CO2 Storage Atlas Norwegian Sea

CO2STORAGE
ATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
Norway
Responsible publisher
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate P O Box 600 NO-4003 Stavanger Norway Telephone: +47 51 87 60 00 Telefax: +47 51 55 15 71 E-mail: [email protected]
Editorial team
Eva K. Halland Wenche Tjelta Johansen Fridtjof Riis
Production
Rune Goa Arne Bjren Printer: Kai Hansen, Stavanger
Layout/design
Janne NJai
www.npd.no The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate
Norways (Scandinavia's) rst resource map, Olaus Magnus, 1539
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
CO2STORAGE
ATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
CONTENTS
1. 2. 3. Introduction Petroleum activity in the Norwegian Sea Methodology 3.1 Geological storage 3.2 Data availability 3.3 Workow and characterization 3.4 Estimation of storage capacity 4. Geological description of the Norwegian Sea 4.2 Geological description 5. Storage options 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Saline aquifers 5.3 Abandoned hydrocarbon elds 5.4 Producing elds (EOR) 5.5 Summary of aquifer evaluation 6. Monitoring 5-7 9-11 13 14 15 16-18 19 21 26-37 39 40 41-48 49 50 51 53-58
4.1 Geological development of the Norwegian Sea 22-25
Preface
The CO2 Storage Atlas of the Norwegian Sea has been prepared by the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, at the request of the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy. The studied areas are in opened parts of the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS). The main objectives have been to identify the safe and effective areas for long-term storage of CO2 and to avoid possible negative interference with ongoing and future petroleum activity. We have also built on the knowledge we have from the petroleum industry and from the two CO2 storage projects on NCS (Sleipner and Snhvit). This study is based on detailed work on all relevant geological formations and hydrocarbon fields in the Norwegian Sea. The work is based on several studies as well as data from more than 40 years of petroleum activity on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. 6 geological formations have been individually assessed, and grouped into saline aquifers. The aquifers were evaluated with regard to reservoir quality and presence of relevant sealing formations. Those aquifers that may have a relevant storage potential in terms of depth, capacity and injectivity have been considered. Structural maps and thickness maps of the geological formations are presented in the atlas, and were used to calculate pore volumes. Several structural closures have been identified; some of them were further assessed. A new geological study of the coastal-near aquifers in the Norwegian Sea, is included. A study of the CO2 storage potential in relevant dry-drilled structures and mapped structures in the area is provided, together with a summary of the CO2 storage potential in oil and gas fields. CO2 storage in enhanced oil recovery projects is also discussed. The methodology applied for estimating storage capacity is based on previous assessments, but the storage efficiency factor has been assessed individually for each aquifer based on simplified reservoir simulation cases. The assessed aquifers have been ranked according to guidelines developed for the CO2 Storage Atlas of the Norwegian part of the North Sea (2011). This atlas is based on data from seismic, exploration and production wells, together with production data. The data base is essential for the evaluation and documentation of geological storage prospectivity. We hope that this study will fulfil the objective of providing useful information for future exploration for CO2 storage sites. We have not attempted to assess the uncertainty range for storage capacities in this atlas, but we have made an effort to document the methods and main assumptions. The assessments described in this atlas will be accompanied by a GIS database (geographical information system).This will be published on the NPD website www.npd.no
Acknowledgements
This CO2 Storage Atlas has been developed by a team at the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate. The support from colleagues through discussions, and the support from the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy have been of great importance. Sincere thanks to Asbjrn Thon, Robert Williams and Dag Helliksen for constructive contributions. The Norwegian CO2 Storage Forum has contributed with its expertise in our meetings over the last three years. Ola Eiken, Statoil, Per Aagaard, University of Oslo, Erik Lindeberg, SINTE F, Svein Eggen, Climit/Gassnova, Rolf Birger Pedersen, University of Bergen, Mike Carpenter, DnV and experts on well integrity from the Petroleum Safety Authorities have contributed with texts and figures to this atlas. AGR has contributed to the reservoir modeling related to CO2 storage. The CO2 team at the NPD as follows: Eva K. Halland (Project Leader) Ine Trneng Gjeldvik Wenche Tjelta Johansen Christian Magnus Ida Margrete Meling Jasminka Mujezinovi Van T. H. Pham Fridtjof Riis Rita Sande Rd Inge M.Tappel
CO2STORAGEATLAS
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1. Introduction
1. Introduction
Production of power and other use of fossil energy is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions globally. Capture and storage of CO2 in geological formations emerges as an important measure with great potential to reduce global emissions. The Norwegian government places great emphasis on Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) as a measure to reduce CO2 emissions. The government has set ambitious goals for achieving CO2 capture at gas fired power plants and for establishing a chain for transport and injection of CO2. In its Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (2005), the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that capture and storage of CO2 may account for as much as one half of emission reductions in this century. However, major challenges must be solved before this potential can be realised. The IPCC report points out that there is as yet no experience from capture of CO2 from large coal and gas power plants. Norway has extensive experience in storage of CO2 in geological structures. Since 1996, approximately one million tonnes of CO2 per year have been separated from gas production on the Sleipner Vest field in the North Sea for storage in Utsira, a geological formation around 1000 metres below the seabed. In connection with treatment of the well stream from the Snhvit field and the LNG production on Melkya, there is capacity for separation and storage of 700,000 tonnes of CO2 in a reservoir 2 600 metres below the seabed. There is significant technical potential for storing CO2 in geological formations around the world. Producing oil and gas fields, abandoned oil and gas fields and other formations such as saline aquifers are all candidates for such storage. Storage in reservoirs that are no longer in operation is a good solution in terms of geology because these structures are likely to be impermeable after having held oil and gas for millions of years. Other formations are also considered to be secure storage alternatives for CO2. Environmentally sound storage of CO2 is a precondition for a successful CCS chain. Consequently, the mapping, qualification and verification of storage sites is indispensable for CCS as a climate change mitigation measure. Geological formations offshore Norway are expected to be well-suited for storing large quantities of CO2. It is important to have the best possible understanding of what can be the CO2 storage potential. These factors necessitate an enhanced effort within the mapping and investigation of CO2 storage sites. The production of this CO2 storage atlas is at the very centre of this effort. Various Norwegian research institutions and commercial enterprises have extensive experience and competence within CO2 storage.
Snhvit Licence
Sleipner: More than 13 million tonnes of carbon dioxide are now stored in the Utsira formation in the North Sea. Every year since 1996, one million tonnes of carbon dioxide has been captured from natural gas production at the Sleipner field, and stored in an aquifer more than 800 metres below the seabed. The layer contains porous sandstone filled with saline water.
Snhvit: There is capacity for separation and storage of 700 000 tonnes annually in water saturated sandstone reservoirs under the Snhvit Field in the Barents Sea. A shale cap which lies above the sandstone will seal the reservoir and ensure that the CO2 stays underground.
Sleipner Licence
Statoil
CO2STORAGEATLAS
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1. Introduction
The CLIMIT program by Svein Eggen, Climit / Gassnova
The CLIMIT program was established by the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy to promote technology for carbon capture and storage with the following objectives: Accelerate the commercialization of CO2 sequestration through economic stimulation of research, development and demonstration The program is administered by Gassnova in cooperation with the Norwegian Research Council. The Norwegian Research Council is responsible for research projects, and Gassnova for prototype and demonstration projects. By supporting testing and demonstration projects, Gassnova will contribute to the development of cost-effective and innovative technology concepts for CO2 capture. This includes knowledge and solutions for: CO2 capture before, during or after power production Compression and handling of CO2 Transport of CO2 Long-term storage of CO2 in terms of injection, storing or other application areas Gassnova will focus on co-funding projects that are considered to have a clear commercial potential and that include a market-based business plan. A detailed description of the program strategy is found in the program plan on www.climit.no For investment in CO2 storage, the following main objectives have been identified: Develop and verify the knowledge and technology for safe and cost-effective storage and monitoring of CO2. Help develop and verify commercially viable methods, service concepts and technologies. Contribute to increased knowledge on geological storage. The primary focus for the work on CO2 storage is to support the development of geological storage of CO2. This involves storage in waterbearing formations located deep enough to keep the CO2 in a dense phase. Through the petroleum industry and our storage options on the shelf, Norway is in a good position to develop a competitive industry that can serve a future CO2 storage market. CLIMIT wants to support such a development.
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2. Petroleum activity in the Norwegian Sea

The year 2011 marks the 45th anniversary of the arrival of Ocean Traveler in Norway and the spudding of the first well on the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS ), as well as the 40th anniversary of the start of oil production from the Ekofisk field in the North Sea. In May 1963, the Norwegian government proclaimed sovereignty over the NCS. A new act stipulated that the State was the landowner, and that only the King (Government) could grant licenses for exploration and production. With the discovery of the Ekofisk field in 1969, the Norwegian oil and gas adventure started in earnest. Production from the field began on 15 June 1971. During the following years, several large discoveries were made in the North Sea. In the 1970s, the exploration activity was concentrated in this area, but the shelf was also gradually opened northwards. Only a limited number of blocks were announced for each licensing round, and the most promising areas were explored first. This led to world-class discoveries. Production from the North Sea has been dominated by large fields such as Ekofisk, Statfjord, Oseberg, Gullfaks and Troll. These fields have been, and are still, very important for the development of petroleum activities in Norway. The large field developments have led to the establishment of infrastructure, enabling tie-in of a number of other fields. Currently, 70 fields are in production on the NCS. Twelve fields have been abandoned of 31 December 2011. However, there are re-development plans for some of these abandoned fields. Production on the NCS is still high. In 2011, Norway was the worlds seventh largest exporter of oil and the second largest exporter of natural gas. Oil production has declined since the peak production in 2001 and is expected to decline further. Gas production continues to increase, but this will not prevent a decline in total production on the shelf. The Norwegian Sea was opened for exploration activity in 1980. The first field to commence production in the area was Draugen in 1993. A number of fields have since been developed. Several smaller fields around existing infrastructure have been put into production in recent years. Today, the Haltenbanken area and Ormen Lange field are mature areas with considerable oil and gas production, along with well-developed infrastructure. There are also areas in the Norwegian Sea that have not yet been developed or even opened up for exploration activity. Oil production from the major fields in the area is declining. The gas export capacity from Haltenbanken, through the sgard transport system (TS), is fully utilised for several decades into the future. This could affect the timing for phase-in of new discoveries on Haltenbanken. The timing for production of gas that up to now has been used as pressure support for oil production will affect how long the current capacity is fully utilised. Gas injection has been used for the sgard field, and will continue to be a key factor in maintaining reservoir pressure and oil production. It has been proven that the Norwegian Sea contains significant volumes of gas. Produced gas from the fields is transported in the TS pipeline to Krst in Rogaland county, and in Haltenpipe to Tjeldbergodden in Mre og Romsdal county. The gas from Ormen Lange runs in a pipeline to Nyhamna, and from there on to the United Kingdom. The CO2 content of the gas produced from several of these fields is relatively high, which is also the case for several of the discoveries in the area. Gas from these fields is therefore blended with other gas with lower CO2 content to achieve compliance with gas quality requirements. This blending takes place from fields both in the Norwegian Sea and from fields located further south. This creates interdependence between the fields in the Norwegian Sea, and affects how the individual fields are produced. The Vring area in the Norwegian
300 Mill. Sm oil equivalents per year
10.6
Total resources: 13.1 billion Sm3 o.e.
12 10 8 6
19% 7.4 5.0 5.7 3.9 2.6 2.1

Liquid Total Gas
250 200 150 100 50 0
Gas (40 MJ) Condensate NGL Oil
7% 5.2 3.5 6%
44%
Bill. Sm3 o.e.
4 2 0 -2
24%
Undiscovered resources Contingent resources in discoveries Contingent resources in elds Reserves Sold and delivered
1.6 5.7 4.1
-4 -6
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Petroleum resources and uncertainty in the estimates per 31.12.2011
Historical petroleum production of oil and gas and production forecast for the coming years
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
10

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 66 Norne Skarv Heidrun sgard Kristin Draugen
E
62
FAROE ISLANDS
60 Murchison Statfjord Gullfaks Valemon Huldra Oseberg
Njord Ormen Lange

SP OR T
HA LT
ENPIP
64
Tjeldbergodden Nyhamna Trondheim
SHETLAND THE ORKNEYS

FL A GS
ED
TAMPEN LINK
Snorre Visund Gja Kvitebjrn Flor Veslefrikk Brage Mongstad Troll

S
OT S
GA
RD
TR
AN
62
58
Stura Kollsnes
Bergen
Sandnessjen
St. Fergus Cruden Bay

56
Sleipner PIPE STAT Rev Armada Draupner S/E Forties
ZE
S VE
RL TE GE Brae SA
EP
Heimdal Beryl Alvheim l A l Grane I PE

P EE
IP
ll B
TPIP STA
NORWAY
60 Grenland
Krst
Stavanger
Brnnysund
LA
Ula Gyda Ekofisk Valhall Hod

