ARMY-FM 5-472 C2 (Materials Testing)

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for
public release; distribution is unlimited

FM 5-472
NAVFAC MO 330
AFJMAN 32-1221(I)

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Materials Testing
This reprint includes
Changes 1 and 2.
FM 5-472
NAVFAC MO 330
AFJMAN 32-1221(I)
Materials Testing
DEPARTMENT
OF THE
ARMY
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for
public release; distribution is unlimited
FM 5-472
C2
Change 2 Headquarters
Department of the Army
Washington, DC, 1 July 2001
Materials Testing
1. Change FM 5-472, 27 October 1999, as follows:
Remove Old Pages Insert New Pages
2-55 through 2-58 2-55 through 2-58
2-83 and 2-84 2-83 and 2-84
2-103 and 2-104 2-103 and 2-104
4-29 and 4-31 4-29 through 4-31
A-1 A-1
2. A bar ( ) marks new or changed material.
3. File this transmittal sheet in front of the publication.
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
ERIC K. SHINSEKI
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
Official:
JOEL B. HUDSON
Administrative Assstant to the
Secretary of the Army
0119105
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and US Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance
with the initial distribution number 110133, requirements for FM 5-472.
FM 5-472
C1
Washington, DC, 29 December 2000
Materials Testing
2-65 and 2-66 2-65 and 2-66
2-77 and 2-78 2-77 and 2-78
2-81 and 2-82 2-81 and 2-82
2-87 and 2-88 2-87 and 2-88
ERIC K. SHINSEKI
Chief of Staff
Official:
JOEL B. HUDSON
0031907
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and US Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance with the
initial distribution number 110133, requirements for FM 5-472.
Foreword
Thi s publ i cati on may be used by the US Army, US Navy, and US Ai r
For ce dur i ng tr ai ni ng, exer ci ses, and conti ngency oper ati ons.
JOHN N. ABRAMS
General USA
Commanding General
United States Army Training
and Doctrine Command
LOUIS M. SMITH
Rear Admiral, CEC, US Navy
Commander, Naval Facilities
Engineering Command
MICHAEL E. RYAN
General, USAF
Chief of Staff
i
FM 5-472*
NAVFAC M0 330
AFJMAN 32-1221(I)
Field Manual Headquarters
No. 5-472 Department of the Army
NAVFAC M0 330 Department of the Navy
AFJMAN 32-1221(I) Department of the Air Force
Washington, DC, 27 October 1999

MATERIALS TESTING
Table of Contents
Page
Preface............................................................................................................................................... i x
Chapter 1. Materials Testing Overview.................................................................................. 1-1
Materi al s Tests ........................................................................................................................1-1
Soi l Properti es .........................................................................................................................1-2
Cl assi fi cati ons .........................................................................................................................1-2
Desi gn Requi rements ..............................................................................................................1-2
Bi tumens..................................................................................................................................1-2
Concrete ...................................................................................................................................1-3
Stabi l i zati on ............................................................................................................................1-3
Equi pment ...............................................................................................................................1-3
Test Set, Soi l (SC 6635-98-CL-E02).....................................................................................1-3
Test Set, Asphal t (SC 6635-98-CL-E03)..............................................................................1-4
Test Set, Concrete (SC 6635-98-CL-E04)............................................................................1-4
Nucl ear Moi sture Densi ty Gauge ........................................................................................1-4
Safety and Envi ronmental Consi derati ons............................................................................1-4
Chapter 2, Soils, part 1. ............................................................................................................ 2-1
Section I. Formation, Classification, and Field Identification................................... 2-1
Soi l Formati on ........................................................................................................................ 2-1
Rocks .....................................................................................................................................2-1
Strata ....................................................................................................................................2-2
Physi cal Properti es .................................................................................................................2-2
Grai n or Parti cl e Si ze ...........................................................................................................2-3
Grai n or Parti cl e Shape........................................................................................................2-3
Gradati on ..............................................................................................................................2-4
Densi ty ..................................................................................................................................2-5
Speci fi c Gravi ty.....................................................................................................................2-5
Moi sture ................................................................................................................................2-6

*This publication supersedes FM 5-530, 17 August 1987.
ii
Page
FM 5-472/NAVFAC MO 330/AFJMAN 32-1221(I)
Consi stency........................................................................................................................... 2-7
Organi c Soi l .......................................................................................................................... 2-8
Effects of Soi l Characteri sti cs ................................................................................................ 2-8
Soi l Cl assi fi cati on ................................................................................................................... 2-8
Cl assi fi cati on ........................................................................................................................ 2-9
Categori es ............................................................................................................................. 2-9
I denti fi cati on of Soi l Groups.............................................................................................. 2-12
Fi el d I denti fi cati on ............................................................................................................... 2-13
Test Equi pment.................................................................................................................. 2-14
Test Factors ........................................................................................................................ 2-14
Soi l -Descri pti on Exampl e .................................................................................................. 2-15
Fi el d-I denti fi cati on Tests ..................................................................................................... 2-15
Vi sual Test.......................................................................................................................... 2-15
Odor Test ............................................................................................................................ 2-19
Sedi mentati on Test ............................................................................................................ 2-19
Bi te or Gri t Test ................................................................................................................. 2-21
Feel Test ............................................................................................................................. 2-21
Rol l or Thread Test ............................................................................................................ 2-22
Wet Shaki ng Test............................................................................................................... 2-23
Breaki ng or Dry-Strength Test ......................................................................................... 2-24
Ri bbon Test......................................................................................................................... 2-25
Shi ne Test........................................................................................................................... 2-25
Section II. Soil Surveys and Sampling............................................................................ 2-26
Types of Soi l Surveys............................................................................................................ 2-26
Hasty Survey ...................................................................................................................... 2-27
Del i berate Survey .............................................................................................................. 2-27
Objecti ve of a Soi l Survey..................................................................................................... 2-27
Locati on, Nature, and Cl assi fi cati on of Soi l Layers ......................................................... 2-27
Condi ti on of Soi l s i n Pl ace ................................................................................................. 2-27
Drai nage Characteri sti cs ................................................................................................... 2-28
Groundwater and Bedrock................................................................................................. 2-28
Sources of I nformati on ......................................................................................................... 2-28
I ntel l i gence Reports ........................................................................................................... 2-28
Local I nhabi tants ............................................................................................................... 2-28
Maps.................................................................................................................................... 2-29
Aeri al Photographs ............................................................................................................ 2-30
Fi el d I nvesti gati ons .............................................................................................................. 2-31
Sampl i ng Methods ............................................................................................................. 2-31
Prepari ng Sampl es ............................................................................................................. 2-32
Recordi ng Sampl es ............................................................................................................. 2-33
Obtai ni ng Representati ve Soi l Sampl es ........................................................................... 2-34
Moi sture-Content Sampl es................................................................................................... 2-38
Undi sturbed Sampl es ........................................................................................................... 2-38
Chunk Sampl es .................................................................................................................. 2-39
Cyl i nder Sampl es ............................................................................................................... 2-43
Quarteri ng Sampl es ............................................................................................................. 2-48
Sampl es Wei ghi ng Over 100 Pounds ................................................................................ 2-48
Sampl es Wei ghi ng 25 to 100 Pounds ................................................................................ 2-48
Sampl es Wei ghi ng Less Than 25 Pounds ......................................................................... 2-50
The Soi l Profi l e ..................................................................................................................... 2-50
iii
Page
Purpose................................................................................................................................2-50
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................2-51
Steps ....................................................................................................................................2-52
Section III. Moisture-Content Determination...............................................................2-54
Oven-Dry Method (ASTM D 2216-90)..................................................................................2-55
Purpose................................................................................................................................2-55
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................2-55
Steps ....................................................................................................................................2-55
Cal ci um-Carbi de-Gas Pressure Method (AASHTO T 217-1986)........................................2-57
Purpose................................................................................................................................2-58
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................2-58
Steps ....................................................................................................................................2-58
Cal cul ati ons ........................................................................................................................2-59
Exampl e ..............................................................................................................................2-59
Chapter 2, Soils, part 2. ............................................................................................................. 2-62
Section IV. Specific-Gravity-of-Solids Determination (ASTM D 854-92).................2-62
Speci fi c Gravi ty of Soi l or Sol i ds ..........................................................................................2-62
Speci fi c-Gravi ty Test.............................................................................................................2-62
Purpose................................................................................................................................2-63
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................2-63
Steps ....................................................................................................................................2-64
Apparent and Bul k Speci fi c Gravi ty ....................................................................................2-69
Section V. Grain-Size Analysis and Distribution
(ASTM D 422-63 and ASTM 2217-85) .................................................................................2-70
Si eve Anal ysi s (Mechani cal Anal ysi s)..................................................................................2-70
Purpose................................................................................................................................2-71
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................2-71
Steps ....................................................................................................................................2-72
Hydrometer Anal ysi s ............................................................................................................2-79
Purpose................................................................................................................................2-79
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................2-79
Steps ....................................................................................................................................2-80
Presentati on of Resul ts ......................................................................................................2-87
Section VI. Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index Determination
(ASTM D 4318-95a) ................................................................................................................2-89
LL Determi nati on .................................................................................................................2-90
Purpose................................................................................................................................2-90
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................2-90
Steps ....................................................................................................................................2-92
PL Determi nati on .................................................................................................................2-98
Purpose................................................................................................................................2-98
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................2-98
Steps ....................................................................................................................................2-98
PI Determi nati on ................................................................................................................2-100
Section VII. Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Modified
Effort (Compaction Test) (ASTM D 1557-91).................................................................2-101
Compacti on Test..................................................................................................................2-102
Purpose..............................................................................................................................2-102
Equi pment.........................................................................................................................2-103
Steps ..................................................................................................................................2-104
iv
Page
Compacti on-Test GraphPresentati on of Resul ts ........................................................... 2-109
Compacti on Curve............................................................................................................ 2-109
Zero Ai r Voi ds and Saturati on ........................................................................................ 2-111
Percent Moi sture.............................................................................................................. 2-112
Percent Compacti on ......................................................................................................... 2-112
Compacti on-Speci fi cati on Bl ock ...................................................................................... 2-112
Effect of Water on Densi ty............................................................................................... 2-113
Effect of Di fferent Compacti ve Efforts on Densi ty ......................................................... 2-114
Effect of Di fferent Types of Soi l s on Densi ty .................................................................. 2-115
Compacti on Equi pment ...................................................................................................... 2-115
Other Compacti ve Efforts .................................................................................................. 2-116
Section VIII. In-Place Density Determination............................................................ 2-116
Sand-Cone or Sand-Di spl acement Method (ASTM D 1556-90) ....................................... 2-117
Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 2-118
Equi pment ........................................................................................................................ 2-118
Steps ................................................................................................................................. 2-119
Nucl ear Moi sture-and-Densi ty Tester ............................................................................... 2-123
Water-Di spl acement Method ............................................................................................. 2-124
Section IX. CBR Tests ....................................................................................................... 2-124
CBR of Laboratory-Compacted Soi l s (ASTM D 1883-94)................................................. 2-125
Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 2-125
Equi pment ........................................................................................................................ 2-125
Steps ................................................................................................................................. 2-127
Undi sturbed Sampl e Testi ng ............................................................................................. 2-135
I n-Pl ace Fi el d CBR Testi ng................................................................................................ 2-135
Presentati on and Anal ysi s of CBR Data ........................................................................... 2-135
Test Program for Nonswel l i ng Soi l s................................................................................ 2-135
Test Program for Swel l i ng or Expansi ve Soi l s ............................................................... 2-146
Test Program for Free-Drai ni ng Soi l s ............................................................................ 2-151
Section X. Technical Soils Report .................................................................................. 2-153
Soi l s Tests Requi red ........................................................................................................... 2-153
Purpose of the Report ...................................................................................................... 2-153
Organi zati on and Scope of the Tests............................................................................... 2-154
Soi l s Techni cal Report ........................................................................................................ 2-155
Purpose ............................................................................................................................. 2-156
Equi pment ........................................................................................................................ 2-156
Outl i ne .............................................................................................................................. 2-156
Chapter 3. Bituminous Mixtures ............................................................................................. 3-1
Section I. Bituminous Pavements/Surfaces.................................................................... 3-1
Aggregates.............................................................................................................................. 3-1
Bi tumi nous Materi al s............................................................................................................ 3-1
Asphal ts ............................................................................................................................... 3-2
Tars ....................................................................................................................................... 3-6
Characteri sti cs and Uses of Bi tumens .................................................................................. 3-7
Safety Precauti ons ............................................................................................................... 3-7
Advantages and Di sadvantages ........................................................................................ 3-11
Section II. Sampling Materials......................................................................................... 3-12
Bi tumi nous Materi al s Sampl i ng (ASTM D 140-88)............................................................ 3-12
Li qui d Materi al s................................................................................................................. 3-12
v
Page
Sol i d and Semi sol i d Materi al s ...........................................................................................3-12
Aggregate Sampl i ng (ASTM D 75-87)..................................................................................3-12
Stone From Ledges and Quarri es ......................................................................................3-13
Natural Deposi ts of Sand and Gravel ................................................................................3-13
Stockpi l es ............................................................................................................................3-14
Commerci al Aggregates .....................................................................................................3-14
Section III. Field Identification........................................................................................3-14
Bi tumen Fi el d-I denti fi cati on Tests ......................................................................................3-14
Asphal ts and Tars...............................................................................................................3-16
Asphal t Cement and Cutbacks ..........................................................................................3-16
Asphal ti c-Cutback Tests ....................................................................................................3-16
Asphal t-Emul si on (Ani oni c) Tests .....................................................................................3-18
Road-Tar Tests....................................................................................................................3-18
Aggregate I denti fi cati on and Sel ecti on ................................................................................3-19
Shape and Roughness.........................................................................................................3-19
Hardness and Durabi l i ty....................................................................................................3-19
Cl eanl i ness ..........................................................................................................................3-20
Hydrophobi ci ty....................................................................................................................3-20
Gradati on ............................................................................................................................3-21
Parti cl e Si ze ........................................................................................................................3-21
Section IV. Bitumen Testing..............................................................................................3-22
Speci fi c-Gravi ty Test (ASTMs C 127-88 and C 128-93)......................................................3-22
Fl ash-Poi nt and Fi re-Poi nt Tests .........................................................................................3-24
Fl ash Poi nt and Fi re Poi nt by Cl evel and Open Cup ........................................................3-24
Fl ash Poi nt by Tag Open Cup (ASTM D 4552-87)............................................................3-25
Penetrati on Test (ASTM D 5-86)..........................................................................................3-27
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................3-27
Steps ....................................................................................................................................3-27
Resul ts.................................................................................................................................3-29
Ducti l i ty Test.........................................................................................................................3-29
Softeni ng-Poi nt Test .............................................................................................................3-30
Vi scosi ty Tests .......................................................................................................................3-30
Saybol t-Furor Test (ASTM D 244-89)................................................................................3-30
Ki nemati c-Vi scosi ty Test (ASTM D 2170-85) ...................................................................3-30
Sol ubi l i ty Test (ASTM D 2042-81) .......................................................................................3-30
Spot Test ................................................................................................................................3-31
Thi n-Fi l m Oven Test (ASTM D 1754-87).............................................................................3-31
Section V. Aggregate and Filler Testing.........................................................................3-31
Si eve Anal ysi s .......................................................................................................................3-32
Mi neral Fi l l er (ASTM D 242-85)........................................................................................3-32
Fi ne and Coarse Aggregate (Washed) (ASTMs D 1073-88, D 448-86, and D 692-88) ....3-32
Speci fi c Gravi ty .....................................................................................................................3-32
Apparent Speci fi c Gravi ty of Coarse Aggregate ...............................................................3-33
Apparent Speci fi c Gravi ty of Fi ne Aggregate (Cal i brated Fl ask)....................................3-34
Apparent Speci fi c Gravi ty of Fi ne Aggregate (Uncal i brated Fl ask)................................3-36
Speci fi c Gravi ty of Bul k-I mpregnated Aggregate.............................................................3-37
Speci fi c Gravi ty of Mi neral Fi l l er ......................................................................................3-39
Los Angel es Abrasi on Test....................................................................................................3-39
Section VI. Bituminous-Mix Design.................................................................................3-40
Hot-Mi x Desi gn Consi derati ons ...........................................................................................3-40
vi
Page
Steps ................................................................................................................................... 3-40
Vari abl es............................................................................................................................. 3-41
Bl ends ................................................................................................................................. 3-41
Opti mum Bi tumen Content ................................................................................................. 3-41
Gyratory Test Method........................................................................................................ 3-41
Marshal l Test Method (ASTM D 1559-89)........................................................................ 3-46
Surface-Area Method ......................................................................................................... 3-59
Job-Mi x Formul a .................................................................................................................. 3-60
Section VII. Plant Control.................................................................................................. 3-64
Pl ant Types ........................................................................................................................... 3-64
Hi gh-Type Bi tumi nous Pavi ng Pl ant................................................................................ 3-64
I ntermedi ate-Type Pl ants.................................................................................................. 3-66
I ni ti ati ng Pl ant Producti on .................................................................................................. 3-66
Si eve Anal ysi s .................................................................................................................... 3-66
Mi x Redesi gn ...................................................................................................................... 3-66
Control l i ng Pl ant Producti on ............................................................................................... 3-66
Gyratory Test Control ........................................................................................................ 3-67
Marshal l Test Control ........................................................................................................ 3-68
Pl ant-Control Executi on .................................................................................................... 3-69
Centri fugal -Extracti on Method (ASTM D 2172-88) ........................................................... 3-69
Purpose ............................................................................................................................... 3-69
Equi pment .......................................................................................................................... 3-69
Steps ................................................................................................................................... 3-70
Cal cul ati ons ........................................................................................................................ 3-72
Si eve Anal ysi s of Aggregate .............................................................................................. 3-72
Testi ng Tar or Tar-Rubber Mi xes ..................................................................................... 3-72
Densi ty Tests ........................................................................................................................ 3-72
Expedi ti ng the Desi gn .......................................................................................................... 3-74
Chapter 4. Concrete..................................................................................................................... 4-1
Section I. Characteristics and Identification.................................................................. 4-1
Descri pti on and Components ................................................................................................. 4-1
Cement.................................................................................................................................. 4-1
Ai r-Entrai ned Cement ......................................................................................................... 4-2
Water .................................................................................................................................... 4-3
Aggregates ............................................................................................................................ 4-3
Properti es of Concrete ............................................................................................................ 4-4
Strength ................................................................................................................................ 4-4
Durabi l i ty ............................................................................................................................. 4-5
Waterti ghtness ..................................................................................................................... 4-5
Workabi l i ty ........................................................................................................................... 4-6
Consi stency........................................................................................................................... 4-6
Uni formi ty ............................................................................................................................ 4-6
Concrete Curi ng...................................................................................................................... 4-6
Temperature......................................................................................................................... 4-6
Moi sture................................................................................................................................ 4-7
Concrete Admi xtures ........................................................................................................... 4-7
Accel erators .......................................................................................................................... 4-8
Retarders .............................................................................................................................. 4-8
Ai r-Entrai ni ng Agents ......................................................................................................... 4-8
vii
Page
Water Reducers (Pl asti ci zers)..............................................................................................4-9
Section II. Aggregate Testing..............................................................................................4-9
Stockpi l e Sampl i ng (ASTM D 75-87) ...................................................................................4-10
Gradati on Determi nati on .....................................................................................................4-10
Apparatus, Test Procedures, and Cal cul ati ons.................................................................4-11
Materi al Fi ner Than 0.75 Mi l l i meters (No. 200 Si eve) ....................................................4-11
Fi neness Modul us ...............................................................................................................4-13
Tests for Speci fi c Gravi ty, Absorpti on, and Surface Moi sture ...........................................4-13
Speci fi c Gravi ty and Absorpti on of Coarse Aggregate (ASTM C 127-88)........................4-13
Speci fi c Gravi ty of Fi ne Aggregate (ASTM C 128-93)......................................................4-15
Coarse- and Fi ne-Aggregate Absorpti on ...........................................................................4-16
Surface Moi sture.................................................................................................................4-17
Section III. Fresh-Concrete Tests.....................................................................................4-17
Sl ump Test (ASTM C 143-90a).............................................................................................4-18
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................4-18
Steps ....................................................................................................................................4-18
Suppl ementary Test Procedure .........................................................................................4-20
Ai r-Content Test (ASTM 231-97) .........................................................................................4-20
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................4-20
Steps ....................................................................................................................................4-21
Section IV. Flexural-Strength Test (Modulus of Rupture).........................................4-21
Test Beams ............................................................................................................................4-21
Formi ng the Beams (ASTM C 192-90a) ............................................................................4-21
Taki ng the Speci mens ........................................................................................................4-22
Curi ng the Beams ...............................................................................................................4-22
Fl exural -Strength Test (ASTM C 78-94) .............................................................................4-22
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................4-22
Steps ....................................................................................................................................4-22
Section V. Compressive-Strength Test............................................................................4-25
Casti ng a Concrete Cyl i nder .................................................................................................4-25
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................4-25
Steps ....................................................................................................................................4-26
Number of Speci mens .........................................................................................................4-27
Curi ng and Stori ng Cyl i nders ..............................................................................................4-27
Cappi ng Cyl i nders.................................................................................................................4-28
Determi ni ng Compressi ve Strength of a Cyl i ndri cal Speci men (ASTM C 39-96).............4-28
Equi pment...........................................................................................................................4-28
Steps ....................................................................................................................................4-29
Chapter 5. Soil Stabilization ......................................................................................................5-1
Section I. Mechanics of Soil Stabilization and Modification.......................................5-1
Stabi l i zati on ............................................................................................................................5-1
Uses of Stabi l i zati on .............................................................................................................5-1
Methods of Stabi l i zati on.......................................................................................................5-2
Modi fi cati on .............................................................................................................................5-3
Section II. Stabilizing Agents..............................................................................................5-3
Types of Stabi l i zers .................................................................................................................5-3
Cement ..................................................................................................................................5-3
Li me.......................................................................................................................................5-4
Fl y Ash ..................................................................................................................................5-4
viii
Page
Bi tumi nous ........................................................................................................................... 5-4
Combi nati on ......................................................................................................................... 5-4
Ti me Requi rements for Testi ng ............................................................................................. 5-4
Stabi l i zer Sel ecti on ................................................................................................................. 5-5
Equi pment ............................................................................................................................ 5-5
Steps ..................................................................................................................................... 5-5
Soi l Stabi l i zati on i n Frost Areas ............................................................................................ 5-6
Li mi tati ons ........................................................................................................................... 5-6
Constructi on Cutoff.............................................................................................................. 5-7
Weather ................................................................................................................................ 5-7
Pi ck-and-Cl i ck Tests ............................................................................................................... 5-7
Wet-Dry and Freeze-Thaw Tests ........................................................................................... 5-7
Preparati on........................................................................................................................... 5-8
Wet-Dry Test Procedure ...................................................................................................... 5-8
Freeze-Thaw Test Procedure............................................................................................... 5-8
Cal cul ati ons and Cri teri a .................................................................................................... 5-8
Modi fi ed Mi x Desi gn for Sandy Soi l s................................................................................... 5-10
Soi l s wi th No Materi al Retai ned on the No. 4 Si eve........................................................ 5-11
Soi l s wi th Materi al Retai ned on the No. 4 Si eve.............................................................. 5-13
Appendix A. Metric Conversion Chart................................................................................... A-1
Appendix B. The Unified Soil Classification System.......................................................... B-1
Basi s of the USCS...................................................................................................................B-1
Purpose and Scope ...............................................................................................................B-1
Defi ni ti ons of Soi l Components ...........................................................................................B-2
The Cl assi fi cati on System......................................................................................................B-2
Soi l Groups and Group Symbol s .........................................................................................B-4
I denti fi cati on of Soi l Groups................................................................................................B-8
Laboratory I denti fi cati on.....................................................................................................B-9
Major Soi l Groups ................................................................................................................B-9
Characteri sti cs of Soi l Groups Pertai ni ng to Embankments and Foundati ons ................B-15
Features on the Soi l s-Cl assi fi cati on Sheet .......................................................................B-15
Graphi cal Presentati on of Soi l s Data................................................................................B-22
Characteri sti cs of Soi l Groups Pertai ni ng to Roads and Ai rfi el ds.....................................B-23
Features on the Soi l s-Cl assi fi cati on Sheet .......................................................................B-23
Graphi cal Presentati on of Soi l s Data................................................................................B-26
Glossary.............................................................................................................................. Gl ossary-1
References...................................................................................................................... References-1
Index..........................................................................................................................................I ndex-1
ix
Page
Preface
Fi el d Manual (FM) 5-472 pr ovi des the techni cal i nfor mati on necessar y for mi l i tar y
per sonnel to obtai n sampl es and per for m engi neer i ng tests and cal cul ati ons on soi l s,
bi tumi nous pavi ng mi xtur es, and concr ete. These tests and cal cul ati ons ar e r equi r ed to
achi eve proper desi gn wi th these materi al s and adequate control over thei r use i n mi l i tary
constructi on.
Thi s manual cover s soi l s, aggr egates, bi tumi nous cements, bi tumi nous pavi ng mi xtur es,
por tl and-cemen t concr ete, and stabi l i zed soi l i ncl u di ng stabi l i zi ng agen ts such as
bi tumens, cements, l i me, fl y ash, and chemi cal modi fi er s. The manual gi ves detai l ed
i nstr ucti ons for taki ng adequate r epr esentati ve test sampl es and step-by-step procedur es
for maki ng physi cal -pr oper ti es tests and for r ecor di ng, cal cul ati ng, and eval uati ng test
resul ts. The manual expl ai ns methods for desi gni ng bi tumi nous pavi ng mi xtures and for
stabi l i zi ng soi l . I t al so gi ves the procedures and tests requi red to control the manufacture
of these mi xtur es. The manual descr i bes the tool s and equi pment for per for mi ng these
tests and contai ns general i nstructi ons for the care, cal i brati on, and use of test equi pment.
FM 5-472 i s adopted for use by Navy per sonnel . Cer tai n tests and procedures pr escri bed
di ffer i n pr i nci pl e or method and ar e mor e detai l ed than counter par t tests cur r entl y
r equi r ed by the Navy for new constr ucti on at Navy i nstal l ati ons, i ncl udi ng those i n
for war d ar eas. Al though thi s manual pr ovi des gener al gui dance for mater i al s and soi l s
testi ng, the desi gn of new str uctur es and faci l i ti es wi l l be based on the r esul ts obtai ned
fr om methods and pr ocedur es outl i ned i n Naval Faci l i ti es Engi neer i ng Command Desi gn
Manual (NAVFAC DM)-7.1 and NAVFAC DM-7.2. When methods and pr ocedur es
pr escr i bed by the Navy di ffer fr om those i n thi s manual , the Navys methods wi l l take
precedence.
The test pr ocedur es and termi nol ogy used i n thi s manual confor m to the l atest methods
and speci fi cati ons of th e Amer i can Soci ety for Testi ng and Mater i al s (ASTM), the
Ameri can Concrete I nsti tute (ACI ), and the Portl and Cement Associ ati on (PCA).
The tests l i sted i n thi s manual al so appl y to ar cti c constr ucti on. However, col d-weather
effects pr esent di ffer ent pr obl ems and addi ti onal tests wi l l be r equi r ed for cor r ect
eval uati on of the materi al s. These addi ti onal tests and the consi derati ons associ ated wi th
arcti c constructi on are i n Techni cal Manual (TM) 5-349.
Appendi x A contai ns an Engl i sh-to-metri c measurement conversi on chart.
The proponent of thi s publ i cati on i s HQ TRADOC. Send comments and recommendati ons
on Depar tment of the Ar my (DA) For m 2028 di r ectl y to Commander, USAES, ATTN:
ATSE-TD-D, Fort Leonard Wood, Mi ssouri 65473-6650.
Unl ess thi s publ i cati on states other wi se, mascul i ne nouns and pr onouns do not r efer
excl usi vel y to men.
Materials Testing Overview 1-1
Chapter 1
Materials Testing Overview
Mi l i tary engi neers devel op and mai ntai n
Transportati on faci l i ti es.
Housi ng and speci al structures.
Sani tary faci l i ti es.
Mi l i tary defenses.
Tr anspor tati on faci l i ti es i ncl ude r oads, r ai l ways, ai r por ts and l andi ng
stri ps, pi pel i nes, and harbor structures. These structures and faci l i ti es ar e
bui l t on and someti mes use the l ocal soi l , so engi neers must know the type
and char acter i sti cs of the soi l at the si te to desi gn them. For exampl e, i n
desi gni ng a road or an ai rfi el d, engi neer s must determi ne whether the soi l
can wi thstand the l oads to be transported, i ncl udi ng vehi cl e wei ghts. They
must al so determi ne whether soi l stabi l i zati on or pavi ng wi l l be needed. I f
the r oad or ai r fi el d r equi r es pavement, then the engi neer s establ i sh the
sui tabi l i ty of avai l abl e aggr egate mater i al s, si nce speed and effi ci ency of
cons tr ucti on di ctate the us e of near by s ou r ces. Bi tumi nou s pav i n g
mi xtures and portl and-cement concrete are made at or near the work si te
under the contr ol of the l ocal engi neer i ng offi cer s. The engi neer s must
desi gn the mi x and test the fi ni shed pr oducts per for mance. They must
have basi c data concer ni ng the pr oper ti es of these mater i al s to use them
effecti vel y i n constructi on. Such data are obtai ned fr om the tests descri bed
i n thi s manual .
MATERIALS TESTS
The properti es of al l materi al s are determi ned by thei r chemi cal composi ti on
and the physi cal structure i n whi ch the consti tuent compounds are arranged.
Earth mi neral s and cementi ng materi al s are very compl ex, and the nature of
the forces that bi nd them together i s poorl y understood on an atomi c or
mol ecul ar scal e. However, the strength, sti ffness, stabi l i ty, and resi stance to
wear, erosi on, or weather i ng can be deter mi ned by tests on the bul k mater i al .
Laboratory research rel ated to fi el d observati on and experi ence wi th such
materi al s enabl es engi neers to establ i sh l i mi ti ng val ues of the measured
properti es to ensure sati sfactory performance i n servi ce. Materi al s
speci fi cati ons based on thi s research gi ve such l i mi ts. Tests of representati ve
sampl es of a parti cul ar materi al avai l abl e for engi neeri ng use are made, and
the resul ts are compared to the speci fi cati ons to deci de whether the materi al
i s adequate for the i ntended appl i cati on. Materi al s tests al so are used to
i denti fy or cl assi fy mater i al s on the basi s of thei r physi cal pr oper ti es. These
tests al so provi de basi c data on the aggregates and cements necessary for the
desi gn of bi tumi nous mi xtures, stabi l i zed soi l , or portl and-cement concrete.
RETURN TO TOC
1-2 Materials Testing Overview
SOIL PROPERTIES
A soi l s physi cal characteri sti cs determi ne i ts useful ness to support traffi c or
to serve as a subgrade or foundati on materi al . These physi cal characteri sti cs
i ncl ude the
Si ze and shape of the i ndi vi dual grai ns.
Grai n-si ze di stri buti on.
Speci fi c gravi ty.
Compacti on characteri sti cs.
Properti es of many soi l s depend on moi sture content. Tests for the moi sture
l i mi ts descri be the soi l 's pl asti ci ty characteri sti cs. Strength tests, such as the
Cal i forni a Beari ng Rati o (CBR) and the unconfi ned compressi on test, measure
l oad-carryi ng capaci ty di rectl y. Tests for these properti es i ncl ude expedi ent
and del i berate testi ng procedures. The tests are used to i denti fy and cl assi fy
the type of soi l represented by the sampl es. Wi th the soi l accuratel y tested and
cl assi fi ed, i ts sui tabi l i ty for supporti ng traffi c as a subgrade, base, or
foundati on materi al or as an aggregate, fi l l er, or bi nder for mi xtures can be
eval uated. The constructi on of subgrades and bases for pavements,
embankments, and other earth structures requi res conti nual testi ng duri ng
the course of the work to adjust the mi xtures and the constructi on methods
that are needed.
CLASSIFICATIONS
Tests and eval uati ons of test resul ts are more easi l y made by usi ng a common
reference or system that has a uni versal i nterpretati on. Thus, no matter who
performs the tests or the eval uati on, the resul ts can be understood by anyone
fami l i ar wi th the system. One reference for soi l s used by mi l i tary engi neers i s
the Uni fi ed Soi l Cl assi fi cati on System (USCS). Uni fi ed soi l cl assi fi cati on i s
found i n ASTM D 2487-93. Al l soi l s are di vi ded i nto three major categori es,
two of whi ch are based on grai n si ze. Further subdi vi si on di sti ngui shes
between gravel , sand, si l t, cl ay, and organi c content and between wel l -graded
and poorl y graded soi l s. Each of these types i s symbol i zed by a combi nati on of
two or four l etters. A more detai l ed expl anati on of the USCS i s i n Chapter 2,
Secti on I , of thi s manual and i n Chapter 5 of FM 5-410.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
When engi neers have the compl eted soi l cl assi fi cati on and al l other
i nformati on requi red for the proper desi gn of an ai rfi el d or road, they can start
the desi gn. The desi gn requi rements are covered i n FM 5-430-00-1 (for roads)
and FM 5-430-00-2 (for ai rfi el ds).
BITUMENS
Bi tumi nous pavi ng mi xtures consi st of aggregates, fi l l er, and bi tumen bi nder.
Aggregate sources near the constructi on area are tested to gi ve data on
parti cl e-si ze di stri buti on and speci fi c gravi ty. These data are used i n desi gni ng
the mi x. Testi ng of bi tumi nous cements recei ved at the mi xi ng pl ant may
requi re i denti fyi ng the materi al , determi ni ng i ts sui tabi l i ty as a bi nder, or
provi di ng data for determi ni ng what aggregates and fi l l ers are requi red. The
Materials Testing Overview 1-3
tests of bi tumens descri bed i n thi s manual are fi el d-i denti fi cati on procedures
to expedi te the use of the materi al unti l more detai l ed tests can be performed.
CONCRETE
Portl and-cement concrete i s a mi xture of fi ne and coarse aggregates, portl and
cement, and water. The cement and water chemi cal l y react to form compounds
that hol d the aggregates i n a strong, rock-l i ke mass. Concrete i s made i n
mi xi ng pl ants, fi el d mi xers, or truck mi xers near or at the constructi on si te.
The qual i ty of the concrete produced depends on the proper mi x desi gn to
achi eve the desi red workabi l i ty of the fresh concrete and strength of the
hardened materi al . Thi s manual descri bes tests of aggregates and fresh and
hardened concrete, wi th i nstructi ons for usi ng test data i n mi x desi gn and
control . Detai l ed i nformati on about concrete can be found i n FM 5-428.
STABILIZATION
An accurate soi l descri pti on, determi ned from test data, i s necessary to
determi ne whether i ts properti es must be i mproved by stabi l i zati on to make i t
adequate for supporti ng traffi c or for use as a base course. Test resul ts
i ndi cate the method of stabi l i zati on and materi al s to be used and veri fy the
adequacy of the stabi l i zed soi l .
EQUIPMENT
The equi pment for al l materi al s tests gi ven i n thi s manual consi sts of three
sets:
The soi l test set.
The asphal t test set.
The concrete test set.
The soi l test set i s consi der ed the basi c set; the other two sets are used wi th i t.
I n sel ected operati ons (such as control testi ng at a concrete batch pl ant), the
concrete test set can be used wi thout the soi l test set. Certai n i tems l i sted as
part of the sets are not i ssued wi th the sets but must be requi si ti oned
separatel y. Some of the test methods (such as the speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds, the
hydrometer anal ysi s, and the shri nkage l i mi t) descri be i tems of equi pment
that are not i ssued wi th the test sets but woul d be avai l abl e l ocal l y or from
commerci al sources.
TEST SET, SOIL (SC 6635-98-CL-E02)
The soi l test set i s the basi c set for performi ng soi l tests i ncl udi ng si eve
anal ysi s, moi sture content, Atterberg l i mi ts, CBR, and soi l traffi cabi l i ty. The
separatel y packaged soi l -traffi cabi l i ty test set (SC 6635-97-CL-E01) i s
i ncl uded i n thi s set. I tems such as DA forms, penci l s, traci ng paper, l abel s and
tags, towel s, twi ne, and wax are not i ssued i ni ti al l y wi th the set but must be
requi si ti oned separatel y by stock or form number.
TEST SET, ASPHALT (SC 6635-98-CL-E03)
The asphal t test set i s i ssued i n three chests:
Laboratory-centri fuge chest.
1-4 Materials Testing Overview
Mi scel l aneous-equi pment chest.
1,1,1-tr i chl or oethane chest.
Thi s set i s not compl ete wi thi n i tsel f; ther efor e, i t must be used wi th the soi l
test set. I tems such as for ms, br ushes, cl oths, and chemi cal s (al cohol , sodi um
hydr oxi de, and 1,1,1-tr i chl or oethane) ar e not i ssued wi th the set but must be
r equi si ti oned separatel y. The 1,1,1-tri chl or oethane i s a hazar dous substance.
Numerous substi tute agents ar e avai l abl e. Consul t your i nstal l ati on
envi ronmental offi ce to fi nd out whi ch substi tute i s avai l abl e and best sui ted
to your needs.
TEST SET, CONCRETE (SC 6635-98-CL-E04)
The concrete test set i s i ssued i n three chests:
Beam-testi ng-machi ne chest.
Col l apsi bl e-steel -forms chest.
Mi scel l aneous-equi pment chest.
Thi s set normal l y i s used wi th the soi l test set. Chemi cal s, DA forms, and
some other i tems are not i ssued wi th the set but must be requi si ti oned
separatel y.
NUCLEAR MOISTURE DENSITY GAUGE
The nucl ear moi sture densi ty gauge (nati onal stock number [NSN] 6635-01-
030-6896) i s used to perform moi sture and densi ty tests. The gauge i s i ssued i n
i ts case wi th al l necessary equi pment except test forms. Forms shoul d be l ocal l y
reproduced from the Uni ted States Army Engi neer School (USAES) or from
manufacturers' sampl es. Thi s equi pment requi res speci al storage
consi derati ons and l i censi ng of operators. The Nucl ear Regul atory Commi ssi on
(NRC) requi res that any uni t that owns thi s equi pment must have a qual i fi ed
l ocal radi ati on protecti on offi cer (RPO) and a l i censed operator before i t can be
operated. I nformati on concerni ng thi s equi pment shoul d be addressed to the
USAES or to the Tank-automoti ve and Armaments Command (TACOM).
SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Safety and envi ronmental awareness must be pl anned and i ntegrated as part of
al l mi l i tary operati ons to protect personnel and the envi ronment. Some of the
tests descri bed i n thi s manual wi l l requi re speci al safety equi pment that may
not be i ncl uded i n the test sets. Some of the tests i n thi s manual wi l l requi re the
use of envi ronmental l y hazardous materi al s. Speci al care must be taken to
mi ni mi ze the potenti al harmful effects of exposure to hazardous substances.
Vi ol ati on of envi ronmental l aws through i mproper storage, handl i ng, or
di sposal of hazardous materi al s can resul t i n severe penal ti es, i ncl udi ng fi nes
and i mpri sonment. Proper trai ni ng i s necessary to ensure that al l personnel
performi ng materi al s tests know how to properl y handl e and di spose of the
substances l i sted i n the test procedures. I f you are unsure what materi al s are
hazardous or how to di spose of materi al s properl y, or i f you need trai ni ng,
consul t your uni t or post envi ronmental representati ve.
RETURN TO TOC
Soils 2-1
Chapter 2
Soils
The soi l i n an ar ea i s an i mportant consi derati on i n sel ecti ng the exact
l ocati on of a structure. Mi l i tary engi neers, constructi on supervi sor s, and
members of engi neer reconnai ssance parti es must be capabl e of properl y
i denti fyi ng soi l s i n the fi el d to determi ne thei r engi neeri ng characteri sti cs.
Because a mi l i tary engi neer must be economi cal wi th ti me, equi pment,
materi al , and money, si te sel ecti on for a pr oject must be made wi th these
factors i n mi nd.
The word soi l has numerous meani ngs and connotati ons to di fferent groups of
professi onal s who deal wi th thi s materi al . To most soi l engi neers (and for the
purpose of thi s text), soi l i s the enti r e unconsol i dated ear then mater i al that
over l i es and excl udes bedr ock. I t i s composed of l oosel y-bound mi ner al gr ai ns
of var i ous si zes and shapes. Due to i ts natur e of bei ng l oosel y bound, i t
contai ns many voi ds of var yi ng si zes. These voi ds may contai n ai r, water,
organi c matter, or di ffer ent combi nati ons of these mater i al s. Ther efor e, an
engi neer must be concer ned not onl y wi th the si zes of the par ti cl es but al so
wi th the voi ds between them and parti cul arl y what these voi ds encl ose (water,
ai r, or organi c materi al s).
SOIL FORMATION
Soi l formati on i s a conti nuous process and i s sti l l i n acti on today. The great
number of ori gi nal rocks, the vari ety of soi l -formi ng forces, and the l ength of
ti me that these forces have acted al l produce many di fferent soi l s. For
engi neeri ng purposes, soi l s are eval uated by the fol l owi ng basi c physi cal
properti es:
Gradati on of si zes of the di fferent parti cl es.
Beari ng capaci ty as refl ected by soi l densi ty.
Parti cl e shapes.
An engi neer extends soi l eval uati on by consi deri ng the effect of water acti on
on the soi l s. Wi th a compl ete eval uati on, an engi neer can determi ne whether
or not the soi l i s adequate for the project.
ROCKS
Soi l forms when rocks that are exposed to the atmosphere di si ntegrate and
decompose, ei ther by mechani cal acti on (wi nd, water, i ce, and vegetati on),
chemi cal acti on, or both. The resul ti ng materi al may remai n where i t i s
SECTION I. FORMATION, CLASSIFICATION, AND FIELD IDENTIFICATION
RETURN TO TOC
2-2 Soils
formed or i t may be transported by water, gl aci ers, wi nd, or gravi ty and
deposi ted at a di stance from the parent rock.
Geol ogi sts cl assi fy r ocks i nto thr ee basi c groups:
I gneous (for med by cool i ng from a mol ten state).
Sedi mentary (formed by the accumul ati on and cementati on of exi sti ng
parti cl es and remai ns of pl ants and ani mal s).
Metamorphi c (formed from exi sti ng rocks subjected to heat and
pressure).
STRATA
At a parti cul ar l ocati on are usual l y several l ayers (strata), one above the
other, each composed of a di fferent ki nd of soi l . Strata may be a fracti on of an
i nch or many feet thi ck. The upper l ayer i s cal l ed the topsoi l or agri cul tural
soi l si nce i t supports pl ant growth. For an adequate soi l eval uati on for
engi neeri ng uses, i denti fy al l strata to whatever depth may be affected by the
constructi on. A verti cal cross secti on through the earth, wi th the depths and
types of soi l i ndi cated, i s cal l ed a soi l profi l e.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
A soi l s physi cal properti es hel p determi ne the engi neeri ng characteri sti cs.
The fol l owi ng properti es are the basi s for the soi l -cl assi fi cati on system used i n
engi neeri ng i denti fi cati on of soi l types. The di scussi on of the physi cal
pr oper ti es of soi l focuses on the soi l par ti cl es themsel ves. The ter ms particle
and grain are used i nterchangeabl y.
Grai n si ze.
Parti cl e shape.
Gradati on.
Densi ty.
Speci fi c gravi ty.
Moi sture.
Consi stency.
Organi c soi l .
Physi cal characteri sti cs of soi l parti cl es i ncl ude si ze and shape. The
proporti ons of di fferent-si zed parti cl es determi ne an aggregate's gradati on.
Densi ty or compactness refers to the cl oseness of packi ng of soi l parti cl es; the
cl oser the packi ng, the greater the compactness and the l arger the soi l wei ght
per uni t of vol ume. Pl asti ci ty characteri sti cs of fi ne-grai ned soi l components
i ncl ude the l i qui d l i mi t (LL) and the pl asti c l i mi t (PL); shri nkage rati os; dry
strength; and unconfi ned, compressi ve strength. Speci fi c gravi ty of soi l
parti cl es ai ds i n thei r i denti fi cati on. The presence of organi c matter i s
i mportant to the engi neeri ng use of soi l s. Col or, texture, odor, structure, and
consi stency are readi l y observed factors that ai d i n soi l descri pti on.
Soils 2-3
GRAIN OR PARTICLE SIZE
Soi l s are di vi ded i nto groups based on the si ze of the parti cl e grai ns i n the soi l
mass. Common practi ce i s to di sti ngui sh the si zes by usi ng si eves. A si eve i s a
screen attached across the end of a shal l ow, cyl i ndri cal frame. The screen
permi ts smal l er parti cl es to fal l through and retai ns the l arger parti cl es on
the si eve. Si eves wi th scr een openi ngs of di ffer ent si zes (the l ar gest on the top
and the smal l est at the bottom) separate the soi l i nto parti cl e groups based on
si ze. The amount remai ni ng on each si eve i s measured and descri bed as a
percentage by wei ght of the enti re sampl e. The si ze groups that are
desi gnated by the USCS are cobbl es, gravel s, sands, and fi nes (si l t or cl ay), as
shown i n Table 2-1. Further di scussi on on these si ze groups can be found l ater
i n thi s chapter and i n Appendi x B.
GRAIN OR PARTICLE SHAPE
The shape of the parti cl es i nfl uences a soi l s strength and stabi l i ty. Two
general shapes are normal l y recogni zedbul ky and pl aty.
Bulky
The bul ky shapes i ncl ude parti cl es that are rel ati vel y equal i n al l three
di mensi ons. I n pl aty shapes, one di mensi on i s very smal l compared to the
other two. For exampl e, a thi ck book woul d be consi dered bul ky, but a page of
the book woul d be pl aty. Bul ky shapes are subdi vi ded i nto four groups:
angul ar, subangul ar, subrounded, and wel l -rounded (see Figure 2-1, page 2-4).
These four subdi vi si ons are dependent on the amount of weatheri ng that has
occurred. Cobbl es, gravel , sand, and si l t usual l y fal l i nto thi s bul ky-shape
group. These groups are di scussed i n the order of desi rabi l i ty for constructi on.
Angul ar-shaped parti cl es are those that have recentl y broken up. They are
characteri zed by jagged projecti ons, sharp ri dges, and fl at surfaces. The
i nterl ocki ng characteri sti cs of angul ar gravel s and sands general l y make
them the best materi al s for constructi on. These parti cl es are sel dom found i n
nature because weatheri ng processes normal l y wear them down i n a
rel ati vel y short ti me. Angul ar materi al may be produced arti fi ci al l y by
crushi ng, but because of the ti me and equi pment requi red for such an
operati on, natural materi al s wi th other grai n shapes are frequentl y used.
Subangul ar-shaped parti cl es have been weathered to a poi nt that the sharper
poi nts and r i dges of thei r or i gi nal angul ar shape have been wor n off. These
Table 2-1. Grain-size groups
Size Group
Sieve Size
Passing Retained On
Cobbles No maximum size* 3 inches
Gravels 3 inches No. 4
Sands No. 4 No. 200
Fines (clay or silt) No. 200 No minimum size
* In military engineering, the maximum size of cobbles is accepted as 40
inches, based on the maximum jaw opening of a rock-crushing unit.
2-4 Soils
parti cl es are sti l l very i rregul ar i n shape wi th some fl at surfaces and are
excel l ent for constructi on.
Subrounded parti cl es are those on whi ch weatheri ng has progressed even
further. Whi l e they are sti l l somewhat i rregul ar i n shape, they have no sharp
corners and few fl at areas. These parti cl es are frequentl y found i n
streambeds. They may be composed of hard, durabl e parti cl es that are
adequate for most constructi on needs.
Rounded parti cl es are those i n whi ch al l projecti ons have been removed and
few i rregul ari ti es i n shape remai n. The parti cl es approach spheres of varyi ng
si zes. Rounded parti cl es are usual l y found i n or near streambeds, beaches, or
dunes. Possi bl y the most extensi ve deposi ts exi st at the beaches where
repeated wave acti on produces al most perfectl y rounded parti cl es that may be
uni form i n si ze. They may al so be found i n ari d envi ronments due to wi nd
acti on and the resul ti ng abrasi on between parti cl es. They are not desi rabl e for
use i n asphal t or concrete constructi on unti l the rounded shape i s al tered by
crushi ng.
Platy
The pl aty shapes have one di mensi on r el ati vel y smal l compared to the other
two. They have the gener al shape of a fl ake of mi ca or a sheet of paper.
Parti cl es of cl ay soi l exhi bi t thi s shape, al though they are too smal l to be seen
wi th the naked eye. Coarse-grai ned soi l parti cl es are i ndi vi dual l y di scerni bl e
to the naked eye; fi ne-grai ned parti cl es wi th pl aty or bul ky shapes are not.
GRADATION
Gradati on descri bes the di stri buti on of the di fferent si ze groups wi thi n a soi l
sampl e. The soi l may be wel l -graded or poorl y graded.
Well-Graded Soils
Wel l -graded soi l s must have a good range of al l representati ve parti cl e si zes
between the l argest and the smal l est. Al l si zes are represented, and no one
si ze i s ei ther overabundant or mi ssi ng (see Figure 2-2).
Figure 2-1. Shapes of soil grains
PLATY
Angular Subangular
Subrounded
Rounded
BULKY
Soils 2-5
Poorly Graded Soils
Poorl y graded soi l s can be cl assi fi ed as ei ther uni forml y graded or gap graded.
A uni forml y graded soi l consi sts pri mari l y of parti cl es of nearl y the same si ze.
A gap-graded soi l contai ns both l arge and smal l parti cl es, but the gradati on
conti nui ty i s broken by the absence of some parti cl e si zes (see Figure 2-2).
DENSITY
The structure of the aggregate of soi l parti cl es may be dense (cl osel y packed)
or l oose (l acki ng compactness). A dense structure provi des i nterl ocki ng of
parti cl es wi th smal l er grai ns fi l l i ng the voi ds between the l arger parti cl es.
When each parti cl e i s cl osel y surrounded by other parti cl es, the grai n-to-grai n
contacts are i ncreased, the tendency for di spl acement of i ndi vi dual grai ns
under a l oad i s l essened, and the soi l i s capabl e of supporti ng heavi er l oads.
Coarse materi al s that are wel l -graded usual l y are dense and have strength
and stabi l i ty under a l oad. Loose, open structures have l arge voi ds and wi l l
compact under a l oad, l eadi ng to settl ement or di si ntegrati on under
foundati on or traffi c l oads.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The speci fi c gravi ty i s the r ati o between the wei ght-per-uni t vol ume of the
materi al and the wei ght-per-uni t vol ume of water at a stated temperature.
There are three ways of determi ni ng and expressi ng speci fi c gravi ty:
Speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds.
Apparent speci fi c gravi ty.
Bul k speci fi c gravi ty.
The speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds i s the method most wi del y used when testi ng
soi l s. The apparent and bul k speci fi c-gravi ty methods are used i n testi ng fi ne
and coarse aggregates. The speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds i s expl ai ned further i n
Secti on I V of thi s chapter, al ong wi th the test procedure.
Figure 2-2. Soil gradation
Well graded
Uniformly graded
Gap graded
2-6 Soils
MOISTURE
The term moi sture content (w) i s used to defi ne the amount of water present
i n a soi l sampl e. I t i s the proporti on of the wei ght of water to the wei ght of the
sol i d mi neral grai ns (wei ght of dry soi l ) expressed as a percentage.
The moi sture content of a soi l mass i s often the most i mportant factor
affecti ng the engi neeri ng behavi or of the soi l . Water may enter from the
surface or may move through the subsurface l ayers ei ther by gravi tati onal
pul l , capi l l ary acti on, or hygroscopi c acti on. Thi s moi sture i nfl uences vari ous
soi l s di fferentl y and usual l y has i ts greatest effect on the behavi or of fi ne-
grai ned soi l s. The fi ne grai ns and thei r smal l voi ds retard the movement of
water and al so tend to hol d the water by surface tensi on.
Many fi ne-grai ned soi l s made from certai n mi neral s exhi bi t pl asti ci ty (putty-
l i ke properti es) wi thi n a range of moi sture contents. These soi l s are cal l ed
cl ays, and thei r properti es may vary from essenti al l y l i qui d to al most bri ck
hard wi th di fferent amounts of moi sture. Further, cl ays are basi cal l y
i mpervi ous to the passage of free or capi l l ary moi sture. Coarse-grai ned soi l s
wi th l arger voi ds permi t easy drai nage of water. They are l ess suscepti bl e to
capi l l ary acti on. The amount of water hel d i n these soi l s i s l ess than i n fi ne-
grai ned soi l s, si nce the surface area i s smal l er and excess water tends to drai n
off.
Surface Water
Surface water from preci pi tati on or runoff enters the soi l through the
openi ngs between the parti cl es. Thi s moi sture may adhere to the di fferent
parti cl es or i t may penetrate the soi l to some l ower l ayer.
Subsurface Water
Subsurface water i s col l ected or hel d i n pool s or l ayers beneath the surface by
a restri cti ng l ayer of soi l or rock. Thi s water i s constantl y acted on by one or
more external forces.
Gravitational Pull
Water control l ed by gravi ty (free or gravi tati onal water) seeks a l ower l ayer
and moves through the voi ds unti l i t reaches some restri cti on. Thi s restri cti on
may be bedrock or an i mpervi ous soi l l ayer wi th openi ngs or voi ds so smal l
that they prevent water passage.
Capillary Action
Voi ds i n soi l may form conti nuous tunnel s or tubes and cause the water to ri se
i n the tubes by capi l l ary acti on (capi l l ary moi sture). Si nce the smal l er the
tube, the stronger the capi l l ary acti on, the water ri ses hi gher i n the fi ner soi l s
that have smal l er i nterconnected voi ds. Thi s area of moi sture above the free
water l ayer or pool i s cal l ed the capi l l ary fri nge.
Adsorbed Water and Hygroscopic Moisture
I n general terms, adsorbed water i s water that may be present as thi n fi l ms
surroundi ng separate soi l parti cl es. When soi l i s i n an ai r-dri ed condi ti on, the
adsorbed water present i s cal l ed hygroscopi c moi sture. Adsorbed water i s
present because soi l parti cl es carry a negati ve el ectri cal charge. Water i s
Soils 2-7
di pol ar; i t i s attracted to the surface of a parti cl e and bound to i t. The water
fi l ms are affected by the soi l parti cl es chemi cal and physi cal structures and
i ts rel ati ve surface area. The rel ati ve surface area of a parti cl e of fi ne-grai ned
soi l , parti cul arl y i f i t has a pl aty shape, i s much greater than for coarse soi l s
composed of bul ky grai ns. The el ectri cal forces that bi nd adsorbed water to a
soi l parti cl e al so are much greater.
I n coarse soi l s, the adsorbed l ayer of water on a parti cl e i s qui te thi n i n
compari son to the overal l parti cl e si ze. Thi s, coupl ed wi th the fact that the
contact area wi th adjacent grai ns i s qui te smal l , l eads to the concl usi on that
the presence of the adsorbed water has l i ttl e effect on the physi cal properti es
of coarse-grai ned soi l s. By contrast, for fi ner soi l s and parti cul arl y i n cl ays, the
adsorbed water fi l m i s thi ck i n compari son to the parti cl e si ze. The effect i s
very pronounced when the parti cl es are of col l oi dal si ze.
Plasticity and Cohesion
Two i mportant aspects of the engi neeri ng behavi or of fi ne-grai ned soi l s are
di rectl y associ ated wi th the exi stence of adsorbed water fi l ms. These aspects
are pl asti ci ty and cohesi on.
Pl asti ci ty i s a soi l s abi l i ty to deform wi thout cracki ng or breaki ng. Soi l s i n
whi ch the adsorbed fi l ms are rel ati vel y thi ck compared to parti cl e si ze (such
as cl ays) are pl asti c over a wi de range of moi sture contents. Thi s i s
presumabl y because the parti cl es themsel ves are not i n di rect contact wi th
one another. Coarse soi l s (such as cl ean sands and gravel s) are nonpl asti c.
Si l ts al so are essenti al l y nonpl asti c materi al s, si nce they are usual l y
composed predomi nantl y of bul ky grai ns; i f pl aty grai ns are present, they may
be sl i ghtl y pl asti c.
A pl asti ci ty i ndex (PI ) i s used to determi ne whether soi l i s cohesi ve. Not al l
pl asti c soi l s are cohesi ve. Soi l i s consi dered cohesi ve i f i ts PI i s greater than 5.
That i s, i t possesses some cohesi on or resi stance to deformati on because of the
surface tensi on present i n the water fi l ms. Thus, wet cl ays can be mol ded i nto
var i ous shapes wi thout breaki ng and wi l l r etai n these shapes. Gr avel s, sands,
and most si l ts are not cohesi ve and are cal l ed cohesi onl ess soi l s.
I n engi neeri ng practi ce, soi l pl asti ci ty i s determi ned by observi ng the di fferent
physi cal states that a pl asti c soi l passes through as the moi sture condi ti ons
change. The boundari es between the di fferent states, as descri bed by the
moi sture content at the ti me of changes, are cal l ed consi stency l i mi ts or
Atterberg l i mi ts, named after the Swedi sh sci enti st who defi ned them years
ago.
CONSISTENCY
Atterberg establ i shed four states of consi stency for fi ne-grai ned soi l s: l i qui d,
pl asti c, semi sol i d, and sol i d. The di vi di ng l i nes between these states are cal l ed
the LL, the PL, and the shri nkage l i mi t. These l i mi ts are quanti fi ed i n terms
of water content.
Liquid Limit
The LL i s the moi sture content at an arbi trary l i mi t between a soi l s l i qui d
and pl asti c states of consi stency. Above thi s val ue, a soi l i s presumed to be a
2-8 Soils
l i qui d and fl ows freel y under i ts own wei ght. Bel ow thi s val ue, i t wi l l deform
under pressure wi thout crumbl i ng, provi ded i t exhi bi ts a pl asti c state.
Plastic Limit
The PL i s the moi sture content at an arbi trary l i mi t between the pl asti c and
semi sol i d states. As a sampl e i s dri ed, the semi sol i d state i s reached when the
soi l i s no l onger pl i abl e and crumbl es under pressure. Between the LL and PL
i s the pl asti c range. The PI i s the numeri cal di fference i n moi sture contents
between the two l i mi ts (PI = LL - PL). I t defi nes a soi l 's range of moi sture
content i n a pl asti c state.
Shrinkage Limit
The shri nkage l i mi t i s the boundary moi sture content between the semi sol i d
and sol i d states. Thi s boundary i s determi ned when a soi l sampl e, upon bei ng
dri ed, fi nal l y reaches a l i mi ti ng or mi ni mum vol ume. Beyond thi s poi nt,
further dryi ng wi l l not reduce the vol ume, but may cause cracki ng.
ORGANIC SOIL
Soi l havi ng a hi gh content of organi c materi al i s descri bed as organi c soi l . I t i s
usual l y very compressi bl e and has poor l oad-mai ntai ni ng properti es.
EFFECTS OF SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Soi l characteri sti cs are a measure of a soi l 's sui tabi l i ty to serve an i ntended
purpose. General l y, a dense soi l wi l l wi thstand greater appl i ed l oads (havi ng
greater beari ng capaci ty) than a l oose soi l . Parti cl e si ze has a defi ni te rel ati on
to thi s capaci ty. Empi ri cal tests show that wel l -graded, coarse-grai ned soi l s
general l y can be compacted to a greater densi ty than fi ne-grai ned soi l s
because the smal l er parti cl es tend to fi l l the spaces between the l arger ones.
The shape of the grai ns al so affects the beari ng capaci ty. Angul ar parti cl es
tend to i nterl ock and form a denser mass. They are more stabl e than the
rounded parti cl es whi ch can rol l or sl i de past one another. Poorl y graded soi l s,
wi th thei r l ack of one or more si zes, l eave more or greater voi ds and therefore
a l ess-dense mass. Moi sture content and consi stency l i mi ts ai d i n descri bi ng a
soi l 's sui tabi l i ty. A coarse-grai ned, sandy or gravel l y soi l general l y has good
drai nage characteri sti cs and may be used i n i ts natural state. A fi ne-grai ned,
cl ayey soi l wi th a hi gh PI may requi re consi derabl e treatment, especi al l y i f
used i n a moi st l ocati on.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Soi l sel dom exi sts separatel y as sand, gravel , or any other si ngl e component i n
nature. I t i s usual l y a mi xture wi th varyi ng proporti ons of di fferent-si zed
parti cl es. Each component contri butes to the mi xtures characteri sti cs. Once
the pri nci pal characteri sti cs are i denti fi ed wi thi n thi s system (by both vi sual
exami nati on and l aboratory tests), a descri pti ve name and l etter symbol are
assi gned to the soi l .
Before soi l can be cl assi fi ed properl y, i t i s necessary to establ i sh a basi c
termi nol ogy for the vari ous soi l components and to defi ne the terms used. As
menti oned earl i er, the USCS uses speci fi c names to desi gnate the si ze ranges
of soi l parti cl es. These basi c desi gnati ons are cobbl es, gravel , sand, and fi nes
(si l t or cl ay).
Soils 2-9
CLASSIFICATION
To start the cl assi fi cati on process, become fami l i ar wi th the USCS (see
Appendi x B) and the cl assi fi cati on sheet used i n the cl assi fi cati on pr ocess (see
Table B-1, page B-2). The fi rst three col umns of the cl assi fi cati on sheet show
the major di vi si ons of the cl assi fi cati on and the symbol s that di sti ngui sh the
i ndi vi dual soi l types. Names of typi cal and representati ve soi l types found i n
each group are shown i n col umn 4. The fi el d procedures for i denti fyi ng soi l s by
general characteri sti cs and from perti nent tests and vi sual observati ons are
shown i n col umn 5. The desi red descri pti ve i nformati on for a compl ete
i denti fi cati on of a soi l i s presented i n col umn 6. Col umn 7 presents the
l aboratory cl assi fi cati on cri teri a by whi ch the vari ous soi l groups are
i denti fi ed and di sti ngui shed.
CATEGORIES
I n the USCS, soi l s are di vi ded i nto three major soi l di vi si ons: coarse-grai ned,
fi ne-grai ned, and hi ghl y organi c. Coarse-grai ned soi l s are those havi ng 50
percent or l ess materi al passi ng the number (No.) 200 si eve; fi ne-grai ned soi l s
are those havi ng more than 50 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve. Hi ghl y
organi c soi l s can general l y be i denti fi ed by vi sual exami nati on. Thi s system
recogni zes 15 soi l groups and uses names and l etter symbol s to di sti ngui sh
between these groups. The l etter symbol s used are rel ati vel y easy to
remember. They are deri ved ei ther from the terms descri pti ve of the soi l
fracti ons, the rel ati ve val ue of the LL (hi gh or l ow), or the rel ati ve gradati on
(wel l -graded or poorl y graded). Table 2-2 shows these i ndi vi dual l etter
symbol s. The symbol s are combi ned to form the group symbol s that
correspond to the names of typi cal soi l s as seen i n col umns 3 and 4 of the
cl assi fi cati on sheet. These symbol s are al so used i n combi nati on to descr i be
borderl i ne soi l s.
Coarse-Grained Soils
Coarse-grai ned soi l s are subdi vi ded i nto two di vi si ons
Gravel s and gravel l y soi l s (G).
Sands and sandy soi l s (S).
Table 2-2. Soil-classification symbols
Soil Groups Symbol
Gravel G
Sand S
Silt M
Clay C
Organic (silts and clays) O
Organic (peat) Pt
Soil Characteristics Symbol
Well graded W
Poorly graded P
Low LL (less than 50) L
High LL (50 or greater) H
2-10 Soils
A coarse-grai ned soi l i s cl assi fi ed as a gravel i f more than hal f the coarse
fracti on, by wei ght, i s l arger than a No. 4 si eve. I t i s a sand i f more than hal f
the coarse fracti on, by wei ght, i s smal l er than a No. 4 si eve. I n general , there
i s no cl ear-cut boundary between gravel l y and sandy soi l s. As far as behavi or
i s concerned, the exact poi nt of di vi si on i s rel ati vel y uni mportant. Where a
mi xture occurs, the pri mary name i s the predomi nant fracti on, i n percent by
wei ght, and the mi nor fracti on i s used as an adjecti ve. For exampl e, a sandy
gravel woul d be a mi xture contai ni ng more gravel than sand, by wei ght. I t i s
desi rabl e to further di vi de coarse-grai ned soi l s i nto three groups based on the
amount of fi nes (materi al s passi ng a No. 200 si eve) they contai n.
NOTE: If fines interfere with free-draining properties (as may occur
with plastic fines), use the double symbol (GW-GM, GW-GC, and so on)
indicating that such soils will be classed with soils having from 5 to
12 percent fines.
Less-Than-5-Percent Nonpl asti c Fi nes
These soi l s may fal l i nto the gr oups GW, GP, SW, or SP, wher e the shape of the
gr ai n-si ze-di str i buti on cur ve deter mi nes the symbol s second l etter. The ter ms
wel l graded (W) and poorl y graded (P) have been di scussed earl i er. However,
as noted above, i f the fi nes i nter fer e wi th the fr ee-dr ai nage pr oper ti es, a dual
or doubl e symbol i s used.
GW and SW groups. The GW and SW groups i ncl ude wel l -graded,
gravel l y soi l s and sandy soi l s wi th l i ttl e or no nonpl asti c fi nes (l ess
than 5 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve). The presence of the fi nes
must not noti ceabl y change the strength characteri sti cs of the coarse-
grai ned fracti on and must not i nterfere wi th i ts free-drai ni ng
characteri sti cs.
GP and SP groups. The GP and SP groups i ncl ude poorl y graded
gravel s and sands wi th l i ttl e or no nonpl asti c fi nes. These materi al s
may be cl assed as uni form gravel s, uni form sand, or gap-graded
materi al s.
More-Than-12-Percent Fi nes
These soi l s may fal l i nto the groups desi gnated GM, GC, SM, and SC. The use
of the symbol s M and C i s based on the pl asti ci ty characteri sti cs of the
materi al passi ng the No. 40 si eve. Use the LL and PI i n speci fyi ng the
l aboratory cri teri a for these groups. The symbol M i s used to i ndi cate that the
materi al passi ng the No. 40 si eve i s si l ty i n character. An M usual l y
desi gnates a fi ne-grai ned soi l of l i ttl e or no pl asti ci ty. The symbol C i s used to
i ndi cate that the bi nder soi l i s predomi nantl y cl ayey i n character.
GM and SM groups. The GM and SM groups compri se si l ty (M)
gravel s and si l ty sands wi th fi nes (more than 12 percent passi ng the
No. 200 si eve) havi ng l ow or no pl asti ci ty. For both of these groups, the
LL and PI wi l l pl ot bel ow the A l i ne on the pl asti ci ty chart or the PI
wi l l be l ess than 4. Both wel l -graded and poorl y graded materi al s are
i ncl uded i n these two gr oups. Nor mal l y these soi l s have l i ttl e to no dr y
strength, but occasi onal l y the fi ne or bi nder materi al s wi l l contai n a
natural cementi ng agent that wi l l i ncrease dry strength.
Soils 2-11
GC and SC groups. The GC and SC groups i ncl ude gravel l y or sandy
soi l s wi th fi nes (more than 12 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve) that
are more cl ay-l i ke and that range i n pl asti ci ty from l ow to hi gh. For
both of these groups, the LL and PL wi l l pl ot above the A l i ne wi th a
PI of more than 7 (see Secti on VI of thi s chapter).
Borderl i ne Soi l s
Coarse-grai ned soi l s of whi ch between 5 and 12 percent of materi al passes the
No. 200 si eve are cl assed as borderl i ne and are gi ven a dual symbol (for
exampl e, GW-GM). Si mi l arl y, coarse-grai ned soi l s of whi ch more than 12
percent of materi al passes the No. 200 si eve, and for whi ch the l i mi ts pl ot i n
the shaded porti on of the pl asti ci ty chart, are cl assed as borderl i ne and
requi re dual symbol s (for exampl e, SM-SC). I t i s possi bl e, i n rare i nstances,
for a soi l to fal l i nto more than one borderl i ne zone. I f appropri ate symbol s
were used for each possi bl e cl assi fi cati on, the resul t woul d be a mul ti pl e
desi gnati on consi sti ng of three or more symbol s. Thi s approach i s
unnecessari l y compl i cated.
I t i s best to use onl y a doubl e symbol i n these cases, sel ecti ng the two that are
bel i eved to be most representati ve of the soi l s probabl e behavi or. I n cases of
doubt, the symbol s representi ng the poorer of the possi bl e groupi ngs shoul d be
used. For exampl e, a wel l -graded sandy soi l wi th 8 percent passi ng the No.
200 si eve, wi th an LL of 28 and a PI of 9, woul d be desi gnated as SW-SC. I f the
soi l s LL and PI were pl otted i n the shaded porti on of the pl asti ci ty chart (for
exampl e, an LL of 20 and a PI of 5), the soi l woul d be desi gnated ei ther SW-SC
or SW-SM, dependi ng on the engi neers judgment from the standpoi nt of the
cl i mati c regi on.
Fine-Grained Soils
Fi ne-grai ned soi l s are subdi vi ded i nto two di vi si ons
Si l ts (M).
Cl ays (C).
Fi ne-grai ned soi l s are not cl assi fi ed on the basi s of grai n-si ze di stri buti on, but
accordi ng to pl asti ci ty and consi stency. Li ke the coarse-grai ned soi l s,
l aboratory cl assi fi cati on cri teri a are based on the rel ati onshi p between the LL
and PI desi gnated i n the pl asti ci ty chart. The L groups, whi ch have LLs l ess
than 50, and the H gr oups, whi ch have LLs greater than 50, are the two major
groupi ngs of fi ne-grai ned soi l s. The symbol s L and H have general meani ngs
of l ow and hi gh LLs, r especti vel y.
Fi ne-grai ned soi l s are further di vi ded by thei r posi ti on above or bel ow the
pl asti ci ty charts A l i ne.
ML and MH groups. Typi cal soi l s of the ML and MH groups are
i norgani c si l ts. Those that have an LL l ess than 50 are i n the ML
group; others are i n the MH group. Al l of these soi l s pl ot bel ow the A
l i ne. The ML group i ncl udes very fi ne sands; rock fl ours (rock dust);
and si l ty or cl ayey, fi ne sands or cl ayey si l ts wi th sl i ght pl asti ci ty.
Loess-type soi l s usual l y fal l i nto thi s group. Mi caceous and
di atomaceous soi l s general l y fal l i nto the MH group, but they may
extend i nto the ML group when thei r LLs are l ess than 50. Thi s i s true
2-12 Soils
of certai n types of kaol i n cl ays whi ch have rel ati vel y l ow pl asti ci ty.
Pl asti c si l ts fal l i nto the MH group.
CL and CH groups. I n these groups, the symbol C stands for cl ay,
whi l e L and H denote l ow or hi gh LLs. These soi l s pl ot above the A
l i ne and are pri nci pal l y i norgani c cl ays. The CL group i ncl udes
gravel l y, sandy, si l ty, and l ean cl ays. The CH group contai ns i norgani c
cl ays of medi um to hi gh pl asti ci ty i ncl udi ng fat cl ays, the gumbo cl ays
of the southern Uni ted States (US), vol cani c cl ays, and bentoni te. The
gl aci al cl ays of the northern US cover a wi de area i n the CL and CH
groups.
OL and OH groups. The soi l s i n these two groups are characteri zed by
the presence of organi c matter, hence the symbol O. Al l of these soi l s
general l y pl ot bel ow the A l i ne. Organi c si l ts and organi c si l t-cl ays of
l ow pl asti ci ty fal l i nto the OL group. Organi c cl ays of hi gh pl asti ci ty
pl ot i n the OH zone of the pl asti ci ty chart. Many of the or gani c si l ts,
si l t-cl ays, and cl ays deposi ted by the ri vers al ong the l ower reaches of
the Atl anti c seaboard have LLs above 40 and pl ot bel ow the A l i ne.
Peaty soi l s may have LLs of several hundred percent and wi l l pl ot wel l
bel ow the A l i ne due to thei r hi gh percentage of decomposed
vegetati on. However, an LL test i s not a true i ndi cator where a
consi derabl e porti on consi sts of other than soi l matter.
Borderl i ne soi l s. Fi ne-grai ned soi l s wi th l i mi ts that pl ot i n the shaded
porti on of the pl asti ci ty chart are borderl i ne cases and are gi ven dual
symbol s (for exampl e, CL-ML). Several soi l types that exhi bi t l ow
pl asti ci ty pl ot i n thi s general regi on on the chart where no defi ni te
boundary between si l ty and cl ayey soi l s exi sts.
Highly-Organic Soils
A speci al cl assi fi cati on i s reserved for the hi ghl y organi c soi l s (Pt), such as
peat, whi ch have many characteri sti cs undesi rabl e for use as foundati ons and
constructi on materi al s. No l aboratory cri teri a are establ i shed for these soi l s,
as they can be i denti fi ed i n the fi el d by thei r di sti ncti ve col or, odor, spongy feel ,
and fi brous textures. Parti cl es of l eaves, grass, branches, or other fi brous
vegetabl e matter are common components of these soi l s.
IDENTIFICATION OF SOIL GROUPS
The USCS i s desi gned so that most soi l s may be cl assi fi ed i nto the thr ee
pri mary or major di vi si ons (coarse-grai ned, fi ne-grai ned, and hi ghl y organi c)
by means of vi sual i nspecti on and si mpl e fi el d tests. Cl assi fi cati on i nto the
subdi vi si ons can be made by vi sual exami nati on onl y wi th some degree of
success. More posi ti ve i denti fi cati on may be made by means of l aboratory
tests on the materi al s. However, i n many i nstances a tentati ve cl assi fi cati on
determi ned i n the fi el d i s of great benefi t and may be al l the i denti fi cati on
that i s necessary, dependi ng on the purpose for whi ch the soi l i s to be used.
Methods of general i denti fi cati on of soi l s are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng
paragraphs as wel l as a l aboratory testi ng procedure. I t i s emphasi zed that
the two methods of i denti fi cati on are never enti rel y separated. Certai n
characteri sti cs can onl y be esti mated by vi sual exami nati on, and i n borderl i ne
cases i t may be necessary to veri fy a cl assi fi cati on by l aboratory tests. The
Soils 2-13
fi el d methods are enti rel y practi cal for prel i mi nary l aboratory i denti fi cati on
and may be used to advantage i n groupi ng soi l s i n such a way that onl y a
mi ni mum number of l aboratory tests need to be conducted. The fi el d methods
of cl assi fi cati on shoul d never be used as the end product for performi ng
desi gn.
FIELD IDENTIFICATION
Fi el d i denti fi cati on i s an excel l ent tool when an engi neer needs to have an
i dea of the general type of soi l bei ng deal t wi th. One excel l ent use of these
procedures i s duri ng a prel i mi nary constructi on-si te anal ysi s.
Several si mpl e tests are used i n fi el d i denti fi cati on. The number of tests
depends on the soi l type and the experi ence of the i ndi vi dual empl oyi ng them.
Experi ence i s the greatest asset i n fi el d i denti fi cati on, and l earni ng the
techni ques from an experi enced techni ci an i s the best way to acqui re
experi ence. Lacki ng such assi stance, experi ence i s gai ned duri ng l aboratory
testi ng by systemati cal l y compari ng the numeri cal test resul ts for typi cal soi l s
i n each gr oup wi th the l ook and feel of the mater i al . An appr oxi mate
i denti fi cati on can be made by exami ni ng a dry sampl e spread on a fl at surface.
Al l l umps shoul d be separated unti l i ndi vi dual grai ns are exposed. I ndi vi dual
grai ns, no matter how l arge, shoul d not be broken to a smal l er si ze si nce thi s
changes the soi l s grai n si ze and character. A rubber-faced or wooden pestl e
and a mi xi ng bowl are recommended, but separati ng the sampl e underfoot on
a smooth surface wi l l suffi ce for an approxi mate i denti fi cati on. Exami ni ng the
characteri sti cs of the parti cl es i n the sampl e makes i t possi bl e to assi gn the
soi l to one of the three pri nci pal groups. Cl assi fi cati on deri ved from these tests
shoul d be recogni zed as approxi mati ons.
An appr oxi mate i denti fi cati on of a coarse-gr ai ned soi l i s made by obser vi ng
Grai n si ze.
Gradati on.
Grai n shape.
Hardness.
Tests for i denti fyi ng the fi ne-grai ned porti ons of a soi l are performed on the
porti on of materi al that passes a No. 40 si eve. Thi s i s the same soi l fracti on
used i n the l aboratory for the LL and PL tests. I f thi s si eve i s not avai l abl e, a
rough separati on may be made by spreadi ng the materi al on a fl at surface and
removi ng the gravel and l arger sand parti cl es. Fi ne-grai ned soi l s are
exami ned pri mari l y for characteri sti cs rel ated to pl asti ci ty.
Organi c soi l s are i denti fi ed by si gni fi cant quanti ti es of organi c matter. When
decayed roots, l eaves, grasses, and other vegetabl e matter are present, they
produce a hi ghl y organi c soi l , whi ch i s usual l y dark-col ored when moi st and
has a soft, spongy feel and a di sti ncti ve odor of rotti ng organi c matter. Partl y-
organi c soi l s may contai n fi nel y di vi ded organi c matter detectabl e by col or or
odor.
2-14 Soils
TEST EQUIPMENT
Fi el d tests may be performed wi th l i ttl e or no equi pment other than a smal l
amount of water. However, accuracy and uni formi ty of resul ts wi l l be
i ncreased greatl y by properl y usi ng the fol l owi ng equi pment avai l abl e i n
nearl y al l engi neer uni ts:
A No. 4 and a No. 40 si eve. (A No. 200 si eve i s useful but not requi red.)
A di ggi ng i nstrument such as a pi ck, shovel , or entrenchi ng tool . (A
hand earth auger or posthol e di gger i s useful i n obtai ni ng sampl es
from depths a few feet or more bel ow the surface.)
A sti rrer.
A kni fe.
Several sheets of heavy, nonabsor bent paper.
A mi xi ng bowl and a pestl e (a canteen cup and a wooden dowel ).
A pan and a heati ng el ement.
Scal es or bal ances.
TEST FACTORS
The USCS consi ders three soi l properti es:
The percentage of gravel , sand, or fi nes.
The shape of the grai n-si ze-di stri buti on curve.
The pl asti ci ty.
These ar e the pr i mary factor s to be consi der ed, but other obser ved properti es,
whether made i n the fi el d or i n the l aboratory, shoul d al so be i ncl uded i n the
soi l descri pti on. The fol l owi ng i nformati on can be determi ned from fi el d
i denti fi cati on:
Col or (i n moi st condi ti on).
Grai n si ze (esti mated maxi mum grai n si ze and esti mated percent, by
wei ght, of gravel , sands, and fi nes).
Gradati on (wel l or poorl y graded).
Grai n shape (bul ky or pl aty and angul ar, subangul ar, rounded, or
subrounded).
Pl asti ci ty (nonpl asti c, l ow, medi um, or hi gh).
Predomi nant soi l type.
Secondary components.
I denti fi cati on or cl assi fi cati on symbol .
Organi c, chemi cal , or metal l i c content.
Compactness (dense or l oose).
Consi stency.
Soils 2-15
Cohesi veness (abi l i ty to hol d together wi thout cementati on).
Dry strength.
Source (resi dual or transported).
SOIL-DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
A compl ete descri pti on wi th proper cl assi fi cati on symbol s conveys more to the
user of the data than the symbol of any i sol ated porti on of the descri pti on. An
exampl e of a soi l descri pti on, usi ng the sequence and consi deri ng the
pr oper ti es, i s
Dark brown to whi te.
Coarse-grai ned (maxi mum parti cl e si ze 3 i nches; esti mated 60 percent
gravel , 36 percent sand, and 4 percent fi nes passi ng through the No.
200 si eve).
Poorl y graded (gap-graded, i nsuffi ci ent fi ne gravel ).
Subrounded to rounded gravel parti cl es.
Nonpl asti c.
Predomi nantl y gravel .
Consi derabl e sand and a smal l amount of nonpl asti c fi nes (si l t).
GP (i denti fi cati on symbol ).
Sl i ghtl y cal careous, no dry strength, dense i n the undi sturbed state.
FIELD-IDENTIFICATION TESTS
The fol l owi ng tests produce observati ons that pertai n to the USCS and permi t
fi el d i denti fi cati on as wel l as cl assi fi cati on. Tests appropri ate to the gi ven soi l
sampl e shoul d be made. Some tests appear to yi el d dupl i cate resul ts. The
purpose of these tests i s to get the best possi bl e i denti fi cati on i n the fi el d.
Thus, i f a si mpl e vi sual exami nati on wi l l defi ne the soi l type, onl y one or two
of the other tests have to be made to veri fy the i denti fi cati on. When the
resul ts from a test are i nconcl usi ve, some of the si mi l ar tests shoul d be tri ed to
establ i sh the best i denti fi cati on.
Figure 2-3, pages 2-16 and 2-17, gi ves the suggested sequence of tests for
i denti fyi ng and cl assi fyi ng a soi l sampl e usi ng the hasty fi el d procedures
descri bed i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
VISUAL TEST
Thi s test shoul d establ i sh the col or, grai n si zes, grai n shapes of the coarse-
grai ned porti on, some i dea of the gradati on, and some properti es of the
undi sturbed soi l .
Deter mi ne the col or, grai n si ze, and grai n shape of the mater i al and esti mate,
i f possi bl e, the grai n-si ze di stri buti on by vi sual exami nati on. The fol l owi ng
paragraphs provi de methods and i nformati on concerni ng i denti fi cati on of
these properti es.
2
-
1
6
S
o
i
l
s
F
M

