasmolytic constituents in different plants used
for constipation (Gilani . , 2000; 2005a; Bashir . ,
2006) might be of some guidance in designing experi-
ments in which the presence of antispasmodic constitu-
ents at higher doses are explained as a possible mode
to offset the side-effects usually associated with high
dose of laxative therapy. Similarly, the known species
differences in the pharmacological actions of medicinal
plants (Ghayur . , 2005; Ghayur and Gilani, 2006)
may also be taken into account when planning studies
involving contradictory results.
Food plants are considered relatively safe as they are
likely to contain synergistic and/or side effect neutra-
lizing combinations of activities (Gilani and Atta-ur-
Rahman, 2005). , known to be rich in
multiple medicinally active chemicals, may be a good
candidate to see if it contains effect enhancing and/or
side-effects neutralizing combinations. Medicinal plants
are relatively rich in their contents of calcium channel
blockers (CCBs) which are known to possess a wide
variety of pharmacological activities such as antihyper-
tensive, hepatoprotective, antiulcer, antiasthmatic, anti-
spasmodic and antidiarroeal (Stephens and Rahwan,
1992; Gilani . , 1994b; 1999; 2005b; Yaeesh . ,
2006; Ghayur . , 2006) and it remains to be seen
whether such activities reported to be present in
have a direct link with the presence of
CCBs.
Niazimicin, a potent antitumor promoter in chemical
carcinogenesis is present in the seed; its inhibitory
mechanism on tumor proliferation can be investigated
by isolating more pure samples. The mechanism of ac-
tion of . as prophylactic or therapeutic anti-
HSV medicines for the treatment of HSV-1 infection
also needs to be examined.
The available information on the -, - and -
tocopherol content in samples of various parts of this
edible plant is very limited. -Carotene and vitamins A
and C present in . , serve as an explanation
for their mode of action in the induction of antioxidant
proles, however, the exact mechanism is yet to be elu-
cidated. -Carotene of . leaves exerts a more
signicant protective activity than silymarin against anti-
tubercular induced toxicity. It would be interesting to
see if it also possesses hepatoprotective effect against
other commonly used hepatotoxic agents such as CCl
4
and galactosamine, which are considered more suitable
models and close to human viral hepatitis (Gilani and
Janbaz, 1995; Yaeesh . , 2006).
Although leaves are considered a best pro-
tein source, it still has to be shown whether or not this
protein source could compete with the more common
protein sources in highly productive growing or milk-
producing ruminants.
Many studies have also been conducted on the per-
formance of seeds as an alternative coagulant,
coagulant aid and in conjunction with alum for treating
waste water. Therefore, it is important to identify the
active constituents of seed for a better under-
standing of the coagulation mechanism. Reports on the
antimicrobial effects of the protein puried from .
are very rare.
Since this plant naturally occurs in varying habitats,
it is nave to expect a great magnitude of variation in
the concentration and composition of chemical ingre-
dients in different parts of the tree. However, the
extent to which the chemical composition varies in
populations adapted to varying habitats is not known.
Thus, detailed studies are required to examine this
aspect.
In view of its multiple uses, the . plant
needs to be widely cultivated in most of the areas where
climatic conditions favor its optimum growth. In this
way, a maximum yield of its different useable parts
could be achieved to derive the maximal amount of
commodities of a multifarious nature for the welfare of
mankind.
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