EUROPIPE ll
NOR
Namsos
NG
EL
CA TS
SWEDEN
ED
58
PIPE
54
Teesside
NO
DENMARK
56
EU R OPIP El
RPIP E
Easington
Trondheim Stjrdal
52
GREAT BRITAIN
Bacton
CO N
Z EE FR A PIPE l NPIP E
Emden
Dornum
GERMANY
Existing gas pipeline Projected gas pipeline Existing oil-/condensate pipeline Projected oil-/condensate pipeline Other pipelines
54
RINTE TOR N EC
Kristiansund
Molde lesund
THE NETHERLANDS
50
Dunkerque
Zeebrugge
BELGIUM
Mly
52
FRANCE
0 2 4 6 8
10
12
Licenses and fields
Pipelines
Sea is currently an area without infrastructure. Several gas discoveries have been made in the area. Exploration activity on the NCS has been high in recent years, with extensive seismic surveying and a large number of exploration wells. Maintaining a high level of exploration activity will also be necessary in the years to come, in order to clarify the potential of the undiscovered resources and to make new discoveries which can be developed. Norways gas pipelines have a total length of approx. 8000 kilometres. The gas flows from production installations to process plants, where natural gas liquids are separated out and exported by ship.
The remaining dry gas is piped on to receiving terminals in continental Europe and the UK. There are four receiving terminals for Norwegian gas on the Continent; two in Germany, one in Belgium and one in France. In addition, there are two receiving terminals in the UK. Norwegian gas is important for the European energy supply and is exported to all the major consumer countries in Western Europe. Norwegian gas export covers close to 20 per cent of European gas consumption. The transport capacity in the Norwegian pipeline system is currently about 120 billion scm per year
11
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
12
3. Methodology
13
3. Methodology
3.1 Geological storage
Depending on their specific geological properties, several types of geological formations can be used to store CO2. In the North Sea Basin, the greatest potential capacity for CO2 storage will be in deep saline-water saturated formations or in depleted oil and gas fields. CO2 will be injected and stored as a supercritical fluid. It then migrates through the interconnected pore spaces in the rock, just like other fluids (water, oil, gas). To be suitable for CO2 storage, saline formations need to have sufficient porosity and permeability to allow large volumes of CO2 to be injected in a supercritical state at the rate it is supplied at. It must further be overlain by an impermeable cap rock, acting as a seal, to prevent CO2 migration into other formations or to sea. CO2 is held in-place in a storage reservoir through one or more of five basic trapping mechanisms: strati graphic, structural, residual, solubility, and mineral trapping. Generally, the initial dominant trapping mechanisms are stratigraphic trapping or structural trapping, or a combination of the two. In residual trapping, the CO2 is trapped in the tiny pores in rocks by the capillary pressure of water. Once injection stops, water from the surrounding rocks begins to move back into the pore spaces that contain CO2. As this happens, the CO2 becomes immobilized by the pressure of the added water. Much of the injected CO2 will eventually dissolve in the saline water, or in the oil that remains in the rock. This process, which further traps the CO2, is solubility (or dissolution) trapping. Solubility trapping forms a denser fluid which may sink to the bottom of the storage formation. Depending on the rock formation, the dissolved CO2 may react chemically with the surrounding rocks to form stable minerals. Known as mineral trapping, this provides the most secure form of storage for the CO2, but it is a slow process and may take thousands of years. Porosity is a measure of the space in the rock that can be used to store fluids. Permeability is a measure of the rocks ability to allow fluid flow. Permeability is strongly affected by the shape, size and connectivity of the pore spaces in the rock. By contrast, the seals covering the storage formation typically have low porosity and permeability so that they will trap the CO2. Another important property of the storage site is injectivity, the rate at which the CO2 can be injected into a storage reservoir. Oil and gas reservoirs are a subset of saline formations, and therefore they generally have similar properties. That is, they are permeable rock formations acting as a reservoir with an impermeable cap rock acting as a seal. The reservoir is the part of the saline formation that is generally contained within a structural or stratigraphic closure (e.g. an anticline or dome). Therefore it is also able to physically trap and store a concentrated amount of oil and/ or gas. There is great confidence in the seal integrity of oil and gas reservoirs with respect to CO2 storage, as they have held oil and gas for long time periods. However, a drawback of such reservoirs compared with deep saline aquifers is that they are penetrated by many wells. Care must be taken to ensure that exploration and production operations have not damaged the reservoir or seal.
100.000.0
Carbon dioxide: Temperature - pressure diagram

g Line Meltin
1000.0
Pressure (bar)
100.0
CO2 Solid
CO2 Liquid
ine tion L Satura 0.5 g/cm3

ine Triple Point nL tio a m bli Su Sublimation Point
10.0
CO2 Gas CO2 Vapour
1.0
0.1 -100
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
Cr iti ca l
Critical Point
30
Temperature (C)
100
10 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2
Ground level
1.1 CO2 as a gas 0.32 0.28 0.27 0.27
Depth (km)
CO2 as a supercritical fluid
Critical depth (approx)
DnV/NPD
CO2CRC
2.5
200
400
600
800
1000
Density of CO2 (kg/m3)
Supercritical fluids behave like gases, in that they can diuse readily through the pore spaces of solids. But, like liquids, they take up much less space than gases. Supercritical conditions for CO2 occur at 31.1C and 7.38 megapascals (MPa), which occur approximately 800 meters below surface level. This is where the CO2 has both gas and liquid properties and is 500 to 600 times denser (up to a density of about 700 kg/m3) than at surface conditions, while remaining more buoyant than formation brine.
CO2CRC
Structural traps Stratigraphical traps
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
14
Po in t
40 50
3. Methodology
3.2 Data availability
The authorities access to collected and analysed data is stipulated in law and based on the following statements: The Norwegian State has the proprietary right to subsea petroleum deposits and the exclusive right to resource management and The right to submarine natural resources is vested in the State. This is regulated by The Petroleum Act (29 November 1996 No.72 1963), Regulations to the Act, the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate's resource regulations and guidelines, and Act of 21 June 1963 No. 12 Scientific research and exploration for and exploitation of subsea natural resources other than petroleum resources. The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD) has access to all data collected on the NCS and has a national responsibility for the data. The NPDs data, overviews and analyses make up an important fact basis for the oil and gas activities. The main objective of these Reporting Requirements from the NPD is to support the efficient exploitation of Norways hydrocarbon reserves. More than 40 years of petroleum activity has generated a large quantity of data. This covers 2D and 3D data, data from exploration and production wells such as logs, cuttings and cores as well as test and production data. These data, together with many years of dedicated work to establish geological play models for the North Sea, have given us a good basis for the work we are presenting here. How these data are handled is regulated in: http://www.npd.no/en/Regulations/Regulations/ Petroleum-activities/
Kristiansund
Sandnessjen
Brnnysund
Brnnysund
Namsos
Namsos
TrondheimTrondheim
Stjrdal
Stjrdal
Kristiansund
Molde
Molde
lesund
Data availability
3D seismic 2D seismic
lesund
Mly
Mly
Our playground
NPD has access to all data collected offshore Norway
! ! ! !
! ! !
! !
! ! !
! ! ! SKULD ! ! ! !
! !
! !!
ALVE! MARULK ! !
! ! ! ! !
! URD ! ! ! ! ! !! NORNE ! !
SKARV !! !
! !
! ! ! !
TERTIARY
HORDALAND NORDLAND
Q
! !
! ! !
! ! ! ! ! !
ROGALAND
! ! HEIDRUN ! ! ! ! ! ! MORVIN ! ! SGARD ! ! ! KRISTIN ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! TYRIHANS ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
SHETLAND
! ! YTTERGRYTA ! ! !
CRETACEOUS
CROMER KNOLL
! !
! !!
MIKKEL
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
JURASSIC
BOKN. FJORD
! ! !!
VESTLAND
M L
! HYME DRAUGEN ! !
! NJORD ! ! !
FJERR.
! ! ! ! ! !
TRIASSIC
SKAGERRAK
GASSUM
M
SMITH BANK
!
ORMEN LANGE
!
Kristiansund
Oileld Gaseld
Molde
15
3. Methodology
3.3 Workflow and characterization
based on a detailed evaluation of each aquifer/structure. A checklist for reservoir properties has been developed. This list gives a detailed overview of the important parameters regarding the quality of the reservoir. Important elements when evaluating the reservoir properties are aquifer structuring, traps, the thickness and permeability of the reservoir. A corresponding checklist has been developed for the sealing properties. Evaluation of faults and fractures through the seal, in addition to old wells, are important for the sealing quality. An extensive database has been available for this evaluation. Nevertheless some areas have limited seismic coverage and no well information. The data coverage is colour-coded to illustrate the data available for each aquifer/structure.
Characterization
Aquifers and structures have been evaluated in terms of capacity and safe storage of CO2. Reservoir quality depends on the calculated volume and communicating volumes as well as the reservoir injectivity. Sealing quality is based on evaluation of the sealing layers (shales) and possible fracturing of the seal. Existing wells through the aquifers/structures and seals have also been evaluated. Parameters used in the characterization process are based on data and experience from the petroleum activity on the NCS and the fact that CO2 should be stored in the supercritical phase to have the most efficient and safest storage. Each of the criteria in the table below is given a score together with a description of the data coverage (good, limited or poor). The score for each criteria is
characteriZation of aQuifers and structures Criteria Reservoir quality

3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1
Definitions, comments
Large calculated volume, dominant high scores in checklist Medium - low estimated volume, or low score in some factors Dominant low values, or at least one score close to unacceptable High value for permeability * thickness (k*h) Medium k*h Low k*h Good sealing shale, dominant high scores in checklist At least one sealing layer with acceptable properties Sealing layer with uncertain properties, low scores in checklist Dominant high scores in checklist Insignificant fractures (natural / wells) Low scores in checklist No previous drilling in the reservoir / safe plugging of wells Wells penetrating seal, no leakage documented Possible leaking wells / needs evaluation
Poor data coverage
Capacity, communicating volumes
Injectivity
Sealing quality Seal
Fracture of seal
Other leak risk Wells
Data coverage
Good data coverage
Limited data coverage
Other factors: How easy / difficult to prepare for monitoring and intervention. The need for pressure relief. Possible support for EOR projects. Potential for conflicts with future petroleum activity.
CO2STORAGEATLAS
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Data coverage Good : 3D seismic, wells through the actual aquifer/structure Limited : 2D seismic, 3D seismic in some areas, wells through equivalent geological formations Poor : 2D seismic or sparse data
16
3. Methodology
Checklist for Reservoir Properties Typical high and low scores Reservoir Properties High Low Aquifer Structuring Mapped or possible closures Tilted, few /uncertain closures
Traps Defined sealed structures Poor definition of traps Pore pressure Hydrostatic or lower Overpressure Depth 800- 2500 m < 800 m or > 2500 m
Reservoir Homogeneous Heterogeneous Net thickness > 50 m < 15 m Average porosity in net reservoir > 25 % < 15 %
Permeability > 500 mD < 10 mD
for Sealing Properties Typical high and low scores Sealing Properties High Low Sealing layer Properties of seal Composition of seal Faults Other breaks through seal Wells (exploration/ production) More than one seal Proven pressure barrier/ > 100 m thickness High clay content, homogeneous No faulting of the seal No fracture No drilling through seal One seal < 50 m thickness Silty, or silt layers Big throw through seal Tectonically active faults sand injections, slumps Active chimneys with gas leakage High number of wells Unacceptable values No known sealing layer over parts of the reservoir
17
3. Methodology
NPDs approach for assessing the suitability of the geological formations for CO2 storage is summed up in this flowchart. The intention is to identify, in a systematic way, the aquifers and which aquifers are prospective in terms of large-scale storage of CO2. In subsequent steps in the workflow, each potential reservoir and seal identified, are evaluated and characterized for their CO2 storage prospectivity. Based on this, the potential storage sites are mapped and the storage capacity is calculated. The evaluation is based on available data in the given areas. This evaluation does not provide an economic assessment of the storage sites.
Evaluation process for safe CO2 storage sites

CAP ROCK
Evaluation of data coverage and knowledge

62
Characterization of reservoir/ injectivity
Workflow
Stratigraphy (reservoir and seal)
61
60
Characterization of seal efficiency
59
Depth to the top Paleocene

100 m 3200 m
Structural trapping Trapping

2 3 4 5 6
Paleocene sand Contour interval 200 m
58
Map potential storage area
57
56
Stratigraphic trapping
Estimate storage capacity
Based on injection history
The maturation pyramid

The evaluation of geological volumes suitable for injecting and storing CO2 can be viewed as a step-wise approximation, as shown in the maturation pyramid. Data and experience from over 40 years in the petroleum industry will contribute in the process of finding storage volumes as high up as possible in the pyramid. Step 4 is the phase when CO2 is injected in the reservoir. Throughout the injection period, the injection history is closely evaluated and the experience gained provides further guidance on the reservoirs ability and capacity to store CO2. Step 3 refers to storage volumes where trap, reservoir and seal have been mapped and evaluated in terms of regulatory and technical criteria to ensure safe and effective storage. Step 2 is the storage volume calculated when areas with possible conflicts of interest with the petroleum industry have been removed. Only aquifers and prospects of reasonable size and quality are evaluated. Evaluation is based on relevant available data. Step 1 is the volume calculated on average porosity and thickness. This is done in a screening phase that identifies possible aquifers suitable for storage of CO2. The theoretical volume is based on depositional environment, diagenesis, bulk volume from area and thickness, average porosity, permeability and net/gross values.
Development of injection site
Injectio n
Suitable for long term storage
Eectiv e an d s a Cut o c r Volume c iteria on
Exploration
fe stora
ge
Theoretical volume
volume /c r ag e p o
onict o
alculate
f intere
st
Increased technical maturity
d on ave
rosity a
nd thick
ne s s
CO2STORAGEATLAS
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18
3. Methodology
3.4 Estimation of storage capacity
The injection rate will depend on the permea bility and how much of the reservoir is exposed to the injection well. The number of wells needed to inject a certain amount of CO2 will depend on the size of the reservoir and the injectivity. For a homogenous reservoir with a permeability of 200mD and reservoir thickness of 100m, the storage efficiency in a closed system is simulated to be 0.4 to 0.8%, with a pressure increase of 50 to 100 bar. In a closed system, a pressure increase between 50 and 100 bar is a reasonable range for reservoirs between 1000 and 3000m, but this must be evaluated carefully for each reservoir. If the reservoir is in communication with a large aquifer, the reservoir pressure will stay almost constant during CO2 injection, as the water will be pushed beyond the boundaries of the reservoir. The CO2 stored will be the amount injected until it reaches the boundaries. The efficiency will be ~5 % or more, depending primarily on the relationship between the vertical and horizontal permeability. A low vertical to horizontal permeability ratio will distribute the CO2 better over the reservoir than a high ratio. A cross-section of a flat reservoir with injection for 50 years is shown below. For abandoned oil and gas fields, the amount of CO2 that can be stored depends on how much of the hydrocarbons have been produced, and to what extent the field is depleted. The gas fields will normally have low pressure at abandonment, and the oil fields will have a low oil rate and high water cut. The fields may have an EOR potential for CO2 at abandonment, which must be considered before CO2 storage starts. For a gas field, the amount is the CO2 injected from abandonment pressure up to initial pressure. Some of the natural gas left in the reservoir can either be produced during the pressure increase or left in place. For an oil reservoir, CO2 can be stored by pressure increase or by producing out water. CO2 can be stored when using it for EOR by pushing out some of the oil and water and replacing that with CO2.
CO2 can be stored in produced oil and gas fields, or in saline aquifers. In a producing oil field, CO2 can be used to enhance recovery before it is stored. A depleted gas field can be used for CO2 storage by increasing the pressure in the reservoir. Some of the remaining gas can be recovered during the CO2 injection. Even if EOR is not the purpose, oil and gas fields can be used as storage for CO2 by increasing the pressure in the reservoir or by overpressuring it within certain limits. In saline aquifers, CO2 can be stored as dissolved CO2 in the water, free CO2 or trapped CO2 in the pores. Storage capacity depends on several factors, primarily the pore volume and how much the reservoir can be pressurized. It is also important to know if there is communication between multiple reservoirs, or if the reservoirs are in communication with larger aquifers. The degree of pressurization depends on the difference between the fracturing pressure and the reservoir pressure. The ratio between pressure and volume change depends on the compressibility of the rock and the fluids in the reservoir. The solubility of the CO2 in the different phases will also play a part. The CO2 will preferably be stored in a supercritical phase to take up the least possible volume in the reservoir. For saline aquifers, the amount of CO2 to be stored can be determined using the following formula:
MCO = Vb x x n/g x CO xSeff.
2 2
MCO mass of CO2 2 Vb bulk volume porosity n/g net to gross ratio CO density of CO2 at reservoir conditions 2 Seff. storage efficiency factor (Geocapasity 2009)
Sg
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2
Kv/kh=0,1
Sg
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2
Kv/kh=0,001
Seff is calculated as the fraction of stored CO2 relative to the pore volume. The CO2 in the pores will appear as a mobile or immobile phase (trapped). Most of the CO2 will be in a mobile phase. Some CO2 will be dissolved in the water and simulations show that approximately 10-20% of the CO2 will behave in this manner. When injection stops, the CO2 will continue to migrate upward in the reservoir, and the water will follow, trapping some of the CO2 behind the water. The trapped gas saturation can reach about 30% depending on how long the migration continues. The diffusion of CO2 into the water will be small, but may have an effect over a long period.
SCO2 development (open system)
SCO2 development (open system)
A cross section of a flat reservoir with injection for 50 years.
19
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
20
4. Geological description of the Norwegian Sea
21