5
-
4
7
2
/
N
A
V
F
A
C

M
O

3
3
0
/
A
F
J
M
A
N

3
2
-
1
2
2
1
(
I
)
O
G
S
GM
GC
SM
SC
M
CL
CH
Predominant
grain-size
Predominant
coarse-grain
size
Field tests
Bite/grit test
Feel test
Thread test
Wet shaking test
Hand-washing test
Field tests
Dry-strength test
Ribbon test
Shine test
Sedimentation
test
%

F

<

5
%
% F= 5 - 50%
%

F

>

5
0
%

Estimate
% sand and
% fines
(%S) (%F)
Odor
test
Select representative
sample of soil - 1 pint
(canteen full).
Perform visual
examination (color, grain-size,
and grain shape).
Separate gravel
particles 1/4 or
larger (No. 4 sieve).
Estimate
% gravel
(% G)
Figure 2-3. Suggested procedures for hasty field identification
Soils 2-17
1. Perform a visual examination of the sample.
a. Color.
b. Grain size.
c. Grain shape.
d. Contents leaves, grass, and other possible
organic material.
2. Separate the gravel.
a. Remove from the sample all particles larger
than 1/4 inch in diameter (No. 4 sieve).
b. Estimate the % G.
3. Perform the odor test.
a. Heat the sample (less gravel) with a match or
open flame.
b. If the odor becomes musty or foul smelling,
there is a strong indication that organic
material is present.
4. Perform the sedimentation test to determine the
% S.
a. Place approximately 1 inch of the sample (less
gravel) in a glass jar.
b. Mark the depth of the sample with a grease pencil.
c. Cover the sample with 5 inches of water with at
least 1 inch space to the top of the jar.
d. Cover and shake the mixture for 3 to 4 minutes.
e. Place on a flat surface and allow sand particles
to settle for 30 seconds.
f. Compare the settled material after 30 seconds to
the grease-pencil mark and estimate the percent
that has settled.
g. Determine % S for the overall sample.
% S = (% settled) x (100% - % G)
h. Determine % F for the overall sample.
% F = 100% - (% S + % G)
*5. Perform the bite or grit test. Place a pinch of the
sample between the teeth and bite.
If the sample feels gritty, the sample is silt (M).
If the sample feels floury, the sample is clay (C).
*6. Perform the feel test. Rub a portion of dry soil
over a sensitive part of the skin, such as the inside
of the wrist.
If the feel is harsh and irritating, the sample is silt (M).
If the feel is smooth and floury, the sample is clay (C).
*7. Perform the roll or thread test.
a. Form a ball of moist soil (marble size).
b. Attempt to roll the ball into a thread 1/8 inch
in diameter.
If a thread is easily obtained, it is clay (C).
If a thread cannot be obtained, it is silt (M).
*8. Perform the wet shaking test.
a. Place the pat of moist (not sticky) soil in the palm
of your hand (the volume is about 1/2 cu in).
b. Shake the hand vigorously and strike it against
the other hand.
c. Observe how rapidly water rises to the surface.
If it is fast, the sample is silty (M).
If there is no reaction, the sample is clayey (C).
*9. Perform the breaking or dry-strength test.
a. Form a moist pat 2 inches in diameter by 1/2
inch thick.
b. Allow it to dry with low heat.
c. Place the dry pat between the thumb and index
finger only and attempt to break it.
If breakage is easy, it is a silt (M).
If breakage is difficult, it is a clay of low plasticity
(CL).
If breakage is impossible, it is a clay of high
plasticity (CH).
*10. Perform the ribbon test.
a. Form a cylinder of moist soil, approximately cigar
shape and size.
b. Flatten the cylinder over the index finger with the
thumb, attempting to form a ribbon 8 to 9 inches
long, 1/8 to 1/4 inch thick, and 1 inch wide.
If 8 to 9 inches is obtained, it is (CH).
If 3 to 8 inches is obtained, it is (CL).
If less than 3 inches is obtained, it is silt (M).
*11. Perform the shine test. Draw a smooth surface,
such as a knife blade or a thumbnail, over a pat of
slightly moist soil.
If the surface becomes shiny and lighter in
texture, the sample is a highly plastic clay (CH).
If the surface remains dull, the sample is a low
plasticity clay (CL).
If the surface remains very dull or granular, the
sample is silt or sand (M).

Figure 2-3. Suggested procedures for hasty field identification (continued)
*These tests are conducted only with material that passes the No. 40 sieve.
2-18 Soils
Color
Col or hel ps i n di sti ngui shi ng between soi l types and, wi th experi ence, ai ds i n
i denti fyi ng the parti cul ar soi l type. Col or may al so i ndi cate the presence of
certai n chemi cal s or i mpuri ti es. Col or often vari es wi th the soi l s moi sture
content. Thus, the moi sture content at the ti me of col or i denti fi cati on shoul d
be i ncl uded. Some of the more fami l i ar col or properti es are stated bel ow.
Col ors i n general become darker as the moi sture content i ncreases and l i ghter
as the soi l dri es. Some fi ne-grai ned soi l (OL and OH) wi th dark, drab shades
of brown or gray (i ncl udi ng al most bl ack) contai n organi c col l oi dal matter. I n
contrast, cl ean, bri ght shades of gray, ol i ve green, brown, red, yel l ow, and
whi te are associ ated wi th i norgani c soi l s. Gray-bl ue or gray-and-yel l ow
mottl ed col ors frequentl y resul t from poor drai nage. Red, yel l ow, and
yel l owi sh-brown col ors resul t from the presence of i ron oxi des. Whi te to pi nk
may i ndi cate consi derabl e si l i ca, cal ci um carbonate, or al umi num compounds.
Grain Size
The maxi mum parti cl e si ze of each sampl e consi dered shoul d al ways be
esti mated i f not measured. Thi s establ i shes the gradati on curves upper l i mi t.
Gravel s range down to the si ze of peas. Sands start just bel ow thi s si ze and
decrease unti l the i ndi vi dual grai ns are just di sti ngui shabl e by the naked eye.
The eye can normal l y see i ndi vi dual grai ns about 0.07 mi l l i meter i n si ze, or
about the si ze of the No. 200 si eve. Si l t and cl ay parti cl es, whi ch are smal l er
than sands, are i ndi sti ngui shabl e as i ndi vi dual parti cl es.
Grain Shape
Whi l e the sampl e i s exami ned for gr ai n si zes, the shapes of the vi si bl e
parti cl es can be determi ned. Sharp edges and fl at surfaces i ndi cate an
angul ar shape; smooth, curved surfaces i ndi cate a rounded shape. Parti cl es
may not be compl etel y angul ar or compl etel y rounded. These parti cl es are
cal l ed subangul ar or subrounded, dependi ng on whi ch shape predomi nates.
Grain-Size Distribution
A l aboratory anal ysi s must be performed to determi ne accurate di stri buti on;
however, an approxi mati on can be made duri ng the vi sual exami nati on.
Per for m the fol l owi ng steps to obtai n the grai n-si ze di str i buti on:
Step 1. Separate the l arger grai ns (+4 gravel or coarse grai ns and some sand
parti cl es) from the remai nder of the soi l by pi cki ng them out i ndi vi dual l y.
Step 2. Exami ne the remai nder of the soi l , and esti mate the proporti on of
vi si bl e i ndi vi dual parti cl es (l arger than the No. 200 si eve) and the fi nes
(smal l er than the No. 200 si eve).
Step 3. Convert these esti mates i nto percentages by wei ght of the total
sampl e. I f the fi nes exceed 50 percent, the soi l i s consi dered fi ne-grai ned (M,
C, or O). I f the coarse materi al exceeds 50 percent, the soi l i s coarse-grai ned
(G or S).
Step 4. Exami ne coarse-grai ned soi l for gradati on of parti cl e si zes from the
l argest to the smal l est. A good di stri buti on of al l si zes means the soi l i s wel l
graded (W). Overabundance or l ack of any si ze means the materi al i s poorl y
graded (P).
Soils 2-19
Step 5. Esti mate the percentage of the fi ne-grai ned porti on of the coarse-
grai ned soi l .
I f l ess than 5 percent (nonpl asti c fi nes) of the total , the soi l may be cl assi fi ed
ei ther as a GW, GP, SW, or SP type, dependi ng on the other i nformati on noted
above. I f the fi ne-grai ned porti on exceeds 12 percent, the soi l i s ei ther M or C
and requi res further testi ng to i denti fy.
Fi ne-grai ned porti ons, between 5 and 12 percent (nonpl asti c fi nes or fi nes not
i nterferi ng wi th free drai nage) are borderl i ne and requi re doubl e symbol s
such as GW-GM or SW-SM.
Fi ne-grai ned soi l s (M, C, or O) requi re other tests to di sti ngui sh them further.
Grai n-si ze di stri buti on of fi ne porti ons i s not normal l y performed i n fi el d
i denti fi cati on. However, i f necessary, make an approxi mati on by shaki ng the
fi ne porti ons i n a jar of water and al l owi ng the materi al to settl e. The materi al
wi l l settl e i n l ayers of di fferent si zes from whi ch the proporti on can be
esti mated. Gravel and sand settl e i nto a much denser mass than ei ther cl ay or
si l t settl es.
Undisturbed Soil Properties
Usi ng characteri sti cs determi ned up to thi s poi nt, i t i s possi bl e to eval uate the
soi l as i t appeared i n pl ace. Gravel s or sands can be descri bed qual i tati vel y as
l oose, medi um, or dense. Cl ays may be hard, sti ff, or soft. The ease of di ffi cul ty
wi th whi ch the sampl e was removed from the ground i s a good i ndi cator. Soi l s
that have been cul ti vated or farmed can be further eval uated as l oose or
compressi bl e. Hi ghl y-organi c soi l s can be spongy or el asti c. I n addi ti on, the
soi l 's moi sture content i nfl uences the i n-pl ace characteri sti cs. Thi s condi ti on
shoul d be recogni zed and reported wi th the undi sturbed soi l properti es.
ODOR TEST
Organi c soi l s (OL and OH) usual l y have a di sti ncti ve, musty, sl i ghtl y offensi ve
odor. The odor can hel p i denti fy such materi al s. Thi s odor i s especi al l y
apparent from fresh sampl es but becomes l ess pronounced as the sampl e i s
exposed to ai r. The odor can be made stronger by heati ng a wet sampl e.
SEDIMENTATION TEST
From the vi sual -exami nati on tests, i t i s easy to appr oxi mate the pr opor ti ons of
sand and gravel i n a soi l by spreadi ng the dry sampl e out on a fl at surface and
separati ng the gravel parti cl es by hand. Separati ng the fi nes from the sand
parti cl es however, i s more di ffi cul t, al though just as i mportant. Smal l er
parti cl es settl e through water at a sl ower rate than l arge parti cl es.
To perform thi s test, pl ace about 1 i nch of the fi ne fracti on of soi l (passi ng the
No. 4 si eve) i n a transparent cup or jar. Mark the hei ght of the sampl e wi th a
grease penci l . Pl ace about 5 i nches of water i nto the jar, ensuri ng that at l east
1 i nch i s sti l l remai ni ng above the water l i ne to the top of the jar. Cover and
shake the water and soi l mi xture for 3 to 4 mi nutes. Pl ace the jar on a fl at
surface. After 30 seconds compare the l evel of materi al that settl ed to the
bottom wi th the hei ght of the ori gi nal sampl e (grease penci l l i ne). Thi s
compari son shoul d i ndi cate the proporti on of sand wi thi n the mi xture as
i ndi cated i n Table 2-3, page 2-20. For exampl e, i f the l evel of the settl ed
mater i al comes hal fway fr om the bottom of the jar to the grease-penci l l i ne
2-20 Soils
after 30 seconds, then i t can be esti mated that the amount of sand i n thi s
fracti on of the soi l i s about 50 percent.
Once thi s determi nati on i s compl ete, esti mati ng the amount of sand and fi nes
of the overal l sampl e i s made easy, provi di ng the approxi mate percentage of
gravel was obtai ned from the vi sual exami nati on. Use the fol l owi ng equati on
to determi ne the percent of sand for the overal l sampl e:
where
% S =percent of sand
% G =percent of gravel
Usi ng the i nformati on from the exampl e i n the previ ous paragraph and gi ven
the percent gravel as 40 percent, thi s equati on woul d yi el d the fol l owi ng
i nformati on:
Addi ti onal l y, once thi s i nformati on i s obtai ned, the percent of fi nes (% F) can
be determi ned by subtracti ng the percent of gravel and the percent of sand
from 100 percent as fol l ows:
The most i mportant use of the sedi mentati on test i s to di fferenti ate the coarse
(0.072 mi l l i meter ) fr acti on from the fi ne fracti on of a soi l . Si nce al l of the
parti cl es of soi l l arger than 0.072 mi l l i meter wi l l have settl ed to the bottom of
the cup or jar 30 seconds after the mi xture has been agi tated, i t fol l ows that
the parti cl es sti l l remai ni ng i n suspensi on are fi nes. Al ternati vel y, i f the water
contai ni ng the suspended fi nes i s careful l y poured i nto another jar 30 seconds
after agi tati on, i f more water i s added to the cup or jar contai ni ng the coarse
fracti on, and i f the procedure i s repeated unti l the water-soi l mi xture becomes
cl ear 30 seconds after mi xi ng, then the cup or jar wi l l contai n the coarse
fracti on of soi l onl y, and the jar contai ni ng the suspensi on wi l l hol d the fi nes.
I f the water can be wi cked or evaporated off, the r el ati ve amounts of fi nes and
sand can be determi ned fai rl y accuratel y. Otherwi se, a di rect measurement of
the settl ed-out fi nes can be obtai ned as a gui de. Thus, i n a sense, the test acts
l i ke the No. 200 si eve.
Table 2-3. Sedimentation test
Approximate Time of
Settlement Through 5
Inches of Water
Grain Diameter (mm) Differentiates
2 seconds 0.400 Coarse sand, fine sand
30 seconds 0.072 Sand, fines
10 minutes 0.030 Coarse silt, fine sand
1 hour 0.010 Silt, clay
% S percent of sand in jar (100% - %G) =
%S 50% 100% 40-% ( ) =
%S 30% =
%F 100% 40% 30% + ( ) =
%F 30% =
Soils 2-21
Di ffi cul ty may be encountered wi th many cl ay soi l s because the cl ay parti cl es
often form smal l l umps (fl occul ate) that wi l l not break up i n water. Usual l y
thi s condi ti on can be detected by exami ni ng the coarse fracti on of the soi l after
several repeti ti ons of the test. I f substanti al amounts of cl ay are sti l l present,
the sand wi l l feel sl i ppery and further mi xi ng and gri ndi ng wi th a good sti ck
wi l l be necessary to break up the l umps.
BITE OR GRIT TEST
The bi te or gri t test i s a qui ck and useful test i n i denti fyi ng sand, si l t, or cl ay.
A smal l pi nch of soi l i s ground l i ghtl y between the teeth.
The r esul ts of thi s test i ndi cate the fol l owi ng:
Sandy soi l s. The sharp, hard parti cl es of sand grate very harshl y
between the teeth and are hi ghl y objecti onabl e. Thi s i s true even of
the fi ne sands.
Si l ty soi l s. Si l t grai ns are so much smal l er than sand grai ns that they
do not feel nearl y as harsh between the teeth. They are not
parti cul arl y gri tty, al though thei r presence i s sti l l qui te unpl easant
and easi l y detected.
Cl ayey soi l s. Cl ay grai ns are not gri tty, but feel smooth and powdery
l i ke fl our between the teeth. Dry l umps of cl ayey soi l s sti ck when
l i ghtl y touched wi th the tongue.
FEEL TEST
Thi s i s a general -purpose test requi ri ng consi derabl e experi ence and practi ce
before rel i abl e resul ts can be expected. I ts use wi l l i ncrease wi th growi ng
fami l i ari ty wi th soi l s. Consi stency and texture are two characteri sti cs that
can be determi ned.
Consistency
The natural moi sture content i s an i ndi cator of the soi l drai nage whi ch may
affect thi s characteri sti c. For the consi stency test, squeeze a pi ece of
undi sturbed soi l between the thumb and forefi nger to determi ne i ts
consi stency. Consi stency i s descri bed by such terms as hard, sti ff, bri ttl e,
fri abl e, sti cky, pl asti c, and soft. Remol d the soi l by worki ng i t between the
hands and observe the resul ts. Thi s can i ndi cate the natural water content.
Cl ays that become fl ui d on remol di ng are probabl y near thei r LL. I f they
remai n sti ff and crumbl e when reworked, they are probabl y bel ow thei r PL.
Texture
Thi s term i s appl i ed to the soi l s fi ne-grai ned porti on and refers to the degree
of fi neness and uni formi ty. Rub a porti on of the soi l between the fi ngers,
observe the texture, and descri be i t as fl oury, smooth, gri tty, or sharp. To
i ncrease sensi ti vi ty, rub the soi l on a more tender ski n area, such as the i nsi de
of the wri st. Typi cal resul ts are si mi l ar to the bi te testsand feel s gri tty; si l ts,
i f dry, dust readi l y and feel soft and si l ky to the touch; and cl ays powder onl y
wi th di ffi cul ty but feel smooth and gri tl ess l i ke fl our.
2-22 Soils
ROLL OR THREAD TEST
Thi s test i s performed onl y on the materi al passi ng the No. 40 si eve. Mi x a
representati ve porti on of the sampl e wi th water unti l i t can be mol ded or
shaped wi thout sti cki ng to the fi ngers. Thi s moi sture content i s referred to as
bei ng just bel ow the sti cky l i mi t.
Prepare a nonabsorbent rol l i ng surface by pl aci ng a sheet of gl ass or heavy
waxed paper on a fl at or l evel support, shape the sampl e i nto an el ongated
cyl i nder, and rol l the prepared soi l cyl i nder on the surface rapi dl y i nto a
thread about 1/8 i nch i n di ameter. The techni que i s shown i n Figure 2-4.
I f the moi st soi l rol l s i nto a thread, i t has some pl asti ci ty. The number of ti mes
i t can be rol l ed i nto a thread wi thout crumbl i ng i s a measure of the soi l s
degree of pl asti ci ty. Materi al s that cannot be rol l ed i n thi s manner are
nonpl asti c or have a very l ow pl asti ci ty.
The resul ts of thi s test i ndi cate the fol l owi ng:
I f the soi l can be mol ded i nto a bal l or cyl i nder and deformed under
very fi rm fi nger pressure wi thout crumbl i ng or cracki ng, i t i s of hi gh
pl asti ci ty (CH).
I f the soi l can be mol ded but cracks or crumbl es wi thout breaki ng up,
i t i s of l ow pl asti ci ty (CL, ML, or MH).
I f the soi l forms a soft, spongy bal l or thread when mol ded, i t i s
organi c materi al (OL or OH), al so peat.
I f the soi l cannot be rol l ed i nto a thread at any moi sture content, i t i s
nonpl asti c soi l (ML or MH).
From the thr ead test, the cohesi veness of the mater i al near the PL may al so
be descri bed as weak, fi rm, or tough. The hi gher the soi l i s on the pl asti ci ty
chart, the sti ffer the threads are as they dry out and the tougher the l umps
are i f the soi l i s remol ded after rol l i ng.
Figure 2-4. Roll or thread test
Soils 2-23
WET SHAKING TEST
Perform the wet shaki ng test onl y on the materi al passi ng the No. 40 si eve.
For thi s test, moi sten enough materi al to form a bal l of materi al about 3/4 i nch
i n di ameter. Thi s sampl e shoul d be just wet enough that the soi l wi l l not sti ck
to the fi ngers when remol di ng or just bel ow the sti cky l i mi t.
Smooth the soi l pat i n the pal m of the hand wi th a kni fe bl ade or a smal l
spatul a. Shake i t hori zontal l y and stri ke the back of the hand vi gorousl y
agai nst the other hand. The soi l reacts to thi s test when, on shaki ng, water
comes to the surface of the sampl e, produci ng a smooth, shi ny appearance.
Thi s appearance i s frequentl y descri bed as l i very (see Figure 2-5a and 2-5b).
Squeeze the sampl e between the thumb and forefi nger of the other hand and
the surface water wi l l qui ckl y di sappear. The surface becomes dul l (see Figure
2-5c) and the materi al becomes fi rm, resi sti ng deformati on. Cracks occur as
pressure i s conti nued, wi th the sampl e fi nal l y crumbl i ng l i ke a bri ttl e
mater i al (see Figure 2-5d).
The vi brati on caused by the shaki ng of the soi l sampl e tends to reori ent the
soi l grai ns, decrease the voi ds, and force water wi thi n these voi ds to come to
Figure 2-5. Wet shaking test
a. Initial sample
b. Livery appearance
c. Squeezing the sample
d. Crumbling the sample
2-24 Soils
the surface. Pressi ng the sampl e between the fi ngers tends to di sarrange the
soi l grai ns, i ncrease the voi ds space, and draw the water i nto the soi l . I f the
water content i s sti l l adequate, shaki ng the broken pi eces wi l l cause them to
l i quefy agai n and fl ow together, and the compl ete cycl e may be repeated. Thi s
process can occur onl y when the soi l grai ns are bul ky i n shape and
noncohesi ve i n character.
Very fi ne sands and si l ts fal l i nto thi s category and are readi l y i denti fi ed by
the wet shaki ng test. Si nce i t i s rare that fi ne sands and si l ts occur wi thout
some amount of cl ay mi xed wi th them, there are varyi ng reacti ons to thi s test.
Even a smal l amount of cl ay tends to greatl y retard thi s reacti on.
A rapi d reacti on to the shaki ng test i s typi cal of nonpl asti c, fi ne sands
and si l ts.
A sl uggi sh reacti on i ndi cates sl i ght pl asti ci ty (such as mi ght be found
from a test of some organi c si l ts) or si l ts contai ni ng a smal l amount of
cl ay.
No reacti on at al l to thi s test does not i ndi cate a compl ete absence of
si l t or fi ne sand.
BREAKING OR DRY-STRENGTH TEST
Thi s test i s performed onl y on the materi al passi ng the No. 40 si eve. I t i s used
to measure the soi l s cohesi ve and pl asti c characteri sti cs. The test
di sti ngui shes between the cl ayey (C) and si l ty (M) soi l s.
Separ ate the sel ected soi l sampl e on the No. 40 si eve and pr epar e a pat of soi l
about 2 i nches i n di ameter and 1/2 i nch thi ck by mol di ng i t i n a wet, pl asti c
state. Natural sampl es may be found i n pats that are of the proper si ze but
that may yi el d i ncorrect resul ts. Thi s i s due to the vari ati ons i n the natural
dryi ng and compacti on processes. I f natural sampl es are used, the resul ts
must be treated as approxi mati ons and veri fi ed l ater.
Al l ow the pat to dry compl etel y, then grasp i t between the thumbs and
forefi ngers of both hands and attempt to break i t. See Figure 2-6 for the
proper way to hol d the pat. I f the pat breaks, powder i t by rubbi ng i t between
the thumb and forefi nger of one hand.
I f the pat cannot be broken nor powder ed by fi nger pr essur e, i t i s ver y
hi ghl y-pl asti c soi l (CH).
I f the pat can be broken wi th great effort, but cannot be powdered, i t i s
hi ghl y-pl asti c soi l (CL).
I f the pat can be broken and powdered wi th some effort, i t i s medi um-
pl asti c soi l (CL).
I f the pat breaks easi l y and powders readi l y, i t i s sl i ghtl y-pl asti c soi l
(ML, MH, or CL).
I f the pat has l i ttl e or no dry strength and crumbl es or powders when
pi cked up, i t i s nonpl asti c soi l (ML or MH) or (OL or OH).
Soils 2-25
NOTE: Dry pats of highly-plastic clays often display shrinkage
cracks. Breaking the sample along such a crack gives an indication of
only a very small part of the soils true dry strength. It is important to
distinguish between a break along such a crack and a clean, fresh
break that indicates the soils true dry strength.
RIBBON TEST
The ri bbon test i s al so performed onl y on materi al passi ng the No. 40 si eve.
The sampl e i s prepared as for the rol l or thread test unti l the moi sture content
i s just bel ow the sti cky l i mi t. Thi s test and the rol l test compl ement each other
and gi ve a cl earer pi cture of the soi l .
Form a rol l of soi l 1/2 to 3/4 i nch i n di ameter and 3 to 5 i nches l ong. Lay the
rol l across the pal m of one hand (pal m up). Starti ng at one end, squeeze the
rol l between the thumb and forefi nger over the edge of the hand to form a fl at,
unbroken ri bbon about 1/8 to 1/4 i nch thi ck. Al l ow the ri bbon as formed to
hang free and unsupported (see Figure 2-7, page 2-26). Conti nue squeezi ng
and handl i ng the rol l careful l y to form the maxi mum l ength of ri bbon that can
be supported onl y by the cohesi ve properti es of the soi l .
The r esul ts of thi s test i ndi cate the fol l owi ng:
I f the sampl e hol ds together for a l ength of 8 to 10 i nches wi thout
breaki ng, i t i s consi dered to be pl asti c havi ng a hi gh LL (CH).
I f the soi l can be ri bboned onl y wi th di ffi cul ty i nto 3- to 8-i nch l engths,
i t i s of l ow pl asti ci ty (CL).
I f the soi l cannot be ri bboned, i t i s nonpl asti c (ML) or (MH).
SHINE TEST
The shi ne test i s another means of determi ni ng the soi l s pl asti ci ty. A sl i ghtl y
moi st or dry pi ece of hi ghl y-pl asti c cl ay (CH) produces a defi ni te shi ne when
rubbed wi th a fi ngernai l or a smooth, metal surface such as a kni fe bl ade.
Lean cl ay remai ns dul l after thi s treatment (CL).
Figure 2-6. Breaking or dry-strength test
2-26 Soils

Surveyi ng soi l condi ti ons at proposed mi l i tary constructi on si tes provi des
i nformati on about the nature, extent, and condi ti on of soi l l ayers; the posi ti on
of the water tabl e and drai nage characteri sti cs; and the sources of possi bl e
constructi on materi al s. A soi l survey i s vi tal to pl anni ng and executi ng
mi l i tary constructi on operati ons. The i nformati on obtai ned from a soi l survey
i s the basi s for a projects success.
TYPES OF SOIL SURVEYS
A soi l survey consi sts of gatheri ng soi l sampl es for exami ni ng, testi ng, and
cl assi fyi ng soi l s and devel opi ng a soi l profi l e. The two types of soi l surveys
commonl y associ ated wi th mi l i tary constructi on are the hasty and del i berate
surveys.
A hasty surveymade ei ther under expedi ent condi ti ons or when ti me i s very
l i mi tedi s a type of survey that usual l y accompani es a prel i mi nary si te
anal ysi s. A del i berate survey i s made when adequate equi pment and ti me are
avai l abl e. When possi bl e, a hasty survey shoul d be fol l owed by a del i berate
survey.
Figure 2-7. Ribbon test
SECTION II. SOIL SURVEYS AND SAMPLING
Soils 2-27
HASTY SURVEY
A hasty survey shoul d be preceded by as careful a study of al l avai l abl e
sources of i nformati on as condi ti ons permi t. I f aeri al observati on i s possi bl e, a
trai ned person may observe soi l condi ti ons i n the proposed constructi on area.
Thi s gi ves a better overal l pi cture, whi ch i s often di ffi cul t to secure at ground
l evel because i mportant features may be hi dden i n rough or wooded terrai n.
Rapi d ground observati on al ong the proposed road l ocati on or at the proposed
ai rfi el d si te al so yi el ds useful i nformati on. The soi l profi l e may be observed
al ong a streams natural banks, eroded areas, bomb craters, and other exposed
pl aces. As constructi on proceeds, addi ti onal soi l studi es wi l l augment the basi c
data gai ned through the hasty survey and wi l l di ctate necessary modi fi cati ons
i n l ocati on, desi gn, and constructi on.
DELIBERATE SURVEY
A del i berate survey does not di smi ss the fact that the ti me factor may be
i mportant. Therefore, the scope of a del i berate survey may be l i mi ted i n some
cases. A del i berate survey i s often performed whi l e topographi cal data i s bei ng
obtai ned so that the resul ts of the soi l survey may be i ntegrated wi th other
perti nent i nformati on. The pri nci pal method of expl orati on used i n soi l
surveys for roads, ai rfi el ds, and borrow areas i s soi l sampl es obtai ned ei ther
by usi ng hand augers or by di ggi ng a test pi t. Other methods that may be used
are power-dri ven earth augers, soundi ng rods, or earthmovi ng equi pment
under expedi ent condi ti ons to permi t a hasty approach to the underl yi ng soi l .
OBJ ECTIVE OF A SOIL SURVEY
The objecti ve of a soi l sur vey, whether hasty or del i ber ate, i s to expl ore and
gather as much i nformati on of engi neeri ng si gni fi cance as possi bl e about the
subsurface condi ti ons of a speci fi ed area. The expl orati ons are conducted to
determi ne the
Locati on, nature, and cl assi fi cati on of soi l l ayers.
Condi ti on of soi l s i n pl ace.
Drai nage characteri sti cs.
Groundwater and bedrock.
LOCATION, NATURE, AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL LAYERS
I nformati on regardi ng the l ocati on, nature, and cl assi fi cati on of soi l l ayers i s
requi red for adequate and economi cal earthwork and foundati on desi gn of a
structure. By cl assi fyi ng the soi l s encountered, a predi cti on can be made as to
the extent of probl ems concerni ng drai nage, frost acti on, settl ement, stabi l i ty,
and si mi l ar factors. An esti mate of the soi l characteri sti cs may be obtai ned by
fi el d observati ons, but sampl es of the major soi l types and the l ess-extensi ve
deposi ts that may i nfl uence desi gn shoul d be obtai ned for l aboratory testi ng.
CONDITION OF SOILS IN PLACE
Soi l condi ti ons, such as moi sture content and densi ty of a soi l i n i ts natural
state, pl ay an i mportant part i n desi gn and constructi on. The moi sture
content may be so hi gh i n some soi l s i n pl ace that the sel ecti on of another si te
shoul d be consi dered for an ai rfi el d or other structure. I f the natural soi l i s
2-28 Soils
dense enough to meet the requi red speci fi cati ons, no further compacti on of the
subgrade i s requi red. Very compact soi l s i n cut secti ons may be di ffi cul t to
excavate wi th ordi nary tractor-scraper uni ts, so scari fyi ng or rooti ng may be
needed before excavati on.
DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS
Drai nage characteri sti cs i n both surface and subsurface soi l s are control l ed by
a combi nati on of factors, such as the voi d rati o, soi l structure and
strati fi cati on, the temperature of the soi l , the depth to the water tabl e, the
hei ght of capi l l ary ri se, and the extent of l ocal di sturbances by roots and
worms. Remol di ng a soi l al so may change i ts drai nage properti es. Coarse-
grai ned soi l s have better i nternal drai nage than fi ne-grai ned soi l s.
Observati ons of the soi l shoul d be made i n both di sturbed and undi sturbed
condi ti ons.
GROUNDWATER AND BEDROCK
Al l structures must be constructed at such an el evati on that they wi l l not be
adver sel y affected by the groundwater tabl e. The gr ade l i ne can be r ai sed or
the groundwater tabl e l owered when a structure may be adversel y affected by
capi l l ary ri se or by the groundwater tabl e i tsel f. Bedrock wi thi n the
excavati on depth tremendousl y i ncreases the ti me and equi pment requi red for
excavati on. I f the amount i s very extensi ve, i t may be necessary to change the
grade or even the si te l ocati on.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
There are many sources of i nformati on avai l abl e to soi l s engi neers, and they
shoul d al l be used to the ful l est extent to el i mi nate as much detai l ed
i nvesti gati on as possi bl e. These sources can be used to l ocate smal l areas
wi thi n a l arge general area that are sui tabl e for further i nvesti gati on. Fi el d
i nformati on requi res general observati on of road cuts, stream banks, eroded
sl opes, earth cel l ars, mi ne shafts, and exi sti ng pi ts and quarri es. A fi el d party
must obtai n rel i abl e data rapi dl y, si nce fi nal deci si ons on si te sel ecti on are
based on fi el d observati ons. These sources i ncl ude
I ntel l i gence reports.
Local i nhabi tants.
Maps.
Aeri al photographs.
INTELLIGENCE REPORTS
I ntel l i gence reports that i ncl ude maps and studi es of soi l condi ti ons usual l y
are avai l abl e for areas i n whi ch mi l i tary operati ons have been pl anned.
Among the best and most compr ehensi ve of these are the Nati onal
I ntel l i gence Surveys and Engi neer I ntel l i gence Studi es. These reports are a
source of i nformati on on geol ogy, topography, terrai n condi ti ons, cl i mate and
weather condi ti ons, and sources of constructi on materi al s.
LOCAL INHABITANTS
Local i nhabi tants (preferabl y trai ned observers), such as contractors,
engi neers, and quarry workers, may provi de i nformati on to suppl ement
Soils 2-29
i ntel l i gence reports or provi de i nformati on about areas for whi ch i ntel l i gence
reports are unavai l abl e. Data obtai ned from thi s source may i ncl ude the
possi bl e l ocati on of borrow materi al , sand and gravel deposi ts, and peat or
hi ghl y organi c soi l s, as wel l as i nformati on on the areas cl i mate and
topography.
MAPS
Maps provi de val uabl e i nformati on, especi al l y when pl anni ng a soi l survey.
Maps showi ng the sui tabi l i ty of terrai n for vari ous mi l i tary purposes,
prepared by enemy or fri endl y forei gn agenci es, may be useful . Some of the
maps that provi de di fferent types of i nformati on about an area under
i nvesti gati on are
Geol ogi cal maps.
Topographi c maps.
Agri cul tural soi l maps.
Geological Maps
Geol ogi cal maps and bri ef descri pti ons of regi ons and quadrangl es are
avai l abl e from the US Geological Survey, 1200 South Eads Street, Arlington,
Virginia 22202. General l y, the smal l est rock uni t mapped i s a formati on, and a
geol ogi cal map i ndi cates the extent of the for mati on by means of symbol i c
l etters, col ors, or patterns. Letter symbol s on the map al so i ndi cate the
l ocati ons of sand and gravel pi ts. The rear of the map sheet someti mes has a
bri ef di scussi on enti tl ed "Mi neral Resources" that descri bes the l ocati on of
constructi on materi al s.
Topographic Maps
Ordi nary topographi c maps may be hel pful i n esti mati ng soi l condi ti ons, but
they gi ve onl y a general i zed vi ew of the l and surface, especi al l y when the
contour i nterval i s 20 feet or more. Therefore, they shoul d be used wi th
geol ogi cal maps. An i nspecti on of the drai nage pattern and sl opes can provi de
cl ues to the nature of rocks, the depth of weatheri ng, soi l characteri sti cs, and
drai nage. For exampl e, si nkhol es may i ndi cate l i mestone or gl aci al
topography; hi l l s and mountai ns wi th gentl y rounded sl opes usual l y i ndi cate
deepl y weathered rocks; and paral l el ri dges are commonl y rel ated to steepl y
fol ded, bedded rock wi th hard rock al ong the ri dges. Features such as l evees,
sand dunes, beach ri dges, and al l uvi al fans can be recogni zed by thei r
characteri sti c shapes and geographi c l ocati on.
Agricultural Soil Maps
Agri cul tural soi l maps and reports are avai l abl e for many of the devel oped
agri cul tural areas of the worl d. These studi es are concerned pri mari l y wi th
surface soi l s usual l y to a depth of 6 feet and are val uabl e as ai ds i n the
engi neeri ng study of surface soi l s. For exampl e, i f the same soi l occurs i n two
di fferent areas, i t can be sampl ed and eval uated for engi neeri ng purposes i n
one area, and the amount of sampl i ng and testi ng can then be reduced i n the
second area. Maps are based on fi el d survey factors that i ncl ude the careful
study of the soi l hori zons i n test pi ts, hi ghway and rai l way cuts, auger bori ngs,
and other exposed pl aces. I nformati on on topography, drai nage, vegetati on,
2-30 Soils
temperature, rai nfal l , water sources, and rock l ocati on may be found i n an
agri cul tural report. Soi l usual l y i s cl assi fi ed accordi ng to i ts texture, col or,
structure, chemi cal and physi cal composi ti ons, and morphol ogy.
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
Aeri al photographs may be used to predi ct subsurface condi ti ons and previ ous
expl orati ons for nearby constructi on projects. The photographs ai d i n
del i neati ng and i denti fyi ng soi l s based on the recogni ti on of typi cal patterns
formed under si mi l ar condi ti ons of soi l profi l e and weatheri ng. Pri nci pal
el ements that can be i denti fi ed on a photogr aph and that pr ovi de cl ues to the
i denti fi cati on of soi l s to a trai ned observer are
Landforms.
Sl opes.
Drai nage patterns.
Erosi on patterns.
Soi l col or.
Vegetati on.
Agri cul tural l and use.
Landforms
The l andform or l and confi gurati on i n di fferent types of deposi ts i s
characteri sti c and can be i denti fi ed on aeri al photographs. For exampl e,
gl aci al forms such as morai nes, kames, eskers, and terraces are readi l y
i denti fi abl e. I n desert areas, characteri sti c dune shapes i ndi cate areas covered
by sands subject to movement by wi nd. I n areas underl ai d by fl at-l yi ng,
sol ubl e l i mestone, the ai r photograph typi cal l y shows si nkhol es.
Slopes
Prevai l i ng ground sl opes usual l y represent the soi l s texture. Steep sl opes are
characteri sti c of granul ar materi al s, whi l e rel ati vel y fl at and smoothl y
rounded sl opes may i ndi cate more pl asti c soi l s.
Drainage Patterns
A si mpl e drai nage pattern i s frequentl y i ndi cati ve of pervi ous soi l s. A hi ghl y
i ntegrated drai nage pattern frequentl y i ndi cates i mpervi ous soi l s, whi ch i n
turn are pl asti c and l ose strength when wet. Drai nage patterns al so refl ect the
underl yi ng rock structure. For exampl e, al ternatel y hard and soft l ayers of
rock cause major streams to fl ow i n val l eys cut i n the softer rock.
Erosion Patterns
Erosi on patterns provi de i nformati on from the careful study of gul l i es. The
cross secti on or shape of a gul l y i s control l ed pri mari l y by the soi l s
cohesi veness. Each abrupt change i n grade, di recti on, or cross secti on
i ndi cates a change i n the soi l profi l e or rock l ayers. Short, V-shaped gul l i es
wi th steep gradi ents are typi cal of cohesi onl ess soi l s. U-shaped gul l i es wi th
steep gradi ents i ndi cate deep, uni form si l t deposi ts such as l oess. Cohesi ve
soi l s general l y devel op round, saucer-shaped gul l i es.
Soils 2-31
Soil Color
Soi l col or i s shown on photogr aphs by shades of gray, r angi ng from whi te to
bl ack. Soft, l i ght tones general l y i ndi cate pervi ous, wel l -drai ned soi l s. Large,
fl at areas of sand are frequentl y marked by uni form, l i ght-gray tones; a very
fl at appearance; and no natural surface drai nage. Cl ays and organi c soi l s
often appear as dark-gray to bl ack areas. I n general , sharp changes i n the
tone represent changes i n soi l texture. These i nterpretati ons shoul d be used
wi th care.
Vegetation
Vegetati on may refl ect surface soi l types, al though i ts si gni fi cance i s di ffi cul t
to i nterpret because of the effects of cl i mate and other factors. To i nterpreters
wi th l ocal experi ence, both cul ti vated and natural vegetati on cover may be
rel i abl e i ndi cators of soi l type.
Agricultural Land Use
Agri cul tural l and use al so faci l i tates soi l i denti fi cati on. For exampl e, orchards
requi re wel l -drai ned soi l s, and the presence of an orchard on l evel ground
woul d i mpl y a sandy soi l . Wheat i s frequentl y grown on l oess-type soi l s. Ri ce
i s usual l y found i n poorl y drai ni ng soi l s underl ai n by i mpervi ous soi l s, such as
cl ay. Tea grows i n wel l -drai ni ng soi l s.
FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
A fi el d i nvesti gati on consi sts of the sampl i ng operati on i n the fi el d.
SAMPLING METHODS
The extent and methods of sampl i ng used depend on the ti me avai l abl e.
Mi l i tary engi neers obtai n sampl es from
The surface.
Excavati ons al ready i n exi stence.
Test pi ts.
Auger bori ngs or hol es.
I n a hasty survey, the number of test pi ts and test hol es i s kept to a mi ni mum
by usi ng exi sti ng excavati ons for sampl i ng operati ons. I n a del i berate survey,
where a more thorough sampl i ng operati on i s conducted, auger bori ngs or
hol es are used extensi vel y and are augmented by test pi ts, gover ned by the
engi neers judgment. The fol l owi ng paragraphs descri be thi s method of
sampl i ng.
Test Pit
A test pi t i s an open excavati on l arge enough for a person to enter and study
the soi l i n i ts undi sturbed condi ti on. Thi s method provi des the most
sati sfactory resul ts for observi ng the soi l s natural condi ti on and col l ecti ng
undi sturbed sampl es. The test pi t usual l y i s dug by hand. Power excavati on by
dragl i ne, cl amshel l , bul l dozer, backhoe, or a power-dri ven earth auger can
expedi te the di ggi ng, i f the equi pment i s avai l abl e. Excavati ons bel ow the
groundwater tabl e requi re pneumati c cai ssons or the l oweri ng of the water
tabl e. Load-beari ng tests can al so be performed on the soi l i n the bottom of the
2-32 Soils
pi t. Extra precauti on must be taken whi l e di ggi ng or worki ng i n a test pi t to
mi ni mi ze potenti al l y fatal earth sl i des or cave-i ns. The wal l s must be
supported or sl oped to prevent col l apse. A good rul e of thumb for sl opi ng the
pi t si des i s to use a 1:1 sl ope. For addi ti onal gui dance on excavati on, refer to
Engi neeri ng Manual (EM) 385-1-1, Secti on 23B.
Auger Boring
A hand auger i s most commonl y used for di ggi ng bori ngs. I t i s best sui ted to
cohesi ve soi l s; however, i t can be used on cohesi onl ess soi l s above the water
tabl e, provi ded the di ameter of the i ndi vi dual aggregate parti cl es i s smal l er
than the bi t cl earance of the auger. The auger bori ngs are pri nci pal l y used at
shal l ow depths. By addi ng pi pe extensi ons, the earth auger may be used to a
depth of about 30 feet i n rel ati vel y soft soi l s. The sampl e i s compl etel y
di sturbed but i s sati sfactory for determi ni ng the soi l profi l e, cl assi fi cati on,
moi sture content, compacti on capabi l i ti es, and si mi l ar soi l properti es.
Table 2-4 shows methods of underground expl orati on and sampl i ng i n a
condensed form.
PREPARING SAMPLES
The l ocati on of auger hol es or test pi ts depends on the par ti cul ar si tuati on. I n
any case, the method descri bed i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs l ocates the
mi ni mum number of hol es. The compl eteness of the expl orati on depends on
the ti me avai l abl e. A procedure i s descri bed for road, ai rfi el d, and borrow-area
i nvesti gati ons. Make soi l tests on sampl es representi ng the major soi l types i n
the area.
Fi rst, devel op a general pi cture of the subgrade condi ti ons. Conduct a fi el d
reconnai ssance to study l andforms and soi l condi ti ons i n di tches and cuts.
Techni ques usi ng aeri al photographs can del i neate areas of si mi l ar soi l
Table 2-4. Methods of underground exploration and sampling
Method
Materials in
Which Used
Method of
Advancing Hole
Sampling Method
Value for Foundation
Purposes
Auger boring
Cohesive soils and
cohesionless soils
above ground-
water elevation
Augers rotated until
filled with soil and
then removed to
surface
Samples recovered
from materials
brought up on
augers
Satisfactory for
highway exploration at
shallow depths
Well drilling
All soils, rock, and
boulders
Churn drilling with
power machines
Bailed sample of
churned material or
clay socket
Clay socket samples
are dry samples.
Bailed samples are of
no value.
Rotary drilling
All soils, rock, and
boulders
Rotating bits
operating in a
heavy, circulating
liquid
Samples recovered
from circulating
liquid
Samples are of no
value.
Test pits
All soilslowering
of groundwater
may be necessary
Hand digging or
power excavation
Samples taken by
hand from original
position in ground
Materials can be
inspected in natural
condition and place.
Soils 2-33
condi ti ons. Make ful l use of exi sti ng data i n agri cul tural spi l l maps for
l earni ng subsurface condi ti ons.
Next, determi ne subgrade condi ti ons i n the area to be used for runway,
taxi way, and apron constructi on. Thi s usual l y consi sts of prel i mi nary bori ngs
spaced at strategi c poi nts. Arbi trary spaci ng of these bori ngs at regul ar
i nterval s does not gi ve a true pi cture and i s not recommended. Usi ng these
procedures (especi al l y the techni que of i denti fyi ng soi l boundari es from aeri al
photographs) permi ts strategi c spaci ng of the prel i mi nary bori ngs to obtai n
the most i nformati on wi th the l east number of bori ngs. I n theater-of-
operati ons (TO) cut areas, extend al l hol es 4 feet bel ow the fi nal subgrade
el evati on. I n TO fi l l areas, extend al l hol es 4 feet bel ow the natural ground
el evati on. These hol es usual l y resul t i n bori ngs bel ow the depth of maxi mum
frost penetrati on (or thaw i n permafrost areas). Where the above
requi rements do not achi eve thi s resul t, extend the bori ngs to the depth of
maxi mum frost (or thaw i n permafrost areas).
Obtai n soi l sampl es i n these prel i mi nary bori ngs. After cl assi fyi ng these
sampl es, devel op soi l profi l es and sel ect representati ve soi l s for detai l ed
testi ng. Make test pi ts (or l arge-di ameter bori ngs) to obtai n the sampl es
needed for testi ng or to permi t i n-pl ace tests. The types and number of
sampl es requi red depend on the characteri sti cs of the subgrade soi l s. I n
subsoi l i nvesti gati ons i n the areas of proposed pavement, i ncl ude
measurements of the i n-pl ace water content, densi ty, and strength. Use these
to determi ne the depth of compacti on and the presence of any soft l ayers i n
the subsoi l .
I n borrow areas, where materi al i s to be borrowed from adjacent areas, make
hol es and extend them 2 to 4 feet bel ow the anti ci pated depth of borrow.
Cl assi fy and test sampl es for water content, densi ty, and strength.
Sel ect materi al and subbase from areas wi thi n the ai rfi el d si te and wi thi n a
reasonabl e haul di stance from the si te. Expl orati on procedures for possi bl e
sources of sel ect materi al and subbase are si mi l ar to those descri bed for
subgrades si nce the sel ect materi al and subbase usual l y are natural materi al s
(unprocessed). Test pi ts or l arge bori ngs put down wi th power augers are
needed i n gravel l y materi al s.
Base and pavement aggregates are materi al s that general l y are crushed and
processed. Make a survey of exi sti ng producers pl us other possi bl e sources i n
the general area. Si gni fi cant savi ngs can be made by devel opi ng possi bl e
quarry si tes near the ai rfi el d l ocati on. Thi s i s parti cul arl y i mportant i n
remote areas where no commerci al producers are operati ng and i n areas
where commerci al producti on i s l i mi ted.
RECORDING SAMPLES
The engi neer i n charge of the soi l survey i s responsi bl e for properl y surveyi ng,
numberi ng, and recordi ng each auger bori ng, test pi t, or other i nvesti gati on.
Keep a l og of each bori ng, showi ng the el evati on (or depth bel ow the surface)
of the top and bottom of each soi l l ayer, the fi el d i denti fi cati on of each soi l
encountered, and the number and type of each sampl e taken. I ncl ude other
i nformati on i n the l og that rel ates to the densi ty of each soi l , the changes i n
moi sture content, the depth to groundwater, and the depth to rock. A typi cal
2-34 Soils
bori ng l og (as recorded on Department of Defense [DD] Form 2464) i s shown
i n Figure 2-8.
OBTAINING REPRESENTATIVE SOIL SAMPLES
Pl anni ng the general l ayout determi nes the extent of the vari ous soi l types
(verti cal l y and l ateral l y) wi thi n the zone where earthwork may occur. Large
cuts and fi l l s are the most i mportant areas for detai l ed expl orati on. See
Chapter 4 for procedures on obtai ni ng soi l or aggregate sampl es from a
stockpi l e.
Pl ace bori ngs at hi gh and l ow spots, i n pl aces where a soi l change i s expected,
and i n transi ti ons from cut to fi l l . There i s no maxi mum or mi ni mum spaci ng
requi rement between hol es; however, the number of hol es must be suffi ci ent to
gi ve a compl ete and conti nuous pi cture of the soi l l ayers throughout the area
of i nterest. As a general rul e, the number of expl orati on bori ngs requi red on a
fl at terrai n wi th uni form soi l condi ti ons i s l ess than i n a terrai n where the soi l
condi ti ons change frequentl y.
Conduct expl orati on bori ngs at the poi nt of i nterest and l ocate them i n a
manner to get the maxi mum val ue from each bori ng. Thi s may requi re
expl orati on bori ngs i n the centerl i ne as wel l as edges of runways or roads, but
no speci fi c pattern shoul d be empl oyed except perhaps a staggered or offset
pattern to permi t the greatest coverage. Expl orati on bori ngs may be
conducted at the edge of exi sti ng pavements, unl ess these pavements have
fai l ed compl etel y. I n thi s case, fi nd the reason for the fai l ure.
Purpose
Conduct expl orati on bori ngs to
Obtai n i ndi vi dual soi l sampl es and a composi te sampl e by
i nvesti gati ng a borehol e/test pi t to a mi ni mum depth of 4 feet.
Prepare soi l and moi sture-content sampl es of each soi l l ayer
encountered for transportati on.
Record al l i nformati on detai l i ng the soi l s encountered, such as thei r
l ocati on i n the pi t and the pi t l ocati on wi thi n the excavati on si te, i n a
project l og book.
Before begi nni ng, ensure that di ggi ng i s permi tted at the testi ng si te.
Steps
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to obtai n a representati ve soi l sampl e:
Step 1. Locate the borehol es or test pi t. (The l ocati on of auger hol es depends
on the parti cul ar si tuati on.)
a. Draw a si te sketch recordi ng the borehol es l ocati on, el evati on, azi muth,
and di stance from a benchmark or reference poi nt.
b. Determi ne and record a number for each borehol e and record i t on the
di agram.
Step 2. Di g the borehol e or test pi t.
a. Remove the overburden.
Soils 2-35
Figure 2-8. Typical boring log
S
A
M
P
L
E
2-36 Soils
b. Extend borehol es 4 feet bel ow the fi nal subgrade el evati on i n cut areas.
c. Extend borehol es 4 feet bel ow the natural ground el evati on i n fi l l areas.
d. Make an effort to l ocate the groundwater tabl e.
NOTE: The depth may be deeper depending on the depth of thaw
penetration.
Step 3. Obtai n an i ndi vi dual soi l sampl e for each soi l l ayer encountered (see
Figures 2-9 and 2-10.)
a. Pl ace the soi l from the borehol e i n a row i n the order i t was excavated,
keepi ng soi l l ayers separated for bori ngs. I f i n a test pi t, obtai n sampl es
from each l ayer encountered.
b. Obtai n moi sture-determi nati on sampl es from each soi l l ayer, ensuri ng
that the moi sture-tare sampl e number corresponds wi th the soi l -sampl e
bag number when l abel ed.
Step 4. Obtai n data on the borehol e and record the i nformati on.
a. Determi ne the el evati on or depth bel ow the surface of the top and
bottom of each soi l l ayer encountered.
Figure 2-9. Obtaining individual bag samples
Sample No. 2 from here
Sample No. 1 from here
Soils 2-37
b. Record a descri pti on of the type of soi l encountered.
c. Record the depth of the water tabl e, i f encountered.
d. Record the depth of bedrock, i f encountered.
e. Record other perti nent facts such as borehol e number, date,
noncommi ssi oned offi cer i n charge (NCOI C), project number, and project
l ocati on.
Step 5. Bag i ndi vi dual soi l sampl es for transportati on.
a. Pl ace each soi l l ayer encountered i n separate bags. For a del i berate
survey, ensure that there i s enough materi al to perform the testi ng
requi red (at a mi ni mum, the si eve-anal ysi s, LL, PL, and compacti on
tests).
b. Label two shi ppi ng tags for each bag, i ndi cati ng the project, borehol e,
and sampl e numbers (i ndi cati ng the order i n whi ch i t was obtai ned) and
the total number of bags i ncl uded i n the sampl e.
c. Pl ace one tag i nsi de the bag and ti e the other to the outsi de when the
bag i s secured (see Figure 2-11, page 2-38).
Step 6. Take a composi te sampl e.
a. Remove any overburden or surface soi l that i s to be wasted.
Figure 2-10. Taking a composite sample with an exposed face
2-38 Soils
b. Shave off any l oose or dri ed materi al to provi de a fresh face.
c. Spread a quarteri ng cl oth or tarpaul i n at the toe of the bank.
d. Cut a channel of uni form cross secti on from top to bottom and deposi t
the soi l on the canvas.
e. Bag al l materi al that was removed to ensure that the sampl e contai ns
the appropri ate proporti ons.
NOTE: It is important that sample numbering be recorded carefully
and accurately so that the diagram borehole number, sample bags,
and moisture tares all correspond.
MOISTURE-CONTENT SAMPLES
Soi l s natural moi sture content i s determi ned from sampl es taken i n the fi el d
and pl aced i n a contai ner that i s seal ed to prevent moi sture l oss by
evaporati on. Natural moi sture-content determi nati ons are val uabl e i n
i nterpreti ng i nformati on obtai ned from test bori ngs or pi ts, i n drawi ng the soi l
profi l e, and i n esti mati ng the physi cal properti es of soi l s encountered i n the
fi el d. General l y, 100 grams of soi l are enough to determi ne the moi sture
content of fi ne-grai ned soi l s. Larger sampl es are requi red for soi l s that contai n
gr avel . The soi l test set contai ns thr ee si zes of metal di shes that have ti ght-
fi tti ng covers and do not requi re seal i ng i f the test i s made wi thi n one day
after the sampl e i s taken. I f a l onger ti me i nterval el apses between sampl i ng
and testi ng, the boxes may be seal ed by the method shown i n Figure 2-12.
Other cl ean contai ners that can be seal ed adequatel y may be used for
moi sture-content sampl es.
UNDISTURBED SAMPLES
Undi sturbed soi l sampl es are those i n whi ch the natural structures, voi d rati o,
and moi sture content are preserved as careful l y as possi bl e. They are cut,
removed, and packed wi th the l east possi bl e di sturbance. Sampl es of thi s type
are used for determi ni ng the densi ty (uni t wei ght) of soi l i n the l aboratory and
for i nvesti gati ng the strength of undi sturbed soi l s i n the l aboratory by the
CBR or unconfi ned compressi on tests. These sampl es may be shi pped to more
Figure 2-11. Labeling bag samples
Soils 2-39
compl etel y equi pped l aboratori es for shear, consol i dati on, or other strength
tests.
The types of undi sturbed sampl es are
Chunk.
Cyl i nder.
Choose the method of sampl i ng based on the equi pment avai l abl e, the tests
requi red, and the type of soi l . Handl e al l undi sturbed sampl es wi th care. Keep
cohesi onl ess soi l sampl es i n the contai ner unti l ready for testi ng. Handl e the
contai ner wi thout jarri ng or vi brati on. Some soi l s are too hard or contai n too
many stones to permi t sampl i ng wi th the cyl i ndri cal sampl ers and can be
sampl ed onl y by cutti ng out chunks by hand. Taki ng undi sturbed sampl es
frequentl y requi res a great deal of i ngenui ty i n adapti ng the sampl i ng devi ces
to job condi ti ons and i n devi si ng schemes for thei r use. Whatever method i s
used, pack the sampl e i n the contai ner for shi pment wi thout al l owi ng i ts
structure to change. Protect the sampl e agai nst change i n moi sture content
duri ng sampl i ng and shi pment.
CHUNK SAMPLES
Obtai n the si mpl est type of undi sturbed sampl e by cutti ng out a chunk of soi l
the desi red si ze; cover i t to prevent l oss of moi sture and breakage. Use thi s
method onl y wi th soi l s that wi l l not deform, break, or crumbl e whi l e bei ng
removed. Cut chunk sampl es by hand wi th a shovel and kni fe.
The pr ocess of obtai ni ng a chunk sampl e fr om a subgr ade or other l evel
sur face, such as the bottom of a test pi t, i s shown i n Figure 2-13, page 2-40.
The fi rst step i s to smooth the ground surface and mark the outl i ne of the
chunk. Excavate a trench around the chunk (see Figure 2-13a), then deepen
the excavati on and tri m the si des of the chunk wi th a kni fe (see Figure 2-13b).
Cut off the chunk at the bottom wi th a kni fe, trowel , or hacksaw bl ade, and
careful l y remove i t from the hol e (see Figure 2-13c).
To obtai n a chunk sampl e from the verti cal face of a test pi t or trench,
careful l y smooth the surface of the face and mark the outl i ne of the chunk (see
Figure 2-14, page 2-41). Excavate soi l from the si des and back of the chunk
Figure 2-12. Sealing a container to retain a samples moisture content
Wrap with
friction tape.
Dip or paint
with paraffin.
Wrap with paraffin-
coated paper or cloth.
2-40 Soils
(see Figure 2-14a). Shape the chunk wi th a kni fe (see Figure 2-14b), then cut
off the chunk and careful l y remove i t from the hol e (see Figure 2-14c).
Seal the chunk sampl e after removi ng i t from the hol e. One method i s to appl y
three coats of mel ted paraffi n (see Figure 2-15). Al l ow each coat to cool and
become fi rm before appl yi ng the next coat. Thi s gi ves adequate protecti on for
strong sampl es that are to be used wi thi n a few days. Sampl es that are weak
or that may not be used soon requi re addi ti onal protecti on. Wrap them wi th
cheesecl oth or other soft cl oth and seal them i n paraffi n (see Figure 2-16, page
2-42). I f cl oth i s not avai l abl e, rei nforce the sampl e wi th several l oops of
fri cti on tape or twi ne, and appl y three more coats of paraffi n. Use extreme
care to prevent damagi ng the sampl e whi l e performi ng these operati ons.
Figure 2-13. Taking a chunk sample from a level surface
a. Excavate trench. b. Trim sample.