4.1 Geological development of the Norwegian Sea
2E 4E 6E 8E 10E 12E 14E
System
Eoc Olig Mio Plio Plei Holo Series
Group
68N
Vring Marginal High Hel Graben
Lofoten Ridge Ribban Basin Marmle Spur Rst High Kvalnesdjup Graben Ribban Basin Vestfjorden Basin Nyk High Ngrind Syncline
68N
Shetland Roga- Hordaland land
N o rd la n d
PA L A EO G EN E
N EO G EN E
Lofoten Basin
Havben Sub-basin
Fenris Graben Utgard HighTrna Basin Grny High Gjallar Ridge Nordland Ridge Vigrid Syncline Rdy High
Zo ne Fa ult ho lm en re Yt
! !
ple
ult
Dnna Terrace Helgeland Basin

ne Zo x
!
Fa
om
ho
re
ll F
u Fa Sr High Vega High ing

!
en
lt C
lm
au
vfa
Yt
Viking
Ellingrsa Graben Halten TerraceTrndelag Platform

Re
JURASSIC
Mre Marginal High Slettringen Ridge
Grinda Graben Sklinna Ridge Gimsan Basin Froan Basin

64N
Grip High
64N
Fangst
Mre Basin Vigra High
Rs Basin
Legend
!
Bt
Faults
p lex
! !
!
Oceanic magnetic anomaly

! ! !
TRIASSIC
Frya High
!
!
Ona High Gossa High ault C gF ela Giske High nd r

! !!
om
! ! !
Gnausen High Slrebotn Sub-basin

62N
T e-
Tampen Spur Selje Horst Mly Slope Sogn Graben

4E 6E 8E
Mara Fault Zone
Marebakk Fault Zone
Structural elements in the Norwegian Sea
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
22
!!
66N
66N
lt Z
on
Cro m e r Kn o l l
C R E TA C EO U S
Yl
U M
L U M L
Boundary of Tertiary lavas ("Inner flows")
Other Geological Boundaries Subcrop of base Cretaceous below Quarternary Subcrop of top Basement below Quarternary
Grey Beds Red Beds
Ion Gel Pia Zan Mess Aquit Chat Rup Pria Ypres Than Dan Maast Camp Sant Coni Tur Cen Alb Apt Barr Haut Valang Berrias Tithon Kimm Oxf Call Bath Bajoc Aalen Toarc Pliens Sinem Hett Rht Nor Carn Ladin Anis
Olenek Induan
Pal
Stage
Jennegga High Utrst Ridge
Trndelag Platform
Halten Terrace
Vring Basin
Mre Basin
!
!
!!
! !
!
! !
! !
! !
!
!
!
!
?
Calcareous shales Marginal evaporite deposits, sabkha Coastal, deltaic and ood-plain deposits Marine deposits, mainly sandstone Shallow-marine deposits, mainly shale Deep-marine deposits, mainly shale Clastics intermixed in carbonates, sandstone in Spiculite
Structural elements Cretaceous High Deep Cretaceous Basin Marginal Volcanic High Palaeozoic High in Platform Platform Pre-Jurassic Basin in Platform Shallow Cretaceous Basin in Platform NPD1073 Terraces and Intra-Basinal Elevations Volcanics
10E 12E 62N
Uplifted area Clastic continental deposits, unspecied Clastic continental deposits, mainly sandstone Clastic continental deposits, mainly shale and siltstone Salt (halite) Shallow-marine carbonate deposits Deep-marine carbonate deposits Volcanic deposits shale
Lithostratigraphic chart of the Norwegian Sea

N S
6 9 11 13 15 17 19 22 24 26 28 30 33 35 37 39 42 44 46 48 50 53 55 57 59 62 64 66 68 70 73 75 77 79 82 84 86 88 91 93 95 97 99 102 105 108
SPEKK FM (BCU) MELKE FM
Age
Neogene
3
Formations & Groups

Piacenzian Zanclean Messinian Tortonian Serravallian Langhian Burdigalian Aquitanian Chattian Rupelian Priabonian Bartonian
Evaluated Aquifers
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Paleogene
Eocene
Lutetian Ypresian Thanetian Selandian Danian Maastrichtian
Paleocene
Egga Fm.
Egga Fm.
Campanian
Late
Santonian Coniacian Turonian
Lysing Fm.
Lange Fm.
W
MD 1:4500 0.00 1900
E
6507/12-3 [MD]
HGR HNPHI gAPI 150.00 0.6000 m3/m3 0.0000 HRHOB
1.7000 g/cm3 2.7000 SPEKK FM (BCU)
MELKE FM GARN FM Fence alignment: Bottom Distance: 65921 m.
Cretaceous
Cenomanian
MD 1:4500 1300 0.00
6507/6-3 [MD]

1.7000 g/cm3 2.7000 SPEKK FM (BCU)
MELKE FM
Fence alignment: Bottom Distance: 26260 m.
1500 MD 1:4500 0.00
6508/5-1 [MD]

1.7000 g/cm3 2.7000 SPEKK FM (BCU)
Fence alignment: Bottom Distance: 89995 m.
1200
MD 1:4500 0.00
6510/2-1 [MD]
Albian

1.7000 g/cm3 2.7000 SPEKK FM (BCU)
MELKE FM
SPEKK FM (BCU) MELKE FM GARN FM NOT FM ILE FM

2000
112 115 118 122 125 128 132 135
1600
MELKE FM
1300
Aptian
Lange Fm.
NOT FM ILE FM
1400
ILE FM ROR FM
Early
Barremian Hauterivian Valanginian Berriasian Tithonian
GARN FM
1700
1400
NOT FM
ROR FM
2100
ROR FM
TILJE FM
1500
RE FM ILE FM
1800
1500
ROR FM TILJE FM GARN FM
138
GARN FM
Lange Fm.
TILJE FM
TILJE FM
142 145 148 152
2200
1600 1600
1900 2300 1700

RE FM
Late
Kimmeridgian Oxfordian Callovian
NOT FM ILE FM
NOT FM ILE FM ROR FM
155 158 162 165 168 172
Rogn Fm.
Rogn Fm.
RE FM
2400
RE FM
2000 1800 1850
Jurassic
1700
ROR FM
Middle
Bathonian Bajocian Aalenian Toarcian Pliensbachian
Garn Fm.
Fangst Gp.
Ile Fm.
*Garn Fm. *Ile Fm.
2100
1800
TILJE FM
175
TILJE FM
178 182 185 188
2500 1900
Bunn re RE FM
Early
2200 2602.1
Tilje Fm.
Sinemurian Hettangian Rhaetian
*Tilje Fm. *re Fm.
RE FM
192 195 198 202 205 208
re Fm.
2300
2000
Norian
Triassic
2400
2100
212 215 218 222 225

Bunn re
Late
Carnian
2500
2200
Bunn re
228 232
Middle
Ladinian
*Evaluated prospects
Well section panels showing gamma and neutron/density logs reflecting thickness variations of the different formations. The re and Tilje Fms show more or less constant thickness throughout the area. The Ile and Garn Fms are thinning and shaling out towards the north. The Garn Fm is quite thick in well 6510/2-1, but less sandy, and is thinning towards the west.
Evaluated geological formations, prospects and aquifers. * Evaluated prospects
23

10E
Triassic
Eocene
ce o u s

The Norwegian Sea covers most of the continental margin between approximately 62o and 69o30 N. The tectonic history of the Norwegian Sea can be divided into three major episodes: A) Final closure of the Iapetus Ocean during the Caledonian Orogeny (Late Silurian/ Early Devonian). B) A series of mainly extensional deformation episodes (Late Devonian to Paleocene), culminating with the continental separation between Greenland and Eurasia. C) Active seafloor spreading in the North Atlantic between Eurasia and Greenland (Earliest Eocene to present). The area with the best potential for storage of CO2 is the Trndelag Platform (63o to 67o N), one of the main structural elements of the Norwegian Sea. The Trndelag Platform contains the following structural elements: the Nordland Ridge, the Helgeland Basin, the Vega High, the Ylvingen Fault Zone, the Froan Basin and the Frya High. The areas further west and south are considered less suitable for storage of CO2 due to active production of hydrocarbons, high temperature and high pressure and depth to the relevant reservoirs. Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic: Rifting and formation of N-S to NE-SW-trending rotated fault blocks occurred on the Halten Terrace and parts of the Trndelag Platform in late Permian/early Triassic times and was followed by deposition of a thick continental Triassic succession. Drilling in the Helgeland Basin has proved up to 2500m thickness of Triassic (Grey and Red Beds) including two Middle Triassic evaporite intervals up to 400m thick. The evaporite intervals represent detachment levels for later extensional faults. These thick sequences are related to pronounced subsidence and deposition in a fluvial sabkha environment. Possibly this tectonic event was preceded by Carboniferous and Permian rifting. Jurassic and Cretaceous: During the Early and Middle Jurassic, the Trndelag Platform and the Halten/ Dnna Terrace were parts of a large NS-trending subsiding basin which was infilled by a deltaic to fluvial depositional system. Sediment input from several directions have been interpreted. The Jurassic sediments thin towards the Nordland Ridge and the thickness increases over the Vega High and the Helgeland
La
66N
Creta
# Sandnessjen
66N
Pa
la
eo
ce
ne
li g
oc
en
Pl i o
ce n
e
# Brnnysund
B
ra
ce
rly
eo
Ea
la
Pa
st
La
ra
Ju
te
La
vo
ni
an
ss
ic
Ea
A
Pliocene
Mi
dJ
te
ur
as
si c
,L
ate
ne
Ju
Ju
ic ss
r as
,M
si c
id
Ju
si r as
# Namsos
rly
rd
ov
ic
ia
Quarternary
n-
De
Oligocene Paleocene Cretaceous

Jurassic
te
Subcroping strata under the Quaternary offshore Mid Norway. Offshore map from NGU, Sigmond.
VRING ESCARPMENT
VRING MARGINAL HIGH
VRING BASIN
HEL GRABEN NAGLF AR DOME NYK HIGH NGRIND SYNCLINE UTGARD HIGH FLES F AUL T COMPLEX
320 300 280 260 240 220 200 180
TRNDELAG PLA
TRNA BASIN NORDLAND RIDGE REVF ALLET FAUL T COMPLEX
160 140 RDY HIGH
CLOSE T O 6609/7-1 CLOSE T O 6609/10-1
TFORM
HELGELAND BASIN
VEGA HIGH
NNW
YL VINGEN FAUL T ZONE

6609/1 1-1
SE
20
km
0
340
120
100
80
60
40
D'
IQ
TCen
2000
L TPal BTT
IMio IUEoc
BPia
BPia IMio TPal
BPia IMio TPal BTT
BK IUJ ILJ TT r
? ? 4000 ? ?
BTT
Salt Salt
?
TCen ICmp
IP
Milliseconds
? 6000
TCen
BK
? 8000
ILK
BK
10000
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN 12000 SEA
NPD Bulletin No 8
1 : 500.000
1697 1700 1500 1250 VB-10-87 1000 ST -8604-412 ST -8604-412-A 784 1270 2080 3079 3550 2650 2500 2000 1500 NRGS-84-481 1000 500 GMT -84-422-A NR-04-85 1 11599 13250 3080 2560 4954 4500 4000 ST -8808-826-A 3500 2750 3000 ST -8808-826
NPD - Bulletin No 8 (1995)
24
3247 <shotnumber> 3000 2750 2500 VB-10-87-A 2250 2000
1750
1001
1750

2 70 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Structural elements of the Norwegian continental shelf

Part II: The Norwegian Sea Region
Ha
rs
ta
Ba
sin
Basin. Starting in the middle Jurassic and culminating in the late Jurassic/ early Cretaceous, the Norwegian Sea underwent a major tectonic phase with extension, faulting and thinning of the upper crust. The Halten and Dnna Terrace were downfaulted in relation to the Trndelag Platform. Further to the west, the Vring Basin subsided in relation to the terrace areas. During this extensional phase, both large-scale basement faults and listric faults were active, soling out into the Triassic salt. In the middle Jurassic, the Nordland Ridge and the Frya High were uplifted, while the Helgeland Basin area subsided. Later, the Vega High was inverted, and faulting continued along the major faults well into the Cretaceous. The Froan Basin was a shallow sea during
Late Jurassic, and was later covered by thin, condensed Cretaceous sediments. In contrast, the Helgeland Basin area continued to subside and has a thickness of up to 1500m of Cretaceous sediments. During the Late Cretaceous, there was a rapid subsidence west of the Nordland Ridge due to increased rifting in the west. At the same time, the structural highs and the LofotenVesterlen area were uplifted. Cenozoic: In the Paleocene, uplift of the Norwegian mainland resulted in progradation of clastic sediments from Scandinavia into the Norwegian Sea. Sandy deposits, partly with good reservoir properties have been record ed north of the Nordland Ridge and in the Mre Basin (Egga sand). The progradation continued into the
Eocene. The separation between Greenland and Eurasia and the onset of ocean floor spreading started in the Earliest Eocene. This is reflected in deposition of tuffs and tuffaceous sediments on a regional scale (the Tare Fm). On the Vring and Mre Marginal Highs, lava flows and basaltic dike complexes were emplaced. The sediment input from Scandinavia was reduced in the Oligocene and Miocene. The deltaic Molo Formation has good reservoir sands, but they are not sealed towards the sea floor. The Nordland Ridge was uplifted in the Late Cenozoic. In the Pliocene and Pleistocene, new uplift and glaciations caused erosion and deposition of thick sedimentary wedges onto the mid Norwegian shelf.
P. Blystad, H. Brekke, R.B. Frseth, B.T. Larsen, J. Skogseid and B. Trudbakken Plate I, NPD-Bulletin no. 8 (1995)
Harstad
ro Biv rac st F
Z cture Fra ipne Gle
R
st
id
ge
in
ture e Zon
tr
Naglfar Dome
Ny
Hig
ri
h
nd ync S
ib
ba
as
68
Biv
one
t ros nt me ea Lin
Bod
lin
e
n si
Jan yen Ma re ctu Fra

ja l la r
g N
Tr
na
Ba
Zon e
66
Sandnessjen
Hansen
Helland
al
te
n
Fault position uncertain Fault polarity not determined
Ja n M ay
H
64
ig
M M re
rg
in
si
Te
le
ia
a rr
ce
lt
Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous normal fault Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous fault, reactivated reverse sense Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous fault, reactivated normal sense
oa
High
Fr
Fr y a
n Tr
en
de
b re Sl
Li ne
la g
S ub n ot
Late Cretaceous normal fault Late Cretaceous fault, reactivated reverse sense Late Cretaceous fault, reactivated normal sense Pre-Jurassic normal fault Eroded fault escarp Tertiary volcanic escarpment Tertiary normal fault Boundary of Tertiary lavas ("Inner flows") Oceanic fracture zone
am en
ba
t
Go ss a Hig
ult Fa
h
lex mp Co
Kristiansund
Trondheim
Oceanic magnetic anomaly Subcrop of base Cretaceous below Quarternary Subcrop of top Basement below Quarternary
A'
Position of profile Tertiary domes and arches Marginal highs capped by Palaeogene volcanics Palaeogene volcanic, landward side of the escarpment ("inner flows") Cretaceous highs Cretaceous basins Platform area and shallow terrace Cretaceous basin on the Trndelag Platform Terraces and spurs Permo-Triassic basin on the Trndelag Platform
sin
62
Ma
ne
us agn
Bas
in
u ar
So gn Gr ab en
g Rid
re M n si Ba lk
en mp r Ta Spu
Mlestokk 1 : 1 000 000
Lay-out T.Braanaas, Norsk Hydro, Oslo 1995
PLATE I
Structural element map of the Norwegian Sea. The Trndelag Platform is shown by blue and gray colours. The depth and thickness maps in the following pages cover the Trndelag Platform.
VRING BASIN
RS BASIN HALTEN TERRACE
SKLINNA RIDGE VINGLEIA FAULT COMPLEX
TRNDELAG PLATFORM
FRYA HIGH FROAN BASIN
Quarternary Neogene and Quarternary
KLAKK FAULT COMPLEX
Paleogene Paleocene Upper Cretaceous
6406/11-1S
SE
65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
Lower Cretaceous Upper Jurassic Jurassic Upper Triassic
km
0
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
K'
BPia IMio
Lower and Middle Triassic