c. Cut off and remove.
Soils 2-41
An al ternate method of seal i ng the chunk sampl e i s to di p the enti re sampl e i n
mel ted paraffi n after the fi rst brush coat has been appl i ed and the sampl e has
been wrapped (see Figure 2-17, page 2-42). Thi s requi res a l arge contai ner and
Figure 2-14. Taking a chunk sample from a vertical face
Figure 2-15. Applying paraffin to seal a chunk sample
a. Excavate pit and sample tunnel. b. Trim sample.
c. Cut off and remove.
2-42 Soils
more paraffi n but gi ves a more uni form coati ng. Bui l d up the l ayer of paraffi n
to a mi ni mum 1/8 i nch thi ckness by di ppi ng repeatedl y. Provi de addi ti onal
protecti on for sampl es that are to be shi pped by pl aci ng the chunk i n a smal l
box and packi ng (see Figure 2-18) or by appl yi ng many coats of cl oth and
paraffi n.
Figure 2-16. Wrapping a weak chunk sample before final sealing
Figure 2-17. Dipping a chunk sample into melted paraffin
Figure 2-18. Packing a chunk sample for transportation or shipment to laboratory
1/8 minimum of paraffin
Corrugated
cardboard box
Heavy
cord
Wood box
Sample
Slightly dampened excelsior,
sawdust, or newspaper
Soils 2-43
CYLINDER SAMPLES
Obtai n cyl i nder sampl es by usi ng a cyl i ndri cal sampl er or the CBR mol d
equi pped wi th a sampl i ng cutter. Expedi ent methods of obtai ni ng cyl i nder
sampl es are al so used.
Soil-Trafficability Sampler
The soi l -traffi cabi l i ty sampl er consi sts of a cyl i ndri cal sampl e tube and an
assembl y to force the tube i nto the soi l (see Figure 2-19). I t i s forced by hand
pressure, not by bl ows from a hammer. A movabl e pi ston i s fi tted wi thi n the
cyl i nder and attached to a rod that extends through the center of the dri ve
tube and termi nates i n a fl at di sh or basepl ate at the upper end. The outer
dri ve tube i s attached to the sampl e cyl i nder at the bottom and has two
handl es at the top. One of the handl es i s knurl ed and can be turned to l ock the
i nner rod when the pi ston i s i n posi ti on. A l ong and a short spacer bar are
bol ted to the outer tube and used to establ i sh the si ze of the sampl e core. The
sampl er shoul d not be used for other than extremel y soft and yi el di ng soi l s.
The wal l s of the cyl i nder are very thi n and can be deformed i f they come i n
contact wi th a hard object. Even hard or dry soi l can damage the sampl er. I ts
pri mary use i s for sampl es to test the remol di ng characteri sti cs i n soi l s havi ng
i ni ti al l y l ow or very l ow supporti ng val ue. Addi ti onal i nformati on on the soi l -
traffi cabi l i ty sampl er and soi l -traffi cabi l i ty test set can be found i n FM 5-430-
00-1.
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for taki ng cyl i nder sampl es usi ng a soi l -
traffi cabi l i ty sampl er:
Step 1. Adjust the pi ston so i t i s fl ush wi th the sampl er cyl i nders cutti ng edge.
Lock the knurl ed handl e.
Step 2. Pl ace the sampl er fi rml y i n contact wi th the soi l to be sampl ed.
Figure 2-19. Soil-trafficability sampler
Disc
Setscrew
Piston rod
Locking (knurled) handle Drive rod
Leather washer
Piston ring
Piston
Sampling tube
2-44 Soils
Step 3. Hol d the di sk at the top to prevent verti cal movement, unl ock the
knurl ed handl e, and force the sampl er cyl i nder i nto the soi l .
Step 4. Ensure that the cyl i nder i s ful l y i n the soi l ; then l ock the knurl ed
handl e to cl amp the pi ston, and keep the soi l sampl e from sl i ppi ng out due to
the vacuum created.
Step 5. Rotate the enti re sampl er a hal f turn to shear the soi l at the base of
the cyl i nder; then careful l y wi thdraw i t from the hol e and i nvert i t so that the
di sh becomes a basepl ate. Ther e i s a spud on the si de of the sampl er for
rel easi ng the si de fri cti on and the vacuum caused by wi thdrawi ng the sampl er
from the ground.
Step 6. Swi ng the l onger spacer bar i nto posi ti on to act as a stop whi l e the
pi ston ejects the sampl e.
Step 7. Rel ease the knurl ed handl e, and push the dri ve tube unti l the spacer
bar hi ts the basepl ate and a porti on of the sampl e i s pushed up out of the
cyl i nder.
Step 8. Cut and di scard the porti on of the sampl e fl ush wi th the cutti ng edge
of the sampl er. Thi s amount of soi l di scard offsets any uneven sheari ng at the
bottom of the hol e and gi ves the soi l sampl e a true cyl i ndri cal shape.
Step 9. Swi ng the short spacer bar i nto posi ti on and move the l ong bar out of
the way.
Step 10. Eject the soi l sampl e unti l the short bar stops the acti on. A porti on of
the soi l sampl e wi l l sti l l be i n the cyl i nder.
Step 11. Cut off the soi l sampl e fl ush wi th the sampl ers cutti ng edge i nto a
preformed pl ate made to fi t around the cutter. Use the sampl e cutter (pi ano
wi re) for thi s operati on. The sampl e i s now exactl y 1.87 i nches i n di ameter
and 3.45 i nches l ong.
Step 12. Di scard the remai ni ng soi l i n the sampl er.
Thi s sampl er can be used wi th a hand auger to obtai n cores at depths up to 48
i nches bel ow the surface. The cores are seal ed.
The soi l -traffi cabi l i ty sampl er requi res proper mai ntenance and adjustment to
produce consi stent resul ts. Keep the i nsi de of the sampl i ng tube, the pi ston
tube, the pi ston ri ng, and the l eather washer reasonabl y cl ean. After 5 to 25
sampl i ngs (dependi ng on the type of soi l ), i mmerse the tube, fi rst i n water and
then i n fuel oi l , and work the pi ston up and down fi ve or si x ti mes i n each
l i qui d. After wi pi ng off the excess fuel oi l , squi rt l i ght machi ne oi l i nto the
tube. I f the i nstrument becomes sti ff and hard to work, remove the tube,
di sassembl e and thoroughl y cl ean the pi ston, and oi l the l eather washer. Take
care i n removi ng the tube to prevent i ts sl i ppi ng from the head suddenl y and
bendi ng the pi ston rod. The tube wal l s and cutti ng edges are rel ati vel y soft
and shoul d be handl ed wi th care.
Adjust the effecti ve pi ston-rod l ength to keep the face of the pi ston fl ush wi th
the tubes cutti ng edge when the pi ston-rod handl e (di sk) i s ful l y depressed.
Do thi s by l ooseni ng the setscrew on the handl e, screwi ng the handl e up or
down to the correct posi ti on, and reti ghteni ng the setscrew.
Soils 2-45
CBR Mold
I n soft, fi ne-grai ned soi l s, cyl i nder sampl es for undi sturbed CBR or densi ty
tests may be taken di rectl y i n the CBR compacti on cyl i nder by usi ng the
sampl i ng col l ar (cutter) (see Figure 2-20). Perform the fol l owi ng steps usi ng a
CBR mol d:
Step 1. Smooth the surface of the ground and press the sampl i ng col l ar and
mol d i nto the soi l wi th moderate pressure.
Step 2. Excavate a trench around the cyl i nder (see Figure 2-21).
Step 3. Press the mol d down fi rml y over the soi l agai n, usi ng the hand dri ver
or l oadi ng bar i f necessary (see Figure 2-22, page 2-46). A l oadi ng bar may be
i mprovi sed from any pi ece of ti mber of sui tabl e si ze.
Step 4. Tri m the soi l away from the sampl i ng col l ar wi th a kni fe, cutti ng
downward and outward to avoi d cutti ng i nto the sampl e. The actual cutti ng to
si ze i s done wi th the sampl i ng col l ar. The sampl er may be forced down wi th
the truck jack, i f avai l abl e. I n ei ther case, do not force the sampl er down
ahead of the tri mmi ng on the outsi de of the cyl i nder.
Figure 2-20. Section through CBR mold
Figure 2-21. Trench excavated around cylinder
Extension collar CBR compaction mold
Cutting edge Sampling collar
2-46 Soils
Step 5. Excavate the tr ench deeper and r epeat the pr ocess unti l the soi l
penetrates wel l i nto the extensi on col l ar (see Figure 2-23). I f stones i nterfere,
pi ck them out careful l y and fi l l the space wi th soi l . Record thi s fact i n the l og
of the sampl e where i t i s perti nent.
Step 6. Cut the sampl e off at the bottom of the mol d usi ng a shovel , kni fe, or
wi re saw (see Figure 2-24).
Step 7. Remove the mol d and sampl e from the hol e.
Step 8. Remove the upper col l ar, and tri m the top surface of the sampl e about
1/2 i nch down i nto the mol d. Fi l l thi s recess wi th paraffi n to seal the end of the
sampl e (see Figure 2-25).
Figure 2-22. Using load bar to drive cylinder
Figure 2-23. Cylinder in position before cutting sample
Loading bar Trim out and down
Soils 2-47
Step 9. Turn the mol d over and remove the cutti ng edge. Tri m thi s end down
i nto the mol d about 1/2 i nch, as before, and fi l l the resul ti ng space wi th
paraffi n. I f the sampl e i s to be handl ed very much before testi ng, overfi l l the
ends wi th paraffi n and then tri m i t exactl y fl ush wi th a strai ghtedge.
Step 10. Pl ace boards over each end, and cl amp them i n pl ace usi ng bol ts,
wi re, or stri ng (see Figure 2-26, page 2-48).
Step 11. Wrap the sampl es i n cl oth, and soak them i n paraffi n l ayers i f they
must be transported some di stance or i f they have to be handl ed qui te a bi t
before testi ng.
Figure 2-24. Cutting off cylindrical sample
Figure 2-25. Cylinder in position before cutting sample
Shovel
2-48 Soils
QUARTERING SAMPLES
The process of reduci ng a representati ve sampl e to a conveni ent si ze, or of
di vi di ng a sampl e i nto two or more smal l er sampl es for testi ng, i s cal l ed
quarteri ng. The procedure to be used vari es somewhat, dependi ng on the si ze
of the sampl e.
SAMPLES WEIGHING OVER 100 POUNDS
Quar ter i ng a sampl e i n excess of 100 pounds i s shown i n Figure 2-27. Fi r st,
mi x the sampl e and pi l e i t on the quar ter i ng canvas (see Figure 2-27a).
Pl ace each shovel ful i n the center of the cone so that the soi l runs down evenl y
i n al l di recti ons to mi x the sampl e. Fl atten the cone wi th the shovel , spreadi ng
the materi al to a ci rcul ar l ayer of uni form thi ckness (see Figure 2-27b). I nsert
a sti ck or pi pe under the center of the pi l e (under the canvas) and l i ft both
ends of the sti ck, thus di vi di ng the sampl e i nto two parts (see Figure 2-27c).
Remove the sti ck, l eavi ng a fol d i n the canvas. I nsert the sti ck under the pi l e
(thi s ti me at ri ght angl es to the fi rst di vi si on) and l i ft agai n, di vi di ng the
sampl e i nto four parts (see Figure 2-27d). Di scard the two di agonal l y opposi te
quarters and careful l y cl ean the fi nes from the canvas. Remi x the remai ni ng
materi al by taki ng al ternate shovel ful s from each quarter. Repeat the
quarteri ng process as necessary to reduce the sampl e to the desi red si ze.
SAMPLES WEIGHING 25 TO 100 POUNDS
To quarter sampl es wei ghi ng 25 to 100 pounds, pi l e the soi l on the canvas and
mi x i t by al ternatel y l i fti ng the corners of the canvas and pul l i ng over the
sampl es as i f prepari ng to fol d the canvas di agonal l y, as i l l ustrated i n Figure
2-28, page 2-50. Then fl atten and quarter the sampl e.
Figure 2-26. Protecting a sample in a CBR mold
Soils 2-49
Figure 2-27. Samples weighing more than 100 pounds
a. Mixing and piling a sample weighing
more than 100 pounds
b. Flattening sample to uniform thickness
c. Halving the sample
d. Quartering the sample
Discard
Discard
2-50 Soils
SAMPLES WEIGHING LESS THAN 25 POUNDS
The process of quarteri ng sampl es l ess than 25 pounds i s si mi l ar to the
process for 100 pounds and more. Pl ace the sampl e on the canvas or a cl ean
sheet of paper. Mi x i t thoroughl y wi th a trowel and form i t i nto a coni cal pi l e
(see Figure 2-29a). Fl atten the cone by pressi ng downward wi th the trowel
(see Figure 2-29b). Use the trowel to di vi de the sampl e i nto quarters. Di scard
di agonal l y opposi te quarters (see Figure 2-29c). Repeat the process as
necessary to reduce the si ze of the sampl e for testi ng.
THE SOIL PROFILE
Keep a detai l ed fi el d l og of each auger bori ng or test pi t made duri ng the soi l
survey. After compl eti ng the survey, consol i date the i nformati on contai ned i n
the separate l ogs. I n addi ti on to the cl assi fi cati on and depth of soi l l ayers
recorded i n each l og, show the natural water contents of fi ne-grai ned soi l s
al ong the si de of each l og. Al so note the el evati on of the groundwater tabl e.
Determi ne the el evati on duri ng the soi l survey by observi ng the l evel at whi ch
free water stands i n the bori ngs. To get an accurate determi nati on, cover hol es
and i nspect them 24 hours after bei ng dug. Thi s al l ows the water to reach i ts
maxi mum l evel . The soi l profi l e i s a graph of a verti cal cross secti on of the soi l
l ayers from the surface of the earth downward (see Figure 2-30, page 2-52).
PURPOSE
The soi l profi l e has many practi cal uses i n l ocati ng, desi gni ng, and
constructi ng roads, ai rfi el ds, and structures. I t has a great i nfl uence i n the
l ocati on of the grade l i ne, whi ch shoul d be pl aced to take ful l advantage of the
best soi l s avai l abl e at the si te. The profi l e shows whether soi l s to be excavated
are sui tabl e for use i n embankments or i f borrow soi l s are requi red. I t may
show the exi stence of undesi rabl e condi ti ons, such as peat or organi c matter or
bedrock cl ose to the surface, whi ch wi l l requi re speci al constructi on measures.
I t ai ds i n pl anni ng drai nage faci l i ti es to take advantage of the presence of
wel l -drai ni ng soi l s. I t may i ndi cate that speci al drai nage i nstal l ati ons wi l l be
needed wi th soi l s that are di ffi cul t to drai n, parti cul arl y i n areas where the
Figure 2-28. Mixing a sample weighing 25 to 100 pounds
Soils 2-51
water tabl e i s hi gh. Consi derati ons for capi l l ary and frost acti on may be
parti cul arl y i mportant when frost-suscepti bl e soi l s are shown on the profi l e.
The soi l profi l e, i ncl udi ng the l egend, wi l l show each soi l l ayer, water tabl e,
and the rel ati ve el evati on to wi thi n 1 foot. Locate the hol es hori zontal l y to
wi thi n one hal f of the smal l est di mensi on of the scal e used. The bor ehol es wi l l
be sketched i n wi th appropri ate soi l symbol hatchi ngs for each l ayer.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems i n a l aboratory envi ronment to obtai n a soi l profi l e:
Bori ng l ogs.
Graph paper.
Penci l s.
A strai ghtedge.
FM 5-430-00-1.
Figure 2-29. Mixing a sample weighing less than 25 pounds
a. Piling a small sample
b. Flattening a small sample
c. Quartering the sample
Discard
Discard
2-52 Soils
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to obtai n a soi l profi l e:
Step 1. Determi ne the scal es to be used (see Figure 2-31).
a. Determi ne and l abel (al ong the l eft si de of the graph paper) the verti cal
scal e representi ng the hi ghest and l owest el evati ons found i n the bore
l ogs.
b. Determi ne and l abel (al ong the bottom of the graph paper) the
hori zontal scal e representi ng the stati ons that cover the area where
bori ngs have been made.
Step 2. Pl ot the borehol es and mark the depth for each soi l l ayer of each
borehol e.
Step 3. Draw the representi ng soi l hatchi ng symbol for each soi l l ayer. The
symbol s taken from bore l ogs are l ocated i n FM 5-430-00-1.
Step 4. Connect the soi l l ayers from borehol e to borehol e wi th a sol i d l i ne.
Connect the bottoms of the borehol es wi th a dashed l i ne.
Step 5. Label each soi l l ayer wi th a soi l -group symbol i n the USCS and a col or
(use the symbol s from Table B-2, pages B-6 and B-7, or Table B-3, pages B-16
and B-17).
Figure 2-30. Typical soil profile
Soils 2-53
F
i
g
u
r
e

2
-
3
1
.
S
o
i
l
-
p
r
o
f
i
l
e

s
c
a
l
e
s
2-54 Soils
Step 6. Pl ot the depth of water at each borehol e and connect the poi nts (wi th a
sol i d, heavy l i ne) together showi ng the water-tabl e profi l e.
Step 7. Pl ace the l egend i n a corner of the graph paper, i ncl udi ng the
fol l owi ng:
a. The hori zontal and verti cal scal es.
b. The l i ne symbol for the water tabl e.
c. The project ti tl e and l ocati on.
d. The name of the preparer and the date prepared.
The soi l s moi sture content (al so referred to as water content) i s an i ndi cator of
the amount of water present i n a soi l . By defi ni ti on, moi sture content i s the
rati o of the wei ght of water i n a sampl e to the wei ght of sol i ds (oven-dri ed) i n
the sampl e, expressed as a percentage (w).
where
w =moisture content of the soil (expressed as a percentage)
Ww =weight of water in the soil sample
Ws =weight of oven-dried-soil solids in the sample
Wi th many soi l s, cl ose control of moi sture content duri ng fi el d compacti on by
rol l i ng i s necessary to devel op a requi red densi ty and strength i n the soi l
mass. The amount of compacti on effort that must be exerted to obtai n a
speci fi ed densi ty depends on havi ng the moi sture content at or very cl ose to
opti mum. Because the speci fi ed densi ty i s i n terms of dry uni t wei ght, the
moi sture content must be determi ned wi th the wet uni t wei ght to determi ne
whether moi sture must be added or removed from the i n-pl ace soi l to achi eve
the opti mum moi sture content (OMC). Thi s i s a necessary fi el d procedure i n
constructi ng embankments and compacti ng hi ghway subgrades, si nce
moi sture-content adjustments are known promptl y and oven-dryi ng ti me i s
not al ways afforded.
There are several methods of determi ni ng the moi sture content of soi l s,
i ncl udi ng the
Oven-dry method (ASTM D 2216-90).
Mi crowave-oven method (ASTM D 4643-87).
Cal ci um-carbi de-gas pressure method (Ameri can Associ ati on of State
Hi ghway and Transportati on Offi ci al s [AASHTO] T 217-1986).
Nucl ear-moi stur e-and-densi ty-gauge method (ASTM D 2922-96 and
ASTM D 3017-96).
SECTION III. MOISTURE-CONTENT DETERMINATION
w
W
W
W
S
-------- 100 =
Soils 2-55
OVEN-DRY METHOD (ASTMD 2216-90)
The most accurate method of determi ni ng moi sture content i s the oven-dry
method. Thi s method uses an oven wi th a temperature or thermostati c
control . For expedi ent determi nati ons, soi l s are someti mes dri ed i n a fryi ng
pan or contai ner heated by an external source, ei ther a stove or an exhaust
mani fol d. However, heati ng most soi l s to excessi ve temperatures resul ts i n
chemi cal changes that may l ead to errors i n moi sture-content resul ts. Hence,
dryi ng soi l s by an uncontrol l ed heat source i s usual l y l ess accurate than
dryi ng them i n a thermostati cal l y control l ed oven.
PURPOSE
Perform thi s test to determi ne the moi sture content of a soi l sampl e to wi thi n
a desi red percentage.
EQUIPMENT
The fol l owi ng i tems are necessary for thi s test method:
A l aboratory oven.
Heat-resi stant gl oves.
A cal cul ator.
Moi stur e-deter mi nati on tar es.
A grease penci l .
A bal ance scal e sensi ti ve to 0.01 gram.
DD Form 1205.
A penci l .
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the moi sture content:
Step 1. Record al l i denti fyi ng i nformati on of the sampl e i n bl ocks 1 through 5
of DD Form 1205 (see Figure2-32, page2-56).
Step 2. Label and wei gh the cl ean, dry moi sture-determi nati on tares, and
record the wei ghts on the form as the wei ght of the tare (l i ne D).
Step 3. Obtai n the requi red soi l sampl e. Pl ace i t i n the tare and cover i t wi th
the l i d.
When conducti ng thi s test as part of another test method, use the
speci men mass stated i n that test method.
When conducti ng thi s test wi th no mi ni mum speci men mass provi ded,
use the val ues provi ded i n Table 2-5, page 2-57, dependi ng on the
degree of accuracy of the reported water content.
Step 4. Wei gh the soi l sampl e and the tare to the nearest 0.01 gram. Record
the wei ght on the form as the wei ght of the tare and the wet soi l (l i ne A).
Step 5. Oven-dry the sampl e, wi th the moi sture-determi nati on tare l i d
removed, at 110C 5 unti l the sampl e wei ght becomes constant. Oven-dryi ng
2-56 Soils
C2, FM 5-472/NAVFAC MO 330/AFJMAN 32-1221(I)
Figure 2-32. Sample DD Form 1205
S
A
M
P
L
E
Soils 2-57
ti me wi l l vary dependi ng on the type of soi l , the si ze of the sampl e, and other
factors. For routi ne water-content determi nati on, oven-dry a sampl e consi sti ng
of cl ean sands and gravel for a mi ni mum of 4 hours. For most other soi l s, a
mi ni mum dryi ng ti me of 16 hours i s adequate.
Step 6. Remove the sampl e from the oven and repl ace the moi sture-
determi nati on tare l i d. Al l ow the sampl e to cool unti l the tare can be handl ed
comfortabl y wi th bare hands.
Step 7. Wei gh the dri ed soi l sampl e and the tare. Record the wei ght as the
wei ght of the tare and dry soi l (l i ne B).
Step 8. Determi ne the wei ght of the water (W
w
) by subtracti ng the wei ght of
the tare and dry soi l (l i ne B) from the wei ght of the tare and wet soi l (l i ne a).
Record the wei ght on the form (l i ne C).
Step 9. Determi ne the wei ght of the dry soi l (W
s
the tare (l i ne D) from the wei ght of the tare and dry soi l (l i ne B). Record the
wei ght on the form (l i ne E).
Step 10. Determi ne the water content (w), i n percent, and record i t usi ng the
fol l owi ng formul a:
When determi ni ng the average water content, the i ndi vi dual tests must be
wi thi n 1 percent. Any i ndi vi dual tests that do not meet thi s requi rement
wi l l not be used (see Figure 2-32). I f none of the i ndi vi dual tests meet thi s
requi rement, then addi ti onal testi ng i s requi red.
CALCIUM-CARBIDE-GAS PRESSURE METHOD (AASHTO T 217-1986)
Table 2-5. Recommended minimum test specimen for reporting water content
Maximum Particle Size
(100% Passing)
Standard Sieve Size
Minimum Moist Mass
for Reporting to 0.1%
Minimum Moist Mass
for Reporting to 1%
2.0 mm or less No. 10 20.0 g 20 g*
4.75 mm No. 4 100.0 g 20 g*
9.50 mm 3/8 in 500.0 g 50 g
19.00 mm 3/4 in 2.5 kg 250 g
37.50 mm 1 1/2 in 10.0 kg 1 kg
75.00 mm 3 in 50.0 kg 5 kg
* To be representative, not less than 20 grams shall be used.
CAUTION
The chemical reaction of calcium carbide with water produces acetylene gas which is extremely
flammable. Exercise extreme caution to avoid open flame when releasing the gas from the
speedy moisture tester. Perform the test in a well-ventilated area, as asphyxiation could occur if
performed in a confined area.
w
W
W
W
S
-------- 100 =
2-58 Soils
Use the cal ci um-carbi de-gas pr essur e method to deter mi ne the moi sture
content of a soi l sampl e usi ng the 26-gr am speedy moi stur e tester to wi thi n
0.5 per cent. I f another tester i s to be used, consul t the user s manual for
the tester before conducti ng the moi sture-content determi nati on.
PURPOSE
0.5 percent.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems for the cal ci um-carbi de-gas pressure test:
A cal ci um-carbi de-pressure (speedy) moi sture tester to hol d a 26-gram
soi l speci men.
A bal ance (readabl e to 0.1 gram).
Two 1 1/4-i nch steel bal l s.
A cl eani ng brush and cl oth.
A scoop (for measuri ng cal ci um-carbi de reagent).
Cal ci um-carbi de reagent.
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the soi l s moi sture content:
Step 1. Wei gh the soi l sampl e to be tested, ensuri ng that i t wei ghs exactl y 26
grams. Pl ace the soi l sampl e i n the testers body and add the two 1 1/4-i nch
steel bal l s.
Step 2. Pl ace three scoops (about 24 grams) of cal ci um carbi de i nto the cap of
the tester and, wi th the pr essur e vessel i n a hor i zontal posi ti on, i nser t the cap
i nto the pressure vessel . Seal the uni t by ti ghteni ng the cl amp, taki ng care
that no carbi de comes i n contact wi th the soi l unti l a compl ete seal i s achi eved.
Step 3. Rai se the moi sture tester to a verti cal posi ti on so that the reagent i n
the cap wi l l fal l i nto the pressure vessel .
Step 4. Shake the i nstrument vi gorousl y i n a rotati ng moti on so that al l l umps
are broken up to permi t the cal ci um carbi de to react wi th al l avai l abl e free
moi sture. Shake the i nstrument i n a rotati ng moti on so that the steel bal l s
wi l l not damage the i nstrument or cause soi l parti cl es to become embedded i n
the ori fi ce l eadi ng to the pressure di aphragm. Conti nue shaki ng at l east 1
mi nute for granul ar soi l s and up to 3 mi nutes for other soi l s to permi t
compl ete reacti on between the cal ci um carbi de and the free moi sture. Al l ow
ti me for the di ssi pati on of the heat generated by the chemi cal reacti on.
Step 5. Hol d the i nstrument i n a hori zontal posi ti on at eye l evel . Read the di al
when the needl e stops movi ng. Record the di al readi ng as the percent of
moi sture by wet mass.
Step 6. Poi nt the cap of the i nstrument away from the operator and rel ease the
gas pressure sl owl y. Empty the pressure vessel and exami ne the materi al for
l umps. I f the sampl e i s not compl etel y pul veri zed, repeat the test usi ng a new
Soils 2-59
sampl e. Cl ean the cap thoroughl y of al l carbi de and soi l before runni ng
another test.
The l i mi t of the tester i s 12 percent moi sture for aggregate or 20 percent
moi sture for soi l . I f the l i mi t i s exceeded, then the test must be run agai n usi ng
a hal f-si zed sampl e (13 grams) and the di al readi ng must be mul ti pl i ed by 2.
CALCULATIONS
Deter mi ne the per centage of moi stur e by dr y mass of the soi l fr om the
cal i br ati on cur ve (see Figure 2-33, page 2-60) or fr om the conver si on char t
(see Figure 2-34, page 2-61) as expl ai ned bel ow. The cal i br ati on cur ves,
moi stur e-content deter mi nati on by the cal ci um-car bi de-gas pr essur e
method, ar e used for mater i al s that need the pul ver i zi ng steel bal l s (see
Figure 2-33). Usi ng the hi ghest r eadi ng obtai ned dur i ng the test (di r ect
r eadi ng), r ead over to the cur ve and then down to the oven-dr y moi stur e
per centage. The cur ve to be used wi l l depend on the test ti me.
Use the conversi on chart (see Figure 2-34) to determi ne oven-dry moi sture
contents of materi al s that do not need the steel bal l s. I f di rect readi ngs are not
on the conversi on chart, i nterpol ate the di fference between the two known
di rect readi ngs.
EXAMPLE
A speedy test i s performed on a sand. The hi ghest readi ng obtai ned i s 3.5
percent (wet wei ght). The di fference between 3.0 percent (whi ch has a known
dry wei ght of 3.2 percent) and 4.0 percent (whi ch has a known dry wei ght of
4.3 percent) must be i nterpol ated for 3.5 percent.
Usi ng Figure 2-34, the val ues i n Table 2-6 are known. To fi nd the val ue of x,
pl ace the di fferences i n the tabl e val ues i nto a rati o. The rati o of di fferences
i s
then
cross mul ti pl i ed, x - 3.2 = 0.55;
therefore, l eavi ng x = 3.2 + 0.55 = 3.75.
So, at 3.5 percent wet wei ght, x = 3.2 + 0.55 = 3.75 percent comparabl e oven-
dry wei ght.

Table 2-6. Determining the soils moisture content
Percent Wet Weight Percent Dry Weight
3.0 3.2
3.5 x
4.0 4.3
3.5 3.0
4.0 3.0
----------------------
x 3.2
4.3 3.2
---------------------- = or
0.5
1.0
--------
x 3.2
1.1
----------------- =
2-60 Soils
The cur ves and charts are usual l y suppl i ed wi th the moi stur e tester.
However, check each moi stur e tester for the accur acy of i ts gauge and the
accur acy of the conversi on cur ve. Check the accuracy of the tester gauge by
usi ng a cal i br ati on ki t (obtai ned fr om the tester s manufactur er ) equi pped
wi th a standar d gauge. I n case of di scr epancy, adjust the gauge on the tester
to confor m wi th the standard gauge. For checki ng the accuracy of the
conver si on cur ve, make a cal i br ati on for meter r eadi ngs ver sus oven-dry
moi sture contents usi ng l ocal soi l s. Al so, addi ti onal testi ng may be necessar y
Figure 2-33. Speedy-moisture tester calibration chart, for use with
the 1 1/4-inch steel balls
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
M
o
i
s
t
u
r
e

t
e
s
t
e
r

-

d
i
r
e
c
t

r
e
a
d
i
n
g
s

i
n

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
M
o
i
s
t
u
r
e

t
e
s
t
e
r

-

d
i
r
e
c
t

r
e
a
d
i
n
g
s

i
n

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
1
-
m
i
n
u
t
e

r
e
a
d
i
n
g
s
3
-
m
i
n
u
t
e

r
e
a
d
i
n
g
s
26-gm moisture tester sample
13-gm moisture tester sample
Soils 2-61
Figure 2-34. Speedy-moisture tester conversion chart, for use when not using the
1 1/4-inch steel balls
to extend the conver si on cur ve beyond 44 per cent moi stur e content (see Figure
2-33).
I t may be more conveni ent for fi el d use of the equi pment to prepare a tabl e of
moi sture-tester readi ngs versus oven-dry moi sture content.
Speedy
Reading
Wet
Weight %
Dry
Weight %
Speedy
Reading
Wet
Weight %
Dry
Weight %
Speedy
Reading
Wet
Weight %
Dry
Weight %
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
1.0
2.1
3.2
4.3
5.4
6.5
7.6
8.7
9.8
11.0
11.7
12.3
13.0
13.6
14.2
14.9
15.6
16.3
16.9
17.6
18.3
19.0
19.7
20.4
21.2
21.9
22.7
23.4
24.2
25.0
20.5
21.0
21.5
22.0
22.5
23.0
23.5
24.0
24.5
25.0
25.5
26.0
26.5
27.0
27.5
28.0
28.5
29.0
29.5
30.0
30.5
31.0
31.5
32.0
32.5
33.0
33.5
34.0
34.5
35.0
25.8
26.5
27.4
28.2
29.0
29.8
30.7
31.5
32.4
33.3
34.2
35.3
36.0
36.9
37.9
38.8
39.8
40.8
41.8
42.8
43.9
44.9
45.9
47.0
48.1
49.2
50.3
51.5
52.6
53.8
35.5
36.0
36.5
37.0
37.5
38.0
38.5
39.0
39.5
40.0
40.5
41.0
41.5
42.0
42.5
43.0
43.5
44.0
44.5
45.0
45.5
46.0
46.5
47.0
47.5
48.0
48.5
49.0
49.5
50.0
55.0
56.2
57.4
58.7
60.0
61.2
62.6
63.9
65.2
66.6
68.0
69.4
70.9
72.4
73.8
75.4
76.9
78.5
80.1
81.8
83.4
85.1
86.9
88.6
90.6
92.3
94.1
96.0
98.0
100.0
RETURN TO TOC
GO TO CHAPTER 2, PART 2
2-62 Soils
The speci fi c gr avi ty of a sol i d substance i s the r ati o of the wei ght of a gi ven
vol ume of materi al to the wei ght of an equal vol ume of water (at 20C). I n
effect, i t tel l s how much heavi er (or l i ghter) the materi al i s than water. For
exact anal ysi s, the speci fi cati ons requi re di sti l l ed or demi neral i zed water and
al l measurements of water and sol i ds shoul d be made at stated temperatures.
I n deal i ng wi th soi l s testi ng, the val ue of speci fi c gravi ty i s necessary to
compute the soi l s voi d rati o and for determi ni ng the grai n-si ze di stri buti on i n
hydrometer anal ysi s.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL OR SOLIDS
The term speci fi c gravi ty of soi l actual l y refers to the speci fi c gravi ty of the
sol i d matter of the soi l , whi ch i s desi gnated G
s
. The speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds i s
normal l y onl y appl i ed to that fracti on of a soi l that passes the No. 4 si eve.
General l y, geotechni cal engi neers need the soi l s speci fi c gravi ty to perform
addi ti onal testi ng of that soi l . I n these cases there may be a di fferent soi l
fracti on used when performi ng thi s test. For exampl e, the resul ti ng speci fi c-
gravi ty val ue of soi l from thi s test usi ng a 10 sampl e i s appl i cabl e to
hydrometer anal ysi s whi l e the determi nati on of the zero-ai r-voi ds curve i n
l aboratory soi l s-compacti on testi ng uses the speci fi c gravi ty from the 4
sampl e.
A soi l s speci fi c gravi ty l argel y depends on the densi ty of the mi neral s maki ng
up the i ndi vi dual soi l parti cl es. However, as a general gui de, some typi cal
val ues for speci fi c soi l types are as fol l ows:
The speci fi c gravi ty of the sol i d substance of most i norgani c soi l s
vari es between 2.60 and 2.80.
Tropi cal i ron-ri ch l ateri te, as wel l as some l ateri ti c soi l s, usual l y have
a speci fi c gravi ty of between 2.75 and 3.0 but coul d be hi gher.
Sand parti cl es composed of quartz have a speci fi c gravi ty rangi ng from
2.65 to 2.67.
I norgani c cl ays general l y range from 2.70 to 2.80.
Soi l s wi th l arge amounts of organi c matter or porous parti cl es (such as
di atomaceous earth) have speci fi c gravi ti es bel ow 2.60. Some range as
l ow as 2.00.
SPECIFIC-GRAVITY TEST
Take parti cul ar care to obtai n representati ve sampl es for a speci fi c-gravi ty
test. I t i s easi er to begi n the test wi th an oven-dri ed sampl e. However, some
soi l s, parti cul arl y those wi th a hi gh organi c content, are di ffi cul t to rewet.
Test these at thei r natural water content and determi ne the oven-dri ed wei ght
at the end of the test.
SECTION IV. SPECIFIC-GRAVITY-OF-SOLIDS DETERMINATION
(ASTM D 854-92)
RETURN TO TOC
Soils 2-63
PURPOSE
Perform thi s test to determi ne the speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds (whi ch wi l l be used
to assi st i n the hydrometer-anal ysi s test) and to cal cul ate the zero-ai r-voi ds
curve for compacti on resul ts.
EQUIPMENT
Perform the speci fi c-gravi ty test i n a l aboratory envi ronment, usi ng the
fol l owi ng i tems (see Figure 2-35):
A pycnometer; vol umetri c fl ask (500-mi l l i l i ter capaci ty).
A l aboratory oven.
Bal ance scal es sensi ti ve to 0.01 gram.
Puddi ng pans.
A waterbath.
A thermometer.
A battery-fi l l er syri nge.
A No. 4 si eve (for general speci fi c-gravi ty resul ts).
Figure 2-35. Apparatus for determining specific gravity of soils
Hot plate
Mortar and pestle
Scale, bench, 21,100 g
Filler, battery
Flask, volumetric 500 ml
Dishes, evaporating
Thermometer
Boxes, moisture, w/covers
2-64 Soils
A No. 10 si eve (when resul ts are used for hydrometer anal ysi s).
Graph paper.
A penci l .
A french curve.
Cl oth towel s.
Paper towel s.
A hot pl ate.
DD Form 1208.
A spatul a.
An evaporati ng di sh.
Di sti l l ed water.
A cal cul ator.
A pai l .
STEPS
Per for m the fol l owi ng steps to deter mi ne the soi l s speci fi c gr avi ty:
Step 1. Cal i brate the pycnometer (vol umetri c fl ask). I f a cal i brati on graph
has al ready been prepared for thi s pycnometer and wi l l be used for the
determi nati on procedures, go to step 2.
a. Wei gh a cl ean, dry pycnometer to the nearest 0.01 gram. Record thi s
i nformati on, W
b
, on DD Form 1208 (see Figure 2-36). Addi ti onal l y, record
the basi c i nformati on concerni ng the speci mens bei ng tested and the
pycnometer/fl ask number.
b. Fi l l the pycnometer wi th room-temperature di sti l l ed water. Ensure
that the bottom of the meni scus i s even wi th the cal i brati on mark.
c. Wei gh the pycnometer pl us water. Record thi s i nformati on, W
bw
, on the
form.
d. Use the thermometer to determi ne the water temperature to the
near est whol e degr ee, T
i
. Record the temperature on the form.
e. Create a graph or tabl e for the pycnometer bei ng used (i f addi ti onal
speci fi c-gravi ty determi nati ons are to be made).
NOTE: This graph helps in determining values of W
bw
for any
desired water temperatures and eliminates the need to calibrate the
pycnometer for each test. The graph can be developed by using the
following equation for various temperatures, plotting the
temperatures against the weight of the pycnometer and water, and
drawing a smooth curve through the plotted points:
Soils 2-65
S
A
M
P
L
E
2-66 Soils
where
w
(T
x
) =densi ty of water i denti fi ed by temperature (T
x
) (see Tabl e 2-7)
w
(T
i
i
) (see Tabl e 2-7)
W
bw
=wei ght of pycnometer and water, i n grams
W
b
=wei ght of pycnometer, i n grams
T
i
=observed/recorded temperature of water, i n C
T
x
=any other desi red temperature, i n C
A completed graph using the above formula for the following data
can beseen in Fi gure 2-37.
Calibration data:
W
bw
=656.43
W
b
=158.68
T
i
=24C
Table 2-7. Relative density of water and correction factor (K) at various temperatures
Temp
C
Relative
Density
Correction Factor
(K)
18.0 0.99862 1.0004
19.0 0.99843 1.0002
20.0 0.99823 1.0000
21.0 0.99802 0.9998
22.0 0.99780 0.9996
23.0 0.99757 0.9993
24.0 0.99733 0.9991
25.0 0.99708 0.9988
26.0 0.99682 0.9986
27.0 0.99655 0.9983
28.0 0.99627 0.9980
29.0 0.99598 0.9977
30.0 0.99568 0.9974
31.0 0.99537 0.9971
32.0 0.99505 0.9968
NOTE: Data obtained from ASTM. Correction factor, K, is found
by dividing the relative density of water at the test temperature by
the relative density of water at 20C.
W
bw
(for specified temperature,T
x
)

w
T
x
( )
w
T
i
( )
------------------
W
bw
at T
i
( ) W
b
W
b
+ =
Soils 2-67
Computed data:
T
x
of 20C yields W
bw
of 656.88
T
x
of 23C yields W
bw
of 656.55
T
x
of 26C yields W
bw
of 656.17
T
x
of 29C yields W
bw
of 655.75
T
x
of 32C yields W
bw
of 655.29
A complete data table can be created from the formula above for each
temperature expected to prevail during testing.
Step 2. Obtai n a soi l sampl e for testi ng. Separate the gi ven sampl e over a No.
4 si eve to obtai n at l east a 100-gram sampl e passi ng the si eve or over a No. 10
si eve to obtai n a 20-gram sampl e. Si nce thi s test method i s onl y concerned
wi th the sampl e passi ng the appropri ate si eve used, di scard the materi al
retai ned on the si eve.
Step 3. Prepare the sampl e for testi ng.
Figure 2-37. Calibration curve for a volumetric flask
Flask No. 7
Temperature, T C
W
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

b
o
t
t
l
e

a
n
d

w
a
t
e
r
,

W
b
w
,

g
r
a
m
s
2-68 Soils
NOTE: To determine the specific gravity of solids, the sample may be
at its natural water content or oven-dried. Soils with a high organic
content or with fines that are low compressible are difficult to rewet
after having been oven-dried. These soils should be tested at their
natural water content first and the oven-dried weight determined at
the end of the test.
a. Record al l i denti fyi ng i nformati on about the sampl e on the form (see
Figure 2-36, page 2-65).
b. Pl ace the 4 or 10 sampl e i nto the evaporati ng di sh.
c. Perform the fol l owi ng procedures for soi l at natural water content or
moi sture; otherwi se, go to step 3d:
(1) Add di sti l l ed water to the sampl e and mi x to a sl urry.
(2) Transfer the sl urry to the pycnometer and add di sti l l ed water unti l
the pycnometer i s about three-fourths ful l .
d. Perform the fol l owi ng procedures for an oven-dri ed soi l sampl e:
(1) Oven-dry the sampl e to a constant wei ght at a temperature of 110
5C. Al l ow the sampl e to cool and wei gh i t to the nearest 0.01 gram.
Record the wei ght on the form as the wei ght of the di sh and dry soi l
(i n bl ock 6g).
(2) Transfer the dri ed sampl e to the vol umetri c fl ask. Take care to
avoi d the l oss of any parti cl es.
(3) Fi l l the fl ask three-fourths ful l wi th di sti l l ed water and al l ow i t to
soak for 12 hours.
(4) Wei gh the empty, dry evaporati ng di sh. Record the wei ght on the
form as the wei ght of the di sh (bl ock 6h).
Step 4. Process the sampl e through the test method.
a. Remove entrapped ai r by bri ngi ng the sol uti on to a sl ow, rol l i ng boi l for
10 mi nutes whi l e occasi onal l y rol l i ng the pycnometer to assi st i n the
removal of the ai r (ensure that no l oss of materi al occurs whi l e boi l i ng).
Cool the sampl e to room temperature.
b. Fi l l the pycnometer wi th di sti l l ed water unti l the bottom of the
meni scus i s l evel wi th the cal i brati on mark.
c. Dry the outsi de and thoroughl y remove any moi sture adheri ng to the
neck of the pycnometer.
d. Wei gh the pycnometer and i ts contents to the nearest 0.01 gram.
Record thi s amount on the form as the wei ght of the fl ask and water and
i mmersed soi l (W
bws
).
e. Shake the fl ask i mmedi atel y after wei ghi ng (putti ng i ts contents i n
suspensi on) and determi ne the water temperature at mi ddepth to the
nearest whol e degree, T
x
. Record thi s amount on the form.
f. Determi ne the dry uni t wei ght for soi l processed at natural moi sture
content as fol l ows:
Soils 2-69
(1) Transfer the soi l sol uti on from the fl ask to a prewei ghed puddi ng
pan. Record the wei ght i n bl ock 6h. Use care when transferri ng al l
the grai ns of soi l .
(2) Oven-dry the sampl e to a constant wei ght at a temperature of 110
5C. Al l ow the sampl e to cool . Wei gh and record the wei ght on the
form i n bl ock 6g as the wei ght of the di sh and dry soi l .
Step 5. Compute the resul ts on DD Form 1208 (see Figure 2-36, page 2-65).
a. Compute the wei ght of the dry soi l (W
s
the di sh from the wei ght of the di sh and dry soi l . Recor d i t on the for m.
b. Determi ne the wei ght of the fl ask and water (W
bw
) by pl otti ng the
temperature of the water (T
x
) obtai ned i n step 4e (bl ock 6k) on the
cal i brati on curve obtai ned i n step 1. Record the resul t on the form. I f the
cal i brati on curve and graph were not produced, use the formul a as
i ndi cated i n step 1e and record the resul t on the form.
c. Determi ne the correcti on factor (K) by l ocati ng the temperature of the
water (T
x
) (obtai ned i n step 4e [bl ock 6k]) i n Table 2-7, page 2-66; read
across to the correcti on factor col umn, and record i t on the form as the
correcti on factor K (for T
x
).
d. Compute the speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds (G
s
) to two deci mal pl aces.
Record the amount on the form usi ng the fol l owi ng formul a:
APPARENT AND BULK SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds i s not appl i ed to coarse parti cl es because they
normal l y contai n voi ds from whi ch ai r cannot be di spl aced unl ess the parti cl es
are ground i nto fi ner parti cl es so as to el i mi nate the voi ds. Thus, when deal i ng
wi th coarser parti cl es, i t i s more conveni ent to work wi th the apparent speci fi c
gravi ty of the parti cl e mass or to determi ne the bul k speci fi c gravi ty. Test
methods for these determi nati ons are l i sted i n Chapters 3 and 4.
The apparent speci fi c gravi ty i s desi gnated G
a
and i s the rati o of the wei ght i n
ai r of a uni t vol ume of the i mpermeabl e porti on of aggregate to the wei ght i n ai r
of an equal vol ume of di sti l l ed water, both at a stated temperature. The
i mpermeabl e porti on of a porous materi al , such as most l arge soi l grai ns,
i ncl udes the sol i d materi al pl us i mpermeabl e pores or voi ds wi thi n the parti cl es.
Thi s test method i s appl i cabl e to the testi ng of fi ne and coarse aggregates (see
Chapters 3 and 4).
The bul k speci fi c gravi ty i s desi gnated G
m
and i s the rati o of the wei ght i n ai r of
a uni t vol ume of aggregate (i ncl udi ng permeabl e and i mpermeabl e voi ds i n the
parti cl es, but not the voi ds between the parti cl es) to the wei ght of an equal
vol ume of di sti l l ed water at a stated temperature. Thi s test method i s
appl i cabl e to the testi ng of soi l s wi th fi ne and coarse aggregates (see Chapters 3
and 4).
G
s
W
s
K
W
s
W
bw
W
bws
+
-------------------------------------------- =
2-70 Soils

Soi l parti cl es, al so referred to as grai ns, are di scussed i n Secti on I of thi s
chapter, wi th some consi derati on of the effects of parti cl e characteri sti cs on
the physi cal properti es of soi l s. The use of grai n si ze and grai n-si ze
di stri buti on i n soi l cl assi fi cati on and vi sual -manual testsand thei r use for
fi el d i denti fi cati onare al so covered i n Secti on I . Al though esti mates of grai n
si ze of coarser materi al s may be made i n thi s way, the accurate determi nati on
of the grai n-si ze di stri buti on or gradati on of coarse-soi l fracti ons requi res a
grai n-si ze anal ysi s.
Grai n-si ze anal ysi s, whi ch i s among the ol dest of soi l tests, i s used i n soi l s
cl assi fi cati on and as part of the speci fi cati ons of soi l for ai rfi el ds, roads, earth
dams, and other soi l -embankment constructi on. The standard grai n-si ze-
anal ysi s test determi nes the rel ati ve proporti ons of di fferent grai n si zes as
they are di stri buted among certai n si ze ranges, whi ch i s referred to as
parti cl e-si ze or grai n-si ze di stri buti on. Thi s i s accompl i shed i n two steps:
A screeni ng process (a si eve anal ysi s, whi ch i s al so cal l ed a mechani cal
anal ysi s) for parti cl e si zes retai ned on the No. 200 si eve.
A sedi mentati on process (a hydrometer anal ysi s) for parti cl e si zes
smal l er than the No. 200 si eve.
NOTE: Previous test methods presented the sieve analysis and the
hydrometer analysis as two separate test methods, and a combination
of these analyses was referred to as a combined analysis. ASTM
employs a different method for particle-size analysis which includes
both methods (ASTM D 422-63). This single method also references
the test method specific to wet preparation of soil samples (ASTM D
2217-85). These test methods provide for minor modifications to
allow the end user to obtain results specific to the purpose of the test.
The following test method is a product of this modification. It allows
for easier identification of the USCS classification.
Performing just the sieve-analysis portion of this test method may
yield sufficient information to classify a soil type and therefore not
require the hydrometer analysis. However, the hydrometer analysis
will ensure a more accurate depiction of the soil gradation as well as
provide necessary information required to determine the soils frost
susceptibility.
SIEVE ANALYSIS (MECHANICAL ANALYSIS)
The accurate compl eti on of the si eve-anal ysi s test wi l l produce the percent of
gravel , sand, and fi nes of the materi al . The most accurate process for thi s test
method i s to wash the materi al over the si eves; thi s wi l l gi ve a more accurate
percent of fi nes. I t i s possi bl e the test wi l l al so provi de suffi ci ent i nformati on
to cal cul ate the coeffi ci ent of uni formi ty and the coeffi ci ent of curvature.
SECTION V. GRAIN-SIZE ANALYSIS AND DISTRIBUTION (ASTM D 422-63 AND
ASTM 2217-85)
Soils 2-71
PURPOSE
Perform thi s test to determi ne the grai n-si ze di stri buti on or the gradati on of a
soi l or aggregate for the porti on of the materi al that i s l arger than the No. 200
si eve. The resul ts of thi s test shoul d assi st i n the soi l -cl assi fi cati on pr ocess.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to perform thi s test (see Figure 2-38):
A cal cul ator.
DD Form 1206 or an equi val ent form.
DD Form 1207.
Beam scal es.
Figure 2-38. Equipment for sieve analysis
Sieves, test
8 inches w/cover and pan
Scoop
Brush
Cloth, cotton duck

Mortar and pestle
2-72 Soils
Bal ance scal es sensi ti ve to 0.1 gram and 0.01 gram.
A scoop.
A brush.
A si eve shaker.
A nest of si eves i ncl udi ng, as a mi ni mum, the fol l owi ng si zes: 2
i nches, 1.5 i nches, 1 i nch, 3/4 i nch, 3/8 i nch, No. 4, No. 10, No. 16, No.
30, No. 40, No. 50, No. 100, and No. 200.
A pan.
A cover.
A mortar.
A rubber-covered pestl e.
Puddi ng pans.
Paper.
A penci l .
A french curve.
A spl i tter (i f avai l abl e).
Canvas (i n a l aboratory envi ronment).
A l aboratory oven.
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the grai n-si ze di stri buti on:
Step 1. Prepare the soi l sampl e.
a. Spread out and ai r-dry the soi l sampl e.
b. Break up the aggregate parti cl es thoroughl y wi th fi ngers or wi th the
mortar and pestl e.
c. Obtai n a representati ve sampl e for testi ng by usi ng a sampl e spl i tter or
by quarteri ng. The sampl e si ze recommended for si eve anal ysi s depends
on the parti cl e si ze. Obtai n the requi red mi ni mum sampl e as l i sted i n
Table 2-8.
Step 2. Record al l i denti fyi ng i nformati on about the sampl e (such as the
project name, excavati on number, sampl e number, descri pti on of sampl e, and
date [bl ocks 1 through 7]) on DD Form 1206 (see Figure 2-39, page 2-74).
Step 3. Oven-dry the materi al at 110C 5 unti l a constant wei ght i s
obtai ned. Al l ow the sampl e to cool .
Step 4. Wei gh the oven-dri ed sampl e and record the wei ght on the form (bl ock
8) to the nearest gram as the wei ght of the ori gi nal sampl e.
Soils 2-73