TTr
2000
Triassic
?
Milliseconds
TPal BTT Salt BUJ TCen Salt
Triassic and Jurassic Paleozoic and Mesozoic Paleozoic, undifferentiated Basement and Paleozoic
4000
TT r
IP
? ?
BK
Crystalline basement Eocene lavas

NPD Bulletin No 8
1 : 250.000
6000
8000 3570 <shotnumber> 3500 3250 3000 2750 2500 2250 2000 MB-04-84 1750 1500 1250 1000 750 565 1099 1000 750 500 ST-8707-483 250 1
25
4.2 Geological description

Upper Permian to Upper Triassic
On the Rdy High, along the western margin of the Nordland Ridge, well 6609/7-1 drilled 34m of Upper Permian dolomitic limestone with thin sandstone layers overlying metamorphic quartzites. The Permian rocks have not been given formal group or formation status, but are often correlated with the Permian in East Greenland. The Triassic rocks are given informal Group names: Grey Beds and Red Beds. So far, no complete Triassic section has been drilled, but combined thicknesses of more than 2700m
Permian-Triassic
of both Grey Beds and Red beds have been drilled (well 6507/6-1). The Red Beds form the lowest part of the drilled Triassic sequences and represent continental clastics deposited in an arid climate. The maximum thickness of Red Beds is in the order of 2600m (well 6507/6-1, 2615m) and has been drilled on the southern extension of the Nordland Ridge. The Grey Beds are interpreted to represent continental clastics deposited in a more humid climate than the Red Beds. Maximum thickness of the Grey Beds is in the order of 2500m (well 6610/7-2, 2489m). The upper boundary of the Grey Beds is towards the Upper Triassic and Lower Jurassic (Rhaetian to Toarcian) coal-bearing sediments of the Bt Gp (the re Fm). The Triassic also contains two evaporite sequences of Upper/Middle Triassic age (LadinianCarnian). Shallow boreholes (6611/09-U-1 & 2) along the Norwegian coast (66oN) have drilled a combined thickness of 750m of Upper Permian and Lower Triassic sediments, including a possible source rock.
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
Well log 6407/10-3
6507/12-1 Redbeds, 3710.7 - 3708.9 m
670'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
640'0"N
Depth to the base re Fm

740 m 3600 m
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
26

Uppermost Triassic and Lower Jurassic (Rhaetian to Toarcian)
The Bt Group is dominated by sediments de posit ed in deltaic to shallow marine environments overlying Triassic Grey and Red Beds (informal). This group is subdivided into four formations, the re, Tilje, Ror and Tofte Formations. The type well (6507/12-1) is located in the transition zone between the Halten Terrace and the Trndelag Platform. The lower boundary of the group is defined below the first appearance of coal above the Triassic Grey Beds. The upper boundary is defined at the base of a generally coarsening upwards sequence of the Ile Fm in the Fangst Gp. Marine influence increases
The Bt Group
towards the top of the succession and also to the north and west. The Bt group is present in most of the wells drilled on Haltenbanken and Trnabanken with a maximum thickness up to 1000m (707m in the type well) in the eastern part of the Halten Terrace. Due to erosion, the upper part of the succession is progressively truncated towards the crestal parts of the Nordland Ridge. Shallow boreholes off the Trndelag and Nordland coast indicate that mid Jurassic sediments onlap the metamorphic basement.
The burial depth of the Bt Gp. varies from 1000-2500m on the Trndelag Platform and marginal areas of the Helgeland Basin. West of the Nordland Ridge the burial depth increases to more than 4000m. Porosities and permeabilities in the order of 25-35% and 100 mD to several darcys, have been reported. However, rocks on the eastern part of the Trndelag Platform have probably been buried deeper than the present depths indicate, due to Neogene erosion.
40'0"E
50'0"E
60'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
130'0"E
140'0"E
Well log 6507/12-1
670'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
640'0"N
630'0"N
Depth to the BCU

400 m 3580 m
620'0"N
Bt Gp
27

The re Formation (Rhaetian to Pliensbachian) represents delta plain deposits (swamps and channels) at the base with up to 8m thick individual coal seams. Generally, where the coal bearing sequences are thinner, the sandstones are coarser grained. The re Fm is present in most wells drilled in the Haltenbanken and Trnabanken region, locally missing over the crest of the Nordland Ridge due to erosion. The thickness in the type well (6507/12-1) is 508m and in the reference well (6047/1-2), the thickness is 328m. Generally the thickness of the re Fm varies between 300 to 500m, with
The Bt Group
a maximum thickness of 780m in the eastern part of the Halten Terrace (Heidrun area). The well coverage over the central and eastern Trndelag Platform is limited. But well 6510/2-1R, located on the Vega High and Ylvingen Fault Zone, drilled 291m of re Fm. Wells along the western margin of the Trndelag Platform down to the Draugen field show thicknesses of the re Fm between 250-300m. In the Froan and Helgeland Basins area the re Fm varies in thickness between 300-500m from south to north.
Well log 6507/12-1

70'0"E 670'0"N
670'0"N
6507/12-1 re 2707.0 - 2709.7 m
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
660'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
650'0"N
640'0"N
640'0"N
Thickness of the re Fm
< 100 m 100 - 200 m 201 - 300 m 301 - 400 m > 400 m
Depth to the re Fm
1130 m 3330 m
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
28

The Tilje Formation (Sinemurian to Pliensbachian) is defined at the top of a mudstone interval and consists of more sandy sediments deposited in near shore to intertidal environments with increased thickness of individual sandbodies. The mudstone interval is most pronounced on the Halten Terrace, but is difficult to pick further east on the Trndelag Platform. Here coal beds are developed at a higher stratigraphic level than on the Halten Terrace. The formation is present
The Bt Group
in most wells in the Haltenbanken and Trnabanken region, locally absent on the Nordland Ridge. In the type well (6507/11-1), the thickness of the Tilje Fm is 98m and on the Halten Terrace thicknesses in the order of 100-150m are reported. Shallow boreholes close to the coast indicate time equivalent deposits dominated by coarser clastics. The same thicknesses are observed in the Trndelag Platform area.
70'0"E 670'0"N
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
Well log 6507/11-1
6507/11-1 tilje 2527.7 - 2543.0 m
670'0"N
660'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
650'0"N
640'0"N
Depth to the Tilje Fm

960 m 3260 m
640'0"N
Thickness of the Tilje Fm

< 50 m 50 - 100 m 101 - 150 m > 150 m
29

The Ror Formation (Pliensbachian to Toarcian) is defined by the abrupt transition from the sand stones in the Tilje Fm into mudstones, indicating an erosive base. The Ror Fm is present in all wells drilled on Haltenbanken, generally thinning towards the northeast. To the west, it interfingers with the sand stones of the Tofte Fm, and the oldest part of the Ror Fm is often absent. The Tofte Fm represents an eastward prograding fan delta, reflecting a source area in the west. In the study area, the Tofte Formation does not occur, although local sandy beds have been
The Bt Group
encountered in the wells. The Ror Fm does not occur over large areas on the Nordland Ridge due to erosion/ non-deposition. On a regional scale, the mudstones of the Ror Fm might represent a seal, particularly towards the east. In the type well (6407/2-1), the thickness of the Ror Fm is 104m and thicknesses in the order of 70 to 170m have been recorded in wells on the Halten Terrace. On the Trndelag Platform thicknesses between 100-200m are observed.
70'0"E 670'0"N
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
Well log 6610/7-1
6610/7-1 ROR 2707.0 - 2713.0 m
670'0"N
660'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
650'0"N
640'0"N
640'0"N
Thickness of the Ror Fm
Depth to the Ror Fm

950 m 3000 m
< 50 m 50 - 100 m 101 - 150 m 151 - 200 m > 200 m
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
30

Lower to Middle Jurassic (Upper Toarcian to Bathonian)
The Fangst Group is dominated by sediments deposited in shallow marine to coastal/deltaic environments overlying the Bt Group. It is divided into three formations, the Ile, Not and Garn Formations. The formation is present over most of the Haltenbanken and Trnabanken area, except for the crestal parts of the Nordland Ridge, where it is eroded. The main development of the Fangst Gp is on the Halten Terrace. Along the southern margin of the Nordland Ridge, the succession is much thinner. On Trnabanken,
The Fangst Group

there is a lateral facies change to marine mudstones of the Viking Gp and only the lowest part of the Fangst Gp (the Ile Fm) is recognised. Time equivalent sandstone dominated sequences subcrop on the seafloor along the eastern margin of the Trndelag Platform. Outliers of Middle Jurassic sediments are present east of the Froan islands and in Beitstadfjorden area in Trndelag. Increased continental influence is inferred towards the Trndelag Platform to the east, but the well control is limited. In the type well (6507/11-3), the thickness of the Fangst Gp is 124m and typically varies between 100 to 250m.
50'0"E
60'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
130'0"E
Well log 6507/11-3
ILE
6507/11-5s 2569 - 2574 m
670'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
640'0"N
Fro
ha
t ve
it Be
sta
df j
ord
en
# #
Depth to the BCU

#
400 m 3580 m Fangst Gp
630'0"N
31

The Ile Formation (Upper Toarcian to Aalenian) is defined at the base of a generally upwards coarsening sequence from siltstone to sandstone, often associated with more carbonate beds. The sediments of the Ile Fm are deposited in tidal or shoreline environments. The upper boundary is defined by the mudstones of the Not Fm. The Ile Fm is present over most of Haltenbanken, with a general thickening to the west and marked thinning to the northeast. The thickness in the type well (6507/11-3) is
The Fangst Group

64.5m and 72m in the reference well (6407/1-3). The thickness of the Ile Fm varies between 50 to 100m over most of the Haltenbanken-Trnabanken area. Sandstone dominated successions of similar age have been reported from shallow boreholes and sea bottom sampling in the eastern part of the Trndelag Platform. However the succession is thinner ranging from 30-60m. The formation is shale dominated in the Vega High and Helgeland Basin.
Well log 6507/12-1

70'0"E 670'0"N 80'0"E 90'0"E 100'0"E 110'0"E 120'0"E
6508/5-1 ILE 1791 - 1795 m
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
670'0"N
660'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
650'0"N
640'0"N
Depth to the Ile Fm

940 m 2880 m
640'0"N
Thickness of the Ile Fm

< 50 m 50 - 100 m > 100 m
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
32

The Not Formation (Aalenian to Bajocian) is developed as a mudstone dominated sequence coarsening upwards into bio turbated fine-grained sandstones deposited in lagoons or sheltered bays. The Not Fm is recognised over the entire Haltenbanken area, except on the eroded highs. The thickest development (<50m) of the Not Fm is on the southwestern
The Fangst Group
part of the Halten Terrace and the unit thins towards the east. On the Trndelag Platform it has a consistent thickness of approximately 40m. The mudstones of the Not Fm could act as seal. In the type well (6507/1-3) the thickness is 14.5m and 37m in the reference well (6407/1-3).
Well log 6407/1-3

70'0"E 670'0"N 80'0"E 90'0"E 100'0"E 110'0"E 120'0"E
6507/11-3 NOT 2467 - 2472 m
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
670'0"N
660'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
650'0"N
640'0"N
Depth to the Not Fm

900 m 2800 m
640'0"N
Thickness of the Not Fm

< 50 m 50 - 100 m > 100 m
33

The Garn Formation (Bajocian to Bathonian) is interpreted in terms of deposition and progradation of braided delta lobes over the mud dominated Not Fm. The Garn Fm is present over the central part of the Halten and Dnna Terrace and the Trndelag Platform, except over structural highs (Nordland Ridge) where the entire formation may be eroded. In the Ylvingen Fault Zone (well 6510/2-1R), the Garn Fm contains more silt, and further north, siltstones and mudstones are the lateral equivalents of the sandstones in Garn Fm. It must be noted that the well control on the eastern part of the Trndelag Platform and in the deeper areas to the west is limited.
The Fangst Group

Depositionally, the sandstones of the Garn Fm are interpreted in terms of a wave-dominated shoreface system with marine mud-dominated sediments deposited towards the south and north. The thickness in the type well (6407/1-3) is 104m, and the formation may reach more than 100m on the Halten Terrace. The thickness of the Garn Fm is about 150m on the Trndelag Platform. In the Froan Basin the formation is sand dominated compared to the northern part, where it becomes more shale dominated .
Well log 6510/2-1R

70'0"E 670'0"N
670'0"N
6407/1-3 Garn 3671.0 - 3675.0 m
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
660'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
650'0"N
Thickness of the Garn Fm

640'0"N
640'0"N
< 50 m 50 - 100 m
Depth to the Garn Fm

500 m 2670 m
101 - 150 m 150 - 200 m > 200 m
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
34

Middle Jurassic to Upper Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous (Bajocian to Berriasian)
The Viking Group is defined in the northern North Sea and on Haltenbanken and Trnabanken. It is divided into three formations, the Melke, Rogn and Spekk Fms. The group is present over most of the Trndelag Platform area, but thins toward the Nordland Ridge where it is locally absent. The dominant lithology of the Viking Gp is mudstones and siltstones, with the exception of locally developed sands (Rogn Fm) in the Draugen field area and on the Frya High. Sediments correlated with the Viking Gp have been found by shallow drilling and seafloor sampling in the
The Viking Group

eastern part of the Trndelag Platform. The thickness of the Viking Gp in the type well (6506/12-4) is 124.5m and 61m in the reference well (6407/9-1). Thicknesses up to 1000m are indicated on seismic data in down-faulted basins, and well 6507/7-1 on the Dnna Terrace drilled 658m sediments of the Viking Gp. The Melke Formation (Bajocian to Oxfordian) is deposited in an open marine environment over most of Haltenbanken, but contains local sands in parts of the Dnna Terrace, the Revfallet Fault Complex and over the southern part of the Rdy High. In the type well (6506/12-4), the thickness is 116.5m, but thicknesses in the order of 550m have been drilled in the area west of the Nordland Ridge. The Rogn Formation (Oxfordian to Kimmeridgian) sandstones occur within mud stones of the Spekk Fm in the Draugen field, the western part of the Froan Basin. A similar development is found on the Frya High (well 6306/6-1). The sandstones of the Rogn Fm are interpreted as shallow marine bar deposits. In the type well (6407/9-1), the thickness of the Rogn Fm is 49m and in reference well 6306/6-1 the thickness is 93m. The burial depth of the sandstones of the Rogn Fm is around 1600-1700m in the Draugen field and porosities and permeabilities in the order of 30% and up to 6 darcy, respectively, have been reported. The Spekk Formation (OxfordianBerriasian) overlies the Melke Fm. The Spekk Fm was probably deposited over most of the Haltenbanken and Trnabanken area, but may be absent over structural highs such as the Nordland Ridge. The mudstones were deposited in marine anoxic water conditions resulting in high organic content comparable with the time equivalent Draupne Fm in the northern North Sea, thus forming a major hydrocarbon source rock. In the type well (6407/2-1), the thickness of the Spekk Fm is 65.5m, but thicker sections may be present in structural lows as on the Dnna Terrace. Black mudstones of similar age, also with high organic content, have been found in shallow boreholes off the coast of Trndelag. The Viking Gp varies from 100-200m in the Trndelag Platform area. 6306/10-1 melke 2747.0 - 2752.0 m
50'0"E
60'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
130'0"E
Well log 6407/9-1
WELL LOG 6506/12-4
6407/9-1 Rogn 1651.0 - 1656.8 m
670'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
640'0"N
Depth to the BCU

400 m
630'0"N
3580 m Rogn Fm
35

Upper Cretaceous (Turonian to Maastrichtian) The Cretaceous sediments in the Norwegain Sea are dominated by mudstones and silt stones, which form good seals. In the Halten and Dnna Terrace, certain intervals including the Lower Cretaceous Lange Formation and the Turonian-Coniacian Lysing Formation, contain locally developed sandstone units. In the northern part of the Vring Basin, north of 67N, the Nise Formation contains a thick succession of sandstones deposited as mass flows in a deep marine environment. The Santonian - Campanian sandstones of the Nise Formation were sourced from Greenland and shale out towards the south and east. Some methane gas discoveries have been made in the Nise sandstones. Although the Nise sandstones have quite good reservoir properties and large volume, their CO2 stor age potential was not evaluated, partly because of their remote location, partly because they are located in a petroleum province. Within the Lange Fm there are several local sandstone bodies which could act as thief sands. They are buried too deeply and have too small volumes to have any CO2 storage potential. Maastrichtian sandstones within the Springar Formation occur locally in the deep water areas. Their volumes and reservoir properties do not make them attractive for CO2 storage. The Lysing Formation (Upper Cenomanian to Turonian/Coniacian) The Lysing Fm forms the upper part of the Cromer Knoll Group, which consists of the Lyr, Lange and Lysing Fms. In the type well (6507/7-1), on the Halten Terrace west of the Nordland Ridge, the thickness of the Lysing Fm is 74m. In the Dnna Terrace area, sand stones within the Lysing Formation form a reservoir section with a thickness up to about 70 m. The Lysing Fm sandstones in the Dnna Terrace were probably deposited as
Cretaceous
submarine fans in a deep marine environment. Their source area is believed to be the Nordland Ridge and the highs further north. A few methane gas discoveries have been made in the Lysing Fm sands west of the Skarv Field. Although the Lysing Fm sands have a significant aquifer volume, it was decided to exclude it from a further evaluation of its storage potential. The main reason is that the aquifer is overpressured in the main
depositional area in the Dnna Terrace, leaving a small pressure window for CO2 injection before the fracture gradient is reached. Also, it is located in a zone of petroleum exploration and future production where conflicts of interest with CO2 injection projects could occur.
30'0"E
40'0"E
50'0"E
60'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
130'0"E
140'0"E
Well log 6507/7-1
6506/12-4 Lysing 3134.0 - 3139.0 m
680'0"N
670'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
640'0"N
630'0"N
Depth to the BCU

400 m 3580 m Lysing sand
Outline of the Lysing formations and Base Cretaceous depth map.
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
36

Paleogene (Danian) The Late Cretaceous deposits in the Norwegian Sea were dominated by fine grained sediments and the source areas for sands were located to the north and west. In the Paleocene, the transport of sediments from Greenland to the Vring Basin continued, but there was also significant sediment supply from Scandinavia to the Trndelag Platform and Mre Basin. The main reservoir sand from the Paleocene-Eocene period is the Danian Egga sandstone.
Paleocene
sub-basin. The reservoir quality and thickness vary considerably depend ing on where the well was located in the different submarine fan systems. The Ormen Lange fan is possibly the largest submarine fan within the Egga sand, and a thickness map of this fan is shown in the figure along with the approximate outline of the sand system. The shallow eastern part of the Mre Basin has a monoclinal structure where all sedimentary beds dip from the coast into the basin. Any structural closures are likely to be small. Consequently, an injection site for large volumes of CO2 would probably need to have a stratigraphic component to the structure. Possibly the Egga sand aquifer could be used for injection of small volumes of CO2 which could be residually trapped before they migrate to the sea floor. Such a case has been modeled for a Jurassic aquifer in the Froan Basin in section 5. This case has not been evaluated for the Mre Basin.
The Egga sandstone (Danian) This Danian sandstone forms the main reservoir of the giant Ormen Lange gas field. At present, there is no type well or reference well defined. The sandstone has so far no formal stratigraphic formation name but has been referred to informally as the Egga Formation in the NPD website. It is defined in the Ormen Lange field as a deep marine mass flow sandstone unit within the Rogaland Gp. In the field, a maximum thickness of 80m was found in well 6305/7-1. The Egga Fm sandstones are found in several exploration wells in the Mre Basin and Slrebotn
Well log 6306/10-1

20'0"E 30'0"E 40'0"E 50'0"E 60'0"E 70'0"E 80'0"E 90'0"E 100'0"E 110'0"E 120'0"E
6306/10-1 Egga 1164.0 - 1169.0 m
670'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
Namsos
640'0"N
Stjrdal Trondheim #
#
630'0"N
Kristiansund
Depth to the BCU

#
Molde
400 m 3580 m
lesund
620'0"N
#
Thickness of the Ormen Lange submarine fan

Mly
< 50 m 50 - 100 m
Flor
> 100 m Egga sand
Base Cretaceous map and outline of the Egga Formation. Distribution and thickness of the Ormen Lange submarine fan.
37
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
38
5.
Storage options
39
5.
Storage options
5.1 Introduction
An aquifer is a body of porous and permeable sedimentary rocks where the water in the pore space is in communication throughout. Aquifers may consist of several sedimentary formations and cover large areas. They may be somewhat segmented by faults and by low permeable layers acting as baffles to fluid flow. Maps, profiles and pore pressure data have been utilized in order to define the main aquifers. All the identified aquifers in the area of this atlas are saline, most with salinities in the order of seawater or higher. The aquifers which have been evaluated for CO2 storage are located at a depth between 600 and 3500 m and have a sufficiently high permeability, porosity and connectivity to enable injection and storage of CO2. In the Norwegian Sea, these general conditions are met in the Trndelag Platform including the Nordland Ridge, and in the Mre Basin. Potential CO2 storage in the shelf slope and deep sea provinces of the of Norwegian Sea has not been evaluated (Cretaceous formations, see section 4). The aquifers in the Trndelag Platform have been studied by compilation of published maps, new seismic mapping, well studies and well correlation. The Draugen area and the Nordland Ridge have a good data coverage with 3D seismic and several wells, while the remaining area has 2D seismic data and a few exploration wells. As described in section 4, the Jurassic succession in the Norwegian Sea shelf is thick and contains several aquifers with storage potential for CO2. The Halten and Dnna terraces are important petroleum provinces. The hydrocarbons in these provinces are believed to be
Garn Fm (south) re Fm Garn Fm Ile Fm Rogn Fm Lysing Fm Egga Fm
generated from Jurassic source rocks, mainly the Spekk and re Formations. In the Trndelag Platform, the Jurassic source rocks have not been buried deep enough to reach the oil and gas maturation window, and the hydrocarbons occurring here have migrated from the deeper basins and terraces. The approximate limit for hydrocarbon generation and migration is indicated by the red line. Some oil and gas may have been generated in the deepest part of the Helgeland Basin although until now there has been no exploration success in this area. In the petroleum provinces (west of the red line), it is considered that exploration and production activities will continue for many years to come. The most realistic sites for CO2 storage in the petroleum province will be some of the abandoned fields. Consequently, an indication of the storage
capacity of the fields has been given, but no aquifer volumes have been calculated in this area. Some of the oil fields are considered to have a potential for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) by use of CO2 (section 5.3). Some of the CO2 used for EOR will remain trapped. In the eastern area, all the large aquifers have been selected based on the established criteria (Section 3.3) and storage capacity is estimated by the method described in Section 3.4.
Age
6 9 11 13 15 17 19 22 24 26 28 30 33 35 37 39 42 44 46 48 50 53 55 57 59 62 64 66 68 70 73 75 77 79 82 84 86 88 91 93 95 97 99 102 105 108 112 115 118 122 125 128 132 135 138 142 145 148 152 155 158 162 165 168 172 175 178 182 185 188 192 195 198 202 205
Formations & Groups

Piacenzian Zanclean Messinian Tortonian Serravallian Langhian Burdigalian Aquitanian Chattian Rupelian Priabonian Bartonian
Evaluated Aquifers
Neogene Paleogene
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Lutetian Ypresian Thanetian Selandian Danian Maastrichtian
Formation Formation Formation Aquifer

Fo rm Fo ati Fo rm ati rm ati
Paleocene
Egga Fm.
Egga Fm.
Formation
Group
Campanian
Late
Cretaceous
on
on
on
Santonian Coniacian Turonian Cenomanian
Lysing Fm.
Lange Fm.
Albian
Permeable formations
Aptian
Lange Fm.
Early
Barremian Hauterivian Valanginian Berriasian Tithonian
Lange Fm.
Late
Kimmeridgian Oxfordian Callovian
Rogn Fm.
Rogn Fm.
Jurassic
Middle
Bathonian Bajocian Aalenian Toarcian Pliensbachian
Garn Fm.
Fangst Gp.
Ile Fm.
*Garn Fm. *Ile Fm.
Early
Tilje Fm.
Sinemurian Hettangian Rhaetian
*Tilje Fm. *re Fm.
re Fm.
Triassic
Tilje Fm
208 212 215 218 222 225 228 232
Norian
Late
Carnian
Middle
Ladinian
Conceptual sketch showing location of aquifers relative to depositional systems
* Evaluated prospects
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
40
5.
Storage options
5.2 Saline aquifers

2E 4E 6E 8E 10E 12E 14E
Jennegga High Utrst Ridge
Froan and Helgeland Basins The evaluated Jurassic aquifers are located at the Trndelag Platform, east of the Cretaceous basins which have a green colour in the structural element map. The aquifers are bounded by the subcrop to the Quaternary along the coast to the east, by the Nordland Ridge to the NW and north, and the Frya High to the SW. The shallow Jurassic aquifers are separated from the Gimsan Basin by large faults and steep slopes. The pore pressure regimes in the Halten Terrace show a general trend from high overpressure to hydrostatic pressure from the west towards the Trndelag Platform in the east. This indicates that in geological time there has been pressure equilibration across the faulted boundary. In the Helgeland and Froan Basins, all pore pressures are hydrostatic. The re and Tilje Formations are treated as one aquifer at a regional scale due to the lack of regional sealing shales in the stratigraphy. Both these formations are heterogeneous, with coal beds and shale beds separating channelized sandstones. Internal baffles and barriers at a km scale should be expected, both within the re Formation and possibly between re and Tilje. Consequently, there is a risk that there can be significant internal barriers within the aquifer and that the communicating volumes can be less than predicted. In the case of low connectivity, a higher number of injection wells than anticipated would be necessary to realize the desired injection volume of CO2. The Ror Formation is assumed to form a regional seal between the Tilje and Ile formations. The formation often forms a pressure barrier in the fields in the Halten terrace and tight shales have been proved in the Ror Fm in wells drilled in the Trndelag Platform. Laterally, the seal could be broken by large faults. The Not Formation is developed as a shale in the Trndelag Platform, and the seismic data indicate that it is regionally distributed. Consequently, it could be expected that the Not Formation will act as a barrier between the Ile and Garn Formations. In the modeling, however, Ile and Garn Fm have been grouped as one aquifer. This simplification was made because of the small volume of the Ile Fm and existence of faults which could offset the Not Formation and juxtapose Ile with Garn.
! !
Co mp le
ult
Dnna Terrace Helgeland Basin

ne Zo x
!
Fa
Fa
Ytr eh
Sr High Vega High ing

!
olm en
ult
fall
Ellingrsa Graben Halten TerraceTrndelag Platform Mre Marginal High Slettringen Ridge Grinda Graben Sklinna Ridge Gimsan Basin Froan Basin
64N
!
Re v
Grip High
64N
Mre Basin Vigra High
Rs Basin
Legend
Frya High
!
! !
!
Ona High Gossa High ault C gF ela Giske High nd r

! !!
om
ple
x
! ! !
! ! !
30'0"E
40'0"E
50'0"E
60'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
130'0"E
140'0"E
Gnausen High Slrebotn Sub-basin

62N
re
680'0"N
Tampen Spur Selje Horst

Mara Fault Zone
Mly Slope Marebakk Fault Zone Sogn Graben

4E 6E 8E
Structural element map. The green area represents basins with thick Cretaceous infill, where Jurassic sediments are generally deeply buried.
10E 12E
670'0"N
30'0"E
40'0"E
50'0"E
60'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
680'0"N
660'0"N
SKULD URD NORNE MARULK SKARV

670'0"N
HEIDRUN MORVIN SGARD KRISTIN TYRIHANS MIKKEL YTTERGRYTA

660'0"N
650'0"N
NJORD
640'0"N
DRAUGEN
650'0"N
ORMEN LANGE
Approximate limit for significant hydrocarbon migration Garn aquifer
640'0"N
630'0"N
Ile aquifer Tilje/re aquifer Oil Gas Oil w/gas Gas/Condensate