Step 5. Check No i n bl ock 9 and enter 0 i n bl ocks 10 and 11 i f onl y a dry
si eve i s to be performed, then proceed to step 10. I f the sampl e wi l l be
prewashed, check Yes i n bl ock 9 and proceed to step 6.
Step 6. Pl ace the sampl e i n a cl ean contai ner and cover the sampl e compl etel y
wi th water. Al l ow the sampl e to soak unti l the adheri ng and l umpy parti cl es
are compl etel y di si ntegrated. Thi s process may take 2 to 24 hours.
Step 7. Wash the sampl e over a No. 200 si eve i nto a 2 x 2 concrete pan unti l
al l 200 materi al has been washed through. I f the sampl e contai ns an
appreci abl e amount of coarse parti cl es, combi ne the No. 4 and No. 200 si eves.
Take care not to overl oad the No. 200 si eve. I f necessary, transfer the sampl e
i n i ncrements (thi s process may take up to 6 di fferent pans and as l ong as 8
hours).
Step 8. Process the +200 materi al . Oven-dry the washed +200 materi al at
110C 5 unti l a constant wei ght i s obtai ned and al l ow the materi al to cool .
Record the wei ght on the form to the nearest tenth of a gram (bl ock 10).
Step 9. Process the 200 materi al .
a. Al l ow the 200 materi al to settl e i n the pan unti l the surface water
becomes cl ear (16 to 24 hours).
b. Decant the surface water (usi ng a si phon or a syri nge), ensuri ng that
the settl ed materi al i s not di sturbed.
c. Use a trowel to transfer as much of the materi al as possi bl e from the
pan to the puddi ng pans.
d. Ri nse the remai nder of the materi al from the 2 x 2 pans to the puddi ng
pans wi th as l i ttl e water as possi bl e.
e. Oven-dry the washed 200 materi al and determi ne the total 200
sampl e wei ght to the nearest tenth of a gram. Record thi s wei ght on the
form (bl ock 11). Retai n thi s materi al for use i n the hydrometer anal ysi s.
Step 10. Sel ect a nest of si eves to accommodate the l argest parti cl e si ze of the
soi l bei ng tested, ensuri ng that al l materi al wi l l pass through the l argest
si eve. As a mi ni mum, the fol l owi ng si eves si zes wi l l be used (up to the l argest
Table 2-8. Representative soil samples for grain-size analysis
Minimum Sample Weight
(g)
in mm
3/8 (No. 4) 9.5 (No. 4) 500
3/4 19.0 1,000
1 25.4 2,000
1 1/2 38.1 3,000
2 50.8 4,000
3 76.2 5,000
2-74 Soils
S
Soils 2-75
parti cl e si ze): 2 i nches, 1.5 i nches, 1 i nch, 3/4 i nch, 3/8 i nch, No. 4, No. 10, No.
16, No. 30, No. 40, No. 50, No. 100, and No. 200.
Step 11. Record the wei ght of each si eve sel ected on the form to the nearest
tenth of a gram (col umn 13), and arrange the si eves i n a nest wi th the
smal l est si eve si ze on the bottom. Wei gh and pl ace a pan on the bottom.
Step 12. Cover the sampl e. I f the sampl e was prewashed, pl ace onl y the +200
mater i al onto the top si eve of the nest and pl ace a cover over i t. I f the sampl e
was not pr ewashed, pl ace the enti r e sampl e on the top si eve of the nest and
pl ace a cover over i t.
Step 13. Pl ace the nest of si eves and the sampl e i n the si eve shaker and shake
for 10 to 15 mi nutes (see Figure 2-40).
Step 14. Remove the cover of the si eve nest after the shaki ng has been
compl eted.
Step 15. Record the wei ght of each si eve wi th the retai ned sampl e (starti ng
wi th the top si eve (see Figure 2-41, page 2-76) on the form (col umn 14).
Figure 2-40. Hand-operated sieve shaker
2-76 Soils
Step 16. Deter mi ne the wei ght of the mater i al r etai ned on each si eve by
subtr acti ng the wei ght of the si eve from the wei ght of the si eve and r etai ned
sampl e (col umns 14 through 13). Record thi s wei ght as the wei ght retai ned
(col umn 15).
Step 17. Add the wei ghts retai ned on al l si eves and record as total wei ght
retai ned i n si eves (bl ock 19).
Step 18. Wei gh the pan wi th the materi al passi ng the No. 200 si eve. Subtract
the wei ght of the pan (from step 11) and record thi s as the wei ght si eved
through No. 200 (bl ock 20).
Step 19. Compl ete bl ocks 21 through 25 of the form usi ng the formul as
provi ded on the sheet. I f the error of percentage i s 1 percent or greater, rerun
the test.
Step 20. Compute the cumul ati ve wei ght retai ned (col umn 16) for each si eve
by addi ng the wei ght retai ned to the previ ous cumul ati ve wei ght retai ned
wi th the starti ng poi nt bei ng 0.
Step 21. Compute the percent retai ned (col umn 17) for each si eve by di vi di ng
the wei ght retai ned by the total wei ght of fracti ons as fol l ows:
Step 22. Compute the percent passi ng for each si eve si ze by subtracti ng the
cumul ati ve wei ght retai ned from the total wei ght of fracti ons and di vi di ng by
the total wei ght of fracti ons as fol l ows:
Figure 2-41. Testing sieves stacked large to small
column 15
block 23
------------------------- 100
Soils 2-77
Step 23. Determi ne the percentages for gravel , sand, and fi nes. Record the
i nformati on on the form.
Gravel i s the materi al retai ned on the No. 4 si eve.
Sand i s the materi al passi ng the No. 4 si eve and retai ned on the No.
200 si eve.
Fi nes are the materi al passi ng the No. 200 si eve.
Step 24. Prepare DD Form 1207 (see Figure2-42, page2-78).
a. Record the i denti fyi ng i nformati on for the sampl e i n the remarks bl ock.
b. Use the si eve-anal ysi s data to pl ot (on DD Form 1207) the si eve si ze
and the percentage passi ng the si eve.
c. Usi ng a french curve, connect the pl otted poi nts to form a smooth, free-
fl owi ng curve (the grai n-si ze di stri buti on curve, Figure2-42).
d. Determi ne the coeffi ci ent of uni formi ty (C
u
).
NOTE: The grain size, in millimeters, which corresponds to 10
percent passingon thegrain-size-distribution curve, iscalled Hazens
effective size. It is designated by the symbol D
10
. If the grain-size-
distribution curve extends to or below 10 percent passing, then the
C
u
can be determined. The uniformity coefficient is the ratio
between the grain diameter, in millimeters, corresponding to 60
percent passing (D
60
) and 10 percent passing on the curve. Use the
followingformula and record on theform:
If D
10
cannot be determined usingthe data fromthe sieve analysis, a
hydrometer analysismay berequiredtoobtain information about the
smaller size grains and to extend the distribution curve to make it
morecomplete.
e. Determi ne the coeffi ci ent of curvature (C
c
) by usi ng D
60
and D
10
as
previ ousl y di scussed and D
30
, the grai n di ameter, i n mi l l i meters,
correspondi ng to 30 percent passi ng on the grai n-si ze-di stri buti on curve.
These numbers are used i n the fol l owi ng formul a and recorded on the
form:
NOTE: The values for D
60
, D
10
, and D
30
are obtained by going to the
percent passing by weight on the left vertical scale, then moving
horizontally acrosstotheright until thegrain-size-distribution curve
is intercepted, and then vertically down to the horizontal axis where
the diameter of the material is read in millimeters. See Fi gure 2-42,
for thecompleted gradation chart.
Step 25. Determi ne the gradati on by usi ng the abbrevi ated i nformati on l i sted
bel ow. Record the i nformati on on the form.
column 18
block 23 column 16
block 23
--------------------------------------------------- 100 =
C
u
D
60
D
10
--------- =
C
c
D
30
( )
2
D
60
D
10
( )
----------------------------- =
2-78 Soils
S
A
M
P
L
E
F
i
g
u
r
e
2
-
4
2
.
S
a
m
p
l
e
D
D
F
o
r
m
1
2
0
7
Soils 2-79
a. The soi l i s wel l -graded (W) when al l of the fol l owi ng appl y:
C
u
i s greater than 4 i f the soi l i s predomi nantl y gravel and greater
than 6 i f the soi l i s predomi nantl y sand.
C
c
i s at l east 1.0 but not more than 3.0 for both gravel and sand.
An i ndi cator of a wel l -graded soi l i s a smooth curve pl otted for grai n-si ze
di stri buti on. The curve must not have any hori zontal or verti cal porti ons
and must be conti nuous.
b. The soi l i s poorl y graded (P) i f any of the above cri teri a i s not ful fi l l ed.
HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
Hydrometer anal ysi s i s based on Stokes' l aw, whi ch rel ates the termi nal
vel oci ty of a free-fal l i ng sphere i n a l i qui d to i ts di ameteror, i n si mpl er
terms, the l arger the grai n si ze, the greater i ts settl i ng vel oci ty i n a fl ui d. I t i s
assumed that Stokes' l aw can be appl i ed to a mass of di spersed soi l parti cl es of
vari ous shapes and si zes. Larger parti cl es settl e more rapi dl y than smal l er
ones. The hydrometer anal ysi s i s an appl i cati on of Stokes' l aw that permi ts
cal cul ati ng the grai n-si ze di stri buti on i n si l ts and cl ays, where the soi l
parti cl es are gi ven the si zes of equi val ent spheri cal parti cl es.
The densi ty of a soi l -water suspensi on depends on the concentrati on and
speci fi c gravi ty of the soi l parti cl es. I f the suspensi on i s al l owed to stand, the
parti cl es gradual l y settl e out of the suspensi on and the densi ty decreases.
The hydrometer i s used to measure the densi ty of the suspensi on at a known
depth bel ow the surface. The densi ty measurement, together wi th knowl edge
of speci fi c gravi ty of the soi l parti cl es, determi nes the percentage of di spersed
soi l parti cl es i n suspensi on at the ti me and depth of measurement.
The depth at whi ch the measurement i s made i s found by cal i brati ng the
hydrometer. Stokes' l aw i s used to cal cul ate the maxi mum equi val ent parti cl e
di ameter for the materi al i n suspensi on at thi s depth and for the el apsed ti me
of settl ement. A seri es of densi ty measurements at known depths of
suspensi on and at known ti mes of settl ement gi ve the percentages of parti cl es
fi ner than the di ameters gi ven by Stokes' l aw. Thus, the seri es of readi ngs wi l l
refl ect the amount of di fferent si zes of parti cl es i n the fi ne-grai ned soi l s. The
parti cl e di ameter (D) i s cal cul ated from Stokes' equati on usi ng the corrected
hydrometer readi ng.
PURPOSE
Perform the hydrometer anal ysi s to determi ne the grai n-si ze di stri buti on of
the 200 materi al i n a soi l , to assi st i n determi ni ng the frost suscepti bi l i ty of a
soi l , and to provi de data needed to cal cul ate the coeffi ci ent of uni formi ty and
coeffi ci ent of curvature.
EQUIPMENT
Perform the hydrometer anal ysi s i n a l aboratory envi ronment usi ng the
fol l owi ng i tems:
A hydrometer.
A l aboratory oven.
2-80 Soils
A thermometer.
A ti mi ng devi ce wi th a second hand.
A No. 200 si eve.
A di spersi ng agent.
Puddi ng pans.
Two graduated gl ass cyl i nders (1,000-mi l l i l i ter) wi th cap.
DD Form 1207.
DD Form 1794.
A cal cul ator.
Paper.
A penci l .
A grease penci l .
Graph paper.
A strai ghtedge.
A mechani cal l y operated sti rri ng devi ce wi th a di spersi on cup.
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for the hydrometer anal ysi s:
Step 1. Prepare the sampl e.
a. Obtai n the 200 sampl e as prepared i n the si eve anal ysi s. The si ze of
the 200 sampl e vari es accordi ng to the type of soi l bei ng tested.
Approxi matel y 100 grams are requi red for sandy soi l s and 50 grams for
si l ty or cl ayey soi l s. Pl ace the sampl e i n a di sh and add di sti l l ed water
unti l the sampl e i s submerged.
b. Determi ne the amount and type of di spersi ng agent that wi l l be used
duri ng the test. Record i t on DD Form 1794 (bl ocks 9 and 10) (see Figure
2-43). The di spersi ng agents shown i n Table 2-9, page 2-82, are l i sted i n
approxi mate order of effecti veness. They have been found to be
sati sfactory for most types of soi l s. I n most i nstances, 15 mi l l i l i ters of a
di spersi ng-agent sol uti on i s adequate to control fl occul ati on (the
adherence of fi ne soi l grai ns to each other i n cl usters whi l e i n suspensi on).
An addi ti onal 15 mi l l i l i ters can be added a second or thi rd ti me i f
fl occul ati on conti nues.
c. Add the pr edeter mi ned amount of di spersi ng agent to the soaki ng soi l
sampl e and al l ow the sampl e to soak at l east 16 hours.
Soils 2-81
S
A
M
P
L
E
2-82 Soils
Step 2. Determi ne the type of hydrometer. I f the hydrometer scal e ranges
from 1.000 to 1.038, i t i s a Type 151H and measures speci fi c gravi ty of the
suspensi on. I f the scal e ranges from 0 to 60, i t i s a Type 152H and measures
grams per l i ter of the suspensi on. The di mensi ons for both hydrometers are
the same.
Step 3. Determi ne the composi te correcti on.
NOTE: Before performing the hydrometer test, a composite
correction for hydrometer readings must be determined to correct
for items that tend toproduceerrors in thetest.
The first of these items needing correction is the meniscus reading.
Hydrometers are graduated by the manufacturer to be read at the
bottomof the meniscus formed by the liquid on the stem. Since it is
not possible to secure readings of soil suspensions at the bottom of
the meniscus, readings must be taken at the top and a correction
applied.
The second of these items needing correction is a result of using a
dispersing agent in the water to control flocculation. This leads to
errors in the analysis. While the dispersing agent assists in keeping
the soil grains from adhering to each other, it also increases the
specific gravity of thefluid used.
The net amount of the correction for the two corrections required is
designated as thecompositecorrection.
a. Pl ace about 500 mi l l i l i ters of di sti l l ed water i n a graduated cyl i nder.
b. Pl ace the amount of di spersi ng agent that was used i n step 1 i n the
cyl i nder and mi x wel l .
c. Add addi ti onal di sti l l ed water to the cyl i nder to reach the 1,000-
mi l l i l i ter mark.
d. Pl ace the hydrometer i n the cyl i nder and al l ow i t to settl e for 20 to 25
seconds. Read the hydrometer at the top of the meni scus formed on the
Table 2-9. Dispersing agents
Dispersing Agent
Stock Solution
Manufacturer
Concentration Grams Per Liter
Sodium tripolyphosphate 0.4N 29
Blockson Chemical Co,
Joliet, IL
Sodium polyphosphate 0.4N 36
Joliet, IL
Sodium tetraphosphate
(Quadrofos)
0.4N 31
Rumford Chemical Works,
Rumford, NJ
Sodium
hexametaphosphate
(Calgon)
0.4N 41 Calgon Co, Pittsburgh, PA
Soils 2-83
stem. For the Type 151H hydrometer, the composi te correcti on i s the
di fference between thi s readi ng and 1. For the Type 152H hydrometer, the
composi te correcti on i s the di fference between the readi ng and 0.
e. Recor d the composi te cor r ecti on i n bl ock 11 of the for m (Figure2-43,
page2-81).
f. Remove the hydrometer from the di spersi ng-fl ui d cyl i nder and pl ace i t
i n a second cyl i nder fi l l ed wi th di sti l l ed water.
NOTE: From this point forward, all hydrometer readings will be
taken fromthetop of themeniscus.
Step 4. Perform the hydrometer test.
a. Record al l i denti fyi ng i nformati on for the sampl e, di spersi ng agent,
quanti ty used, and composi te correcti on on the form.
b. Obtai n the deci mal fi nes from the ori gi nal soi l sampl e from DD Form
1206. Record i t on DD Form 1794 (bl ock 12).
c. Obtai n the speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds (G
s
) of the soi l sampl e from DD
Form 1208. Record i t on DD Form 1794 (bl ock 13).
d. Empty and thoroughl y ri nse the graduated cyl i nder contai ni ng the
di spersi ng sol uti on from step 3.
e. Transfer the soaked sampl e to a di spersi on cup, usi ng di sti l l ed water to
wash any resi due from the di sh i nto the cup. Add di sti l l ed water to the
cup unti l the water surface i s 3 i nches bel ow the top of the cup. Pl ace the
cup i n the di spersi ng machi ne and mi x si l ts and sands for 5 mi nutes, l ow-
pl asti ci ty cl ay for 7 mi nutes, and hi gh-pl asti ci ty cl ay for 9 mi nutes.
f. Transfer the mi xed sol uti on to the cl ean 1,000-mi l l i l i ter graduated
cyl i nder, usi ng di sti l l ed water to wash any resi due from the cup i nto the
cyl i nder. Add di sti l l ed water unti l the 1,000-mi l l i l i ter vol ume mark i s
reached.
g. Pl ace the rubber cap over the open end of the cyl i nder. Turn the
cyl i nder upsi de down and back for a peri od of 1 mi nute to compl ete the
agi tati on of the sl urry.
NOTE: The number of turns during this minute should be about
60, counting the turn upside down and back as two turns. If any
soil remains at the bottom of the cylinder during the first few
turns, it should be loosened by vigorous shaking of the cylinder
whileit is in theinverted position.
h. After shaki ng the cyl i nder for 1 mi nute, pl ace i t on a l evel and sturdy
surface where i t wi l l not be di sturbed. Remove the cap and start the
ti mer. Remove any foam that has formed duri ng agi tati on by l i ghtl y
touchi ng i t wi th a bar of soap.
i . I mmerse the hydrometer sl owl y i nto the l i qui d 20 to 25 seconds before
each readi ng. Take the actual hydrometer readi ng (R1) at 1 and 2
mi nutes of el apsed ti me. As soon as the 1- and 2-mi nute readi ngs are
taken, careful l y remove the hydrometer and pl ace i t i n the second cyl i nder
of pure di sti l l ed water usi ng a spi nni ng moti on. Record the readi ng on the
form (bl ock 16).
2-84 Soils
j. Pl ace a thermometer i n the sol uti on. Record the temperature readi ng,
i n centi grade, to the nearest whol e degree. Record on the form (bl ock 18).
NOTE: It is extremely important to obtain accurate temperature
readings. The soil hydrometer is calibrated at 20C. Variations in
temperature from this standard temperature produces inaccuracies
in the actual hydrometer readings. These inaccuracies will be
compensated for later duringthecomputations.
k. Repeat steps 4i and 4j for the remai nder of the requi red readi ngs. Take
readi ngs at the fol l owi ng i nterval s: 5, 15, and 30 mi nutes and 1, 2, 4, and
24 hours. After each readi ng, remove the hydrometer, pl ace i t i n the
hydrometer of di sti l l ed water, and obtai n the temperature readi ng.
Record the i nformati on on the form for each readi ng.
Step 5. Determi ne the dry wei ght of the sampl e by careful l y washi ng al l of the
sampl e i nto a prewei ghed puddi ng pan or di sh (bl ock 24). Oven-dry the
sampl e, al l ow i t to cool , and determi ne and record the wei ght of the sampl e
and the pan or di sh (bl ock 23).
Step 6. Determi ne the wei ght of the dry soi l by subtracti ng the wei ght of the
pan from the wei ght of the pan and dry soi l . Record thi s i nformati on on the
form as the wei ght of the oven-dri ed soi l (W
s
) used for hydr ometer testi ng
(bl ock 25).
Step 7. Compute the resul ts on DD Form 1794 (see Figure2-43, page2-81).
a. Col umn 17. Obtai n the corrected readi ng (R) by addi ng the actual
hydrometer readi ng (col umn 16, R1) and the composi te correcti on (bl ock
11) and record the sum on the form.
R =R
1
+ compositecorrection
b. Col umn 19. Obtai n the temperature versus speci fi c gravi ty constant
(K) from Table2-10. Record i t on the form.
NOTE: Although typical specific-gravity values arelisted in Table2-
10, theremay becaseswhen asoil typefallsaboveor belowthisrange
of values. In thesesituations thevalueof K must becomputed using
thefollowingformula:
where
=coeffi ci ent of vi scosi ty of the l i qui d (water) i n poi ses (vari es wi th
changes i n temperature)
G
s
=Speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds for the materi al bei ng tested
c. Col umn 20. Obtai n the effecti ve depth (L) for each corrected readi ng
(col umn 17) by usi ng Table2-11, page2-86, and record on the form.
K
30
G
s
1
--------------- =
Soils 2-85
d. Col umn 21. Determi ne the parti cl e di ameter (D) correspondi ng to a
gi ven hydrometer readi ng on the basi s of Stokes' equati on:
where
D =diameter of the sphere, in millimeters
K =constant depending on temperature of suspension and specific gravity
of soil particles; values of K can be obtained from Table 2-10 (entered
in column 19)
L =distance from the surface of the suspension to the level at which the
density of the suspension is being measured, in centimeters (effective
depth) (entered in column 20)
T =interval of time from beginning of sedimentation to the taking of the
reading, in minutes (entered in column 15)
e. Col umn 22a. Compute the parti al percent fi ner. To compute the
percent of parti cl e di ameters fi ner than that correspondi ng to a gi ven
hydrometer readi ng, use the fol l owi ng formul as based on the hydrometer
type and record the resul ts on the form:
(1) Hydrometer type 151H:
Table 2-10. Values of K for use in Stokes equation for computing particle diameter
Temp
C
Specific Gravity of Solids (G
s
) Coeff of
Viscosity
()
2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85
16 0.01505 0.01481 0.01458 0.01435 0.01414 0.01394 0.01374 0.01355 0.00001133
17 0.01486 0.01462 0.01439 0.01417 0.01396 0.01376 0.01356 0.01338 0.00001104
18 0.01467 0.01443 0.01420 0.01399 0.01378 0.01358 0.01339 0.01321 0.00001076
19 0.01449 0.01426 0.01403 0.01382 0.01361 0.01342 0.01323 0.01305 0.00001050
20 0.01432 0.01408 0.01386 0.01365 0.01345 0.01326 0.01307 0.01289 0.00001025
21 0.01414 0.01391 0.01369 0.01348 0.01328 0.01309 0.01291 0.01273 0.00001000
22 0.01397 0.01374 0.01353 0.01332 0.01312 0.01294 0.01275 0.01258 0.00000976
23 0.01381 0.01358 0.01337 0.01316 0.01297 0.01278 0.01260 0.01243 0.00000953
24 0.01365 0.01342 0.01321 0.01301 0.01282 0.01263 0.01246 0.01229 0.00000931
25 0.01349 0.01327 0.01306 0.01286 0.01267 0.01249 0.01232 0.01215 0.00000910
26 0.01334 0.01312 0.01292 0.01272 0.01253 0.01235 0.01218 0.01201 0.00000890
27 0.01319 0.01298 0.01277 0.01258 0.01239 0.01221 0.01204 0.01188 0.00000870
28 0.01305 0.01283 0.01263 0.01244 0.01225 0.01208 0.01191 0.01175 0.00000851
29 0.01290 0.01269 0.01249 0.01230 0.01212 0.01194 0.01178 0.01162 0.00000832
30 0.01276 0.01255 0.01235 0.01217 0.01199 0.01181 0.01165 0.01149 0.00000814
D K
L
T
--- =
Partial percent finer
G
S
G
S
1
---------------
100 000 ,
W
S
--------------------- R 1.0 ( ) =
2-86 Soils
(2) Hydrometer type 152H:
where
G
s
=specific gravity of solids
W
s
=oven-dried weight of soil (in grams) used for hydrometer analysis
R = Corrected hydrometer reading (with composite correction
applied)
a =Correction factor from Table 2-12, to be applied to the reading for
Type 152H
Table 2-11. Values of effective depth for hydrometer analysis
Hydrometer 151H Hydrometer 152H
C
o
r
r

H
y
d
r
o
R
e
a
d
i
n
g
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
D
e
p
t
h
,

L
,

c
m
C
o
r
r

H
y
d
r
o
R
e
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f
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c
m
C
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r
r

H
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H
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H
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m
1.000 16.3 1.021 10.7 0 16.3 21 12.9 42 9.4
1.001 16.0 1.022 10.5 1 16.1 22 12.7 43 9.2
1.002 15.8 1.023 10.2 2 16.0 23 12.5 44 9.1
1.003 15.5 1.024 10.0 3 15.8 24 12.4 45 8.9
1.004 15.2 1.025 9.7 4 15.6 25 12.2 46 8.8
1.005 15.0 1.026 9.4 5 15.5 26 12.0 47 8.6
1.006 14.7 1.027 9.2 6 15.3 27 11.9 48 8.4
1.007 14.4 1.028 8.9 7 15.2 28 11.7 49 8.3
1.008 14.2 1.029 8.6 8 15.0 29 11.5 50 8.1
1.009 13.9 1.030 8.4 9 14.8 30 11.4 51 7.9
1.010 13.7 1.031 8.1 10 14.7 31 11.2 52 7.8
1.011 13.4 1.032 7.8 11 14.5 32 11.1 53 7.6
1.012 13.1 1.033 7.6 12 14.3 33 10.9 54 7.4
1.013 12.9 1.034 7.3 13 14.2 34 10.7 55 7.3
1.014 12.6 1.035 7.0 14 14.0 35 10.6 56 7.1
1.015 12.3 1.036 6.8 15 13.8 36 10.4 57 7.0
1.016 12.1 1.037 6.5 16 13.7 37 10.2 58 6.8
1.017 11.8 1.038 6.2 17 13.5 38 10.1 59 6.6
1.018 11.5 18 13.3 39 9.9 60 6.5
1.019 11.3 19 13.2 40 9.7
1.020 11.0 20 13.0 41 9.6
Partial percent finer
R a
W
S
------------ 100 =
Soils 2-87
f. Compute the total percent fi ner for each hydrometer readi ng and record
i t on the form usi ng the formul a
Total percent finer =partial percent finer x decimal fines (block 12)
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Pl ot the grai n-si ze di stri buti on on DD Form 1207 usi ng the parti cl e di ameters
(D, grai n-si ze, i n mi l l i meters) and the total percent fi ner (percent passi ng) and
connect the pl otted poi nts wi th a smooth curve (see Figure2-44, page2-88).
Read the curve on the form and determi ne i f 3 percent or more of the parti cl es
are smal l er than 0.02 mi l l i meter i n di ameter; i f so, the soi l i s frost suscepti bl e.
Frost-suscepti bl e soi l s are l i sted i n four groups i n the order of i ncreasi ng
suscepti bi l i ty (see Table2-13, page2-89).
Soi l s i n group F-4 have hi gh frost suscepti bi l i ty. Record the frost-
suscepti bi l i ty group for the soi l type i n bl ock 27 of DD Form 1794 (see Figure
2-43, page2-81).
Thi s curve can be used to determi ne the coeffi ci ent of uni formi ty (C
u
) and the
coeffi ci ent of curvature (C
c
).
The data i n the exampl e shown on DD Form 1794 (Figure2-43, page2-81) i s
pl otted on DD Form 1207 to gi ve an exampl e of such a curve for a mi xed soi l
(see Figure 2-44). For thi s soi l , the di ameter correspondi ng to 60 percent
passi ng (D
60
) i s 0.5 mi l l i meter. The di ameter correspondi ng to 10 percent
passi ng (D
10
) i s 0.0045 mi l l i meter. Hence, the coeffi ci ent of uni formi ty i s as
fol l ows:
The di ameter for 30 percent passi ng (D30) i s 0.024 mi l l i meters. Thus, the
coeffi ci ent of curvature i s as fol l ows:
Table 2-12. Specific-gravity correction factors applied to hydrometer 152H
for computing partial percent finer
Specific Gravity 2.45 2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85 2.90 2.95
Correction Factor 1.05 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.94
C
U
D
60
D
10
---------
0.5
0.0045
---------------- 111.11 = = =
C
C
D
30
( )
2
D
60
D
10
-------------------------
0.024 ( )
2
0.5 0.0045
------------------------------
0.000576
0.00225
---------------------- 0.256 = = = =
2-88 Soils
S
A
M
P
L
E
F
i
g
u
r
e
2
-
4
4
.
S
a
m
p
l
e
D
D
F
o
r
m
1
2
0
7
Soils 2-89

Cl ays and some other fi ne-grai ned soi l s exhi bi t pl asti ci ty i f the proper amount
of water i s present i n the soi l . A pl asti c soi l i s one that can be deformed beyond
the poi nt of recovery wi thout cracki ng or change i n vol ume. Such soi l s can be
remol ded. The LL i s the greatest water content that the materi al may contai n
and sti l l remai n pl asti c. More water causes i t to become a thi ck l i qui d. The PL
i s the l owest water content that the materi al may contai n for pl asti c behavi or.
Wi th l ess water, the soi l becomes bri ttl e and breaks i nto fragments i f remol di ng
i s attempted. The PI i s the numeri cal di fference between the LL and the PL:
PI =LL - PL
Table 2-13. Frost-susceptibility groups for typical soil types
Frost Group Kind of Soil
Percentage Finer
Than 0.02 mm by
Weight
Typical Soil Types Under
USCS
NFS
(a) Gravels (e > 0.25)
crushed stone or rock
0 to 3 GW, GP
(b) Sands (e < 0.30) 0 to 3 SW, SP
(c) Sands (e > 0.30) 3 to 10 SP
S-1
(a) Gravels (e < 0.25)
crushed stone or rock
0 to 3 GW, GP
(b) Gravelly soils 3 to 6
GW, GP, GW-GM, GP-GM,
GW-GC, GP-GC
S-2 Sandy soils (e < 0.30) 3 to 6
SW, SP, SW-SM, SP-SM,
SW-SC, SP-SC
F-1 Gravelly soils 6 to 10
GW-GM, GP-GM, GW-GC,
GP-GC
F-2
(a) Gravelly soils 10 to 20 GM, GC, GM-GC
(b) Sands 6 to 15
SM, SC, SW-SM, SP-SM,
SW-SC, SP-SC, SM-SC
F-3
(a) Gravelly soils Over 20 GM, GC, GM-GC
(b) Sands, except very fine
silty sands
Over 15 SM, SC, SM-SC
(c) Clays, PI > 12 CL, CH, ML-CL
F-4
(a) All silts ML, MH, ML-CL
(b) Very fine sands Over 15 SM, SC, SM-SC
(c) Clays, PI < 12 CL, ML-CL
(d) Varved clays and other
fine-grained, banded
sediments
CL or CH layered with ML,
MH, SM, SC, SM-SC, or ML-
CL
NOTE: e = void ratio
SECTION VI. LIQUID LIMIT, PLASTIC LIMIT, AND PLASTICITY INDEX
DETERMINATION (ASTM D 4318-95A)
2-90 Soils
A l arge PI i ndi cates a very pl asti c soi l ; a smal l PI denotes a soi l havi ng l i ttl e
pl asti ci ty. As water content decreases bel ow the PL, the soi l mass shri nks and
becomes sti ffer. The shri nkage l i mi t i s the water content where, wi th further
dryi ng, shri nkage stops. Si nce there i s no sharp di sti ncti on between the l i qui d,
pl asti c, and bri ttl e sol i d states of consi stency, standardi zed procedures have
been establ i shed for determi ni ng the LL and the PL. These consi stency l i mi ts,
as wel l as the shri nkage l i mi t, are cal l ed the Atterberg l i mi ts. Si nce the
pri mary tests i n thi s secti on determi ne onl y the LLs and PLs and do not
i ncl ude tests for the shr i nkage l i mi ts, they are not i denti fi ed as the Atter berg
l i mi ts.
Research wi th l arge numbers of cl ay soi l s was used to establ i sh the soi l
pl asti ci ty chart for l aboratory cl assi fi cati on of fi ne-grai ned soi l s. The LL and
PI val ues are coordi nates that l ocate a parti cul ar soi l sampl e on the chart. The
regi on on the chart i n whi ch the sampl e fal l s gi ves the cl assi fi cati on based on
the behavi oral characteri sti cs of the parti cul ar soi l .
Take parti cul ar care when performi ng the test methods descri bed bel ow. Some
soi l s, parti cul arl y those wi th a hi gh organi c content, can provi de i nconsi stent
readi ngs or drasti c di fferences between an oven-dri ed sampl e and a sampl e at
natural moi sture content. Conduct the test bel ow on sampl es of natural
moi sture content. Determi ne the moi sture content at the end of the test.
LL DETERMINATION
A soi l s LL i s the water content expressed as a percentage of the wei ght of the
oven-dri ed soi l at the boundary between the l i qui d and the pl asti c states and
reported as a whol e number. Thi s boundary i s arbi trari l y defi ned by a standard
test method. The test i s performed on two hal ves of a prepared soi l speci men i n
an LL devi ce. The LL i s determi ned when the soi l hal ves fl ow together al ong a
di stance of 13 mi l l i meters when the cup i s dropped or jarred exactl y 25 ti mes
from a hei ght of 1 centi meter. Thi s rate of drop i s 1.9 to 2.1 drops per second.
PURPOSE
Perform thi s test to assi st i n cl assi fyi ng the soi l by determi ni ng the LL from
three moi sture-content sampl es.
EQUIPMENT
Perform thi s test i n a l aboratory envi ronment usi ng the fol l owi ng i tems (see
Figure 2-45):
An LL devi ce and a groovi ng tool (see Figure 2-46, page 2-92).
A No. 40 si eve.
Puddi ng pans.
A ground-gl ass pl ate (at l east 30 centi meters square by 1 centi meter
thi ck) for mi xi ng soi l and rol l i ng PL threads.
A pl asti c bag.
A cal cul ator.
Moi sture-determi nati on tares.
Soils 2-91
Paper.
A penci l .
A grease penci l .
DD Form 1209.
Gummed l abel s.
A spatul a.
A strai ghtedge.
A mortar wi th a rubber-ti pped pestl e.
A l aboratory oven.

Figure 2-45. Equipment for the LL and PL tests
LL machine
200-g balance
Grooving tool
Moisture-content boxes
Ground glass 6 x 6 x 1/4
Spatula
Evaporating dish
2-92 Soils
STEPS
Per for m the fol l owi ng steps to deter mi ne the LL:
a. Si eve the soi l sampl e (at natural moi sture content) over the No. 40 si eve
to obtai n a suffi ci ent quanti ty of at l east 250 grams.
b. Perform the fol l owi ng steps i f l i ttl e or no materi al i s retai ned on the No.
40 si eve, otherwi se go to step 1c:
Figure 2-46. LL device with grooving tools
Soils 2-93
(1) Col l ect 200 to 250 grams of 40 materi al for testi ng.
(2) Mi x the materi al wi th di sti l l ed water unti l the water content i s
sl i ghtl y bel ow the LL or about a peanut butter consi stency. The goal i s
to have the materi al fal l i n the 25- to 35-bl ow range for the fi rst test.
(3) Pl ace the mi xture i n a pl asti c bag, maki ng i t ai rti ght for at l east 16
hours (overni ght) so the moi sture content can become consi stent
throughout the sampl e. Remi x the materi al thoroughl y before testi ng.
c. Perform the fol l owi ng steps i f materi al i s retai ned on the No. 40 si eve:
(1) Pl ace the 40 materi al i n a pl asti c bag, maki ng i t ai rti ght to
mai ntai n i ts natural moi sture content.
(2) Soak the coarse mater i al r etai ned on the No. 40 si eve (the soaki ng
ti me i s vari abl e).
(3) Rub the col l oi dal materi al from the surfaces of the l arge parti cl es
unti l they are cl ean, pl aci ng the fi nes i n suspensi on.
(4) Pour off the suspended fi nes sl owl y i nto another pan, bei ng careful
not to pour off the coarse materi al .
(5) Add cl ean water to the coarse materi al and repeat the wash process
unti l the water poured off i s suffi ci entl y cl ear to i ndi cate that the
major i ty of fi nes that wer e put i n suspensi on have been pour ed off.
(6) Remove the excess water fr om the pan contai ni ng the suspended
fi nes after the fi nes have settl ed by decantati on and evaporati on. Do
not oven-dry or add chemi cal substances to speed dry or hasten the
settl ement.
(7) Oven-dry the coarse materi al that has been soaked and washed.
(8) Si eve the oven-dri ed coarse materi al over the No. 40 si eve.
(9) Combi ne the 40 materi al obtai ned from steps 1c(1) and 1c(8) wi th
the decanted materi al from step 1c(6). I f the combi ned materi al i s too
moi st, ai r-dry i t unti l the water content i s sl i ghtl y bel ow the LL. I f the
combi ned materi al i s too dry, add smal l quanti ti es of water unti l the
water content i s sl i ghtl y bel ow the LL (peanut butter consi stency).
(10) Pl ace the combi ned mi xture i n a pl asti c bag, maki ng i t ai rti ght for
at l east 16 hours (overni ght) so the moi sture content can become
consi stent throughout the sampl e. Remi x the materi al thoroughl y
before testi ng.
Step 2. I nspect the LL devi ce before testi ng.
a. Ensure that the pi n connecti ng the cup i s not worn (whi ch woul d permi t
si de pl ay).
b. Ensure that the screws connecti ng the cup to the hanger arm are ti ght.
c. Check the cup for wear. I f a groove has devel oped from use, repl ace i t.
d. Check the contact between the cup and the base. I f a dent can be fel t i n
the base or fl at on the cup, repl ace or repai r i t.
2-94 Soils
e. Check the gr oovi ng tool for wear.
f. Check the hei ght of the dr op of the cup so that the poi nt on the cup that
comes i n contact wi th the base (not the l owest poi nt of the cup) ri ses to a
hei ght of 1 centi meter. Use the gauge on the handl e of the gr oovi ng tool to
assi st i n thi s measurement. The hei ght of the drop must be 1 centi meter.
Use the thumbscrew at the rear of the devi ce to make an adjustment.
Example: The following is one procedure which could be used to aid
in checking and adjustments:
1. Place a piece of masking tape across the outside bottom of the cup
parallel with the axis of the cup-hanger pivot. The edge of the tape
away from the cup hanger should bisect the spot on the cup that
contacts the base. For new cups, place a piece of carbon paper on the
base and allow the cup to drop several times to mark the contact spot.
2. Attach the cup to the device, and turn the crank until the cup is
raised to its maximum height.
3. Slide the height gauge under the cup from the front, and observe
whether the gauge contacts the cup or the tape. If the tape and cup
are both contacted, the height of drop is approximately correct. If
not, adjust the cup until simultaneous contact is made.
4. Check the adjustment by turning the crank at 2 revolutions per
second while holding the gauge in position against the tape and cup.
If a faint ringing or clicking sound is heard without the cup rising
from the gauge, the adjustment is correct. If no ringing is heard or if
the cup rises from the gauge, readjust the height of drop. If the cup
rocks on the gauge during this step, the cam-follower pivot is
excessively worn and the worn parts should be replaced.
5. Remove the tape after completion of adjustments.
Step 3. Perform the LL test.
a. Obtai n about 50 grams of the 200- to 250-gram prepared sampl e, and
pl ace i n an ai rti ght contai ner for use i n the PL test.
b. Record al l i denti fyi ng i nformati on for the sampl e on DD Form 1209 (see
Figure 2-47).
c. Label and prewei gh three empty moi sture-determi nati on tares. Record
the wei ght on the form as the wei ght of the tare.
d. Pl ace 20 to 25 grams of the thoroughl y mi xed sampl e i nto the brass cup,
and l evel i t off wi th a maxi mum depth of 1 centi meter (see Figure 2-48,
page 2-96).
e. Di vi de the soi l sampl e i n the cup wi th a groovi ng tool so that a cl ean,
shar p gr oove i s for med. Hol d the cup wi th the cam fol l ower upwar d and
draw the groovi ng tool , wi th the bevel ed edge forward, through the
speci men downward away from the cam fol l ower (see Figure 2-49, page
2-96). Use more than one stroke to make the groove, but no more than si x,
cl eani ng the groovi ng tool s cutti ng edge after each stroke. Avoi d teari ng
the si de of the groove. Repl ace the soi l sampl e i n the cup, and regroove i f
Soils 2-95
S
A
M
P
L
E
2-96 Soils
the si de tears. Wi th some sandy and hi ghl y organi c soi l s, i t i s i mpossi bl e to
draw the groovi ng tool through the speci men wi thout teari ng the si des of
the groove. I n such cases, the groove shoul d be made wi th a spatul a, usi ng
the groovi ng tool onl y for a fi nal check of the groove (see Figure 2-50).
f. Attach the cup to the devi ce; ensure that the hei ght of the drop i s 1
centi meter.
g. Turn the crank of the devi ce at a rate of two revol uti ons per second.
Count the bl ows unti l the two hal ves of the soi l make contact at the
bottom of the groove al ong a di stance of 13 mi l l i meters (see Figure 2-51).
h. Record the number of bl ows to cl ose the groove for 13 mi l l i meters.
i . Obtai n 5 to 10 grams of soi l from the cup to determi ne the moi sture
content. Take the sampl e perpendi cul ar to the groove from the edge of the
cup and through the porti on that has cl osed i n the bottom of the groove.
Pl ace the sampl e i n the prewei ghed moi sture-determi nati on tare, and
Figure 2-48. Leveling sample in the cup
Figure 2-49. Holding cup and grooving tool
Point of
contact
1 cm
Soils 2-97
cover i t wi th a l i d. Wei gh i t and record the wei ght on the form as the
wei ght of the wet soi l and the tare.
j. Transfer the soi l remai ni ng i n the cup to the mi xi ng di sh. Wash and dry
the cup and the groovi ng tool .
NOTE: It is recommended that one of the trials be for a closure
requiring 25 to 35 blows, one for a closure between 20 and 30 blows,
and one for a closure requiring 15 to 25 blows.
Figure 2-50. Cutting groove with spatula in sandy soil
Figure 2-51. Soil coming into contact
13 mm
2-98 Soils
k. Remi x the enti re soi l speci men, addi ng a l i ttl e water to i ncrease the
water content of the soi l and decrease the number of bl ows requi red to
cl ose the groove. Repeat steps 3d through 3j for at l east two addi ti onal
tri al s produci ng a successi vel y l ower number of bl ows to cl ose the groove.
l . Oven-dry the water-content sampl es, al l ow them to cool , and rewei gh
them. Record the wei ght on the form as the wei ght of the dry soi l and the
tare.
m. Compute the wei ght of the water (W
w
) by subtracti ng the wei ght of the
dry soi l and the tare from the wei ght of the wet soi l and the tare. Record
the wei ght on the form.
n. Compute the wei ght of the dry soi l (W
s
) by subtracti ng the wei ght of the
tar e from the wei ght of the dr y soi l and the tar e. Recor d the wei ght on the
form.
o. Record the water content for each speci men by computi ng the formul a
NOTE: All weighing should be accurate to 0.01 gram and water
contents computed in percent to one decimal place.
p. Pl ot the water-content poi nts on the semi l og graph on the form (water
versus number of bl ows) and draw a strai ght l i ne (fl ow l i ne)
representati ve of the three or more poi nts.
q. Determi ne the LL by i nterpreti ng the graph where the fl ow l i ne
i ntersects the 25-bl ow l i ne. Record the LL to the nearest whol e number.
PL DETERMINATION
The PL of a soi l i s the water content, expressed as a percentage of wei ght of
oven-dri ed soi l , at whi ch the soi l begi ns to crumbl e when rol l ed i nto a thread
3.2 mi l l i meters i n di ameter. About 50 grams of materi al i s requi red for the PL
test. Prepare the sampl e and set i t asi de whi l e prepari ng for the LL test.
PURPOSE
Perform thi s test to assi st i n cl assi fyi ng the soi l by determi ni ng the PL
moi sture content to wi thi n 1 percent.
EQUIPMENT
Perform thi s test i n a l aboratory envi ronment usi ng the same equi pment
l i sted i n the LL determi nati on test.
STEPS
Per for m the fol l owi ng steps to deter mi ne the PL:
Step 1. Label and pr ewei gh two empty moi stur e-deter mi nati on tar es. Recor d
the wei ght on DD Form 1209 as the wei ght of the tar e.
w
W
w
W
s
-------- 100 =
Soils 2-99
Step 2. Obtai n the 50-gr am sampl e set asi de dur i ng step 3a of the LL test.
Reduce the water content, i f r equi red, to obtai n a consi stency wi th whi ch the
soi l can be r ol l ed wi thout sti cki ng to the hands by spreadi ng or mi xi ng
conti nuousl y on the gl ass pl ate. The dr yi ng pr ocess may be accel er ated by
ai r-dr yi ng onl y.
Step 3. Sel ect a por ti on of about 2 gr ams (mar bl e si ze) fr om the 50-gr am
mass and for m the test speci men i nto an el l i psoi dal mass. Rol l i t on a fi nel y-
gr ound gl ass pl ate wi th the fi nger s or pal m of the hand to a uni form thr ead
di ameter of 3.2 mi l l i meter s, taki ng no mor e than 2 mi nutes (see Figure
2-52).
NOTE: The rate of rolling should be between 80 to 90 strokes per
minute, counting a stroke as one complete motion of the hand
forward and back to the starting position. This rate of rolling may
have to be decreased for very fragile soil.
Step 4. Remol d the sampl e and rol l i t agai n to 3.2 mi l l i meter s di ameter,
r epeati ng the r ol l i ng and r emol di ng pr ocess unti l the total sampl e cr umbl es,
befor e reachi ng the 3.2-mi l l i meters-di ameter thr ead (see Figure 2-53, page
2-120).
NOTE: All of the sample may not crumble at the same time. If the
thread breaks into smaller lengths, roll each of these lengths to 3.2
millimeters. Continue the rolling and remolding process until the
sample can no longer be remolded and rolled to the 3.2-millimeter
thread without totally breaking up.
Step 5. Col l ect and pl ace the crumbl ed porti ons i nto a prewei ghed moi sture-
determi nati on tare and cover i t wi th the l i d.
Step 6. Repeat steps 3 through 5 unti l the crumbl ed threads i n the moi sture-
determi nati on tare wei gh at l east 6 grams.
Figure 2-52. Rolling a soil specimen, PL test
2-100 Soils
Step 7. Repeat steps 3 through 6 to obtai n a second moi sture-determi nati on
tare of at l east 6 grams of materi al .
Step 8. Wei gh the moi sture-determi nati on tares wi th the crumbl ed threads,
and record the wei ghts on the form as the wei ght of the wet soi l and the tare.
Step 9. Determi ne the water content by fol l owi ng steps 3l through 3o (page
2-118) of the LL test.
Step 10. Determi ne the average water content of the sampl es and record to the
nearest tenth as the PL. When determi ni ng the average water content, the
i ndi vi dual tests must be wi thi n 1 percent of the mean. Any i ndi vi dual tests
that do not meet thi s requi rement wi l l not be used. I f none of the i ndi vi dual
tests meet thi s requi rement, then addi ti onal testi ng i s requi red.
PI DETERMINATION
Compute the PI and record i t on the form usi ng the fol l owi ng formul a:
PI =LL - PL
Cl assi fy the soi l by pl otti ng the LL versus the PI on the pl asti ci ty chart as
fol l ows (see Figure 2-54):
The materi al pl otted on or above the A l i ne i s cl assi fi ed as cl ay, and the
materi al pl otted bel ow the A l i ne i s cl assi fi ed as si l t.
The materi al pl otted on or to the ri ght of the 50 percent l i ne has a hi gh
LL (H), and the materi al pl otted to the l eft of the 50 percent l i ne has a
l ow LL (L).
The upper, or U, l i ne i s an approxi mate upper boundary. Al though not
i mpossi bl e, any resul ts pl otted above thi s l i ne shoul d be consi dered
suspect and the tests shoul d be r echecked.
Figure 2-53. Rolled threads, crumbled and uncrumbled
Soils 2-101

Compacti on i s one of the basi c constructi on procedures i nvol ved i n bui l di ng
subgrades and bases for roads and ai rport pavements, embankments, earthen
dams, and si mi l ar structures. Compacti on i s the process of i ncreasi ng the
amounts of sol i ds per uni t vol ume of soi l by mechani cal means. Thi s i ncrease
i n densi ty has an i mportant effect i n i mprovi ng such soi l properti es as
strength, permeabi l i ty, and compressi bi l i ty.
The amount of compacti on i s quanti fi ed i n ter ms of the soi l s densi ty (dr y uni t
wei ght). Usual l y, soi l can be compacted best (and thus a greater densi ty
achi eved) i f onl y a certai n amount of water i s added. I n effect, water acts as a
l ubri cant, al l owi ng soi l parti cl es to be packed together better. However, i f too
much water i s added, a l esser densi ty wi l l resul t because the excess water
separates the soi l parti cl es. Therefore, for a gi ven compacti ve effort, there i s a
parti cul ar moi sture content at whi ch dry densi ty i s greatest and compacti on i s
best. Thi s moi sture content i s the OMC, and the associ ated dry densi ty i s
cal l ed the maxi mum dry densi ty (MDD).
Figure 2-54. USCS plasticity chart
Liquid Limit (LL)
0
10
20
40
30
60
50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
i
t
y