630'0"N
Distribution of aquifers in the Trndelag Platform. Red line shows the approximate limit for hydrocarbon migration
30'0"E
40'0"E
50'0"E
60'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
Hydrocarbon accumulations and pore pressure regimes in the Jurassic aquifers
!!
66N
! !
The Ile and Garn Formations have very good reservoir properties at the shallow depths encountered in the Trndelag Platform. The porosity and permeability used in the geomodel are based on the well log data and a few core measurements. The Garn Formation in the Froan Basin is dominated by shallow marine sediments where much better connectivity can be expected than in the tidal dominated Ile and Tilje Formations. The Ile and Garn formations shale out towards the Helgeland Basin. The Rogn Formation in the Draugen area has very good reservoir properties. It is separated from the Garn Formation by Spekk Formation shales of variable thickness. It is likely that there will be communication between the Rogn and Garn reservoirs. The Spekk, Melke and Cretaceous shales above the Garn Formation constitute an excellent top seal for the Jurassic aquifers.
Lofoten Basin
68N
Havben Sub-basin
68N
Vring Marginal High Hel Graben
Lofoten Ridge Ribban Basin Marmle Spur Rst High Kvalnesdjup Graben Ribban Basin Vestfjorden Basin Nyk High Ngrind Syncline
Fenris Graben Utgard HighTrna Basin Grny High Gjallar Ridge Nordland Ridge Vigrid Syncline Rdy High
Ytr eh olm en Fa ult Zo ne
!
!
66N
!!
u Fa
lt Z
on
! !
Ylv
! !
Boundary of Tertiary lavas ("Inner flows") Faults Oceanic magnetic anomaly Other Geological Boundaries Subcrop of base Cretaceous below Quarternary Subcrop of top Basement below Quarternary Structural elements Cretaceous High Deep Cretaceous Basin Marginal Volcanic High Palaeozoic High in Platform Platform Pre-Jurassic Basin in Platform Shallow Cretaceous Basin in Platform NPD1073 Terraces and Intra-Basinal Elevations Volcanics
62N
! !
!
!
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
130'0"E
140'0"E
670'0"N
660'0"N
650'0"N
640'0"N
Approximate limit for hydrocarbon migration Oil Gas Oil w/gas Gas/Condensate Weak overpressure Highly overpressured
630'0"N
620'0"N 90'0"E 100'0"E 110'0"E
41
5.
Storage options
5.2 Saline aquifers

Compartmentalization The northern part of the Trndelag Platform and the Sr High of the Nordland Ridge are characterized by large graben features such as the Ylvingen Fault Zone and Ellingrsa Graben. These grabens were probably formed by extension and collapse in the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous. Their size and depth suggest that they could be barriers to fluid flow in the Jurassic aquifers. In the geomodel, the Ellingrsa graben is treated as the western boundary of the Jurassic aquifers in the Trndelag Platform. The Ylvingen Fault zone could possibly seal off the northern from the southern part of the re-Tilje aquifer. Towards the north, in the Grny High, the aquifers are truncated by erosion. In the modeling of CO2 injection, the lateral boundaries towards fault structures in the south, west and north are assumed to be closed. Towards the east, aquifers in the Froan Basin terminate at the base of Quaternary sediments below the sea floor. The sealing capacity of the Quaternary sediments along the eastern subcrop is probably low. As shown in the map, the topograpNW
hy of the sea floor is rugged, with basins and ridges carved out by glacial erosion. Comparison with seismic data indicates that the Quaternary cover can be several tens of meters thick in the basins, but much thinner in the slopes. The shallow well 6408/12-U-1 in the Froan Basin has only 6 m Quaternary cover. Most likely, there will be pressure communication between the Jurassic aquifers and the sea water along the subcrop line.
SE
ms 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000
Quater
nary
Struc ture B
ene Paleog ous C re ta ce Spek k Fm Melke Fm p Fangst G Tilje Fm re Fm
10 km
NW
ms 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 Spekk Fm Melke Fm Fangst Gp Tilje Fm re Fm Cretaceous Paleogene Quaternary
VEGA HIGH
6510/2-1
SE
Structure A
10 km
Bathymetry map with outlines of the main study area and subcrop lines of Base Cretaceous and the basement. Bathymetry from the Geological Survey of Norway (NGU). Storegga slide to the SW.
NW SE profiles across the SE flank of the Helgeland Basin. The closed structures A and B are indicated. The location is shown in p. 44.
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
42
5.
Storage options
5.2 Saline aquifers

The Nordland Ridge aquifer The Nordland Ridge has three large culminations, the Sr High, the Rdy High and the Grny High. These highs are separated from the petroleum bearing terraces and basins to the west by large faults. The Sr High is located close to many producing fields, discoveries and prospects. Because some of the gas discoveries, like 6506/6-1 Victoria, have a high CO2 content, it is of interest to identify possible storage sites close to these discoveries where there could be an option to inject excess CO2 from future production. The Sr High is a structural closure with a culmi nation at 1000 m below sea level and an area exceeding 500 km2. It is covered by 3D seismic data and 4 wells have been drilled. The stratigraphy in the wells is interpreted in the NPD website as a few meters of Fangst Group overlying the re Formation. The seismic data show that there is an angular uncon formity between the re Formation and the thinned Fangst Group. Small amounts of dry methane gas, possibly biogenic, have been encountered. There were no shows indicating heavier hydrocarbons. Due to tilting and block faulting below the unconformity, the re Formation has a variable thickness, commonly more than 200 m. The sandstones in the re Formation have similar properties as in the Froan Basin. Triassic grey beds may contribute to the volume of the aquifer. The re aquifer will probably have several local internal baffles and barriers. The top seal will be the overlying Quaternary sediments belonging to the Naust Formation, which has a minimum thickness of about 650 m. The sediments in the Naust Formation are unfaulted and consist of silt and clay. The geological setting of this top seal is analogous to the Utsira Formation in the Sleipner area. The small accumulations of methane gas in the Sr High show that the Naust Formation has a sealing capacity. Further maturation of the Sr High as an injection site for CO2 would require a better quantification of the Naust sealing capacity. Mre Margin The Mre margin south of the Frya High is separated from the Froan Basin by the Jan Mayen Fracture zone lineament. Its Mesozoic and Cenozoic geology is very different from the Trndelag Platform. Along the Mre margin, a thin Jurassic and thick Cretaceous section dip towards the deep Mre Basin. In this setting of regionally dipping strata, only a few closed structures of small sizes exist. The Jurassic reservoir sands tend to be thin, and no Cretaceous reservoir of interest has so far been proved by drilling. A few exploration wells drilled in the area have proved that gas has migrated into closed structures close to the coast. A possible storage option in the Mre Margin is thought to be the Paleocene submarine fans of the Egga sandstone which constitute the reservoir of the Ormen Lange Field. This sand was derived from the Mre Paleogene highlands and has not been encountered in the Froan and Helgeland Basins. A limited Jurassic storage potential could exist in a narrow zone close to the coast. Both the Egga and the Jurassic aquifers subcrop towards a thin Quaternary section below the sea floor. CO2 migration to the subcrop area and leakage to the sea is the most obvious risk for these aquifers. No closed structures suitable for CO2 injection have been identified in the Mre Margin. Ellingrsa Graben The dry exploration well 6507/12-1 was drilled near the culmination of a large closed structure in the southern part of the Ellingrsa Graben. The well penetrated the re-Tilje, Ile and Garn aquifers between 2100 and 2900 m depth below sea level. The structure is within the area of possible hydrocarbon migration. Since this well was dry and no shows were reported, it is very unlikely that hydrocarbons can have migrated further into the Ellingrsa Graben. The 6507/12-1 structure has been evaluated as a possible target for CO2 injection. The storage efficiency depends on the communication with the aquifers in the Halten Terrace and the producing Midgard gas field to the west. The calculation of the storage volume within the structure is based on a closure of 200 m and storage in all aquifers with a storage efficiency of 10 %. Maturation of this prospect should include an evaluation of the communication with the Halten Terrace, Nordland Ridge and Trndelag Platform. The 3D seismic data show that the Jurassic aquifers are strongly faulted, with the risk that the reservoir could be divided in many compartments. The faults do not appear to offset the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous sealing shales.
10'0"E 20'0"E 30'0"E 40'0"E 50'0"E 60'0"E 70'0"E 80'0"E 90'0"E 100'0"E 110'0"E 120'0"E 130'0"E
680'0"N
670'0"N
! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! !
! ! !
Nordland Ridge
! !
! ! ! !
! ! ! !
660'0"N
! ! !
!!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! !!
Ellingrsa Graben
! !
! ! ! !
! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !
650'0"N
! ! ! !
! !
! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! !
! !
640'0"N
! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! !
630'0"N
! ! !
Mre Margin
! ! ! !!
Depth to the BCU

400 m 3580 m Egga sand Lysing sand
620'0"N
! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! !
! !
! ! !
!! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! !
! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Garn aquifer Ile aquifer Tilje/re aquifer
! ! !
610'0"N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! !
43
5.
Storage options
5.2 Saline aquifers

Modeling of CO2 injection and migration in the Froan Basin The aquifers in the southeastern part of the Norwegian Sea typically have a consistent dip of 1-2 degrees from the Norwegian coast to the basinal areas. In the case of permeable beds occurring along the dip slope there is a risk that CO2 injected downdip can migrate up to where the aquifer is truncated by Quaternary glacial sediments. At that depth, the CO2 will be in gas phase. The glacial sediments mainly consist of clay and tills, and their thickness ranges from about 10 m and up to more than 200 m. Understanding the timing and extent of long distance CO2 migration is of importance for the evaluation of the storage capacity of outcropping
Froan Basin long distance CO2 migration

aquifers. Consequently, a modeling study has been conducted on possible aquifers in the Froan Basin. The Froan Basin is a sub-element of the Trndelag Platform. It is bound by the Frya High in the south, the Gimsan Basin and the Halten Terrace in the west, outcropping basement in the east and the Trndelag Platform in the north. The Froan Basin was formed by Permian/early Triassic block faulting .The pre-Jurassic rocks of the Trndelag Platform were deposited in NE-SW trending en echelon basins. In the early and middle Jurassic, the platform area subsided as one large basin and the rate of sedimentation was in equilibrium with the rate of subsidence. Consequently, there is a relatively uniform thickness of Jurassic sediments overlying the Triassic and locally Paleozoic graben fill. Reservoirs which could possibly be used for CO2 injection are the Triassic and Jurassic sandstones. The main seal rocks are the middle - upper Jurassic Melke and Spekk shales as well as the overlying fine grained Cretaceous section. The main risk of leakage is the migration of CO2 against the Quaternary layer. Based on simulation results (upscaling of sector model) about 400 mill tons CO2 can be stored in the Garn and Ile aquifer (8 mill tons/year over 50 years). This will require 4 injection wells (2 mill tons/year per well) and yield acceptable pressure increase (<20bar). After 10000 years most of the gas will have gone into solution with the formation water or is residually trapped.
NW
ms -500
FROAN BASIN
SE
40'0"E
50'0"E
60'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
Quater
nar y
670'0"N
-1000
P a le o g
ene Cretac e o us s elke Fm an d M Spek k n Fm Gar t Fm No Ile Fm F r Ro m Tilje Fm
-1500
660'0"N
St ru
St ru ct ur
c tu
re
A
Brnnysund
#
-2000
eB
-2500
re Fm
650'0"N
Triassic
-3000
B as e m
-3500
e nt
5 km
640'0"N
Fro a
Namsos
nB
asin
NW-SE profile showing the geometry of aquifers (yellow) and sealing formations (green) in the simulation model.
Depth to the BCU

#
400 m#Stjrdal Trondheim 3580 m
Kristiansund
630'0"N
profile
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
44
5.
Storage options
5.2 Saline aquifers
Froan Basin long distance CO2 migration
Simulation sector model, depths
Permeability distribution, top Garn
Permeability distribution, west-east cross-section
CO2 plume top Garn vs. time. The size of the model is 16 x 35 km. A simulation sector model of the Garn/Not/Ile Formations was built covering about 10% of the total expected communicating aquifer volume. Top structure (Garn) depth is about 1800m in the western area and becomes shallow er towards east, with model cut-off at about 500m depth. The main storage reservoirs are Garn and Ile with average permeability of about 400mD, separated by tight Not shale. The Garn Formation consists of three reservoirs, separat ed by low permeable shale. The porosity and permeability have been stochastically modeled with both areal and vertical variation. The model layers are fine (<1m) at the top reservoir and underneath the shales to capture the vertical CO2 saturation distribution. The CO2 injection well is located down dip, but alternative locations and injection zones have been simulated, with different injection rates. The injection period is 50 years, and simulation then continues for 10000 years to check the long term CO2 migration effects. The main criteria for evaluation of CO2 storage volumes are acceptable pressure increase and confinement of CO2 migration (no migration to eastern model boundary within 10000 years). CO2 will continue to migrate upwards as long as it is in a free, movable state. Migration stops when CO2 is permanently bound or trapped, by going into solution with the formation water or by being residually or structurally trapped (mineralogical trapping not considered). To achieve trapping of sufficient volumes, good spreading of the injected CO2 is important. Vertical spreading can, to some extent, be controlled by injecting in lower reservoir zones, but is sensitive to vertical permeability and also zonal permeability distribution in the near well area. Areal spreading can mainly be achieved through use of several injectors. The figures in the second row illustrate the free CO2 saturation (green/blue) over 10000 years.
45
5.
Storage options
5.2 Saline aquifers

In order to estimate the pore volumes and the storage capacities of the aquifers, a regional geomodel was built with the Petrel software. The model was set up with a 500x500 m grid in the horizontal directions. In the vertical direction, each formation was represented by one layer. Average values for net/gross and porosity were estimated from the logs and well reports from the exploration wells in the area and manually contoured between the wells.
Storage capacity Tilje/re

The maps reflect the general shaling out trend of the Ile and Garn formations to the NE. The major faults which have a potential to form barriers between different segments of the aquifers were included in the model. The purpose of this model was to calculate the total pore volumes of each aquifer and to evaluate how they are connected. The regional model cannot be used for simulation studies.
Porosity Tilje re
Permeability Net/Gross Tilje
re
3D view of the regional geomodel, showing the permeability. View from the NW. The Helgeland Basin to the left.
The Tilje/re aquifer
Summary
Storage system closed Rock volume, m3 9.2E+12 Net volume, m3 2.7E+12 Pore volume, m3 0.6E+12 Average depth 1940 m Average net/gross 0.30 Average porosity 0.21 Average permeability 140 mD Storage effieciency 0.7 % Storage capacity aquifer 4.0E+9 tons Reservoir quality capacity 2 injectivity 2 Seal quality seal 3 fractured seal 2 wells 3 Data quality Maturation
Log correlation panel with gamma, porosity density and calculated net/gross. Layout showed in Tilje porosity map.
CO2STORAGEATLAS
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46
5.
Storage options
5.2 Saline aquifers

We have tested different approaches to estimate the storage capacities of the aquifers. One approach was to calculate the total pore volume and use a storage efficiency representing a closed system. A second approach was to calculate the pore volumes of the largest closed structures A, B and C presented below, and assume they are in communication with the larger aquifer (half open system). The third approach was the simulation of injection in the Garn-Ile aquifer presented above, where the injected CO2 volume is restricted because it is not allowed to reach the coastal subcrop. In the table below showing the results for the Garn Ile aquifer, a halfopen case and a closed case for the whole aquifer are presented to illustrate how important this assumption is for the estimates of storage volumes. Large
Storage capacity Garn/Ile

volumes can theoretically be stored if the aquifer is in pressure communication with additional large water volumes. In the Garn-Ile case, such a pressure communication could be with the sea along the subcrop line. Another alternative to create a half-open system could be to inject CO2 and produce water. The most optimistic case would be to assume that closed structures with a large storage capacity exist and could be filled with CO2, without any migration to the half-open eastern boundary. Although interesting structures exist, we have not been able to identify such large storage volumes in closed structures in our mapping of the GarnIle aquifer. Based on the structures we can map and the simulations we have performed, we have chosen the lower estimate (closed aquifer) as the most likely scenario.
Porosity Garn Ile
Net/Gross Garn Ile
The Garn/Ile aquifer
Summary
Summary
Storage system half open closed Rock volume, m3 4.4E+12 4.4E+12 Net volume, m3 1.1E+12 1.1E+12 Pore volume, m3 0.3E+12 0.3E+12 Average depth Garn Fm 1675 m 1675 m Average depth Ile Fm 1825 m 1825 m Average net/gross 0.25 0.25 Average porosity 0.27 0.27 Average permeability 580 mD 580 mD Storage effieciency 4 % 0.2 % Storage capacity aquifer 8.E+9 tons 0.4E+9 tons Reservoir quality capacity 2 2 injectivity 3 3 Seal quality seal 3 3 fractured seal 3 3 wells 3 3 Data quality Maturation
Log correlation panel with gamma, porosity density and calculated net/gross. Layout showed in Garn porosity map.
47
5.
Storage options
5.2 Saline aquifers

Possible injection prospects CO2 can be injected in closed structures or in open aquifers. In a closed structure, the amount of CO2 injected will be restricted by the maximum fracing pressure of the structure with a safety margin. Some of the CO2 will be trapped as free CO2 by the seal of the structure, some dissolved in the water. In an open aquifer the amount of CO2 will not be restricted by pressure but can gradually be trapped as residual and dissolved CO2 in the water phase. In the Trndelag Platform and Nordland Ridge, both alternatives have been studied. The map shows the outlines of 5 large closed structures which have been identified in the study. Structure A and B are located SE of the Helgeland Basin, and comprise only the re-Tilje Trndelag Platform aquifer. Structure C is bounded by the Ellingrsa Graben to the west, and could trap CO2 in all the aquifers of the Trndelag Platform. Structure D belongs to the Nordland Ridge re Formation Prospects Prospect name Storage system Rock volume, m3 Net volume, m3 Pore volume, m3 Average depth Average net/gross Average porosity Average permeability Storage efficiency Storage capacity prospect Reservoir quality capacity injectivity Seal quality seal fractured seal wells Data quality Maturation 2 3 3 3 3 3
Regional BCU map showing the locations of prospects A to E and the location of the simulation grid in the Froan Basin (FBS). The map to the left is zoomed in on structures C, D and E.
aquifer, while structure E is located in the Ellingrsa Graben, outside the Trndelag Platform aquifer. The volumes of structures D and E are listed in the table. The volumes of prospects A, B and C are included in the calculation of the Trndelag Platform aquifers. In a closed aquifer, the limiting factor of the volume which can be injected is the total pore volume of the aquifer, not the pore volume of the structure. Seismic mapping was also carried out east of the Frya High, south of the Draugen Field to investigate for closed structures suitable for CO2 trapping in that area. It was concluded that such structures may exist, but there is uncertainty related to their definition on 2D seismic data and to how far petroleum has migrated into the area east of the Frya High. The rectangle in the map shows the model area for the study of open aquifer injection into the Ile and Garn Formations.
A D E C B
D Half open 2.7E+11 0.5E+11 1.4E+10 1300 0.3 0.26 140 mD 1% 0.1E+9 tons 3 2
E Open 1.0E+10 0.4E+10 1.E+9 2200 0.4 0.25 300mD 10 % 0.07E+9 tons
Depth to the BCU
FBS
2 2
400 m
3580 m Evaluated prospects
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
48
5.
Storage options
5.3 Abandoned hydrocarbon fields

The estimate of CO2 storage potential in the petroleum provinces is based on abandoned fields. This is in accordance with the Government policy that any negative consequences of CO2 storage projects for existing and future petroleum activity should be minimized. At the end of 2012, there are no abandoned fields in the Norwegian Sea. Seven of today's producing fields have been evaluated for CO2 storage. Two of the fields are gas fields and five are oil fields. The oil fields may have an EOR potential because they contain remnants of hydrocarbons that might be mobilized and produced during the injection of CO2. The CO2 storage capacity for todays producing fields is estimated based on the end of the production year, and summarized for the years 2030 and 2050. The gas fields will have low pressure and the oil fields will have low oil rate and a high water cut. For the gas fields, no EOR potential is calculated. For the oil fields, the CO2 storage capacity has been calculated as if some of the oil is removed as EOR oil. The calculated CO2 stored volumes are listed in the table. Abandoned fields Producing fields Closure of production 2020 -2030 Closure of production 2030 -2050 0.9 0.2
! ! !
650'0"N
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! SKULD ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
URD ! ! !! NORNE ! ! ! ! ALVE ! ! MARULK

! ! ! ! ! !
! !
SKARV !! !
! !
! ! ! !
! !
! ! !
! ! ! ! ! !
! ! HEIDRUN ! ! ! ! ! ! MORVIN ! ! SGARD 680'0"N ! ! ! KRISTIN ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! TYRIHANS !

670'0"N 30'0"E 40'0"E
50'0"E
60'0"E
70'0"E
80'0"E
90'0"E
100'0"E
110'0"E
120'0"E
130'0"E
140'0"E
! ! ! ! ! !
! ! YTTERGRYTA ! ! ! !
! !
! !
! !!
MIKKEL
! ! ! ! ! ! !
Storage capacity, Gtons

!
! ! ! !
660'0"N
! ! ! ! ! !
! NJORD ! ! !
!!
! HYME DRAUGEN ! !
SKULD URD NORNE MARULK SKARV
! ! !
HEIDRUN MORVIN SGARD KRISTIN TYRIHANS YTTERGRYTA
MIKKEL
NJORD
640'0"N
DRAUGEN
ORMEN LANGE
!
ORMEN LANGE
!
Approximate limit for significant hydrocarbon migration Garn aquifer
630'0"N
Ile aquifer Tilje/re aquifer
Kristiansund
Oil Gas
Oileld Gaseld
Oil w/gas
!
Gas/Condensate
Molde
Hydrocarbon fields in the Norwegian Sea.
49
5.
Storage options
5.4 Producing fields (EOR)

Injection of CO2 in oil fields has, for many years, been used to enhance oil recovery (EOR), primarily in the USA where the CO2 has been available from natural CO2 sources. Most of the CO2 has been stored during the enhanced recovery process. On the Norwegian Shelf, several oil fields have been examined with regard to EOR using CO2. Some of the fields seem to be promising candidates from a technical point of view. Others are not suitable due to reservoir conditions or negative project economy. In the Norwegian Sea, two fields have been studied as discussed below. In addition to enhanced oil recovery, a significant amount of CO2 can be stored in these fields. A study carried out by the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD) in 2005, indicated additional oil recovery with use of CO2 in the order of 37 percent from fields of interest. To secure good recovery of oil, it is important to have enough CO2 and the best effect is obtained when CO2 and oil are miscible in the reservoir. Sweep efficiency of CO2 flooding can be improved by applying WAG (alternating injection of CO2 and water). When CO2 is injected and mixes with water in the
800
reservoir, it will create a corrosive mixture which can cause problems in connection with breakthrough in the producing wells and in the process equipment on the platform. This has to be taken into account when planning CO2 flooding on a field. In the Norwegian Sea there are a couple of fields that have been looked at as CO2 EOR candidates. In 2006, Shell and Statoil announced a co-operation to develop a large-scale CO2 EOR project on Draugen and Heidrun, and also supply the fields with electric power from shore. A pipeline from Heidrun would supply a gas power station on Tjeldbergodden with gas. The gas power station would deliver 2.5 million tonnes of CO2 for injection. The studies showed an increase in recovery of 2.6% (of OIIP). High modification and rebuilding costs for the facilities resulted, however, in negative project economics. The oil price at the time of study was $60/bbls. The study showed that use of CO2 in the Heidrun Field after planned injection in Draugen was not an optimal solution. It was too little available CO2 for good recovery. When the gas power station was cancelled, the studies were not continued.
Cross section of a reservoir with CO2 WAG
CO2
OIL
Drive CO Water 2 Water
CO2 Miscible Oil Zone Bank
Injected CO2 encounters trapped oil
CO2 and oil mix
Oil expands and moves towards producing well
Halten CO2 Project

Remaining resources at planned cessation according to approved plans Remaining oil reserves Produced oil end 2011
Halten CO2 Project
Halten CO2 Project
600
400 Mill. Sm oil
200
0 EKOFISK TROLL ELDFISK SNORRE VALHALL STATFJORD HEIDRUN GULLFAKS OSEBERG OSEBERG SR GRANE GULLFAKS SR BALDER NJORD BRAGE ULA TOR GOLIAT VIGDIS ALVHEIM HOD DRAUGEN OSEBERG ST NORNE VESLEFRIKK VISUND TORDIS GYDA YME
-200
-400
-600
CO2STORAGEATLAS
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50
5.
Storage options
5.5 Summary of aquifer evaluation

The results of the evaluation of the aquifer storage capacity is summarized in the tables. The Trndelag Platform including the Nordland Ridge is the area which is best suited for CO2 storage. A thick Jurassic section is present, and has been divided in two aquifers. The burial depth is typically 1500-2000 m and the reservoir quality of the clean sandstones is excellent. The lower re-Tilje aquifer is distributed over the whole area and the potential injection volume is calculated to approximately 4Gt. The reservoir is heterogeneous, dominated by fluvio-deltaic to tidal deposits and the connectivity both on a local and regional scale is uncertain. The upper Ile and Garn aquifers are developed as good reservoirs in the southern part (Froan Basin). The Garn reservoir has the best permeability and
Evaluated aquifers Unit Garn/Ile Tilje/re Evaluated prospects Prospect D re Prospect E re-Tilje, Ile-Garn Producing fields 1300 2200 2.7E+11 1.0E+10 1.4E+10 1.0E+9 140 300 half open open 1 10 0.14E+9 0.1E+9 0.7 0.7 0.1 0.07 1.1 Avg depth m 1675 1940 Bulk volume Rm 4.4E+12 9.2E+12 Pore volume Rm 0.3E+12 0.6E+12
connectivity of the Jurassic sandstones. All the aquifers are subcropping towards the sea floor along the coast. The thickness of the Quaternary cover is variable. CO2 injection projects should be planned to avoid long distance migration towards the subcrop and possible further seepage to the sea floor. Modelling of injection in the aquifer indicates that it is possible to inject at a rate and volume where the CO2 is trapped and/or dissolved before it reaches the subcrop area. The conclusion is that the Garn and Ile storage capacity is relatively low, about 0.4 Gt. Five large structural closures have been identified. Two of them (structures D and E) are located outside the Trndelag Platform and add storage capacity to the area. Structures D and E are covered by 3D seismic data
Avg K mD 580 140 closed closed Open/closed Storage eff % 0.2 1 Storage volume Rm 0.6E+9 6.0E+9 Density tons/Rm 0.7 0.7 Storage capacity Gtons 0.4 4.0
and wells and are regarded as more mature than the other structures and evaluated aquifers. The Mre Margin is geologically different from the Trndelag Platform, and does not seem to hold a large storage potential due to the proximity to deep basins and subcropping aquifers. In the petroleum provinces, the storage potential was calculated from the extracted volume of hydrocarbons in depleted fields. Such storage will usually require a study of the integrity of the wells which have been drilled into the field. If oil has been present, it is relevant to study the potential for increased recovery by CO2 injection. Studies of EOR by CO2 injection were performed some years ago for the Draugen and Heidrun fields.
Based on injection history
Development of injection site
For the Norwegian Sea, the total storage capacity in the green level of the pyramid is estimated to be 5.5 Gigatonnes. In the more mature areas (yellow level) the capacity is estimated to be 0.17 Gigatonnes
Injection
Suitable for long term storage Exploration Theoretical volume
Eec tiv e and sa fe Cut o c r iteria on volume /c
storage f intere
t 7G 1 . 0
Volume c
o nic t o
alculate d
st
+ Gt 4 4.
) lds e ( t G 1.1
on avera ge poro si
t y and t hicknes s
Increased technical maturity
51
CO2STORAGEATLAS
NORWEGIAN SEA
52
6. 6. Monitoring Monitoring
53
6. Monitoring
Monitoring of injected CO2 in a storage site is important for two main reasons: Firstly, to see that the CO2 is contained in the reservoir according to plans and predictions, and secondly, that if there are deviations, to provide data which can be used to update the reserservoir models and support eventual mitigation measures. A wide range of monitoring technologies have been used by oil and gas industry to track fluid movement in the subsurface. These techniques can easily be adapted to CO2 storage and monitor the behavior of CO2 subsurface. For example, repeated seismic surveying provides images of the subsurface, allowing the behavior of the stored CO2 to be mapped and predicted. Other techniques include pressure and temperature monitoring, down-hole and surface CO2 sensors and satellite imaging, as well as seabed monitoring. In this chapter we present some of the challenges related to CO2 storage and some of the available monitoring techniques.
Seal considerations for CO2 storage
by prof. Per Aagaard, UiO