I
n
d
e
x

(
P
I
)
CL ML
16
7
4
CL
MH or OH
CH
ML or OL
(
U
p
p
e
r
)

U

-

L
in
e
A
-
L
in
e
Equation of:
A Line - Horizontal at PI = 4 to LL = 25.5,
then PI = 0.73 ( LL - 20 )
U Line - Vertical at LL = 16 to PI = 7,
then PI = 0.9 ( LL - 8 )
Equation of:
A line - horizontal at PI = 4 to LL
= 25.5, then PI = 0.73 (LL-20)
U line - vertical at LL = 16 to
PI = 7, then PI = 0.9 (LL-8)

P
l
a
s
t
i
c
i
t
y

I
n
d
e
x

(
P
I
)

(
U
p
p
e
r

)

U

l
i
n
e

A

l
i
n
e
Liquid Limit (LL)
SECTION VII. LABORATORY COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL USING
MODIFIED EFFORT (COMPACTION TEST) (ASTM D 1557-91)
2-102 Soils
COMPACTION TEST
I n the fi el d, compacti on i s accompl i shed by rol l i ng or tampi ng wi th speci al
equi pment or by the passi ng of constructi on equi pment. Laboratory
compacti on usual l y i s accompl i shed by pl aci ng the soi l i n a cyl i nder of known
vol ume and dr oppi ng a tamper of known wei ght onto the soi l fr om a known
hei ght for a gi ven number of bl ows. The amount of work done to the soi l per
uni t vol ume of soi l i n thi s dynami c compacti on procedure i s cal l ed compacti ve
effort. Each compacti ve effort for a gi ven soi l has i ts own OMC. As the
compacti ve effort i s i ncreased, the maxi mum densi ty usual l y i ncreases and
the OMC decreases.
Before performi ng the compacti on test, the grai n-si ze anal ysi s must be
deter mi ned (see Secti on V). Thi s test method provi des thr ee al ter nati ve
testi ng pr ocedur es. The procedure used shal l be as i ndi cated i n the pr oject
speci fi cati ons for the type of materi al bei ng tested. I f no procedure i s cl earl y
speci fi ed, the sel ecti on shoul d be based on fol l ow-on testi ng requi rements
(such as the CBR) and the materi al gradati on.
PURPOSE
Perform compacti on tests i n the l aboratory to determi ne such soi l properti es
as the effect of varyi ng percentages of water on dry densi ty, the maxi mum
densi ty obtai nabl e under a gi ven compacti ve effort, and the OMC.
Procedure A. Thi s procedure uses the 4-i nch mol d on onl y the soi l
passi ng the No. 4 si eve when the overal l representati ve sampl e has no
more than 20 percent of the materi al by wei ght retai ned on the No. 4
si eve. The number of bl ows per l ayer for thi s procedure i s 25 and the
number of l ayers i s 5. NOTE: Materials that meet these
gradations may also be tested using procedures B or C.
Procedure B. Thi s procedure uses the 4-i nch mol d on onl y the soi l
passi ng the 3/8-i nch si eve when the overal l r epresentati ve sampl e has
more than 20 percent of the materi al by wei ght retai ned on the No. 4
si eve and 20 percent or l ess i s retai ned on the 3/8-i nch si eve. The
number of bl ows per l ayer for thi s procedure i s 25 and the number of
l ayers i s 5. NOTE: Materials that meet these gradations may
also be tested using procedure C.
Procedure C. Thi s procedure uses the 6-i nch mol d on onl y the soi l
passi ng the 3/4-i nch si eve when the overal l r epresentati ve sampl e has
more than 20 percent of the materi al by wei ght retai ned on the 3/8-
i nch si eve and l ess than 30 percent i s retai ned on the 3/4-i nch si eve.
The number of bl ows per l ayer for thi s procedure i s 56 and the number
of l ayers i s 5.
NOTE: Previous testing methods incorporated a mix of standards
that have since been rescinded. The current standard for this test is
ASTM D 1557-91. This test procedure standardizes the use of the 4-
inch (Proctor) and 6-inch (CBR) molds. The compaction effort at 56
blows is about the same as used in previous test methods (CE 55).
This test method is applicable only to soils containing 30 percent or
less by weight of material retained on the 3/4-inch sieve.
Soils 2-103
EQUIPMENT
Perform the compacti on test usi ng the fol l owi ng i tems:
Cyl i nder mol ds (use one of the fol l owi ng mol ds, dependi ng on the soi l
sampl e bei ng processed):
Proctor mol d; 4-i nch (4.0-i nch i nsi de di ameter and 4.584-i nch
i nsi de hei ght havi ng an i nternal vol ume of 0.0333 cubi c foot),
havi ng an extensi on col l ar (2.375 i nches hi gh) and a detachabl e
metal basepl ate.
CBR mol d; 6-i nch (6-i nch i nsi de di ameter and 7-i nch i nsi de
hei ght), havi ng an extensi on col l ar (2 i nches hi gh) and detachabl e
metal basepl ate. The mol d shoul d al so have a metal spacer di sk
(5.94-i nch i nsi de di ameter and 2.416 i nches thi ck) for use as a
fal se bottom i n the mol d duri ng testi ng. When the spacer di sk i s i n
pl ace i n the bottom of the mol d, the i nter nal vol ume of the mol d
(excl udi ng extensi on col l ar) shal l be 0.075 cubi c foot.
A compacti ng hammer or tamper. A sl i di ng-wei ght type compacti ng
tamper, havi ng a 2-i nch-di ameter steel stri ki ng face, a 10-pound mass,
and an 18-i nch fal l .
A No. 4 si eve.
A 3/8-i nch si eve.
A 3/4-i nch si eve.
Moi sture tares.
A soi l s oven.
Fi l ter paper.
A l arge spoon.
A l arge kni fe.
A steel strai ghtedge.
A cal cul ator.
DD Form 1210.
DD Form 1211.
The amount of materi al (fi el d sampl e) requi red for the compacti on test
depends on the test procedure bei ng used and the fi el d sampl es moi sture
content. The fol l owi ng are gui del i nes for the amount of soi l requi red for the
test procedures:
Procedures A and B: Use about 35 pounds of dry soi l or at l east 50
pounds of moi st soi l .
2-104 Soils
Procedure C: Use about 75 pounds of dry soi l or at l east 100 pounds of
moi st soi l .
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for the compacti on test:
Step 1. Determi ne the test procedure to be used.
I f the CBR desi gn and tests are to be devel oped for thi s project, do not
use thi s method. See Secti on I X for procedures to be used for CBR.
I f CBR i s not a factor, determi ne the test procedure by eval uati ng the
gradati on cri teri a of the procedures l i sted above (A, B, or C) wi th
col umn 17 (percent retai ned) on DD Form 1206.
a. Dry the sampl e unti l i t can be easi l y crumbl ed under a trowel . Dryi ng
may be done by ai r-dryi ng or by usi ng a dryi ng apparatus, provi ded the
temperature of the sampl e does not exceed 60C.
b. Break up the sampl e thoroughl y, but not i n such a manner as to reduce
the si ze of the i ndi vi dual parti cl es.
c. Si eve the sampl e over a No. 4 (pr ocedur e A), 3/8-i nch (pr ocedur e B), or
3/4-i nch si eve (pr ocedur e C). When pr epar i ng the mater i al by passi ng i t
over the 3/4-i nch si eve for compacti on i n the 6-i nch mol d, br eak up
aggr egates suffi ci entl y to at l east pass the 3/8-i nch si eve. Thi s
faci l i tates the di str i buti on of water thr oughout the soi l i n l ater mi xi ng.
d. Separate from the sampl e 5 equal porti ons representi ng each poi nt
desi red on the compacti on curve. The si ze of each sampl e for one mol d i s
about 2,700 grams for procedures A and B or 6,800 grams for procedure C.
Retai n al l excess soi l sampl e.
Step 3. Adjust the water content.
NOTE: The water-content adjustments in this step are designed to
provide approximations of the OMC. In no way should these
approximations be used for or be interpreted as the actual moisture
content. Exact moisture determinations will be conducted in a later
step.
a. Establ i sh the assumed or approxi mate OMC.
(1) Pl ace exactl y 100 grams of the excess soi l sampl e i n a di sh.
(2) Add 5 mi l l i l i ters of water to the sampl e and mi x thoroughl y. The
approxi mate OMC i s typi cal l y achi eved so that when the soi l i s
squeezed i n the pal m, i t wi l l adhere together on i ts own but i t wi l l
break cl eanl y i nto two separate pi eces wi thout ei ther pi ece shatteri ng
when bent. Usual l y thi s wi l l be sl i ghtl y l ess than the PL.
(3) Add smal l amounts of water (i n mi l l i l i ters), rememberi ng to record
the amounts added, unti l the approxi mate OMC i s achi eved. Do not
confuse the approxi mate OMC wi th the actual moi sture content of thi s
soi l , whi ch wi l l be determi ned i n a l ater step. For purposes of
conducti ng the test method, the approxi mate OMC wi l l be the amount
Soils 2-105
of water, i n mi l l i l i ters, added to the sampl e. (For exampl e, i f onl y 8
mi l l i l i ters of water was added to achi eve the approxi mate OMC, then
the approxi mate OMC i s 8.0 percent. Thi s works i n approxi mati ng
because 1 mi l l i l i ter of water i s about equal to 1 gram. By addi ng
wei ght to an ori gi nal sampl e of 100 grams, no mathemati cal
cal cul ati ons are requi red.)
b. Determi ne the moi sture-content range. Thi s range i s the approxi mated
OMC 4. (For exampl e, i f you have determi ned that the approxi mated
OMC i s 8.0 percent, then the -4 i s 4.0 percent and the +4 i s 12.0 percent.
Thi s i denti fi es the moi sture-content range as 4.0 to 12.0 percent.)
c. Use the fol l owi ng formul a to determi ne the amount of water to add to
each of the 5 sampl es to obtai n the desi red approxi mate (-4, -2, OMC, +2,
+4) moi sture contents:
For exampl e, to determi ne the water to add to obtai n the approxi mated
OMC for a sampl e of 6,804 grams (usi ng procedure C)
Perform the same cal cul ati ons to determi ne the water to add for the
remai ni ng sampl es for the requi red moi sture-content range. The exampl es
bel ow i l l ustrate thi s cal cul ati on for the remai ni ng sampl es, taki ng i nto
consi derati on that not al l the sampl e wei ghts wi l l be exactl y the same
(6,804 grams):
d. Add the water fi gured from the formul as for each of the 5 desi red moi sture
contents (-4, -2, OMC, +2, and +4) and mi x thoroughl y to ensure even
di stri buti on of water throughout the sampl e.
e. Pl ace each sampl e i n an ai rti ght contai ner and al l ow to stand for the
mi ni mum peri od of ti me i ndi cated bel ow:
For GW, GP, SW, and SP soi l types, there i s no mi ni mum standi ng
peri od of ti me.
For GM and SM soi l types, a mi ni mum of 3 hours standi ng ti me i s
requi red.
For al l other soi l types, a mi ni mum of 16 hours standi ng ti me i s
requi red.
Step 4. Recor d al l i denti fyi ng i nfor mati on such as the pr oject, the
excavati on number, and other per ti nent data on DD For m 1210 (see Figure
2-55, page 2-106).
water (in milliliters) to add =
weight of sample (in grams) desired percent (decimal format)
6 804 , 0.08 544.3 milliliters =
(-4) 4.0% moisture for a sample at 6,815 grams: 6,815 0.04 272.6 milliliters =
(-2) 6.0% moisture for a sample at 6,800 grams: 6,800 0.06 408.0 milliliters =
(+2) 10.0% moisture for a sample at 6,822 grams: 6,822 0.10 682.2 milliliters =
(+4) 12.0% moisture for a sample at 6,810 grams: 6,810 0.12 817.2 milliliters =
2-106 Soils
S
A
M
P
L
E
F
i
g
u
r
e

2
-
5
5
.
S
a
m
p
l
e

D
D

F
o
r
m

1
2
1
0
Soils 2-107
Step 5. Prepare the mol d and moi sture-determi nati on tares.
a. Li ghtl y oi l a mol d (4- or 6-i nch, dependi ng on the procedure sel ected).
b. Wei gh the mol d.
For the 4-i nch mol d, wei gh the mol d wi th the basepl ate to the
nearest gram. Record thi s wei ght on the form as the wei ght of the
mol d (bl ock 13). Do not i ncl ude the col l ar.
For the 6-i nch mol d, wei gh the mol d wi th the basepl ate and spacer
di sk to the near est gr am. Recor d thi s wei ght on the for m as the
wei ght of the mol d (bl ock 13). Do not i ncl ude the col l ar.
c. Attach the col l ar to the mol d. I f usi ng the 6-i nch mol d, pl ace a coarse
fi l ter paper on top of the spacer di sk.
d. Record the vol ume of the mol d as 0.0333 cubi c foot for the 4-i nch mol d
or 0.075 cubi c foot for the 6-i nch mol d wi th the spacer di sk.
e. Mark and wei gh 2 moi sture-determi nati on tares for each mol d
prepared. Record as the wei ght of tare.
Step 6. Pl ace suffi ci ent soi l i n the mol d (about 1 1/2 to 2 i nches) to obtai n
about a 1-i nch compacted l ayer. After compacti on of al l 5 l ayers, each l ayer
shoul d be about equal i n thi ckness. The fi fth compacted l ayer wi l l sl i ghtl y
extend i nto the col l ar but wi l l not exceed 1/4 i nch above the top of the mol d.
Step 7. Appl y compacti ve effort.
a. Hol d the 10-pound compacti on tamper wi thi n 5 degrees of verti cal ,
pl aci ng i ts face on top of the soi l .
b. Rai se the handl e unti l i t reaches the top (18 i nches) and rel ease i t,
al l owi ng the wei ght to fal l freel y onto the soi l .
c. Change the posi ti on of the gui de and tamper, and repeat the process
unti l the soi l l ayer has recei ved the prescri bed 25 bl ows for procedures A
and B or 56 bl ows for procedur e C. Appl y the bl ows at a uni for m r ate of
about 25 bl ows per mi nute. The hei ght of fal l of the tamper must be
control l ed careful l y and the bl ows di stri buted evenl y over the speci mens
surface (see Figure 2-56, page 2-108).
Step 8. Tri m the compacted l ayer. After compacti ng each l ayer (except the fi fth
l ayer), use a kni fe to tri m any soi l adjacent to the mol d wal l s that has not been
compacted or that extends above the compacted surface. I ncl ude the tri mmed
soi l wi th the addi ti onal soi l for the next l ayer.
Step 9. Repeat steps 6, 7, and 8 unti l fi ve l ayers have been compacted i n the
mol d. Each compacted l ayer shoul d be about equal i n thi ckness (just under 1
i nch). Adjust each l ayer accordi ngl y to ensure that the fi fth compacted l ayer
wi l l sl i ghtl y extend i nto the col l ar, but wi l l not exceed 1/4 i nch above the top of
the mol d.
Step 10. Remove the col l ar from the mol d.
a. Cut around the i nsi de edge of the col l ar to prevent sheari ng the
compacted soi l when removi ng the col l ar.
2-108 Soils
b. Tri m and smooth the compacted soi l fl ush wi th the top of the mol d (see
Figure 2-57). Use a sawi ng moti on wi th the strai ghtedge to tri m the excess
soi l . Start at the center of the mol d and work outward, fi rst to one si de and
then to the other. Fi l l any hol es wi th unused or tri mmed soi l from the
speci men, press i n wi th the fi ngers, and agai n scrape the surface wi th the
strai ghtedge.
Step 11. Wei gh and record the data. Wei gh the compl ete mol d wi th the
basepl ate and compacted speci men (i ncl udi ng the spacer di sk for the 6-i nch
mol d) to the nearest gram. Recor d the wei ght on the for m as the wei ght of the
mol d and wet soi l (bl ock 12). Do not i ncl ude the col l ar.
Step 12. Prepare the speci men for moi sture-content determi nati on.
a. Remove the speci men from the mol d.
b. Sl i ce the compacted speci men axi al l y through the center and remove
about 250 grams of materi al from one si de of the cut and pl ace i t i n one of
the moi sture-determi nati on tares and cover. Remove about 250 grams
from the other si de of the cut, and pl ace i t i n the other moi sture-
determi nati on tare and cover.
Step 13. Repeat steps 5 through 12 for the remai ni ng mol ds at the di fferent
moi sture contents descri bed i n step 3c.
Step 14. Determi ne the moi sture content of the materi al i n the moi sture-
determi nati on tares by performi ng moi sture-content testi ng of the tares as
descri bed i n Secti on I I I .
Figure 2-56. Soil compaction in a mold
10-lb tamper
Tamper guide
18
Soils 2-109
Step 15. Perform cal cul ati ons. Record the wei ght of the dry soi l and tare on
the form. Compute the wei ght of water, wei ght of dry soi l , and the water
content and record i t on the form. Compute the average water content from
the two tares and record i t on the form. Cal cul ate and record the dry uni t
wei ght as fol l ows:
COMPACTION-TEST GRAPHPRESENTATION OF RESULTS
The soi l compacti on-test graph (DD Form 1211) i s an i mportant part of
presenti ng the data from the compacti on test. I t i s used to pl ot a compacti on
curve. Thi s curve i s needed to determi ne the MMD and OMC as part of the
compacti on-test procedures. I t al so i ncl udes a zero-ai r-voi ds curve and a
compacti on-speci fi cati on bl ock.
COMPACTION CURVE
The compacti on cur ve i s obtai ned by pl otti ng moi stur e content ver sus dr y
uni t wei ght for each test on the soi l -compacti on-test gr aph (see Figure 2-58,
page 2-110). To constr uct an acceptabl e cur ve, at l east two of the pl otted
poi nts shoul d fal l on each si de of the OMC. I t i s i mpor tant to r emember that
dur i ng the testi ng per i od, the onl y densi ty that can be deter mi ned i s the
wet soi l densi ty or wet uni t wei ght. To compute the dr y uni t wei ght, the
moi stur e content must be deter mi ned. Thi s can take up to 24 hour s.
For a typi cal cohesi ve soi l , dry densi ty i ncreases to a certai n poi nt (the OMC)
as the moi sture i n the soi l i ncreases. Once the OMC i s achi eved, the dry
densi ty begi ns to decrease wi th i ncreasi ng moi sture content. The pri mary
reason for performi ng the compacti on test i s to determi ne the moi sture
Figure 2-57. Trimming the compacted soil sample
dry unit weight
wet unit weight
1
percent water content
100
---------------------------------------------------- +
------------------------------------------------------------- - =
2-110 Soils
S
A
M
P
L
E
Soils 2-111
content at whi ch the MDD can be obtai ned. After pl otti ng the compacti on
curve, i t i s possi bl e to determi ne the moi sture content that wi l l gi ve the MDD
for that parti cul ar soi l di rectl y from the pl otted curve.
The compacti on curve shows the OMC or the moi sture content at whi ch the
MDD i s obtai ned for a gi ven compacti on effort. By determi ni ng the hi ghest
poi nt on the compacti on curve (apex) and droppi ng verti cal l y to the hori zontal
moi sture scal e or l i ne, the OMC for thi s parti cul ar soi l i s found to be 8.8
percent, as shown i n Figure 2-58.
The compacti on curve al so shows MDD (100 percent compacti on). The MDD of
100 percent effort may be obtai ned by runni ng a tangent from the hi ghest
poi nt on the compacti on curve for the parti cul ar soi l to the verti cal dry-densi ty
scal e (see Figure 2-58); i n thi s case, 123.2 pounds per cubi c foot (pcf).
A compacti on curve i s not compl ete wi thout the zero-ai r-voi ds curve, whi ch
acts as a control to the compacti on curve.
ZERO AIR VOIDS AND SATURATION
The zero-ai r-voi ds curve represents theoreti cal val ues that are practi cal l y
unattai nabl eno matter what degree of compacti ve effortbecause i t i s not
possi bl e to remove al l the ai r contai ned i n the voi ds of a soi l by compacti on
al one. Typi cal l y, at moi sture contents beyond opti mum, the actual compacti on
curve cl osel y paral l el s the theoreti cal l y-perfect compacti on curve. Any val ues
of dry densi ty that pl ot to the r i ght of the zer o-ai r-voi ds cur ve are i n er r or. The
error may be i n the test measurement, the cal cul ati ons, or the speci fi c gravi ty.
At compl ete saturati on, the voi ds i n the sol i d mass are compl etel y fi l l ed wi th
water. That i s, no ai r i s present and the degree of saturati on (S) i s equal to 100
percent. The zero-ai r-voi ds curve (100 percent saturati on) for the soi l tested i s
shown on the graph i n Figure 2-58. Thi s curve i s obtai ned by pl otti ng dry
densi ti es correspondi ng to compl ete saturati on at di fferent moi sture contents
usi ng the fol l owi ng formul a:
where
w =water content, in percent
S =degree of saturation, in percent
62.43 =unit weight of water, in pcf
g
d
=dry unit weight of soil, in pcf
G
s
=specific gravity of solids for this soil (block 6, DD Form 1211)
Use thi s equati on to compute poi nts for pl otti ng the zero-ai r-voi ds curve. Pl ot
at l east three poi nts for drawi ng the curve. Use poi nts wi thi n the range of the
compacti on-curve dry uni t wei ghts. Sel ect three dry uni t wei ghts i n thi s range
and cal cul ate as l i sted above.
w S
62.43
g
d
-------------
1
G
s
------

=
2-112 Soils
Example: The upper pl otted poi nt of the zero-ai r-voi ds curve for the soi l
represented i n Figure 2-58 i s a whol e number just under maxi mum densi ty
(122 pcf). The speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds (G
s
) was determi ned to be 2.62. At 100
percent saturati on for thi s densi ty, the correspondi ng moi sture content woul d
be 13 percent. Thi s i s determi ned by the zero-ai r-voi ds formul a:
Any other pl otted poi nts are al so determi ned usi ng thi s formul a as fol l ows:
PERCENT MOISTURE
To obtai n the maxi mum dry uni t wei ght or densi ty i n the fi el d, i t i s necessary
to mai ntai n the constructi on soi l s moi sture content as cl ose as possi bl e to the
opti mum determi ned from the l aboratory compacti on test. I f the moi sture
content i s not cl ose to the OMC, i t wi l l requi re extra ti me and equi pment effort
to obtai n the MDD. The l i mi ts for moi stur e contents shoul d be outl i ned i n the
speci fi cati ons for each job. I f not speci fi ed, the l i mi ts shoul d be establ i shed as
2 percent of the OMC. Usi ng Figure 2-58, where the OMC i s 8.8 percent, the
moi sture l i mi ts woul d range from 6.8 to 10.8 percent. Thi s provi des the l i mi ts
for a workabl e and practi cal speci fi cati on bl ock.
PERCENT COMPACTION
Some soi l s wi l l not or cannot be compacted to 100 percent at a reasonabl e
equi pment effort, regardl ess of the combi nati on. I n those cases, i t i s not
mandatory to compact to 100 percent. For each job, the speci fi cati ons wi l l
state the percent of compacti on requi red for the parti cul ar l oadi ngs. Assume
that the speci fi cati ons requi re 90 percent of MDD. To fi nd the dry densi ty
requi red, mul ti pl y the MDD (100 percent), regardl ess of i ts val ue, by 0.90.
Thi s wi l l gi ve the densi ty l i mi t. I f the speci fi cati ons state between 90 and 95
percent, the 90 percent densi ty wi l l consti tute the l ower l i mi t wi th 95 percent
as the upper l i mi t. A speci fi cati on bl ock can now be constructed (see Figure
2-58, page 2-110).
COMPACTION-SPECIFICATION BLOCK
The compacti on-speci fi cati on bl ock shows a deter mi nati on r ange based on the
project speci fi cati ons. I f no speci fi cati ons are gi ven, refer to the mi ni mum
compacti on speci fi cati on requi rements as l i sted i n FMs 5-410, 5-430-00-1, or
5-430-00-2. Once the range i s determi ned, the speci fi cati on bl ock i s pl otted on
the compacti on curve (see Figure 2-58), coveri ng the speci fi ed compacti on-
range requi rement i n percent for the dry uni t wei ght wi thi n a 4 percent range
of the OMC ( 2 OMC). The bl ock i s then l i ghtl y cross-hatched so as to not
i nterfere wi th the compacti on curve. I f the fi el d resul ts fal l wi thi n thi s bl ock,
the job i s meeti ng speci fi cati ons.
100
62.43
122
-------------
1
2.62
----------

13 =
100
62.43
118
-------------
1
2.62
----------

14.7 =
100
62.43
114
-------------
1
2.62
----------

16.6 =
Soils 2-113
Equipment
Use the fol l owi ng to compl ete the compacti on-speci fi cati on bl ock:
DD Form 1211 wi th compacti on curve and zero-ai r-voi ds curve.
A cal cul ator.
The proposed use of the soi l .
The projects compacti on speci fi cati ons.
Steps
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to compl ete the soi l compacti on-speci fi cati on bl ock
(DD Form 1211):
Step 1. Determi ne the compacti on-speci fi cati on requi rements as di scussed
above.
Step 2. Draw the compacti on-speci fi cati on bl ock. Establ i sh the upper and
l ower l i mi ts of the bl ock as the speci fi cati on range (i n percent) of the dry uni t
wei ght. Establ i sh the l eft and ri ght l i mi ts of the bl ock as 2 of OMC.
The exampl e i n Figure 2-58, page 2-110, represents the compacti on data from
DD Form 1210 (see Figure 2-55, page 2-106), the zero-ai r-voi ds curve pl otted
from a speci fi c gravi ty val ue of 2.62, and a compacti on speci fi cati on of 90 to 95
percent. Noti ce the compacti on-speci fi cati on bl ock ranges verti cal l y from 117
to 110.9 pcf and hori zontal l y from 6.8 to 10.8 percent i n moi sture content. The
computati on used to achi eve the upper and l ower l i mi ts i s based on the MDD
(i n thi s case, 123.2 pcf) and the speci fi cati on range of 90 to 95 percent as
fol l ows:
123.2 x 0.95 =117.0
123.2 x 0.90 =110.9
Once the bl ock has been establ i shed and drawn, the i nsi de of the bl ock can be
l i ghtl y cross-hatched to easi l y i denti fy the range. Do thi s so as not to i nterfere
wi th the curve or any other data pl otted on the chart.
EFFECT OF WATER ON DENSITY
Figure 2-59, page 2-114, demonstrates that as the moi sture content i s vari ed,
the dry densi ty al so vari es. As water i s added to an oven-dri ed soi l , the dry
densi ty i ncreases unti l the OMC i s reached. The dry densi ty then begi ns to
decrease usi ng a constant compacti ve effort.
After addi ng smal l i ncrements of water to a compl etel y ai r-dry soi l ,
subsequent compacti on wi th a constant compacti ve effort causes a smal l
i ncrease i n the soi l s dry uni t wei ght. Duri ng the i ni ti al hydrati on phase, the
water bei ng added to the soi l i s absorbed on the surface of the soi l grai ns. Thi s
water does not ai d compacti on by acti ng as a l ubri cant si nce i t i s fi rml y
attached to the surface of the soi l parti cl es. Addi ng addi ti onal water bri ngs
the soi l to a poi nt where a sl i ght change i n moi sture begi ns to produce a l arge
i ncrease i n densi ty. Thi s rapi d i ncrease i ndi cates that the l ubri cati on phase of
the compacti on curve has been reached.
2-114 Soils
The fi rst porti on of the compacti on curve to the ri ght of OMC i s known as the
swel l phase. The addi ti on of water i ncreases the fi l m around the soi l parti cl es,
forci ng the soi l parti cl es apart and decreasi ng the dry densi ty. Wi th further
i ncreases i n moi sture content, free water added to the soi l wi l l fi l l the voi d
spaces. Thi s i s known as the saturati on phase. I n the swel l and saturati on
phases, the water begi ns to take the pl ace of the sol i ds, thus decreasi ng the
dry densi ty.
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT COMPACTIVE EFFORTS ON DENSITY
The mass-per-uni t vol ume of a soi l vari es di rectl y wi th the amount of energy
expended to compact that soi l . Therefore, the greater the compacti ve effort,
the greater the amount of sol i ds per uni t vol ume. Thi s resul ts i n a stronger
and more stabl e soi l .
As the compacti ve effort i s i ncreased, the dry densi ty of the soi l i ncreases. Thi s
means that i f more energy i s used to compact a soi l , the i ncreased energy wi l l
cause the parti cl es to be rearranged to a greater extent, thus i ncreasi ng the
mass of soi l parti cl es per uni t vol ume. I f the compacti ve effort i s decreased,
the parti cl es wi l l not be rearranged as much, thus decreasi ng the dry densi ty.
Figure 2-60 shows how the dry densi ty vari es wi th the compacti ve effort.
The OMC vari es i nversel y wi th respect to compacti ve effort. I f the compacti ve
effort i s i ncreased, the soi l does not have to be as wet to obtai n the MDD. I n
other words, the OMC wi l l be decreased wi th i ncreasi ng compacti ve effort (see
Figure 2-60).
Figure 2-59. Effect of water on density
w (moisture content)
D
r
y

u
n
i
t

w
e
i
g
h
t
H
y
d
ra
tio
n
L
u
b
r
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
S
w
e
l
l
S
a
tu
ra
tio
n
Maximum dry unit weight
Swell water
begins forcing
grains apart
Adding
cohesive
water
Soils 2-115
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS ON DENSITY
Di fferent soi l s have varyi ng compacti ve characteri sti cs. Gravel l y and sandy
soi l s have a l ower OMC and hi gher densi ti es under the same compacti ve effort
compared wi th si l ty and cl ay soi l s (see Figure 2-61, page 2-116). The
sharpness of the curves i ndi cates that moi sture content i s much more cri ti cal
i n obtai ni ng maxi mum densi ty for coarse-grai ned soi l s than for fi ne-grai ned
soi l s.
COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
Equi pment normal l y avai l abl e to the mi l i tary engi neer for soi l compacti on
i ncl udes sheepsfoot, pneumati c-ti red, and steel -wheel ed rol l ers. Other
constructi on equi pment and l oad-haul i ng uni ts may al so be used. Crawl er-
type tractor uni ts are effi ci ent i n compacti ng free-drai ni ng sands and gravel s
that shoul d be kept wet duri ng the compacti on process. Thi s equi pment i s not
effi ci ent for compacti ng cohesi ve soi l s. Compacti on equi pment use i s covered
i n FM 5-434.
For compacti on equi pment to be used effi ci entl y, the moi sture content at
whi ch maxi mum compacti on can be obtai ned (the OMC) and the maxi mum
densi ty to whi ch the soi l can be compacted are requi red. Thi s data i s obtai ned
by performi ng the l aboratory compacti on test. The stabi l i ty or strength of the
base course i n the fi el d can onl y be obtai ned i f the moi sture content al l ows
proper compacti on and i f compacti on i s obtai ned at or above the amount
speci fi ed.
Figure 2-60. Effect of different compactive effort on density
d
,

i
n

p
c
f
5
6

b
lo
w
s

p
e
r

la
y
e
r
2
5

b
lo
w
s

p
e
r

la
y
e
r
1
0

b
lo
w
s

p
e
r

la
y
e
r
2-116 Soils
OTHER COMPACTIVE EFFORTS
Under some ci rcumstances, i t may be necessary to use a compacti ve effort i n
the l aboratory. Usual l y thi s i s done to study the effect of vari ati on i n densi ty
on some property of the soi l , such as the CBR. I n thi s case, sampl es are
compacted usi ng the procedures previ ousl y descri bed, except that the
vari ati on i n densi ty i s achi eved by varyi ng the number of bl ows appl i ed to
each l ayer as descri bed i n ASTM D 1883-94. I n unusual ci rcumstances, the
l aboratory compacti on procedure may be changed to produce a compacti ve
effort that more cl osel y resembl es the energy that can be put i nto the soi l
usi ng avai l abl e rol l i ng equi pment. I n the CBR test, the compacti on procedure
cal l s for 10, 25, or 56 bl ows per l ayer. Thi s i s expl ai ned i n Secti on I X of thi s
chapter.
Proper fi el d control i s essenti al i n earthwork constructi on. The control tests
are conducted on the soi l at the jobsi te as constructi on proceeds. I f at any ti me
a test i ndi cates that operati ons are not produci ng a soi l condi ti on speci fi ed by
the desi gn tests, take i mmedi ate acti on to remedy the si tuati on.
Figure 2-61. Effect of different soil types on density
GW
56 blows per layer
56 blows per layer
CL

d

p
c
f
SECTION VIII. IN-PLACE DENSITY DETERMINATION
Soils 2-117
A soi l s stress-deformati on characteri sti cs are di rectl y rel ated to the soi l 's
moi sture content and densi ty, al l owi ng speci fi cati ons to be set for a gi ven soi l
as constructi on proceeds. Densi ti es obtai ned are compared wi th mi ni mum
densi ty requi rements establ i shed for the parti cul ar job. Water contents are
compared wi th the OMC previ ousl y establ i shed to see that compacti on i s
taki ng pl ace wi thi n the desi red range or to permi t i ts adjustment.
An undi sturbed sampl e of known or measurabl e di mensi ons provi des
i nformati on for computi ng the soi l 's densi ty and moi sture content. I f the soi l i s
not i n proper condi ti on duri ng constructi on to remove an undi sturbed sampl e,
the densi ty may be determi ned by measuri ng the vol ume of the hol e after the
sampl e i s removed. The procedure consi sts of fi l l i ng the hol e wi th a measured
quanti ty of a known densi ty materi al (such as sand, oi l , or water) and
computi ng the vol ume of soi l removed. The soi l 's moi sture content and densi ty
are then determi ned.
The method for i n-pl ace densi ty depends on the type of soi l encountered and
the equi pment avai l abl e. On moi st, cohesi ve, fi ne-grai ned soi l s, undi sturbed
sampl es taken by sampl ers may be suffi ci ent. Coarse-grai ned or cohesi onl ess
soi l s make i t di ffi cul t to obtai n an undi sturbed sampl e. I n these soi l s, densi ty
determi nati on may requi re the di spl acement method. Sand di spl acement may
be used on any type of base course or subgr ade mater i al . Oi l di spl acement
cannot be used on hi ghl y pervi ous soi l s, crushed stone, or sl ag base courses. I f
the pavement to be used i s asphal ti c concrete, the resi dual oi l and spi l l age wi l l
tend to soften the asphal t. Di spl aci ng water requi res the use of a bal l oon to
contai n the water and can be used on any type of soi l .
I f the densi ty determi ned by the methods descri bed i n the fol l owi ng
paragraphs i s equal to or greater than that requi red, compacti on may be
judged to be sati sfactory and the pl aci ng of another l i ft may proceed. I f the
densi ty i s l ower than that requi red, addi ti onal rol l i ng may be necessary or the
moi sture content may have to be adjusted. I f these methods fai l , the wei ght of
the rol l er may have to be i ncreased, the thi ckness of l i ft reduced, or other
methods used to obtai n adequate compacti on. The possi bi l i ty that the soi l
bei ng compacted i n the fi el d i s not the same as the one tested i n the l aboratory
shoul d never be overl ooked. Under normal fi el d condi ti ons (the work i s
proceedi ng smoothl y and uni form soi l s are bei ng compacted), the number of
densi ty and moi sture checks requi red shoul d be l i mi ted after the i ni ti al peri od
of compacti ng. I f adequate densi ti es are bei ng obtai ned and the proper
moi sture content i s bei ng mai ntai ned, i nspecti ons may be performed to
determi ne and veri fy the number of passes and the combi nati on of rol l ers to
achi eve the desi red resul t wi th mi ni mum effort. Where condi ti ons are more
vari abl e, densi ty and moi sture checks may be needed more often for a fi l l of
even moderate l ength. The exact number of checks needed shoul d be
determi ned by the engi neer i n charge of the job.
SAND-CONE OR SAND-DISPLACEMENT METHOD (ASTM D 1556-90)
The sand-cone or sand-di spl acement method may be used i n ei ther fi ne- or
coarse-grai ned materi al s. Cal i brated sand i s used to determi ne the vol ume of
the hol e from whi ch a sampl e has been taken.
2-118 Soils
The sand-cone or sand-di spl acement test consi sts of di ggi ng out a sampl e of
the materi al to be tested, determi ni ng the vol ume of the hol e, and determi ni ng
the dry wei ght of the sampl e. There are three requi rements that must be met
for thi s test.
The vol ume of the sampl e shoul d be as cl ose to the same vol ume at whi ch the
sand was cal i brated; however, the sampl es maxi mum parti cl e si ze wi l l
determi ne the vol ume of sampl e to be tested. Sampl e requi rements are as
fol l ows:
Materi al wi th a maxi mum aggregate si ze of 1/2 i nch requi res a
mi ni mum test-hol e vol ume of 0.05 cubi c foot.
Materi al wi th a maxi mum aggregate si ze of 1 i nch requi res a
Materi al wi th a maxi mum aggregate si ze of 2 i nches requi res a
A doubl e-cone cyl i nder must be used. Thi s permi ts cal i brati ng the sand for
each test performed. The sand must be cl ean, dry, and free-fl owi ng wi th a
constant moi sture content duri ng the test. The sand shoul d pass the No. 10
si eve and shoul d have l ess than 3 percent passi ng the No. 60 si eve. The i deal
sol uti on to ensure that the gradati on requi rements are met i s to obtai n
Ottawa sand, whi ch general l y ranges from the No. 20 to No. 40 si eve si zes.
PURPOSE
Perform thi s test to determi ne the i n-pl ace densi ty of a soi l to wi thi n 2 pcf.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to perform thi s test i n a fi el d envi ronment (see Figure
2-62):
A templ ate wi th a 6-i nch hol e.
A 6-i nch soi l -densi ty tester.
A CBR mol d.
A 2 1/2-i nch spacer di sk.
Fi l ter paper.
A kni fe.
A hammer.
Nai l s, twentypenny (20d).
A steel str ai ghtedge.
A varni sh brush.
A bal ance scal e sensi ti ve to 1.0 gram wi th a 20-ki l ogram capaci ty.
A bal ance scal e sensi ti ve to 0.01 gram wi th a 500-gram capaci ty.
A rul er.
A speedy moi stur e test set.
Soils 2-119
A l aboratory oven.
A spoon.
A chi sel .
Fri cti on-top cans.
Sand, wel l -rounded, passi ng the No. 10 si eve wi th l ess than 3 percent
passi ng the No. 60 si eve.
DD Form 1215.
Paper.
A penci l .
A cal cul ator.
A grease penci l .
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for the sand-cone or sand-di spl acement method:
Step 1. Determi ne the sands densi ty.
Figure 2-62. Sand-displacement-method apparatus
Cone, sand-density
Compaction cylinder, soil
Can, friction top, 1 gal Straightedge, steel
Spoon, cooking
Hammer
Brush, varnish
Tray, template
2-120 Soils
a. Wei gh the mol d, basepl ate, spacer di sk, and fi l ter paper. Record thi s
wei ght (i n grams) on l i ne 8 of DD Form 1215 (see Figure 2-63).
b. Attach the col l ar to the mol d and pl ace the fi l l ed sand-cone apparatus,
wi th the val ve cl osed, on top of the mol d.
c. Open the val ve and al l ow sand to fal l at i ts own rate i nto the mol d. Do
not jar the apparatus whi l e the sand i s fal l i ng.
d. Cl ose the val ve when the sand stops runni ng i nto the mol d and the
col l ar.
e. Remove the sand cone and col l ar careful l y from the mol d.
f. Use a strai ghtedge to stri ke off the excess sand remai ni ng i n the top of
the mol d.
g. Brush off any sand adheri ng to the outsi de of the mol d.
h. Wei gh the mol d ful l of sand (i n grams) and record i t on l i ne 7 on the
form.
i . Determi ne the wei ght (i n grams) of the materi al by subtracti ng l i ne 8
from l i ne 7 and record the wei ght on l i ne 9 of the form.
j. Enter the known vol ume of the mol d (i n cubi c feet) on l i ne 10.
k. Determi ne the uni t wei ght of the materi al . Convert the wei ght of the
materi al s (l i ne 9) from grams to pounds, di vi de thi s quoti ent by the known
vol ume (l i ne 10), and record the wei ght on l i ne 11.
l . Repeat steps a through k at l east two more ti mes. The uni t wei ght of
sand used i n the cal cul ati ons shal l be the average of at l east three
determi nati ons. Record the average uni t wei ght of materi al on l i ne 12.
The maxi mum vari ati on between any one determi nati on and the average
shoul d not exceed 1 percent.
Step 2. Prepare the si te for sand-cone testi ng.
a. Cl ear the overburden and seat the templ ate tray fl ush on the surface.
Fasten i t i n pl ace wi th nai l s.
b. Seal the spaces on the i nsi de edge under the templ ate usi ng soi l from
the preparati on si te.
Step 3. Determi ne the surface cal i brati on.
a. Wei gh the sand-cone apparatus fi l l ed wi th sand. Record the wei ght (i n
grams) on l i ne 13 of the form.
b. Tur n the sand-cone appar atus over wi th the val ve cl osed and pl ace i t on
the templ ate.
unit weight of material (line 11)
weight of sand
453.6
---------------------------------- -

volume of mold
---------------------------------------- =
Soils 2-121
Figure 2-63. Sample DD form 1215
S
A
M
P
L
E
2-122 Soils
c. Open the val ve and al l ow the sand to fal l at i ts own rate. Do not jar the
apparatus whi l e the sand i s fal l i ng. Cl ose the val ve when the sand stops
runni ng.
d. Remove the sand-cone apparatus from the templ ate and wei gh i t.
Record thi s wei ght (i n grams) on l i ne 14 of the form.
e. Determi ne the wei ght of the sand i n the cone by subtracti ng l i ne 14
from l i ne 13. Record the di fference on l i ne 15 of the form.
Step 4. Recover as much sand as possi bl e from the templ ate and brush the
remai ni ng sand l i ghtl y from the hol e, bei ng careful not to di sturb the soi l
surface.
Step 5. Di g the sampl e.
a. Predetermi ne the wei ght of a fri cti on-top can. Record thi s wei ght on l i ne
29 of the form.
b. Di g a hol e through the center of the templ ate. The hol e shoul d be 6
i nches deep or to the bottom of the l i ft and about the same di ameter as the
hol e i n the templ ate. The si des shoul d be as smooth as possi bl e.
c. Pl ace al l soi l parti cl es from the hol e i nto the prewei ghed can, keepi ng
the l i d on the can as much as possi bl e to prevent excessi ve moi sture l oss.
d. Wei gh the wet soi l and can. Record the wei ght on l i ne 28 of the form.
Step 6. Determi ne the vol ume of the hol e.
a. Refi l l the jar i f i t appears there i s not enough sand to fi l l the hol e and
record the wei ght of the jar on l i ne 16; otherwi se, transfer the wei ght from
l i ne 14 to l i ne 16.
b. Tur n the sand-cone appar atus over wi th the val ve cl osed and pl ace i t on
the templ ate.
c. Open the val ve and al l ow the sand to fal l at i ts own rate i nto the
prepared hol e. Do not jar the apparatus whi l e the sand i s fal l i ng.
NOTE: If additional sand is needed due to requirements for hole
volume, ensure that these jars with sand have been properly weighed
and will be on hand during the testing procedures. If used, ensure
that the weight of the additional jar plus sand is included on line 16
and that line 17 also includes the final weight of the additional jar.
d. Cl ose the val ve when the sand stops runni ng and remove the sand-cone
apparatus. Wei gh i t and record thi s wei ght on l i ne 17 of the form.
e. Determi ne the wei ght of the materi al rel eased by subtracti ng l i ne 17
from l i ne 16. Record thi s di fference on l i ne 18 of the form.
f. Determi ne the wei ght of the materi al i n the hol e by subtracti ng l i ne 15
from l i ne 18. Record thi s di fference on l i ne 19 of the form.
g. Recover as much sand as possi bl e from the hol e.
h. Compute the vol ume of the hol e. Convert the wei ght of the materi al i n
the hol e (l i ne 19) from grams to pounds, di vi de thi s quoti ent by the
Soils 2-123
average uni t wei ght of materi al (l i ne 12), and record the wei ght on l i ne 20
of the form usi ng the fol l owi ng formul a:
Step 7. Determi ne the average water content of the soi l removed from the hol e
(step 5) usi ng the oven-l aboratory method or speedy moi sture tester, and
record i t on l i ne 27 of the form. I f usi ng the speedy moi sture tester, enter the
resul ts on l i ne 27; otherwi se, make appropri ate entri es on l i nes 21 through 27
usi ng at l east two moi sture-determi nati on tares accordi ng to Secti on I I I of
Chapter 2.
Step 8. Determi ne the uni t wei ght (densi ty).
a. Compute the wei ght of the wet soi l by subtracti ng the wei ght of the tare
(l i ne 29) from the wei ght of the wet soi l and the tare (l i ne 28). Record the
di fference on l i ne 30 of the form.
b. Compute the wet uni t wei ght (densi ty). Convert the wei ght of the wet
soi l (l i ne 30) from grams to pounds, di vi de thi s quoti ent by the vol ume of
the hol e (l i ne 20) and record i t on l i ne 31 of the form usi ng the fol l owi ng
formul a:
c. Compute the dry uni t wei ght (densi ty), and record i t on l i ne 32 of the
form usi ng the fol l owi ng formul a:
NUCLEAR MOISTURE-AND-DENSITY TESTER
Use thi s method to determi ne the soi l s dry densi ty and moi sture content.
I ndi vi dual model s of equi pment vary i n the speci fi c procedures. Radi ati on
protecti on programs vary as wel l from servi ce to servi ce. I t i s for thi s reason
that the procedures are not di scussed here. The procedures for thi s test
method must be as prescri bed by the i ndi vi dual equi pments manufacturers
manual , the requi rements prescri bed by the servi ce hol di ng the pi ece of
equi pment, and the Nucl ear Regul atory Commi ssi on l i censi ng agreement
wi th that servi ce.
The testers contai n sources of radi oacti ve materi al , typi cal l y cesi um and a
combi nati on of ameri ci um mi xed wi th beryl l i um powder. The cesi um emi ts
gamma radi ati on that the detector i n the tester can count when i t i s passed
through the soi l . Thi s count can be transl ated i nto densi ty. The ameri ci um/
beryl l i um emi ts neutrons fol l owi ng col l i si ons wi th hydrogen whi ch are
moderated and detected by the tester. The moi sture content can be determi ned
by counti ng the hydrogen atoms i n the soi l .
volume of the hole (line 20)
weight of sand in hole
453.6
---------------------------------------------------- -

average unit weight of sand
------------------------------------------------------------------ =
wet density (line 31)
weight of wet soil
453.6
------------------------------------------