storage formation induced by the injection process, and 2) geomechanical and geochemical processes that may affect the integrity and safety of the storage formation. In tectonically active areas, leakage can be induced by earthquakes. This is not an important risk in the North Sea, as recorded earthquake foci are deep-seated. Fine-grained sediments undergo major changes after their initial deposition as mud. First they are compacted due to the weight of overlying sediments, and later, as the temperature increases with burial depth, chemical reactions also create cement between the sediment grains. Thus there is a transformation from ductile mudstones to more brittle shale or chalk, which mechanically is stronger, but more likely to fracture. Generally, thicker mudstone/shale formations will make better seals, but even rather thin, young sediments have been shown to be effective caprocks. The shallow Peon gas field has a less than 200m thick seal of Pleistocene mud. Several groups are active in research on geomechanics and rock physics of caprock research in Norway under petroleum research programs. The CO2 will react with the caprock, and there is considerable concern as to how these processes may affect the seal integrity. In addition, well cement may also deteriorate under reaction with CO2. There is quite some dedicated research on CO2 - caprock interaction, both internationally and nationally. In Norway, several research projects are run both under the CLIMIT program (SSC-Ramore) and within the SUCCESS and BIGCCS Centres for Environment-friendly Energy Research (FME).
The main criteria for selecting a site for geological CO2 storage (IPCC report on Geological CO2) are adequate CO2 storage capacity and injectivity, safety and security of storage (i.e., minimization of leakage), and minimal environmental impact. A potential reservoir thus needs a seal or caprock above the reservoir, i.e. physical and/or hydrodynamic barriers that will confine the CO2 to the reservoir. Typical rocks forming seals or caprocks offshore in Norway, are sediments like mudstones, shales or fine-grained chalks. The pores are water-filled, while the reservoir beneath may have oil, gas or supercritical CO2. The seal should prevent the migration of these fluids into the fine-grained caprock. To form an efficient seal, the rock has to have a small pore throat radius, giving them a high capillary pressure. This prevents the migration of fluids like oil and gas or supercritical CO2 into the caprock, because the capillary pressure is greater than the buoyancy effect. The capillary sealing is normally sufficient to prevent migration of fluid CO2 into caprock, and a diffusion of CO2 dissolved in the pore water of the caprock will also have very limited penetration in time scales of less than thousands of years. But we know from oil and gas reservoirs that caprocks may leak, and seepage of small gas volumes is commonly observed above the big oil and gas fields on the Norwegian shelf. This occurs either through small fractures or faults, which may open up under certain conditions. The seepage process is slow due to a combination of capillary pressures and low permeability in the caprock and the fracture systems. During injection, the caprocks can in particular be affected by: 1) the pressure rise in the
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6. Monitoring
Monitoring of CO2 injection and the storage reservoir
Monitoring of CO2 injection as well as acquisition and interpretation of various kinds of well and reservoir data are important for control during the injection period and afterwards. Firstly, monitoring gives feedback to the injection process; it can lead to adjustment of rates, guide well intervention or decisions on new injection wells. In case of unwanted reservoir behaviour, monitoring data can lead to a number of mitigation measures. Furthermore, monitor data are needed to confirm storage reservoir behaviour and are crucial for operating CO2 quota systems. To obtain public acceptance of a storage site and wide recognition of CCS as a measure to prevent climate change, monitoring will play an important role. Also, predictions of a storage sites long-term behaviour (over hundreds or thousands of years) should be calibrated against monitor data. Finally, public regulations, such as the EU directive 2009/31/EC, Article 13, on the geological storage of carbon dioxide, require monitoring of the storage reservoir. Monitoring data can be acquired in the injection well(s), in observation wells and by surface measurements. Crucial measurements at the well head are rate, composition and pressure/temperature. Downhole pressure/temperature measurements are of further value, because sensors closer to the reservoir give more accurate responses of pressure build-up during injection and of fall-offs during shut-ins. These can be used to constrain reservoir models and to predict maximum
by Ola Eiken, Statoil
injection rates and storage capacity. Observation wells can, if they penetrate the storage reservoir, give data on pressure build-up and CO2 breakthrough. This is done by installing various sensors, by logging the reservoir interval regularly and by fluid sampling. Regional pressure development within a basin is of particular importance in large-scale storage. A number of surface measurement techniques can be applied. 4-D seismic has proven most successful on the industry-scale offshore projects of Sleipner and Snhvit, yielding the geometry of the CO2 plume with high resolution, while gravimetry has given complementary information on CO2 in-situ density and dissolution rates in the formation water. Onshore, surface elevation and microseismic data have given valuable information on injection and storage, and these techniques can be extended to offshore applications. Cost is an important aspect of a monitoring program, and subsurface and surface conditions that vary from site to site make a tailor-made plan necessary for each site. Equipment reliability and a system of documentation which works over a time-span of generations are also important for a monitoring program. With a proper monitoring program, a leakage out of the storage complex should be detected long before CO2 reaches the sea floor or the surface, so that mitigating measures can be implemented.
Figure from the Snhvit CO2 injection. Left: Cumulative injection (black line) and estimated bottom-hole pressure (blue line) spanning year 2009, showing pressure increase during periods of injection and pressure fall-off during stops. The timing of a 4-D seismic survey is shown in the figure. Right: A 4D seismic difference amplitude map of the lowest Tuben Fm. level, showing highest amplitudes close to the injection point, and with decaying amplitudes outwards from the well falling below the noise level about 1 km away. Figure of the Sleipner CO2 injection 4-D seismic monitoring. Upper left: sketch of the injection well and storage reservoir. To the right is a seismic section along the long axis of the plume (south-west to north-east) for different vintages and for a time-lapse difference. Note the lack of reflectivity on the seismic difference above the storage formation, showing no signs of leakage. Lower left: Maps of the development through time of cumulative amplitudes for all layers. By 2008 the area of the CO2 plume was about 3 km2, and it was steadily growing.
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6. Monitoring
Seafloor monitoring of sub-seafloor CO2-storage sites
A leakage of CO2 from a storage reservoir can result from a failure during injection or due to a migration of CO2 from the reservoir to the seafloor along unforeseen pathways for fluid flow. Whereas the first would be detected by instrumentation at the injection sites, monitoring of the seabed may reveal the latter. The flow of fluids from the subsurface, across the seabed and into the water column has been studied extensively since the late nineteen seventies - when deep-sea hydrothermal venting was first discovered. Since then, the instrumentation and procedures to locate and monitor the flow of fluids (i.e. gases and liquids) from the seafloor has been developed during research investigations both at hot vents and cold seeps. Therefore, when strategies and procedures for monitoring sub-seafloor CO2 storage sites are being developed today, they are based on over four decades of basic research of natural seafloor fluid-flow systems. Within the sediments below the seabed, chemical compounds like CO2 and CH4 form naturally through microbial activity and sediment diagenesis. There is a natural flux of these and other fluids across the seabed. These fluxes range from widespread and slow diffusion processes, to focused fluid flow at discrete seepage sites. Fluid flow at seepage sites results in distinct topographic, geochemical and biological signatures on the seafloor, as well as chemical and physical imprints in the water column above. Any change in these natural fluid-flow-patterns may indicate the first warning of leakage. Thus the flow of natural, reduced pore water at existing or new seepage sites is expected to be a distinct, initial sign of CO2 seepage from a subsurface reservoir. Seafloor monitoring programs are now being designed to detect CO2 leakages and such early warnings. These schemes include: 1) scanning of the water column with acoustic systems to reveal any changes in the release of gas bubbles from the seafloor; 2) acoustic imaging of the seafloor at ultrahigh resolution to detect topographic changes that might reveal the formation of new fluid escape pathways; 3) imaging of bacterial mats and fauna at seepage sites to document environmental changes related to fluid-flow, and 4) chemical analyses of sea- and pore-water at natural seepage sites to monitor changes in the composition of the fluids emanating from the seafloor. This monitoring requires advanced instrumentation that is either already available or currently under development. Hull-mounted multi-beam systems that scan the water column while simultaneously mapping the seafloor are now available. With a beam width of five times the water depth, these systems scan large areas in short time spans, detecting even small releases of gas bubbles from the seafloor. Autonomic underwater vehicles (AUV), which can dive for 24 hours and move at speeds of up to four knots at heights of just a few meters above the seafloor, can image the seafloor with side scan sonar systems at 10 cm scale resolution. At such resolutions, the appearance of new fluid flow pathways can be detected by small changes in the seafloor topography. Where reduced subsurface fluids seep out, microorganisms will colonize the seafloor. They utilize the chemical energy in the fluids and form distinct, white bacterial mats that easily are detected by optical imaging of the seafloor using AUVs and ROVs as platforms for the camera. Today, thousands of images can be
by prof. Rolf Birger Pedersen, UiB
geo-referenced and assembled in large photo-mosaics. Repeated seafloor imaging of areas with evidence of fluid flow will be used to monitor the seabed fluid flow regime through the behaviour of microbial colonies and the seafloor biota. AUVs and ROVs may also carry sensors that directly measure dissolved CO2 and CH4 in the water just above the seafloor. At present, these sensors lack the sensitivity as well as a rapid enough response time to be effective monitoring tools. Sensors with the needed capability are under development, and in a few years time they will be available for use in combination with acoustic and optical methods to monitor the state of the seabed fluid flow pattern. Monitoring of the seafloor at regular intervals with these types of methods will not only be capable of detecting direct CO2 leakages, but also the subtle changes in the seabed fluid flow pattern that may represent early warnings. If the monitoring reveals anomalies relative to the baseline acquired before the CO2 injection starts, then special measures should be taken to investigate these areas in more detail. A range of geochemical, geophysical and biological methods is available to examine if the changes are related to leakage from the CO2-storage reservoir rather than natural variations.
Detection of gas bubbles by echo sounder systems. The figure shows the acoustic signature generated by CO2 bubbles being naturally released from the Jan Mayen vent fields. The CO2 bubbles are here seen as a blue flare that rises around 500 metres from the seafloor through "clouds" of plankton in the water column.
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6. Monitoring
Seafloor monitoring of sub-seafloor CO2-storage sites
At such anomalies, a necessary next step may be to place instrumentation on the seabed to obtain time series data. Called seafloor observatories, these instruments are capable of relaying sensor data and images to onshore laboratories via satellite links or fibre optic cable-connections. Seafloor observatories are at the cutting edge of todays marine sciences. Presently, cable based seafloor observatories for basic research are being deployed at natural seabed fluid flow sites in the Pacific. As part of these and other research programs, a range of specialised instrumentation has been developed to monitor natural seabed fluid flow systems. These include: 1) acoustic systems to monitor the flux of gases into the water column; 2) mass spectrometers and chemical sensors to measure fluid components; 3) high-definition camera systems to monitor seafloor biota responses; and 4) broadband seismometers for detecting cracking events related to subsurface fluid flow. Whereas most of these technologies may be directly transferable to the monitoring of CO2 storage sites, some may need further development and adaptation. In conclusion, the know-how and technology developed partly by research on natural seabed fluid flow systems is currently available and can be transferred to the monitoring of CO2-storage sites. Monitoring schemes can therefore be designed and implemented to document the integrity of these sites, as well as providing early warnings of developing leakage situations from sub-seafloor storage sites.
Detection of seafloor fluid flow structures using side-scan sonar imaging. The image shows a fracture system in the seabed where fluids are slowly seeping out from the subsurface. (Scale: 50 metres between red lines)
Detection of seafloor fluid flow using biologic signatures. The photo mosaic shows white bacterial mats that form a distinct biologic signature of fluid flow across the seabed. (sea star for scale)
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6. Monitoring
Wells

By: The Petroleum Safety Authority Norway
A potential CO2 storage location can be penetrated by a number of adjacent wells that represent potential leakage sources. Adjacent wells are defined as wells that might be exposed to the injected CO2. These wells can be abandoned wells as well as production, injection and disposal wells. Adjacent wells can have well integrity issues that might allow CO2 to leak into the surroundings.
There are challenges concerning the design of these adjacent wells, since they were not planned to withstand CO2. The carbon dioxide in water is called carbonic acid and it is very corrosive to materials such as cement and steel. This situation can over time cause damage to downhole tubulars and mechanical barrier elements and lead to degradation of well integrity. The general concern regarding CO2 injection wells is the need of a common recognized industry practice related to design of CO2 injection wells. This includes qualification of well barrier elements and testing related to CO2 for medium to long term integrity and low temperatures. A CO2 resistant design includes considerations related to CO2 resistant cement, casing, tubing, packers and other exposed downhole and surface equipment. A common industry practice is also needed concerning plug and abandonment of CO2 injection wells and adjacent wells.
Proposed ISO standard related to CO2 injection well design and operation. DNV Guideline for risk managment of existing wells at CO2 geological storage sites (CO2WELLS)
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6. References
CO2 Storage Atlas, Norwegian North Sea, (Halland et al, 2011). http://www.npd.no NPD Bulletin No 4 (1988) A lithostratigraphic scheme for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic succession offshore mid- and northern Norway http://www.npd.no/no/Publikasjoner/NPD-bulletin/254-Bulletin-4/ NPD Bulletin No 8 (1995) Structural elements of the Norwegian continental shelf. Part II: The Norwegian Sea Region. http://www.npd.no/no/Publikasjoner/NPD-bulletin/258-Bulletin8/ Ottesen, D., Rise, L., Andersen, E.S., Bugge, T. & Eidvin, T.: Geological evolution of the Norwegian continental shelf between 61oN and 68oN during the last 3 million years. Norwegian Journal of Geology Vol. 89, pp. 251-265. Trondheim 2009, ISSN 029-196x. Sigmond, Ellen M.O. 2002: Geological map, Land and Sea Areas of the Northern Europe. Scale 1:4 million. Geological Survey of Norway. TGS, 2011. Facies Map Browser (FMB). Web resources: NPD Factpages: http://factpages.npd.no CO2CRC: http://www.co2crc.com.au/ Geocapacity: http://www.geology.cz/geocapacity GESTCO: http://www.geus.dk/programareas/energy/denmark/co2/ GESTCOsummary_report_2ed.pdf
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CO2STORAGE

www.npd.no The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate

Norways (Scandinavia's) rst resource map, Olaus Magnus, 1539

4.1 Geological development of the Norwegian Sea 22-25

2. Petroleum activity in the Norwegian Sea

2. Petroleum activity in the Norwegian Sea

19% 7.4 5.0 5.7 3.9 2.6 2.1

250 200 150 100 50 0

Gas (40 MJ) Condensate NGL Oil

Bill. Sm3 o.e.

1.6 5.7 4.1

Petroleum resources and uncertainty in the estimates per 31.12.2011

2. Petroleum activity in the Norwegian Sea

Njord Ormen Lange

Tjeldbergodden Nyhamna Trondheim

SHETLAND THE ORKNEYS

Snorre Visund Gja Kvitebjrn Flor Veslefrikk Brage Mongstad Troll

St. Fergus Cruden Bay

Sleipner PIPE STAT Rev Armada Draupner S/E Forties

Heimdal Beryl Alvheim l A l Grane I PE

Ula Gyda Ekofisk Valhall Hod

Licenses and fields

Carbon dioxide: Temperature - pressure diagram

ine tion L Satura 0.5 g/cm3

CO2 Gas CO2 Vapour

CO2 as a supercritical fluid

Critical depth (approx)

Density of CO2 (kg/m3)

! ! HEIDRUN ! ! ! ! ! ! MORVIN ! ! SGARD ! ! ! KRISTIN ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! TYRIHANS ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

characteriZation of aQuifers and structures Criteria Reservoir quality

Capacity, communicating volumes

Sealing quality Seal

Other leak risk Wells

Good data coverage

Limited data coverage

Permeability > 500 mD < 10 mD

Evaluation process for safe CO2 storage sites

Evaluation of data coverage and knowledge

Characterization of reservoir/ injectivity

Stratigraphy (reservoir and seal)

Characterization of seal efficiency

Depth to the top Paleocene

Structural trapping Trapping

Paleocene sand Contour interval 200 m

Map potential storage area

Estimate storage capacity

Based on injection history

The maturation pyramid

Development of injection site

Suitable for long term storage

Eectiv e an d s a Cut o c r Volume c iteria on

SCO2 development (open system)

SCO2 development (open system)

A cross section of a flat reservoir with injection for 50 years.

4. Geological description of the Norwegian Sea

4. Geological description of the Norwegian Sea

Eoc Olig Mio Plio Plei Holo Series

Vring Marginal High Hel Graben

Shetland Roga- Hordaland land

Dnna Terrace Helgeland Basin

Garn Fm. Ile Fm.

Tilje Fm. re Fm.