volume of hole
----------------------------------------------- =
dry density (line 32) wet unit weight
100
100 average water content +
-------------------------------------------------------------------- - =
2-124 Soils
WATER-DISPLACEMENT METHOD
Measure the vol ume of the hol e from whi ch a soi l -densi ty sampl e i s taken by
pl aci ng a rubber bal l oon i n the hol e and observi ng the vol ume of water
requi red to fi l l the bal l oon. A water-bal l oon devi ce i s a waterti ght contai ner
wi th a fl oat attached to a cal i brated scal e, graduated di rectl y i n cubi c feet. A
bal l oon i s attached to the bottom of the devi ce to make the test. Fi l l the
cyl i nder i n the devi ce wi th water and pl ace the apparatus over the area where
the sampl e i s to be removed. Al l ow the bal l oon to fi l l wi th water and take an
i ni ti al readi ng. Remove the sampl e from the ground and repl ace the devi ce
over the hol e i n the ori gi nal posi ti on. Al l ow the water to fl ow by gravi ty i nto
the bal l oon i n the hol e. Bl ow through the hose attached to the devi ce to
i ncrease the ai r pressure on the water surface and force the water-fi l l ed
bal l oon i n the hol e to conform to al l the contours of the hol e. Observe the scal e
attached to the fl oat for a readi ng of the water vol ume l eft i n the devi ce.
Subtract thi s val ue from the ori gi nal readi ng. The resul t i s the vol ume of the
hol e, i n cubi c feet.
The CBR test i s a rel ati vel y si mpl e test used to obtai n an i ndi cati on of the
strength of a subgrade soi l , subbase, and base-course materi al for use i n road
and ai rfi el d pavements. The test i s used pri mari l y to determi ne empi ri cal l y
requi red thi cknesses of fl exi bl e pavements for hi ghways and ai rfi el d
pavements. The test was devel oped by the Cal i forni a Di vi si on of Hi ghways i n
1929 and adopted by the Corps of Engi neers for use i n the desi gn of fl exi bl e
pavements for ai rfi el ds i n l ocati ons where frost acti on i s not the control l i ng
factor.
NOTE: The current employed standard for CBR testing is ASTM D
1883-94.
The test procedure determi nes the CBR of pavement subgrade, subbase, and
base-course materi al s from l aboratory-compacted speci mens that can be used
i n the desi gn of a speci fi c ai rfi el d. I t consi sts of two steps
Pr epar i ng the soi l test speci mens.
Performi ng the penetrati on test on the prepared soi l sampl es.
Al though one standardi zed procedure has been establ i shed for the penetrati on
porti on of the test, i t i s not possi bl e to establ i sh one procedure for the
preparati on of test speci mens si nce soi l condi ti ons and constructi on methods
vary wi del y. The soi l test speci mens are prepared to dupl i cate the soi l
condi ti ons exi sti ng (or expected to occur l ater) i n the fi el d.
The method of prepari ng the test speci mens and the number of speci mens
depend on the type of ai rfi el d, the soi l s encountered at the si te, and other
factors. Test the soi l sampl e i n the l aboratory at a densi ty comparabl e to the
densi ty requi red on the constructi on si te. There are si tuati ons where moi sture
condi ti ons are favorabl e and the subgrade wi l l not accumul ate moi sture
approachi ng a saturated condi ti on. Test sampl es at a moi sture content
approxi mati ng the actual moi sture condi ti ons expected duri ng the ti me the
SECTION IX. CBR TESTS
Soils 2-125
road or ai rfi el d i s used. I n al l other condi ti ons, sampl es are l aboratory tested
i n a saturated condi ti on.
Al though penetrati on tests are most frequentl y performed on l aboratory
speci mens, they may al so be performed on undi sturbed soi l sampl es or i n the
fi el d on the soi l i n pl ace.
CBR OF LABORATORY-COMPACTED SOILS (ASTM D 1883-94)
The basi c operati ons for conducti ng the CBR test are the same regardl ess of
vari ati ons i n soi l condi ti ons and types of constructi on. The test essenti al l y
measures the soi l s sheari ng resi stance under control l ed moi sture and densi ty
condi ti ons. The CBR for soi l i s the rati o obtai ned by di vi di ng the penetrati on
stress requi red to cause a 3-i nch two-area pi ston to penetrate 0.10 i nch i nto
the soi l by a standard penetrati on stress of 1,000 pounds per square i nch (psi ).
Thi s standard penetrati on stress i s roughl y what i s requi red to cause the
same pi ston to penetrate 0.10 i nch i nto a mass of crushed rock (l i mestone).
The CBR val ue may be thought of as the strength of the soi l rel ati ve to that of
crushed rock.
Mi nor vari ati ons i n the CBR test wi l l cause wi de vari ati ons i n the resul ts. For
thi s reason, step-by-step procedures are detai l ed. Di ffi cul ti es may sti l l ari se.
Materi al wi th gravel or stones does not yi el d enti rel y sati sfactory resul ts. A
number of tests must be conducted to establ i sh a reasonabl e average val ue.
The CBR val ues range from as l ow as 3 to as hi gh as 80, dependi ng on the type
of soi l s. The fi ne-grai ned soi l s vary from 3 for organi c cl ays to 15 for mi caceous
or di atomaceous si l ts and sands. The sand-si l t-cl ay coarse-grai ned
combi nati ons range from 10 for the cl ayey mi xtures to 40 for the gravel l y and
si l ty sands. Gravel l y soi l s range from 20 for the cl ayey group to 80 for the wel l -
graded gravel s and gravel -sand mi xtures. Table B-3, pages B-16 and B-17,
l i sts the typi cal range for soi l s cl assi fi ed under the USCS.
PURPOSE
Perform thi s test i s to determi ne the CBR of a soi l to 3 percent and
determi ne the best moi sture-content range to 4.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems i n a l aboratory envi ronment to perform thi s test (see
Figure 2-64, page 2-126):
A 225-pound soi l sampl e wi th known cl assi fi cati on, PI , and OMC.
A CBR l aboratory test set consi sti ng of
15 CBR mol ds.
Surcharge wei ghts.
A penetrati on pi ston.
Two di al gauges readi ng to 0.001 i nch.
Pai l s.
Pl asti c bags.
2-126 Soils
Shi ppi ng tags.
A compacti on tamper.
Fi l ter paper.
A recorder.
A steel str ai ghtedge.
A mi xi ng pan.
A spoon.
A spatul a.
A graduated cyl i nder (100-mi l l i l i ter).
A l aboratory oven.
Heat-resi stant gl oves. Asbestos gl oves shoul d not be used for any
materi al s-testi ng procedures. I f your uni t has asbestos gl oves, turn
them i n through your suppl y system for proper di sposal . Order heat-
r esi stant gl oves to r epl ace them.
A penci l .
Paper.
A grease penci l .
A cal cul ator.
Figure 2-64. Laboratory CBR test-set apparatus
Soils 2-127
DD Forms 1210, 1211, and 1212.
A 3/4-i nch si eve.
A No. 4 si eve.
Puddi ng pans.
A stopwatch.
Pl ans and speci fi cati ons.
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for the CBR test:
Step 1. Determi ne the moi sture-content range of i nvesti gati on ( 4 percent of
OMC). I f the OMC has not yet been defi ni ti vel y establ i shed for thi s soi l type,
perform the l aboratory compacti on test as descri bed i n Secti on VI I I to obtai n
the OMC.
Step 2. Prepare the soi l sampl e. The si ze of the total sampl e wi l l be about 225
pounds, whi ch shoul d provi de enough materi al for the requi red 6,800 grams
for each of the 15 mol ds.
a. Dry the soi l sampl e unti l i t can be easi l y crumbl ed under a trowel .
Dryi ng may be done by ai r-dryi ng or by usi ng a dryi ng apparatus,
provi ded the temperature of the sampl e does not exceed 60C.
c. Si eve the sampl e over a 3/4-i nch si eve. I f al l materi al passes the 3/4-i nch
si eve, use the enti re gradati on wi thout modi fi cati on. I f there i s materi al
retai ned on the 3/4-i nch si eve, remove i t and repl ace i t wi th an equal
amount (by wei ght) of materi al passi ng the 3/4-i nch si eve but retai ned on
the No. 4 si eve by separ ati on from por ti ons of the sampl e not other wi se
used for testi ng. (The CBR test i s not conducted on any materi al retai ned
on the 3/4-i nch si eve.) Thi s amount wi l l be recorded l ater on DD Form
1212 (see Figure 2-65, page 2-128 and 2-129). .
d. Di vi de the enti re sampl e i nto 15 smal l er sampl es of about 6,800 grams
each and pl ace them i nto separate pl asti c bags. Seal the bags to mai ntai n
the current (or fl oor) moi sture content.
e. Determi ne the moi sture content from a 20-gram sampl e of the
remai ni ng materi al . Record thi s on a sheet of paper as the moi sture
content of the fl oor sampl e.
Step 3. Prepare and l abel a 6-i nch compacti on mol d for each water content to
be used (-4, -2, OMC, +2, and +4) at the compacti ve effort of 56 bl ows per l ayer
as descri bed i n step 5 of Secti on VI I I . I n addi ti on to the 5 mol ds requi red for
the compacti ve effort of 56 bl ows per l ayer, prepare a mol d for each water
content usi ng the other requi red compacti ve efforts of 10 and 25 bl ows per
l ayer. Prepare a mi ni mum of 15 mol ds. Prepare a DD Form 1212 for each mol d
and record the wei ght of the mol d wi th the basepl ate (to the nearest gram) on
the form before conti nui ng.
Step 4. Prepare the sampl es at the adjusted water contents.
2-128 Soils
S
A
M
P
L
E
Soils 2-129
Figure 2-65. Sample DD Form 1212 (continued)
S
A
M
P
L
E
S
A
M
P
L
E
2-130 Soils
a. Determi ne the amount of water to add to each sampl e usi ng the
fol l owi ng procedure:
For exampl e, to determi ne the amount of water to add to a sampl e to
obtai n the determi ned OMC of 8 percent,
where
weight of sample =6,800 grams
OMC =8 percent (0.08)
floor moisture content =2 percent (0.02)
To determi ne the water to add for the remai ni ng sampl es for the requi red
moi sture-content range, perform the same cal cul ati on. The exampl e bel ow
i l l ustrates thi s cal cul ati on for the remai ni ng sampl es, taki ng i nto
consi derati on that not al l of the sampl e wei ghts wi l l be exactl y the same
(6,800 grams):

b. Add the water fi gured from the formul as for each of the 5 desi red
moi sture contents (-4, -2, OMC, +2, and +4), and mi x thoroughl y to ensure
an even di stri buti on of water throughout the sampl e.
c. Pl ace each sampl e i n an ai rti ght contai ner, and al l ow to stand for the
mi ni mum peri od of ti me i ndi cated.
For GW, GP, SW, and SP soi l types, there i s no mi ni mum standi ng
peri od of ti me.
For GM and SM soi l types, a mi ni mum of 3 hours standi ng ti me i s
requi red.
For al l other soi l types, a mi ni mum of 16 hours standi ng ti me i s
requi red.
water to add (in milliliters) =
weight of sample (in grams) desired percent floor moisture content ( )
6 800 , 0.08 0.02 ( ) 6 800 , 0.06 408.0 milliliters = =
6.0% moisture for a sample at 6,800 grams: 6,800 0.06 0.02 ( ) =
272.2 milliliters
136.3 milliliters
545.8 milliliters
681.0 milliliters
Soils 2-131
Step 5. Mark and wei gh 2 moi sture-determi nati on tares for each mol d
prepared. Record each on DD Form 1212 as the wei ght of tare.
Step 6. Remove a smal l quanti ty of materi al (20 grams) from each sampl e and
pl ace i t i n one of the marked tares upon compl eti on of the standi ng ti me.
Wei gh i t i n preparati on for moi sture determi nati on and record the resul ts on
the form.
Step 7. Pl ace suffi ci ent soi l i n the mol d (about 1 1/2 to 2 i nches) to obtai n a 1-
i nch compacted l ayer. After compacti on of al l 5 l ayers, each l ayer shoul d be
about equal i n thi ckness. The fi fth compacted l ayer wi l l sl i ghtl y extend i nto
the col l ar but wi l l not exceed 1/4-i nch above the top of the mol d.
Step 8. Appl y compacti ve effort.
a. Hol d the 10-pound compacti on tamper wi thi n 5 degrees of verti cal ,
pl aci ng i ts face on top of the soi l .
b. Rai se the handl e unti l i t reaches the top (18 i nches) and rel ease i t,
al l owi ng the wei ght to fal l freel y onto the soi l .
c. Change the posi ti on of the gui de and tamper and repeat the process
unti l the soi l l ayer has recei ved the prescri bed number of bl ows for the
compacti ve effort requi red. Appl y the bl ows at a uni form rate of about 25
bl ows per mi nute. The hei ght of fal l of the tamper must be control l ed
careful l y and the bl ows di stri buted evenl y over the speci mens surface.
Step 9. Tri m the compacted l ayer. After compacti ng each l ayer (except the fi fth
l ayer), use a kni fe to tri m any soi l adjacent to the mol d wal l s that has not been
compacted or that extends above the compacted surface. I ncl ude the tri mmed
soi l wi th the addi ti onal soi l for the next l ayer.
Step 10. Repeat steps 7, 8, and 9 unti l fi ve l ayers have been compacted i n the
mol d. Each compacted l ayer shoul d be about equal i n thi ckness (just under 1
i nch). Adjust each l ayer accordi ngl y to ensure that the fi fth compacted l ayer
wi l l sl i ghtl y extend i nto the col l ar, but wi l l not exceed 1/4 i nch above the top of
the mol d.
Step 11. Remove the col l ar from the mol d.
a. Cut around the i nsi de edge of the col l ar to prevent sheari ng the
compacted soi l when removi ng the col l ar.
b. Tri m and smooth the compacted soi l fl ush wi th the top of the mol d. Use
a sawi ng moti on wi th the strai ghtedge to tri m the excess soi l . Start at the
center of the mol d and work outward, fi rst to one si de and then to the
other. Fi l l any hol es wi th unused or tri mmed soi l from the speci men, press
i n wi th the fi nger s, and agai n scr ape the sur face wi th the str ai ghtedge.
Step 12. Take another smal l sampl e from the remai ni ng materi al after
compacti ng each mol d and pl ace i t i n the other moi sture-determi nati on tare
and wei gh i t i n preparati on for moi sture determi nati on. Record the resul ts on
the form.
Step 13. Pl ace a di sk of coarse fi l ter paper on top of the compacted speci men.
Rel ease the mol d from the basepl ate and whi l e sl i ghtl y l i fti ng, sl i de the mol d
wi th the spacer di sk off the basepl ate and onto the edge of the tabl e or
2-132 Soils
countertop. I nvert the basepl ate and pl ace i t on top of the mol d agai nst the
fi l ter paper and reattach. Rai se the mol d and basepl ate to al l ow the spacer
di sk to sl i de out. I nvert the mol d wi th basepl ate and pl ace i t fl at on the tabl e
or countertop.
Step 14. Wei gh and record the data. Wei gh the compl ete mol d wi th the
basepl ate and compacted speci men (wi thout the spacer di sk) to the nearest
gram. Record as the wei ght of the mol d and wet soi l (bl ock 12). Do not i ncl ude
the col l ar.
Step 15. Repeat steps 7 through 14 for each of the compacti ve efforts requi red
(10, 25, and 56 bl ows per l ayer). Compact a mi ni mum of 5 mol ds for each
compacti ve effort.
Step 16. Soak the sampl es and measur e the swel l (see Figure 2-66).
a. Pl ace surcharge wei ghts on the perforated pl ate and adjustabl e stem
assembl y and careful l y l ower i nto the mol d onto the fi l ter paper and
compacted soi l speci men. Ensure that the surcharge appl i ed i s equal to
the wei ght of the base materi al and pavement wi thi n 2.27 ki l ograms, but
never use a total wei ght of l ess than 4.54 ki l ograms. I f no pavement
wei ght i s speci fi ed, use 4.54 ki l ograms. Record the surcharge wei ght on
the form.
b. I mmerse the mol d i n water.
c. Cal i brate the adjustabl e stem so that the tri podal di al reads 100 and
can then travel i n ei ther di recti on. Obtai n the i ni ti al di al readi ng and
record i t on the form.
d. Soak the sampl e for 96 hours.
e. Assembl e the penetrati on apparatus (see Figure 2-67).
Figure 2-66. Soaking the CBR sample
Soils 2-133
(1) Attach the jack to the frame.
(2) Attach the provi ng ri ng and di al i ndi cator to the frame. Record the
provi ng-ri ng data on the form.
f. Take the di al readi ng at 96 hours and record on the the form.
g. Determi ne the amount of swel l , i n i nches, by subtracti ng the i ni ti al di al
readi ng from the fi nal di al readi ng. Record the data on the form.
h. Determi ne the percent of swel l and record i t on the form usi ng the
Step 17. Drai n the CBR mol d.
a. Remove the i mmersed mol d from the water and remove the free water.
Al l ow the speci men to drai n downward for 15 mi nutes. Do not di sturb the
speci mens surface whi l e removi ng the water. I t may be necessary to ti l t
the speci men to remove surface water.
Figure 2-67. Assembled CBR-test penetration apparatus
swell in inches (at 96 hours)
original sample height
-------------------------------------------------------------------- 100
2-134 Soils
b. Remove the surcharge wei ghts, the perforated pl ate, and the fi l ter
paper from the mol d. Do not di sturb the speci mens surface whi l e
removi ng these i tems.
c. Determi ne the mass and record i t on the form as the wei ght of the
soaked sampl e.
d. Return a 5-pound surcharge wei ght to the speci men.
Step 18. Perform the CBR penetrati on.
a. Prepare the components.
(1) Pl ace the mol d on the jack.
(2) Attach and adjust the pi ston to the jack, then zero the di al
i ndi cator.
(3) Lower the penetrati on pi ston unti l i t i s i n contact wi th the sampl e
wi th suffi ci ent pressure to cause the l oad di al to regi ster a l oad of 1
pound.
(4) Repl ace the remai nder of the surcharge wei ghts requi red for the
mol d.
(5) Attach the adjustabl e arm wi th the di al i ndi cator to the jack
assembl y, adjusti ng the posi ti on unti l the di al -i ndi cator pl unger i s
resti ng on the mol ds projecti ng ri m.
(6) Turn both di al i ndi cators to 0.
b. Appl y the l oad.
(1) Crank the jack to l ower the pi ston at a rate of 0.05 i nch per mi nute.
(2) Read the provi ng-ri ng di al i ndi cator when the pi ston has reached
penetrati on depths of 0.025, 0.050, 0.075, 0.100, 0.125, 0.150, 0.175,
0.200, 0.300, 0.400, and 0.500 i nch. Take the fi rst ei ght readi ngs at 30-
second i nterval s and the remai ni ng three at 2-mi nute i nterval s.
(3) Record the provi ng-ri ng di al readi ngs on the form.
c. Determi ne the average moi sture of the soaked sampl es.
(1) Remove the top 1 i nch of soi l from the mol d. For fi ne-grai ned soi l s,
pl ace at l east 100 grams of soi l i n a moi sture-determi nati on tare. For
granul ar soi l s, pl ace at l east 500 grams of soi l i n a moi sture
determi nati on tare.
(2) Wei gh the tare and record on the form.
(3) Remove an addi ti onal sampl e from the remai ni ng contents of the
mol d for moi sture determi nati on. For fi ne-grai ned soi l s, pl ace at l east
100 grams of soi l i n a moi sture-determi nati on tare. For granul ar soi l s,
pl ace at l east 500 grams of soi l i n a moi sture-determi nati on tare.
(4) Wei gh the tare and record on the form.
(5) Perform the moi sture-content determi nati on of the tares. Record
the resul ts and average on the form.
Soils 2-135
Step 19. Sol ve the computati ons for each readi ng, and record the resul ts on
the form.
a. Determi ne the total l oad, i n pounds, by mul ti pl yi ng the provi ng-ri ng
di al readi ng (bl ock 19c) by the provi ng-ri ng constant (bl ock 13). Enter thi s
number i n bl ock 19e of the form. The corrected ri ng di al readi ngs need not
be determi ned as l ong as the di al i ndi cators have been zeroed before
penetrati on. I f the di al s were not adjusted to 0 before penetrati on,
determi ne the corrected ri ng di al readi ngs and enter them i n bl ock 19d.
Cal cul ate the total l oad from the corrected readi ng i nstead of the observed
readi ng.
b. Determi ne the uni t l oad (i n psi ) by di vi di ng the total l oad by 3. Enter
thi s number i n bl ock 19f of the form. The val ue of 3 i s determi ned by the
area of the penetrati ng pi ston i n squar e i nches.
c. Determi ne the corrected uni t l oad (i n psi ) by pl otti ng (on the reverse
si de of the form) the uni t l oad (i n psi ) agai nst the depth of penetrati on (i n
i nches). I f the curve has an i ni ti al concave upward shape between 0 and
0.1, then the zero poi nt must be adjusted. Thi s occasi onal l y happens wi th
some soi l types under certai n condi ti ons and i t i s necessary to obtai n true
penetrati on l oads. Adjust the zero poi nt of the curve as i ndi cated i n the
exampl e i n Figure 2-65, page 2-128. Once the zero-poi nt correcti on has
been made, the 0.100- and 0.200-i nch poi nts are moved to the ri ght on the
curve the same di stance as the zero poi nt. Obtai n corrected uni t-l oad
val ues from the corrected graphs at 0.100- and 0.200-i nch penetrati ons
and enter i n bl ock 19g of the form. I f no correcti ons were made, the
numbers entered i nto bl ock 19g wi l l be the same as bl ock 19f.
d. Cal cul ate the CBR (i n percent) for penetrati on at 0.100 and 0.200
i nches usi ng the fol l owi ng formul a:
Si nce the standard uni t l oad for each penetrati on i s gi ven (bl ock 19b of the
form), perform the fol l owi ng computati ons for each penetrati on:
NOTE: The CBR value of the mold is computed at 0.100- and 0.200-
inch penetrations. The bearing ratio normally reported is that of the
0.100-inch penetration. When the ratio at 0.200-inch penetration is
greater, the test must be verified by another test. If the test is verified
with similar results, use the bearing ratio at the 0.200-inch
penetration.
Step 20. Compl ete DD Form 1212. Ensure that any other i nformati on
concerni ng the soi l sampl e i s i ndi cated i n the remarks bl ock.
corrected unit load
standard unit load
--------------------------------------------- - 100
CBR for 0.100
corrected unit load
1 000 ,
--------------------------------------------- - 100 =
CBR for 0.200
corrected unit load
1 500 ,
--------------------------------------------- - 100 =
2-136 Soils
UNDISTURBED SAMPLE TESTING
Tests on undi sturbed sampl es are used when the base desi gn cal l s for
uncompacted soi l , such as hi ghl y compressi bl e cl ay that l oses strength upon
remol di ng, or when correl ati ng fi el d i n-pl ace tests to the desi gn-moi sture
condi ti on. For thi s l atter condi ti on, dupl i cate sampl es shoul d be tested to
determi ne the correcti on necessary for the i n-pl ace tests. The reducti on that
occurs from four days of soaki ng i s appl i ed as a correcti on to the fi el d i n-pl ace
test.
Care and pati ence are necessary to mai ntai n the rel ati vel y undi sturbed
sampl es i n thi s condi ti on. I f proper l ateral support i s not gi ven on the si des of
the sampl es, erroneous CBR val ues wi l l resul t. I n fi ne-grai ned materi al s,
mol ds or metal jackets are sati sfactory. Wi th sampl es cut or tri mmed from a
pedestal , use a mi xture of 10 percent resi n and 90 percent paraffi n to fi l l the
annul ar space and offer support. For gravel l y soi l s, the box method i s
desi rabl e. Use wax paper or paraffi n to cover the sampl e and prevent
moi sture l oss whi l e transporti ng i t to the l aboratory.
Perform soaki ng and penetrati on tests after removi ng the paper or paraffi n
from the end of the speci men and after l evel i ng the surface (use a thi n l ayer of
sand, i f necessary).
IN-PLACE FIELD CBR TESTING
To over come some of the shor tfal l s associ ated wi th ol der i n-pl ace fi el d CBR
test methods, the Cor ps of Engi neer s Water way Exper i mentati on Stati on
has devel oped the dual -mass dynami c cone penetr ometer (DCP) (see Figure
2-68) for eval uati ng the l oad-car ryi ng capabi l i ty of mi l i tar y roads and
ai r fi el ds. The r esul ts fr om usi ng the DCP ar e r eported i n ter ms of i ndex
val ues whi ch can be conver ted to CBR val ues. Thr ee cor r el ati ons cur r entl y
exi st for thi s conver si on, each dependent on the soi l type bei ng tested.
The procedures for testi ng wi th the DCP and the correl ati on of CBR val ues
can be found i n the users manual for the equi pment or i n FM 5-430-00-2,
Annex J.
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF CBR DATA
The CBR val ue, mol di ng water content, and dry densi ty for each speci men can
be presented i n several ways that faci l i tate anal ysi s. The i ndi vi dual test
pr ogr ams used to present thi s data ar e r el ati ve to the type of soi l encounter ed
and are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
TEST PROGRAM FOR NONSWELLING SOILS
The test program for nonswel l i ng soi l s appl i es to the majori ty of soi l s used i n
constructi on. As Table 2-14 i ndi cates, soi l s that fal l i nto thi s group mi ght be
used as compacted subgrade, sel ect, or subbase materi al s dependi ng on thei r
strengths and l ocati on regardi ng the constructi on si te. The compacti on
requi rements can then be determi ned as l i sted i n Table 2-15, page 2-138.
Soils 2-137

Figure 2-68. DCP test kit
Table 2-14. Summary of remolded CBR laboratory test programs
Test Program
Type of Soil Normally
Tested*
Compaction Blows
Per Layer
Probable Use of Test
Results
Swelling soils CH, MH, and OH 10, 25, and 56
Low-quality compacted
subgrades
Free-draining soils GW, GP, SW, and SP 25, 56, and 72
Compacted subgrade,
select, and subbase
materials
Other soils
All except CH, MH, OH,
GW, GP, SW, and SP
For CBR >20: 25, 56,
and 72
For CBR <20: 10, 25,
and 56
Compacted subgrade,
select, and subbase
materials
*This categorization is intended to serve as a guide for planning laboratory activities. Deviations
may be noted in the initial stages of a test program which will dictate adjustments.
2-138 Soils
Example
To i l l ustr ate the methods of eval uati ng the desi gn CBR, the data gi ven on
the DD For m 2463 for the Engi neer Center expansi on road (see Figure 2-69,
pages 2-139 through 2-143) wi l l be used. The data was taken fr om the
subgrade al ong a pr oposed r oad al i gnment. The object of the fol l owi ng
anal ysi s i s to deter mi ne a soi l -pl acement moi stur e-content r ange for a
speci fi ed l evel of compacti ve effor t whi ch gi ves the gr eatest assur ed desi gn
CBR. Thi s techni que for deter mi ni ng a desi gn CBR pr ovi des for a str ength
measur e of at l east 15.0 when the associ ated densi ty and moi stur e-content
r anges are fol l owed. Greater strengths wi l l be real i zed wi thi n the speci fi ed
l i mi ts, but the val ue obtai ned al l ows the engi neer to si ze the str uctur e for
the wor st condi ti on. Noti ce that for thi s soi l and the l i mi ts used, the
gr eatest assur ed str ength occurs for the 4 per cent moi stur e-content r ange
centered on the OMC. Thi s may not al ways be the case. Al so note that the
anal ysi s i s based on an i ni ti al sel ecti on of densi ty l i mi ts. You may fi nd i t
better to eval uate other densi ty l i mi ts that meet the mi ni mum r equi r ements
to see i f an adjustment to these l i mi ts yi el ds gr eater str engths.
Steps
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for CBR testi ng of a nonswel l i ng soi l :
Step 1. Establ i sh the OMC of the soi l at 56 bl ows per l ayer by usi ng the data
col l ected from the compacti on test as outl i ned i n Secti on VI I (see Figure 2-58,
page 2-110). For thi s exampl e, OMC equal s 8.8 percent.
Step 2. Establ i sh a moi sture range for CBR i nvesti gati on. The moi sture
range general l y used for nonswel l i ng soi l s i s OMC 4 percent. Thi s i s a ti me-
savi ng gui de, as experi ence shows that the maxi mum CBR normal l y occurs at
compacti on moi sture contents wi thi n thi s range and that testi ng soi l s beyond
these l i mi ts i s wasted effort. For thi s exampl e, the moi sture-content
i nvesti gati on range i s 5 to 13 percent.
Step 3. Compact the sampl es wi thi n the moi sture-content i nvesti gati on range
at di fferent l evel s of compacti ve effort as descri bed earl i er i n thi s secti on.
Thi s al l ows for eval uati on of soi l strength when fi el d pl acement i s other than
100 percent of the compacti on tests maxi mum densi ty.
Table 2-15. Summary of compaction requirements
Material
Percentage of Compaction of Materials With
Design CBR Values of 20 and Above
Base course No less than 100% of CE 56 maximum density
Subbase and subgrade No less than 100% of CE 56 maximum density
Material
Percentage of Compaction of Materials With
Design CBR Values Below 20
Select material and
subgrade in fills
Cohesionless fill will not be placed at less than 95%
of CE 56 maximum density. Cohesive fill will not be
placed at less than 90% of CE 56 maximum density
Soils 2-139
Figure 2-69. Sample DD Form 2463, page 1
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2-140 Soils
Figure 2-70. Figure 2-69. Sample DD Form 2463, page 2 (continued)
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Soils 2-141
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2-142 Soils
S
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Soils 2-143
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2-144 Soils
The l evel s of compacti ve effort sel ected i n the l aboratory are based on the
compacti on requi rements. I f the soi l i s to be used as sel ect materi al or
subgrade i n fi l l s (CBR < 20), i t may be pl aced at l ess than 100 percent of the
compacti on tests maxi mum densi ty for CE 56, as i ndi cated i n Table 2-15, page
2-138. Addi ti onal l y, l aboratory compacti ve efforts of 10, 25, and 56 bl ows per
l ayer are usual l y sel ected for thi s soi l . I f the soi l i s a very hi gh-qual i ty
subgrade or a subbase (CBR > 20), the l aboratory tests shoul d i ncl ude sampl es
compacted i n excess of 56 bl ows per l ayer. Normal l y 25, 56, and 72 bl ows per
l ayer are adequate. The onl y sti pul ati ons pl aced on the l evel s of compacti ve
effort are that a 56-bl ow-per-l ayer compacti on curve be obtai ned and that data
be devel oped at two other l evel s of compacti ve effort encompassi ng the
speci fi ed pl acement densi ti es.
I n thi s exampl e, the soi l type i s SC and the DD Form 1211 from the
compacti on test di spl ays a bel l -shaped compacti on curve. Thi s i s i ndi cati ve of
a ei ther a swel l i ng or a nonswel l i ng soi l . A U-shaped compacti on curve
i ndi cates a free-drai ni ng soi l . An assumpti on i s made then that thi s i s a
nonswel l i ng soi l . Thi s i nformati on i s based on typi cal soi l characteri sti cs for
soi l s of type SC as found i n Table B-3, pages B-16 and B-17, and Table 2-14,
page 2-137. Usi ng Table 2-14 and col umn 15 of Table B-3 as a gui de, the
sampl es were compacted at 10, 25, and 56 bl ows per l ayer. The DD Form 1212
for thi s sampl e compacted at 56 bl ows per l ayer at approxi mate OMC can be
found i n Figure 2-65, page 2-128.
Step 4. Soak the sampl es and measure the swel l as outl i ned i n the previ ous
secti on.
Step 5. Perform CBR penetrati on tests and determi ne the corrected CBR for
each sampl e accordi ng to the techni que di scussed i n the previ ous secti on.
Note that accumul ati ng the requi red data i nvol ves a consi derabl e amount of
work. At a mi ni mum, 15 mol ds (5 per l evel of compacti ve effort) must be
made. I n thi s exampl e, 21 mol ds were compacted, soaked, and then
penetrated.
Step 6. Transfer the resul ts of the 21 tests from each DD Form 1212 onto the
data summary secti on of DD Form 2463, page 1 (see Figure 2-69, page 2-139).
Step 7. Pl ot the data on the graphs of dry densi ty versus mol di ng moi sture
content and corrected CBR versus mol di ng moi sture content on DD Form 2463,
page 1 (see Figure 2-69).
Step 8. Determi ne the moi sture range for the CBR fami l y of curves. For a
nonswel l i ng soi l , the moi sture content that corresponds to the MDD i s the
OMC. The moi sture range i s OMC 4 percent. I n thi s exampl e, the OMC
di scovered from DD Form 2463 i s 9 percent; therefore, the range for the fami l y
of curves i s 5 to 13 percent.
Step 9. Transcri be the data poi nts from the graphs onto page 2 of the DD Form
2463 (see Figure 2-69, page 2-140) for each whol e moi sture percentage i n the
range determi ned from step 8. Thi s step i s performed to i denti fy val ues of dry
densi ty and CBR for whol e-i nteger moi sture contents wi thi n the range of
i nvesti gati on at each l evel of compacti ve effort. Some of the data may be
transferred di rectl y from the data-summary tabl e. The remai nder must be
Soils 2-145
i nterpol ated from the CBR/dry-densi ty versus mol di ng moi sture-content
graphs.
Step 10. Pl ot the CBR fami l y of curves on page 3 of DD Form 2463 (see Figure
2-69, page 2-141). Thi s step pl aces the l aboratory data i n a form that l ends
i tsel f to anal ysi s. The trends of strength vari ati on are determi ned as the
moi sture content and dry densi ty change. Drawi ng a CBR fami l y of curves
i nvol ves consi derabl e practi ce, numerous attempts, and subsequent
adjustments. The exampl e (Figure 2-69) shows that the avai l abl e data has been
pl otted on a graph of corrected CBR versus mol ded dry densi ty for whol e
moi sture contents. For l ow mol di ng water contents (from 5 to 8 percent), there
was an i ncrease i n strength wi th dry densi ty. At hi gh moi sture contents (12 and
13 percent) the reverse was true. For the i ntermedi ate moi sture contents, there
was an i ncrease i n strength to some poi nt and then a decrease as the dry
densi ty i ncreased.
Step 11. Proceed wi th an engi neeri ng anal ysi s. After al l the testi ng has been
compl eted, i t i s the engi neers responsi bi l i ty to ensure that the CBR data i s
properl y obtai ned and presented. The engi neer must anal yze the data and
understand how the resul ts affect the desi gn and economi c factors. Before
consi deri ng the detai l s of the anal ysi s, i t i s possi bl e to observe two poi nts of
i nterest about the soi l bei ng used for the exampl e. Fi rst, the maxi mum
strength of thi s soi l does not occur at OMC but at 1 percent dri er (see corrected
CBR versus mol di ng water content). Second, the CBR fami l y of curves shows
that for some moi sture contents the soi l l oses strength as the dry densi ty or
l evel of compacti ve effort i ncreases. The i mpact of these two factors i s
i mportant. I f maxi mum strength from thi s soi l i s desi red, that strength may i n
some soi l s be achi eved at a moi sture content l ess than OMC and at some l evel of
compacti ve effort l ess than CE 56. The reasons for these two phenomena are
hi ghl y specul ati ve. Soi l pl acement at OMC and the most compacti ve effort
possi bl e are not al ways the answers to good constructi on.
Step 12. Establ i sh a densi ty range at whi ch soi l wi l l be pl aced i n the fi el d. The
TO standard compacti on range i s 5 percent, unl ess otherwi se stated. The fl ow
chart i n Figure 2-70, page 2-146, provi des the i nformati on necessary for
determi ni ng the densi ty and moi sture ranges for nonswel l i ng, swel l i ng, and
free-drai ni ng soi l s. For nonswel l i ng soi l s, the fol l owi ng i nformati on i s normal l y
used to assi st i n determi ni ng a densi ty range.
To faci l i tate constructi on, i t i s common to speci fy a reasonabl e range of densi ti es
that can be economi cal l y obtai ned and then exami ne the strength val ues that
woul d occur wi thout that range. Establ i shi ng the densi ty range depends
greatl y on economi cs. The more l ati tude gi ven to the bui l der, the better the
chances of pl aci ng the soi l wi thi n establ i shed l i mi ts. However, i f an extreme
range i s sti pul ated, the CBR val ue al l owed for desi gn mi ght be reduced and
thi cker pavement structure coul d be requi red. Another factor i s the actual fi el d
compacti on experi ence obtai ned from ei ther a test stri p or pri or constructi on.
Such data can be accumul ated by measuri ng the i n-pl ace dry densi ti es for
di fferent numbers of passes wi th the avai l abl e compacti on equi pment and
determi ni ng the poi nt where addi ti onal passes gi ve l i ttl e i ncrease i n densi ty.
For thi s exampl e, the soi l type was determi ned to be SC wi th a PI of 10, as
shown on DD Form 1209 (see Figure 2-47, page 2-95). Wi th thi s i nformati on
fol l owi ng the fl ow chart, the soi l must be pl aced to at l east 90 percent of MDD.
2-146 Soils
Figure 2-70. Density and moisture requirements using the CBR design method
Soils 2-147
Thi s woul d provi de a densi ty range, i n pcf, from 110.3 to 116.4. Thi s i s
cal cul ated i n the fol l owi ng manner:
Usi ng the range between 90 and 95 percent, these l i mi ts can be i mposed on
the CBR fami l y of curves by drawi ng two verti cal l i nes, one at 110.3 and the
other at 116.4 pcf.
Step 13. Determi ne the assured CBR val ues between the speci fi ed densi ty
l i mi ts. I f the bui l der i s al l owed to pl ace the soi l between 110.3 and 116.4 pcf,
thi s step i nvol ves determi ni ng the CBR val ues obtai ned for each moi sture
content. The change i n CBR for any speci fi c moi sture-content l i ne between
the two densi ty l i mi ts shows that a range of strengths i s possi bl e. Si nce the
bui l der wi l l be al l owed to pl ace the soi l anywhere between the establ i shed
densi ty l i mi ts, the CBR val ue sel ected as a potenti al desi gn strength shoul d
represent the worst case. Usi ng 8 percent moi sture as an exampl e, the CBR at
110.3 pcf i s 15.6. At 116.4 pcf, the CBR i s a maxi mum of 18.0. Of the two,
15.6 i s the mi ni mum strength for the speci fi ed densi ty range. Thi s procedure
was fol l owed for the remai ni ng moi sture contents i n the exampl e, and the
resul ts are recorded on page 4 of DD Form 2463 (see Figure 2-69, page 2-142).
Step 14. Determi ne the CBR val ues for potenti al moi sture-content
speci fi cati on ranges. Li ke the densi ty range, a moi sture-content range that
can be economi cal l y achi eved i n the fi el d i s desi red. Wi thi n the overal l range
of i nvesti gati on (OMC 4 percent), a smal l er speci fi cati on range gi vi ng the
greatest assured CBR wi l l be determi ned. Experi ence shows that a 4 percent
range ( 2 percent) i s a reasonabl e requi rement; however, thi s span i s not
i ntended to represent an absol ute rul e. A smal l er range may be speci fi ed to
achi eve a l arger desi gn CBR and a reducti on i n pavement thi ckness
requi rements. Thi s savi ngs i n pavement materi al s may be offset by i ncreased
costs associ ated wi th the di ffi cul ti es i n meeti ng the more stri ngent
requi rements. Conversel y, for some soi l s an expanded moi sture-content
speci fi cati on may have l i ttl e effect on the desi gn CBR. The sampl e probl em
uses a 4 percent speci fi cati on range. One possi bl e range i s 6 to 10 percent. I f
the engi neer speci fi ed that the soi l be pl aced wi thi n these l i mi ts, the worst
possi bl e strength woul d be a CBR of 14.4. A conti nued anal ysi s can be done
for the other possi bl e 4 percent ranges, as shown on page 4 of DD Form 2463
(see Figure 2-69).
Step 15. Sel ect the moi sture-content range that gi ves the greatest assured
CBR. I n steps 13 and 14, CBR val ues were sel ected assumi ng that the bui l der
wi l l be al l owed to pl ace the soi l anywhere between potenti al moi sture content
and densi ty speci fi cati on l i mi ts. Now the desi red set of l i mi ts i s sel ected. The
tabul ati on i n step 14 shows that the soi l , i f pl aced between 7 and 11 percent
moi sture, wi l l gi ve the l argest of the possi bl e CBR val ues. Thus, 15.0 becomes
the desi gn CBR. To ensure that a CBR of 15.0 i s achi eved, compacti on must
be 90 to 95 percent MDD or 110.3 to 116.4 pcf.
TEST PROGRAM FOR SWELLING OR EXPANSIVE SOILS
There i s a smal l group of soi l s whi ch expand objecti onabl y after bei ng
compacted and saturated. Thi s presents a probl em i n pavement desi gn as thi s
0.90 122.5 110.3 pcf =
0.90 122.5 116.4 pcf =
2-148 Soils
expansi on or swel l can damage the structure through reverse settl ement. The
measure of swel l i s expressed as a percentage of the i ni ti al sampl e hei ght.
Objecti onabl e swel l i s defi ned as that i n excess of 3 percent of the i ni ti al
sampl e hei ght. A soi l s expansi ve nature i s mai nl y due to the type of cl ay
mi neral s present. For exampl e, montmori l l oni ti c cl ay consi sts of the smal l est
and most hi ghl y charged parti cl es found i n nature. The combi nati on of l arge
surface-area-per-uni t vol ume and hi gh surface charge causes a tremendous
affi ni ty for water and the abi l i ty to expand or shri nk as water i s taken i n or
removed from the soi l .
Exper i ence shows that the PI i s an excel l ent i ndi cator of expansi ve soi l s.
Al though a hi gh PI does not guarantee that the soi l i s expansi ve, cri ti cal soi l s
shoul d be checked more cl osel y for swel l tendenci es. See Table 2-16 for
suggested gui del i nes. Table 2-14, page 2-137, i ndi cates that the potenti al l y
expansi ve soi l sby USCS cl assi fi cati onare CH, MH, and OH. The test
procedure to determi ne a desi gn CBR for an expansi ve soi l i s si mi l ar to that
di scussed for nonswel l i ng soi l s, but the objecti ve i s di fferent. For nonswel l i ng
soi l s, the object i s to fi nd the greatest assured CBR val ue for some range of
densi ti es and moi sture contents. The object of the test program for expansi ve
soi l s i s to fi nd the moi sture-content ranges that wi l l prevent objecti onabl e
swel l and provi de the hi ghest-soaked CBR. General l y, the mi ni mum swel l and
the hi ghest-soaked CBR occur at a mol di ng moi sture content hi gher than the
OMC.
Example
The fol l owi ng i s an exampl e of such a test for a CH soi l . As most of the steps
are si mi l ar to those devel oped for the case of nonswel l i ng soi l s, onl y
di fferences wi l l be di scussed.
Steps
Step 1. Establ i sh the soi l s OMC. Determi ne a moi sture range for CBR
i nvesti gati on. The OMC 4 percent range of i nvesti gati ons as used for the
nonswel l i ng soi l s may not appl y. I t wi l l be necessary to prepare sampl es over
a wi der range of moi stures wi th most of the work bei ng done on sampl es
hi gher than the OMC. Prepare sampl es over a range of the OMC 8 percent.
As i l l ustrated l ater, much of the l aboratory work done on sampl es dry of the
OMC i s not essenti al .
Step 2. Compact the sampl es wi thi n the moi sture-content range of
i nvesti gati on at di fferent l evel s of compacti ve effort. As the type of soi l bei ng
tested wi l l general l y be cohesi ve and wi l l have a CBR l ess than 20, Table 2-15,
page 2-138, i ndi cates that compacti on must be at l east 90 percent MDD. An
upper l i mi t can be establ i shed as expansi ve soi l s are very di ffi cul t to compact
Table 2-15. Swell potential
PI Expansiveness
0 to 14 Not expansive
14 to 25 Marginal
25 to 40 Critical
40 Highly critical
Soils 2-149
at l evel s greater than 100 percent of MDD. Laboratory compacti ve efforts of
10, 25, and 56 bl ows per l ayer are adequate for nearl y al l cases.
Step 3. Soak the sampl es and measure the swel l . Thi s step devi ates from the
same step for the nonswel l i ng soi l . For each sampl e, measure the expansi on,
compute the percent of swel l , and pl ot agai nst the mol di ng water content. As
an exampl e, the tri angul ar data poi nt at 10 percent moi sture on the swel l data
curve (see Figure 2-69, page 2-139) was obtai ned as fol l ows:
I ni ti al sampl e hei ght = 4.60 i nches.
Fi nal di al readi ng = 0.025 i nches.
Mol di ng water content = 10.0 percent.
Level of compacti ve effor t = bl ows per l ayer.
Free-swel l i ndex or percentage of swel l = (0.025/4.60) x 100 = 0.5
percent.
Step 4. Pl ot the poi nts on page 5 of the DD Form 2463 (see Figure 2-69, page
2-143).
NOTE: The example of page 5, DD Form 2463 provided in Fi gure 2-69
is based on data from the nonswelling soil type as explained in the
nonswelling program section. A plot of data for a swelling soil may
look slightly different than this example, as indicated in Fi gure 2-71.
Once the poi nts are pl otted, a curve i s then usual l y fi t to onl y the CE 56 data
poi nts. The curve for a swel l i ng soi l (see Figure 2-71, page 2-150) shows that
thi s soi l , i f pl aced and compacted at mol di ng moi sture contents of 14 percent
or greater, wi l l swel l 3 percent or l ess.
Step 5. Perform CBR penetrati on tests and determi ne the corrected CBR for
each sampl e.
Step 6. Pl ot the data on graphs of dry densi ty versus mol di ng moi sture
content and corrected CBR versus mol di ng moi sture content.
Step 7. Reformat the data on DD Form 2463, page 2 (Figure 2-69, page 2-140).
Step 8. Pl ot the CBR fami l y of curves (DD Form 2463, page 3 (Figure 2-69,
page 2-141).
Step 9. Establ i sh a densi ty range at whi ch soi l s wi l l be pl aced i n the fi el d. I f
no pri or experi ence or benefi t of a test stri p i s avai l abl e, then the fl ow chart i n
Figure 2-70, page 2-146, may be used. I n thi s case, the mi ni mum l evel of
compacti on i s 90 percent of MDD. Assumi ng a reasonabl e speci fi cati on range
of 5 percent, the upper l i mi t wi l l be set at 95 percent MDD.
The actual densi ty range i s cal cul ated as di scussed i n the previ ous exampl e
for nonswel l i ng soi l s. These cal cul ated l i mi ts are then pl aced on page 3 of DD
Form 2463 by drawi ng two verti cal l i nes on the CBR fami l y of curves.
For exampl e, i f the MDD was determi ned to be 110, then the fol l owi ng
cal cul ati on woul d be performed to establ i sh the actual densi ty l i mi ts:
110 0.90 99 pcf =
110 0.95 104.5 pcf =
2-150 Soils
Figure 2-71. Sample DD Form 2463, page 5
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Soils 2-151
Step 10. Determi ne the assured CBR val ues between the speci fi ed densi ty
l i mi ts. As more than 3 percent swel l i s not acceptabl e, eval uati on of the CBR
val ues at moi sture contents l ess than 14 percent i s needl ess. The CBR val ues
of the appl i cabl e moi sture contents shoul d range from 14 through 20. The
CBR val ues of the appl i cabl e moi sture contents were determi ned to be the
amounts shown i n Table 2-17.
Step 11. Determi ne the CBR val ues for potenti al moi sture-content speci fi cati on
ranges. For thi s exampl e the val ues shown i n Table 2-18 were deri ved.
Step 12. Sel ect the moi sture-content range that gi ves the greatest desi gn
CBR. Step 11 shows that the 14 to 18 percent range provi des the greatest
CBR val ue. Thus, the desi gn CBR val ue i s 1.3. Thi s val ue i s obtai ned when
the soi l i s pl aced at a moi sture content between 14 and 18 percent and a
densi ty of between 99.0 and 104.5 pcf.

Step 13. Anal yze the resul ts. Note that thi s desi gn val ue was obtai ned at the
expense of strength. Thi s techni que does not provi de for dryi ng the soi l to a
moi sture content l ess than the amount of pl acement. Shoul d such extreme
dryi ng take pl ace, excessi ve shri nkage and pavement fai l ure mi ght be
expected. However, i t takes consi derabl e effort to remove water from
expansi ve soi l s and such soi l s are normal l y protected from dryi ng by the
overl yi ng pavement. The fi rst thi ng to consi der when encounteri ng an
expansi ve soi l i s testi ng another l ocati on. However, thi s i s not al ways feasi bl e,
and thi s techni que does not al l ow for determi nati on of a desi gn CBR at whi ch
swel l i s not excessi ve.
Table 2-16. Determining CBR values for moisture-content
percentages for swelling soils
w CBR
14 3.4
15 4.2
16 3.2
17 2.2
18 1.3
19 0.9
20 0.4
Table 2-17. Determining CBR values for potential
moisture-content ranges for swelling soils
w (range, in
percent)
CBR
14 to 18 1.3
15 to 19 0.9
16 to 20 0.4
2-152 Soils
Expansi ve soi l s can be chemi cal l y stabi l i zed to al l ow bui l di ng. Addi ng smal l
amounts of l i me consi derabl y reduces the potenti al for shri nkage and swel l .
Soi l s stabi l i zati on i s further di scussed i n Chapter 5 of thi s manual as wel l as
TM 5-822-14 and FMs 5-430-00-1 and 5-430-00-2.
TEST PROGRAM FOR FREE-DRAINING SOILS
Determi ni ng a desi gn CBR for fr ee-dr ai ni ng soi l s r equi r es the l east testi ng
of the thr ee remol ded l abor ator y test progr ams. Table 2-14, page 2-137,
gi ves the USCS cl assi fi cati on and the uses of the soi l s i n thi s gr oup.
The ease i n testi ng i s due to the fr ee-dr ai ni ng char acter i sti cs or l ack of fi nes
i n the soi l . The CBR anal ysi s sheet for borr ow pi t A shows that the densi ty-
ver sus-moi sture-content cur ves have a concave, upwar d shape and show
maxi mum densi ti es between 7 and 9 per cent moi stur e, dependi ng on the
l evel of compacti ve effort (see Figure 2-72). For each curve, ther e i s a
l i mi ti ng or mi ni mum moi stur e content (MMC) at whi ch moi stur e above that
r equi r ed to fi l l the voi ds after compacti on i s squeezed or dr ai ned fr om the
soi l (shown by the tr i angl e, squar e, or ci rcl e i n Figure 2-72). The dashed
l i nes to the ri ght of the MMC r epr esent attempts to compact the soi l i n a
satur ated condi ti on, but the r esul ts after compacti on ar e densi ti es and
moi sture contents at the l i mi ti ng condi ti on. Thi s means that fi el d
pl acement i s r el ati vel y easy for such soi l s. To ensur e the MDD for any l evel
of compacti ve effort, the onl y contr ol measur e necessar y i s to have more
water avai l abl e than that r equi r ed for the MDD at the appr opr i ate l evel of
compacti ve effor t. The cor r ected CBR-ver sus-mol di ng-water-content curves
show the same patter n i n r el ati on to moi sture content as the dr y densi ty.
Soi l s pl aced wi th a moi stur e content above the mi ni mum moi stur e content
achi eve the maxi mum CBR possi bl e for that l evel of compacti ve effor t. I n
other wor ds, moi stur e contents of l oose soi l s above the l i mi ti ng val ues have
l i ttl e bear i ng on the str ength of a soi l after compacti on. Thi s makes
l aborator y testi ng, fi el d pl acement, and fi el d contr ol r el ati vel y easy matter s.
Example
To arri ve at a desi gn CBR, the steps outl i ned i n the previ ous exampl es wi l l
agai n be fol l owed.
Steps
Step 1. Establ i sh the soi l s MMC at 56 bl ows per l ayer. I t i s obtai ned by
l ocati ng the moi sture content at whi ch the MDD i s achi eved on the
compacti on curve. For thi s exampl e, the MMC i s 8 percent wi th a MDD of 120
pcf. To ensure that a free-drai ni ng soi l i s bei ng tested, thi s curve shoul d
di spl ay a MDD at a l i mi ti ng or mi ni mum moi sture content.
Step 2. Compact the sampl es at di fferent l evel s of compacti ve effort.
Compacti on curves must be made for three l evel s of compacti ve effort up to the
MMC. As free-drai ni ng soi l s are frequentl y represented by wel l - and poorl y
graded sands and gravel s wi th CBR val ues above 20, Table 2-15, page 2-138,
i ndi cates a compacti ve effort i n excess of 100 percent of maxi mum CE 56 dry
densi ty. Therefore, 25, 56, and 72 bl ows per l ayer are usual l y used.
Soils 2-153
Step 3. Soak the sampl es and measure the swel l . Swel l measurements are
not requi red, and soaki ng can be el i mi nated when i t i s determi ned that
saturati on does not affect the strength.
Step 4. Perform CBR penetrati on tests. Onl y the sampl es at the l i mi ti ng
moi sture contents for each l evel of compacti ve effort need to be tested.
Normal l y, more than one sampl e at the l i mi ti ng condi ti ons wi l l be made for
each l evel of compacti ve effort, and al l shoul d be tested.
Step 5. Pl ot the data on graphs of dry densi ty versus mol di ng moi sture
content and corrected CBR versus mol di ng moi sture content. Onl y the pl ot of
dry densi ty versus mol di ng moi sture content i s requi red. The corrected CBR-
versus-mol di ng-moi sture-content graph i s presented onl y for di scussi on.
Step 6. Pl ot the CBR fami l y of curves. Thi s graph can be condensed i nto a
si ngl e l i ne. The three data poi nts are obtai ned by pl otti ng the corrected CBR
agai nst the associ ated dry densi ty at the l i mi ti ng moi sture content.
Figure 2-72. Plotted results for a free-draining soil, borrow pit A
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
D
r
y

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
,

i
n

p
c
f
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

C
B
R
,

i
n

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
o
r
s

C
B
R
,

i
n

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
100
80
60
40
20
0
40 60 80 100 120 140
Molding dry density, in pcf
Molding water content (w)
in percent of dry weight
0 4 8 12
0 4 8 12
2-154 Soils
Step 7. Establ i sh a densi ty range at whi ch the soi l wi l l be pl aced i n the fi el d.
Usi ng the cri teri a from Table 2-15, page 2-138, and noti ng that the CBR val ue
for thi s soi l i s usual l y al ways greater than 20, the mi ni mum l evel of
compacti on al l owed i s 100 percent of maxi mum CE 56 dry densi ty. Because no
addi ti onal i nformati on i s provi ded, speci fy 100 to 105 percent of maxi mum CE
56 dry densi ty. The actual densi ty range i s as fol l ows:

Step 8. Determi ne the desi gn CBR and pl acement moi sture content. The
CBR fami l y of curves shows that the mi ni mum CBR val ue achi eved between
the densi ty range i s 70, whi ch i s achi eved at 120 pcf. The pl acement moi sture
content necessary to ensure that thi s strength i s obtai ned i s 8 percent or
gr eater.
Consi derabl y greater CBR val ues can be achi eved i f more fi el d compacti on i s
appl i ed to the soi l . I f thi s i s not too costl y, i t may be advantageous to speci fy
greater densi ti es.
A good program for soi l s testi ng not onl y requi res that careful and compl ete
tests be performed, but al so that the tests be compl eted as qui ckl y as possi bl e
and that the data be pr esented i n a cl ear, l ogi cal consi stent manner. Ther efor e,
you must be fami l i ar wi th the tests, the sequence of testi ng, and the
presentati on of resul ts.
SOILS TESTS REQUIRED
The tests requi red by any program depend on the type of constructi on bei ng
pl anned. However, there are a number of tests run consi stentl y on road and
ai rfi el d constructi on programs. A compl ete testi ng program shoul d i ncl ude
the fol l owi ng tests:
Soi l s expl orati on (see Secti ons I and I I ).
Compacti on (see Secti on VI I ).
Pl asti ci ty i ndex (see Secti on VI ).
Parti cl e-si ze anal ysi s (see Secti on V).
CBR (see Secti on I X).
Traffi cabi l i ty (see FMs 5-430-00-1 and 5-430-00-2).
PURPOSE OF THE REPORT
The soi l tests l i sted above are speci fi c tests used to gai n knowl edge about the
control of soi l s duri ng constructi on, i ncl udi ng the
Sui tabi l i ty of subgrade and borrow materi al s.
Degree to whi ch soi l can be compacted.
1.00 120.0 120.0 pcf =
1.05 120.0 126.0 pcf =
SECTION X. TECHNICAL SOILS REPORT
Soils 2-155
Beari ng val ue of the subgrade and borrow materi al under projected
future condi ti ons.
Locati on of l edge rock and groundwater tabl e.
Suscepti bi l i ty to detri mental frost acti on.
Each test suppl i es the necessary data to answer questi ons based on
engi neeri ng eval uati on of sci enti fi c data rather than a meani ngl ess guess.
ORGANIZATION AND SCOPE OF THE TESTS
Because of the number of tests to be performed for a parti cul ar project, careful
pl anni ng may avert consi derabl e del ays i n the presentati on of the resul ts.
Li st the tests requi red and thei r sequence i n a manner that wi l l permi t
runni ng the tests conti nuousl y, wi thout del ays due to ti me needed for soaki ng
or dryi ng sampl es.
An exampl e of the dai l y acti vi ti es i n a compl ete soi l -testi ng program are l i sted
i n Figure 2-73. Some testi ng programs may not i ncl ude al l the tests l i sted i n
the exampl e and soi l types or test resul ts may change the acti vi ty l i st. An
acti vi ty schedul e for each uni t may be di fferent due to equi pment and mi ssi on
pri ori ty.
The fol l owi ng paragraphs ci te some consi derati ons that may be hel pful i n
setti ng up a conti nuous soi l testi ng program.
Sample Soils Laboratory Testing Schedule
Test/activity Day
1
Day
2
Day
3
Day
4
Day
5
Day
6
Day
7
Day
8
Grain-size analysis
(sieve method)
Specific gravity
Plastic and liquid limits
Compaction
Laboratory CBR
Grain-size analysis
(hydrometer method)
Figure 2-73. Sample schedule for soils laboratory testing
2-156 Soils
Exploration
Before any tests can be performed, representati ve sampl es of the soi l i nvol ved
i n a gi ven pr oject must be obtai ned. Thi s, however, i s onl y one objecti ve of soi l
expl orati on. Other consi derati ons i ncl ude pl otti ng a profi l e of bori ng resul ts,
l ocati ng l edge rock, determi ni ng the depth to the groundwater tabl e,
determi ni ng fi el d moi sture content, and fi el d-i denti fyi ng the soi l s sampl ed.
Particle/Grain-Size Analysis
The mechani cal anal ysi s i s another test that shoul d be used to occupy peri ods
between other tests. The test i s an eval uati on of the grai n-si ze di stri buti on
used to establ i sh the gradati on of the soi l sampl e. The si eve anal ysi s and
hydrometer anal ysi s may be used i n obtai ni ng the requi red i nformati on.
LL and PL Tests
One use of LL and PL test resul ts i s to predi ct how the fi ne-grai ned porti on
(No. 200 fracti on) wi l l affect the engi neeri ng val ue of a parti cul ar soi l sampl e.
Thi s eval uati on, obtai ned through soi l cl assi fi cati on, i s to ensure that the
sampl e bei ng tested meets speci fi cati ons set on the LL and PL for the
parti cul ar project for whi ch i t wi l l be used. These tests shoul d be performed
whi l e wai ti ng for compacti on-test moi sture-content sampl es to dry and CBR
sampl es to soak or any ti me between other tests.
Compaction Test
The compacti on test i ndi cates the MDD that can be obtai ned practi cal l y i n the
fi el d. I t al so i ndi cates the OMC at whi ch thi s dry densi ty can be obtai ned.
Si nce thi s wi l l be a test used for control purposes, i t shoul d be run as soon as
possi bl e. Whi l e moi stur e-content sampl es fr om thi s test ar e dr yi ng, tests for
pl asti ci ty and parti cl e-si ze anal ysi s can be started.
Laboratory CBR Test
The CBR test i s determi ned by an arbi trary penetrati on procedure to obtai n a
modul us of sheari ng resi stance of a subgrade or base-course soi l . Thi s val ue i s
used to determi ne the requi red thi cknesses of the vari ous base courses through
i ts appl i cati on to empi ri cal l y deri ved desi gn curves. Because the procedure for
thi s test may i nvol ve a four-day soaki ng requi rement, CBR sampl es shoul d be
prepared as soon as the necessary i nformati on from the resul ts of the
compacti on test i s avai l abl e. Thi s i nformati on may be obtai ned from
approxi mated val ues of the OMC.
Field In-Place CBR Test
The l atest addi ti on to equi pment used for determi ni ng the CBR val ue of a soi l i s
the dual -mass DCP. The procedures for testi ng wi th the DCP and the
correl ati on of CBR val ues can be found i n the users manual for the equi pment
or i n Annex J of FM 5-430-00-2.
SOILS TECHNICAL REPORT
I n wri ti ng techni cal reports, one of the most i mportant ai ds i s a cl ear, l ogi cal
outl i ne of the subject. Outl i nes wi l l vary accordi ng to the program conducted
and the data requi red, but the suggested format that fol l ows shoul d hel p
organi ze a report.
Soils 2-157
Frequentl y, porti ons of the i nformati on shown i n the outl i ne wi l l be requi red at
di fferent ti mes. For thi s reason, a prel i mi nary report and several
suppl ementary reports may actual l y be made before the project i s compl eted.
However, i f al l of the i nformati on provi ded fol l ows the same basi c outl i ne, fi l i ng
the data and assembl i ng the fi nal report wi l l be si mpl i fi ed.
PURPOSE
Use the fol l owi ng i nformati on to wri te a soi l s techni cal report that i ncl udes al l
perti nent data gi ven i n the condi ti ons and fol l ow the recommended outl i ne.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems and i nformati on to wri te a soi l s techni cal report:
Soi l bori ng l ogs.
The soi l s profi l e.
The soi l s fi el d i denti fi cati on.
I n-pl ace moi sture data.
Parti cl e/grai n-si ze anal ysi s data.
LL and PL data.
The USCS l aboratory soi l s cl assi fi cati on.
CBR test data.
I n-pl ace densi ty data (as requi red l ocal l y).
I n-pl ace CBR data.
A topographi c map of the si te.
Aeri al photographs (i f avai l abl e).
Penci l s.
Pens.
Paper.
The project di recti ve.
FM 5-430-00-1.
OUTLINE
Use the fol l owi ng recommended outl i ne to organi ze a techni cal soi l s report:
1. Project.
A. Descri pti on. What type of constructi on i s bei ng performed (for
exampl e, Cl ass D road, base camp, and ai rstri p)?
B. Purpose and scope. Who i s requesti ng constructi on? What i s the
extent and why i s i t bei ng performed?
2. Si te descri pti on.
A. Locati on. Al l map references and di recti ons i ncl udi ng county or
provi nce (i f avai l abl e).
2-158 Soils
B. Exi sti ng faci l i ti es. Thi s coul d i ncl ude many thi ngs such as ol d l oggi ng
roads, di rt paths, patrol roads, bui l di ngs, overhead power l i nes, and so
forth (see sketches).
C. Topography, cul ti vati on, and drai nage. Descri pti on of terrai n features.
(forest, farml and, wel l drai ned, swampy, hi l l s, and so forth).
D. Cl i mate. Temperature extremes, seasonal preci pi tati on, average wi nd
speed, and so forth.
3. Geol ogy.
A. Overburden. Mai n deposi ti ng force (ri ver, gl aci al , and so forth), rock
cl asses (sedi mentary, i gneous, metamorphi c), and depth of overburden.
B. Bedrock. Average depth to bedrock and state of bedrock, such as
faul ted, fractured, or fol ded.
4. Si te condi ti ons.
A. Fi el d expl orati ons. Detai l s of performed tests, l ocati on of test si tes,
and expl anati on of sampl e tags.
B. Fi el d tests. Type of fi el d tests performed and fi el d sampl e resul ts
(encl ose copi es i n Annex G).
C. Laboratory tests. Type of l aboratory tests performed. Do not i ncl ude
MDD or l aboratory CBR resul ts.
D. Test resul ts. Synopsi s of test resul ts and cl assi fi cati ons. Refer to
forms i n Annex F.
5. Fi l l and borrow materi al s.
A. Fi el d expl orati ons. Detai l s of performed tests, l ocati on of test si tes,
and expl anati on of sampl e tags.
B. Fi el d tests. Type of fi el d tests performed and fi el d sampl e resul ts
(encl ose copi es i n Annex G).
C. Laboratory tests. Type of l aboratory tests performed. Do not i ncl ude
MDD or l aboratory CBR resul ts.
D. Test resul ts. Synopsi s of test resul ts and cl assi fi cati ons. Refer to
forms i n Annex F.
6. Concl usi ons and recommendati ons.
A. Fi nal si te sel ecti on (i f appl i cabl e). Exact l ocati on of fi ni shed project.
Refer to pl ans encl osed i n Annex C.
B. Economi cal desi gn. Low-cost or resource al ternati ves to current
suggesti ons (soi l -cement, asphal t bi nder, chemi cal stabi l i zati on methods,
mats or fabri cs, and so forth).
C. Mi ni mum speci fi cati ons. Desi gn CBR, MDD, and OMC speci fi cati ons.
Refer to l aboratory forms i n Annex F.
7. Annexes.
A. Pr oject di r ecti ve and al l di r ecti ves i nvol vi ng thi s pr oject.
Soils 2-159
B. General pl an drawi ngs (geol ogy shoul d be i ndi cated).
C. Locati on pl an drawi ngs (exi sti ng and proposed features).
D. Profi l es and cross secti ons.
E. Bori ng l ogs.
F. Laboratory testi ng data.
G. Fi el d testi ng data.
NOTE: Not every subject will apply to every report. In many reports,
some of the items may be covered in several sentences, while others
may require a page of discussion. Some items (for example 5, 6, and
7) may have to be repeated for each runway in a major airfield. All
laboratory test forms will be included in Annex C. If a specific test
form is not necessary or not conducted, write the words Not
Applicable across the form.
RETURN TO TOC
Bituminous Mixtures 3-1
Chapter 3
Bituminous Mixtures
Thi s chapter pr ovi des i nfor mati on on the mater i al s used i n constr ucti ng
bi tumi nous surfaces, the methods of testi ng these materi al s, and the mi xes
pr epared from them. The desi gn consi derati onssuch as beari ng capaci ty
and thi ckness of pavementsare descri bed i n FM 5-430-00-1. Mi xi ng and
pl aci ng oper ati ons, as wel l as the consi der ati ons for prepar i ng the mi xes,
are descri bed i n TM 5-337.
Bi tumi nous pavements/surfaces are a mi xture of mi neral aggregates, mi neral
fi l l er, and a bi tumi nous materi al or bi nder. Thi s mi xture i s used as the top
porti on of a fl exi bl e pavement structure to provi de a resi l i ent, waterproof,
l oad-di stri buti ng medi um that protects the base course from the detri mental
effects of water and the abrasi ve acti on of traffi c.
AGGREGATES
Mi neral aggregates may consi st of crushed rock, crushed or uncrushed soi l s
(i ncl udi ng gravel s and sands), sl ag, mi neral fi l l er, or a combi nati on of some of
these materi al s. Other materi al s that may be used as aggregate i n certai n
geographi cal areas i ncl ude vesi cul ar l ava and coral . Aggregates normal l y
consti tute 90 percent or more by wei ght of bi tumi nous mi xtures, and thei r
properti es greatl y affect the fi ni shed product. The aggregate provi des three
basi c functi ons when used i n bi tumi nous surfaces:
I t transmi ts the l oad from the surface down to the base course. I n
pavement, thi s i s accompl i shed through the mechani cal i nterl ock of
the aggregate parti cl es.
I t wi thstands the traffi cs abrasi ve acti on. I f a weari ng surface were
l ai d consi sti ng of bi nder al one, i t soon woul d be worn away by the
abrasi ve acti on of ti res.
I t provi des a nonski d surface. A porti on of the aggregate extends
sl i ghtl y above the normal surface of the weari ng mat, thereby
provi di ng a roughened surface for ti res to gri p.
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
A bi tumi nous materi al i s the adhesi ve agent or bi nder i n a bi tumi nous
mi xture. Thi s materi al or bi nder provi des two functi ons:
I t bi nds the aggregate together, hol ds i t i n pl ace, and prevents
di spl acement.
.
SECTION I. BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS/SURFACES
RETURN TO TOC
3-2 Bituminous Mixtures
I t provi des a waterproof cover for the base and keeps surface water
from seepi ng i nto and weakeni ng the base materi al .
The bi nders functi ons requi re i t to be a waterproof substance havi ng the
abi l i ty to bi nd aggregate parti cl es together. Al l bi tumi nous materi al s possess
these qual i ti es due to bei ng mai nl y composed of bi tumena bl ack sol i d that
provi des the bl ack col or, cementi ng abi l i ty, and waterproofi ng properti es.
Bi tumi nous materi al s are cl assi fi ed i nto two mai n groupsasphal ts and tars.
They are avai l abl e i n several forms sui tabl e for di fferent procedures of mi xi ng
or appl i cati on under wi de vari ati ons i n temperature. Some bi tumi nous
materi al s are sol i d or semi sol i d at room temperature. Other grades are a
rel ati vel y vi scous (thi ck) l i qui d at room temperature. Mi xi ng bi tumi nous
mater i al s wi th sol vents or water pr oduces cutbacks or emul si ons that are
l i qui d at atmospheri c temperatures. Such l i qui d asphal ts and tars are used
for col d mi xes or are appl i ed as sprays i n bui l di ng pavements.
ASPHALTS
Asphal t i s obtai ned onl y from crude petrol eum and has two general cl asses
natural and manufactured. Natural asphal ts occur i n l akes (as l ake asphal t),
pi ts, or rock structures (as rock asphal t). Manufactured asphal t i s produced
by di sti l l i ng crude petrol eum (see Figure 3-1). A mi l i tary engi neer i s sel dom
concerned wi th natural asphal ts because they are not usual l y avai l abl e i n
those ar eas of i nter est. Therefore, thi s chapter di scusses the uses and testi ng
of manufactured asphal ts.
Al l asphal t cements are sol i d or semi sol i d at room temperature (77F) and
must be converted to a fl ui d state by heati ng, emul si fyi ng, or di ssol vi ng i n a
petrol eum sol vent.
Grading
There are two grade scal es used for i denti fyi ng asphal t cementpenetrati on
grade and vi scosi ty grade. The penetrati on grade i s determi ned by the
di stance a standard needl e under a standard l oad wi l l penetrate a sampl e i n a
gi ven ti me under a gi ven temperature condi ti on. A correl ati ng asphal t-
petrol eum number from 00 to 7 i s assi gned to these penetrati on ranges. The
vi scosi ty grade i s determi ned usi ng a standard vi scometer under standard
condi ti ons. Table 3-1 l i sts the penetrati on ranges and correl ati ng asphal t-
petrol eum numbers presentl y recogni zed al ong wi th the rel ati ve consi stenci es.
Table 3-1. Penetration grades and asphalt petroleum numbers of asphalt cement
Penetration Grade
Asphalt-Petroleum
Number
Relative Consistency
40 to 50 7 Hard
60 to 70 5
85 to 100 3 Medium
120 to 150 1 Soft
200 to 300 00
Figure 3-1. Simplified flow chart showing recovery and refinement of
petroleum asphaltic materials
Processing
Light distillate
Field storage Pumping station
Gasoline
Light solvents
Kerosene
Light burner oil
Diesel oil
Lubricating oils
Storage
Tube
still
Condenser
Processing
Light distillate
Gasoline
Light solvents
Kerosene
Light burner oil
Diesel oil
Lubricating oils
Storage
Tube
still
Condenser
Processing
Light distillate
Gasoline
Light solvents
Kerosene
Light burner oil
Diesel oil
Lubricating oils
Storage
Tube
still
Condenser
Residual material
Process
unit
Refinery
Asphalt
Asphalt cements
Asphalt
(Air-
refined)
Residual
fuel oil
Liquid
asphaltic
materials
Gas
Petroleum
Sand and water
Air
Medium distillate
Heavy distillate
Slow
curing
asphalts
Medium
curing
asphalt
Rapid
curing
asphalt
s
Anionic
emulsified
asphalts
Cationic
emulsified
asphalts
SC-70
SC-250
SC-800
SC-3000
SC-
Slow
curing
asphalts
MC-30
MC-70
MC-250
MC-800
MC-3000
RC-70
RC-250
RC-800
RC-3000
SC-800
RS-1
RS-2
MS-2
SS-1
SS-1h
RS-2K
RS-3K
SM-K
CM-K
SS-K
SS-Kh
Emulsion
plant
Emulsion
plant
Ca9tionic
emulsified
asphalts
Penetration
grades
40-50
60-70
85-100
120-150
200-300
Oxidized
asphalts
Still
Oxidized
asphalts
Processing
Light distillate
Gasoline
Light solvents
Kerosene
Light burner oil
Diesel oil
Lubricating oils
Storage
Tube
still
Condenser
Light distillate
Gasoline
Light solvents
Kerosene
Light burner oil
Diesel oil
Lubricating oils
Storage
Tube
still
Condenser
Residual material
Process
unit
Refinery
Asphalt
Asphalt cements
Asphalt
(air-
refined)
Residual
fuel oil
Liquid
asphaltic
materials
Gas
Petroleum
Sand and water
Medium distillate
Heavy distillate
Slow
curing
asphalts
Medium-
curing
asphalts
Rapid-
curing
asphalts
Anionic-
emulsified
asphalts
Cationic
emulsified
asphalts
SC-70
SC-250
SC-800
SC-3000
SC-
Slow-
curing
asphalts
MC-30
MC-70
MC-250
MC-800
MC-3000
RC-70
RC-250
RC-800
RC-3000
SC-800
RS-1
RS-2
MS-2
SS-1
SS-1h
RS-2K
RS-3K
SM-K
CM-K
SS-K
SS-Kh
Emulsion
plant
Emulsion
plant
Cationic-
emulsified
asphalts
Penetrating
grades
40-50
60-70
85-100
120-150
200-300
Oxidized
asphalts
Still
Processing
Air
Oil well
Cutback Asphalts
When heati ng equi pment i s not avai l abl e or i s i mpracti cal to use, asphal t
cement can be made fl ui d by addi ng sol vents (cal l ed cutter stock or fl ux oi l s).
Cutter stock may be any one of the more vol ati l e petrol eum-di sti l l ate
products. The resul ti ng combi nati on i s cal l ed asphal t cutback. Exposure to
ai r causes the sol vents to evaporate and l eave the asphal t cement to perform
i ts functi ons.
The cl assi fi cati on of the cutback i s based on the evaporati on rate of the
di sti l l ate i n the mi xture. Gasol i ne or naphtha (hi gh vol ati l i ty) produces a
rapi d-curi ng (RC) cutback; kerosene (medi um vol ati l i ty) produces a medi um-
curi ng (MC) cutback; and fuel oi l (l ow vol ati l i ty) produces a sl ow-curi ng (SC)
cutback. Road oi l s, referred to occasi onal l y, are a heavy petrol eum oi l i n the
SC grade of l i qui d asphal t. Table 3-2 shows the percentage of components by
grade for the three types of asphal t cutbacks.
As more cutter stock i s mi xed wi th a gi ven amount of asphal t cement, a
thi nner l i qui d resul ts. I n practi ce, di fferent amounts of cutter stock are added
to a gi ven amount of asphal t cement to obtai n vari ous vi scosi ti es, or grades, of
cutbacks. The Corps of Engi neers has approved a set of speci fi cati ons for
cutbacks based on ki nemati c vi scosi ty. The number assi gned to each grade
corresponds to the l ower l i mi t of ki nemati c vi scosi ty as determi ned by a
standard test. The upper l i mi t of each grade i s equal to twi ce the l ower l i mi t
or grade number. The uni ts used i n the test are centi stokes.
Thus, a number 70 cutback refers to a vi scosi ty range of 70 to 140 centi stokes.
The other grades and thei r l i mi ts are 250 (250 to 500), 800 (800 to 1,600), and
3,000 (3,000 to 6,000). I n addi ti on, the MC has a 30 grade (30 to 60). Figure
3-2 shows the scal e of vi scosi ty gr ades. The hi gher the vi scosi ty, the thi cker
the l i qui d.
Asphal ti c penetrati ve soi l bi nder i s a speci al cutback asphal t composed of l ow-
penetrati on-grade asphal t and a sol vent bl end of kerosene and naphtha. I t i s
si mi l ar i n character to standard l ow-vi scosi ty, MC cutback asphal t but di ffers
i n many speci fi c properti es. I t i s used as a soi l bi nder and dust pal l i ati ve.
Asphalt Emulsions
I t i s often advantageous to use an asphal t materi al that i s l i qui d at room
temperature and yet wi l l not burn. Asphal t emul si ons possess these
Table 3-2. Asphalt-cutback composition (expressed in percent of total volume)
Type Components
Grades
30 70 250 800 3,000
RC
Asphalt cement 65 75 83 87
Gasoline or naphtha 35 25 17 13
MC
Asphalt cement 54 64 74 82 86
Kerosene 46 36 26 18 14
SC
Asphalt cement 50 60 70 80
Fuel oil 50 40 30 20
properti es. Emul si fi ed asphal t i s a l i qui d materi al made up of a mi xture of
asphal t, water, and emul si fi er. Asphal t and water wi l l not mi x al one so a
chemi cal agent (an emul si fyi ng agent) must be added. Common emul si fyi ng
agents are soaps, col l oi dal cl ays, and numerous other organi c agents.
Emul si fi ed asphal t i s a heterogeneous system i n whi ch water forms the
conti nuous phase of the emul si on and the mi nute gl obul es of asphal t for the
di sconti nuous phase. There i s al so an i nverted asphal t emul si on i n whi ch the
conti nuous phase i s asphal t (general l y l i qui d asphal t) and the di sconti nuous
phase i s mi nute gl obul es of water i n rel ati vel y smal l quanti ti es. Emul si fi ed
asphal ts may be of ei ther the ani oni c (el ectronegati vel y charged asphal t
gl obul es) or cati oni c (el ectroposi ti vel y charged asphal t gl obul es) types,
dependi ng on the emul si fyi ng agent.
Emul si ons are cl assi fi ed accordi ng to the setti ng or breaki ng rate whi ch i s the
speed at whi ch the emul si on breaks or the asphal t and water separate. Thi s
rate usual l y depends on the emul si fi er used and the proporti on of water to
asphal t. Emul si ons are descri bed as rapi d-setti ng (RS), medi um-setti ng (MS),
and sl ow-setti ng (SS) and al so by vi scosi ty numbers (see Figure 3-2). Because
of thi s breaki ng rate, emul si ons can al so be grouped accordi ng to thei r abi l i ty
to mi x wi th damp aggregate. The RS emul si on breaks so fast that i t cannot be
mi xed; therefore, i t i s cal l ed a nonmi xi ng type. The MS and SS emul si ons
break sl owl y enough to permi t good mi xi ng unti l each parti cl e of the aggregate
i s uni forml y coated. Emul si ons may al so be sati sfactori l y used as a tack coat
for bi tumi nous pavements.
Figure 3-2. Viscosity grades at room temperature
TARS
Tars are products of coal di sti l l ati on (see Figure 3-3). No natural source of tars
exi sts. Coal tar i s a general term appl i ed to al l vari eti es of tar obtai ned from
coal . I t i s produced by one of several methods, dependi ng on the desi red end
product.
When bi tumi nous coal i s destructi vel y di sti l l ed, coke and gas are formed. Tar,
ammoni a, l i ght oi l s, sul fur, and phenol may be recovered. Coke-oven tar i s
Figure 3-3. Simplified flow chart showing production of road tars from bituminous coals
produced i n the greatest amount. I ts chemi cal , physi cal , and adhesi ve
characteri sti cs make i t most sui tabl e for road-tar purposes. Water-gas tar i s
obtai ned i n the manufacture of carbureted water gas. The nature of the
carbureti ng oi l l argel y determi nes the character of the water-gas tar produced
and may vary wi del y i n speci fi c gravi ti es, vi scosi ti es, and other physi cal and
chemi cal properti es.
Road tar s ar e manufactur ed i n 12 gr ades of vi scosi ty (see Figure 3-2, page
3-5). Ther e ar e al so some speci al gr ades for use i n r ubber i zed-tar bi nder s.
Gr ades 1 thr ough 7 ar e l i qui d at r oom temper atur e, whi l e gr ades 8 thr ough
12 ar e semi sol i d or sol i d. The di ffer ence i s due to the l i qui d coal di sti l l ates
i n the tar ; the mor e di sti l l ate, the mor e l i qui d (or l ess sol i d) the tar. The
r oad-tar cutbacks (RTCBs) ar e pr oducts of cutti ng back the heavi er or
har der gr ades wi th coal -tar di sti l l ates. RTCBs ar e manufactur ed i n two
vi scosi ty gr ades (5 and 6) onl y.
Tar, whi ch i s i nsol ubl e i n petrol eum di sti l l ates, i s someti mes mi xed wi th oi l -
resi stant, unvul cani zed rubber to form a rubberi zed-tar bi nder materi al .
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES OF BITUMENS
Tables 3-3 and 3-4, pages 3-8 through 3-11, l i st the bi tumi nous materi al s,
sources, curi ng, temperatures, and grades associ ated wi th bi tumi nous
operati ons.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Be extremel y cauti ous when handl i ng bi tumi nous materi al s. Asphal t cement,
whi ch i s sol i d at room temperature, i s heated to hi gh temperatures to make i t
workabl e as a bi nder materi al . Heated asphal t can cause severe burns i f
al l owed to come i n contact wi th the ski n. The vapors emi tted by heati ng
bi tumi nous materi al s may be harmful i f i nhal ed. Use care duri ng heati ng to
ensure proper venti l ati on. Asphal t cutbacks contai n hi ghl y fl ammabl e
vol ati l es. The vapors wi l l i gni te at rel ati vel y l ow temperatures. The l owest
temperature at whi ch they wi l l i gni te i s cal l ed the fl ash poi nt. The mi ni mum
fl ash poi nt for RC-250, RC-800, and RC-3,000 i s 80F; for MC-30 and MC-70,
about 110F; for MC-250 to MC-3,000 and SC-70, about 150F; and for the
remai ni ng SC grades, about 25 hi gher per grade up to 225F for SC-3,000.
NOTES:
1. The spraying and mixing temperatures in many cases are above
the flash point (see Tabl e 3-3). Use extreme caution when handling
these mixtures. Do not expose their vapors to an open flame.
2. Cutbacks may also be classified as an environmentally hazardous
material. Check with unit and installation environmental
representatives for further guidance as to proper storage, use, and
disposal of these substances. If your units environmental
representative is not known, consult your commander for assistance.
3
-
8
B
i
t
u
m
i
n
o
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s

M
i
x
t
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e
s
F
M

5
-
4
7
2
/
N
A
V
F
A
C

M
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3
3
0
/
A
F
J
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3
2
-
1
2
2
1
(
I
)
Table 3-3. Characteristics of bituminous materials
Material Form
Grade
Designa-
tion
Temperature of Application Ranges
Flash Point
(Min)
Remarks Spraying ** Mixing
F C F C F C
Penetrative soil
binder
Liquid 130-150 55 - 65 80 27
Contains naphtha
Caution: Highly flammable
Cutback (RC)
Liquidsasphalt
residues fluxed
with more volatile
petroleum
distillate
RC-70
RC-250
RC-800
RC-3,000
*105-
175
145-
220
180-
255
*215-
290
*41-79
63-104
*82-124
*102-
143
95-135
135-175
170-210
200-240
35-57
57-79
77-99
93-116
80
80
80
27
27
27
RC cutbacks contain highly-
volatile naphtha cutter stock.
Naphtha evaporates quickly,
leaving an asphalt-cement
binder, permitting early use of
the surface.
Caution: Highly flammable
Cutback (MC)
Liquidsasphalt
residues fluxed
with more volatile
petroleum
distillate
MC-30
MC-70
MC-250
MC-800
MC-3,000
70-140
105-175
145-220
180-255
215-290
21-60
41-79
63-104
82-124
102-143
55-95
95-135
135-175
170-210
200-240
13-35
35-57
57-79
77-99
93-116
100
100
150
150
150
37
37
65
65
65
MC cutbacks contain less
volatile kerosene cutter stock.
Kerosene evaporates less
rapidly than naphtha.
Caution: Flammable.
Cutback (SC)
Liquidsasphalt
residues fluxed
with more volatile
petroleum
distillate
SC-70
SC-250
SC-800
SC-3,000
105-175
145-220
180-225
215-290
41-79
63-104
82-124
102-143
95-135
135-175
170-210
200-240
35-57
57-79
71-99
93-116
150
175+
200+
225+
65
79+
93+
107+
SC cutbacks contain slightly-
volatile diesel-fuel cutter
stock. Diesel fuel evaporates
slowly.
Caution: Flammable.
Asphalt cements Solids
40-50
60-70
85-100
120-150
200-300
285-350
285-350
285-350
260-325
141-177
141-177
141-177
127-163
300-350
275-325
275-325
275-325
200-275
149-177
135-163
135-163
135-163
93-135
Penetrations 40 to 100 used
for crack and joint fillers.
Penetrations 70 to 300 used
for plant mixes, penetration
macadam, and surface
treatment. Use test to
determine flash point.
Powdered
asphalt
Hard and solid
asphalts ground
to powder
Used with SC to produce
extra tough road surfaces.
* RC cutbacks are seldom used for spraying.
** Low temperature is based on a viscosity of 200 centistokes kinematic viscosity and the higher temperature is based on a 50-centistoke
viscosity.
Li id h l
B
i
t
u
m
i
n
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u
s

M
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t
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s
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5
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4
7
2
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3
2
-
1
2
2
1
(
I
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Table 3-3. Characteristics of bituminous materials (continued)
Material Form
Grade
Designa-
tion
Temperature of Application Ranges
Flash Point
(Min)
Remarks Spraying ** Mixing
F C F C F C
Asphalt
emulsions (RS)
Liquidsasphalt
particles held in
an aqueous
suspension by an
emulsifying
agent
RS-1
RS-2
RS-2K
RS-3K
50-140
50-140
50-140
50-140
10-60
10-60
10-60
10-60
Nonmixing
50-140
50-140
50-140
10-60
10-60
10-60
10-60
Freezing destroys emulsion.
Use for road and plant mixes
with coarse aggregates (SS).
All emulsions with K suffix
are cationic.
Asphalt
emulsions (MS)
Liquidsasphalt
particles held in
an aqueous
suspension by an
emulsifying
agent
MS-2
SM-K
CM-K
50-140
50-140
50-140
10-60
10-60
10-60
50-140
50-140
50-140
10-60
10-60
10-60
Asphalt
emulsions (SS)
Liquidsasphalt
particles held in
an aqueous
suspension by an
emulsifying
agent
SS-1
SS-1h
SS-K
SS-Kh
50-140
50-140
50-140
50-140
10-60
10-60
10-60
10-60
50-140
50-140
50-140
50-140
10-60
10-60
10-60
10-60
Road tars Liquids
RT-1
RT-2
RT-3
60-125
60-125
60-125
15-52
15-52
27-66
Priming oils. RT-4 through
RT-12 not generally used.
RTCBs Liquids
RTCB-5
RTCB-6
60-120
60-120
16-49
16-49
Patching mixtures.
Caution: Flammable.
Rock asphalt Solids
Mixed and used locally where
found. Cutback may be
added if necessary.
* RC cutbacks are seldom used for spraying.
** Low temperature is based on a viscosity of 200 centistokes kinematic viscosity and the higher temperature is based on a 50-centistokes
viscosity.
Table 3-4. Typical uses of bituminous materials
Purpose or Use
Grade or Designation
1
CB - Asphalt Cutback
2
RC MC SC
Dust palliative
DCA-70
3
MC-30, -70, -250
APSB
4
SC-70, -250
Prime coat:
Tightly bonded surfaces
Loosely bonded, fine-grained surfaces
Loosely bonded, coarse-grained
surfaces
MC-30
MC-70
MC-250
SC-70
SC-250
Tack coat RC-250, -800 MC-250, -800
Surface treatment and seal coat:
Coarse sand cover
Clean coarse aggregate cover
Graded gravel aggregate cover
Gravel mulch
RC-70, -250
RC-250, -800,
-3,000
MC-250, -800
MC-800
MC-250-, -800
MC-250
SC-800
SC-250
Mixed in place road mix:
Open-graded aggregate:
Sand
Maximum diameter 1 inch, high
percentage passing No. 10
RC-70, -250 MC-800
MC-800
Macadam aggregate RC-250, -800
Dense-graded aggregate:
High percentage passing No. 200
Maximum diameter 1 inch, medium
MC-250
MC-250, -800
SC-250
SC-250, -800
Premix or cold patch:
Open-graded aggregate
Dense-graded aggregate
RC-250 MC-800
MC-250
SC-800
SC-250
Cold-laid plant mix:
Open-graded aggregate:
Sand
Maximum diameter 1 inch, high
Macadam aggregate
Dense-graded aggregate:
High percentage passing No. 200
Maximum diameter 1 inch, medium
Aggregate precoating followed with
asphalt
RC-250, -800
RC-800
RC-800, -3,000
SC-800
1
Prevailing temperature during construction also affects selection of bitumen and may be the
determining factor rather than size and gradation of aggregate.
2
Caution: Do not overheat aggregate when cutbacks are used to produce hot mixes.
3
DCA-70 is a water emulsion of a polyvinyl acetate containing chemical modifiers (formerly UCAR-
131). Proprietary product of Union Carbide Corporation, New York, NY.
4
Asphaltic penetrative soil binder (APSB)
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages and di sadvantages of the bi tumi nous materi al s used i n
constructi on are as fol l ows:
Asphal t-cement cutbacks are fl ammabl e. Asphal t pavements are suscepti bl e to
damage by the bl ast from jet pl anes, and they can be di ssol ved by petrol eum
products that may be spi l l ed on them such as duri ng refuel i ng at an ai rfi el d.
Tars, on the other hand, are not affected by petrol eum deri vati ves si nce they are
products of coal . Tars, when used as a pri me for base courses, seem to possess
better penetrati on qual i ti es than asphal ts and are l ess suscepti bl e to stri ppi ng
(l oss of bond to aggregate) i n the presence of water. Tars are affected by
temperatures and have a wi de range i n vi scosi ty wi th normal surroundi ng
temperature changes. Tar can become so soft duri ng warmer weather that the
pavement wi l l rut under traffi c. I n col der weather, i t can become so bri ttl e that
the pavement wi l l crack. The temperature suscepti bi l i ty of tar bi nders i s
i mproved by bl endi ng wi th oi l -resi stant rubber. Asphal t pavements and tar
pavements are general l y ready for traffi c wi thi n a few hours after pl acement
si nce they can be used as soon as they reach normal temperature.
Asphal t emul si ons are not fl ammabl e and are l i qui d at normal temperatures.
Si nce they are mi xed wi th water, they can be used wi th more damp aggregate
than requi red for the cutbacks. Addi ti onal water may be added to the emul si on
up to proporti ons of 1:3 for use i n sl urry seal coats. Because emul si ons contai n
water, they have certai n di sadvantages. Duri ng freezi ng weather, the
emul si ons can freeze and the components separate. Emul si ons are di ffi cul t to
store for extended peri ods because they tend to break even i n unopened drums.
When shi pped, the water i n the emul si on takes up val uabl e space whi ch coul d
be used to transport hard-to-obtai n materi al s.
Table 3-4. Typical uses of bituminous materials (continued)
Purpose or Use
Grade or Designation
1
CB - Asphalt Cutback
2
RC MC SC
Dust palliative
DCA-70
3
MC-30, -70, -250
APSB
4
SC-70, -250
Hot-laid plant mix RC-3,000 MC-3,000 SC-3,000
Penetration macadam:
Cold weather
Hot weather
RC-800, -3,000 SC-3,000
1
Prevailing temperature during construction also affects selection of bitumen and may be the determining
factor rather than size and gradation of aggregate.
2
Caution: Do not overheat aggregate when cutbacks are used to produce hot mixes.
3
DCA-70 is a water emulsion of a polyvinyl acetate containing chemical modifiers (formerly UCAR-131).
Proprietary product of Union Carbide Corporation, New York, NY.
4
Asphaltic penetrative soil binder (APSB).
When conducti ng tests, use the materi al s that represent those that wi l l be
used i n constructi on; otherwi se, test resul ts wi l l be mi sl eadi ng. Sampl i ng of
materi al s for testi ng shoul d recei ve cl ose attenti on. When l arge sampl es must
be subdi vi ded i nto smal l uni ts for the actual tests, take care to keep the
sampl e representati ve of the ori gi nal mass. Reduce aggregate sampl es to the
proper si ze for testi ng by means of quarteri ng. Methods for sampl i ng natural
deposi ts of sands and gravel s are di scussed i n soi l surveys and are appl i cabl e
here.
Take sampl es of bi tumi nous materi al s at the pl ace of manufacture or at the
del i very poi nt. (Thi s manual assumes that sampl i ng i s done at the poi nt of
del i very.) Sampl es may be taken for ei ther of two purposes:
To obtai n an average of the del i vered materi al .
To fi nd the maxi mum vari ati on i n the materi al 's characteri sti cs.
Take sampl es for anal ysi s to i denti fy bi tumi nous materi al s i f records are not
avai l abl e. Obtai n suffi ci ent quanti ti es of materi al s at the ti me of sampl i ng to
meet speci fi cati on requi rements and to provi de for l aboratory pavement-
desi gn tests. Normal l y, aggregates that wi l l produce 150 pounds of the desi red
gradati on and 2 gal l ons of bi tumi nous materi al wi l l produce suffi ci ent data.
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS SAMPLING (ASTM D 140-88)
Use cl ean, dry contai ners for sampl i ng. Keep the contai ners ti ghtl y cl osed and
properl y marked. A sampl e for a routi ne l aboratory exami nati on shoul d not
be l ess than one quart.
LIQUID MATERIALS
When sampl i ng l i qui d bi tumi nous materi al s from nonagi tated verti cal tanks,
take sampl es from near the top, mi ddl e, and bottom. Test the sampl es from
the three l evel s separatel y to detect strati fi cati on. Materi al s shi pped i n tank
cars may be sampl ed from val ves and taps. Take sampl es from drai n cocks on
the si de of the tank or car. I f cocks are not present, take the sampl es by
l oweri ng wei ghted bottl es or cans i nto the materi al (see Figure 3-4). Fi t the
bottl e or can wi th a stopper that can be removed by a stri ng or wi re after i t
has been l owered to the proper depth.
SOLID AND SEMISOLID MATERIALS
When sampl i ng sol i d or semi sol i d materi al s i n drums, barrel s, cartons, and
bags, take sampl es at l east 3 i nches bel ow the surface and 3 i nches from the
si de of the contai ner or cake. Use a cl ean hatchet on hard materi al and a sti ff
putty kni fe on soft materi al .
AGGREGATE SAMPLING (ASTM D 75-87)
Aggregate vari es i n si ze from the l arger stones or rocks to the gravel s and
sands. These materi al s for pavi ng may sti l l be i n thei r natural deposi ts or
may be i n stockpi l es pr evi ousl y gather ed.
SECTION II. SAMPLING MATERIALS
STONE FROM LEDGES AND QUARRIES
Obtai n separate sampl es of unweathered stone wei ghi ng at l east 50 pounds
each from al l strata that appear to vary i n col or and structure. Prepare a
sketch pl an wi th el evati on, showi ng the thi ckness, l ength, wi dth, and l ocati on
of the di fferent l ayers so that the quanti ty avai l abl e can be esti mated.
NATURAL DEPOSITS OF SAND AND GRAVEL
Sel ect sampl es that represent the di fferent materi al s avai l abl e i n the deposi t.
Sketch the area and i ndi cate the approxi mate quanti ti es of di fferent
materi al s. I f the deposi t i s an open-face bank or pi t, take the sampl e by
channel i ng the face so that i t wi l l represent materi al that vi sual i nspecti on
i ndi cates may be used. Cut the face i mmedi atel y before sampl i ng, and di scard
any materi al that has fal l en from the surface al ong the face. Do not i ncl ude i n
the sampl e any overl yi ng materi al (overburden) that i s not sui tabl e for use as
an aggregate, si nce thi s materi al woul d be stri pped away when the aggregate
i s removed from the pi t. I t may be necessary to make test bori ngs or di g test
pi ts to determi ne the approxi mate extent of the materi al . I f test pi ts are dug,
they must be adequatel y shored to prevent materi al from cavi ng i n on
personnel worki ng i n the pi t. Obtai n from the pi t representati ve sampl es for
each change i n strata. I f the materi al bei ng sampl ed i s al l sand, about 25
pounds i s suffi ci ent for tests. I f i t consi sts of sand and gravel , a somewhat
l arger sampl e (about 75 pounds) i s requi red for prel i mi nary tests. The coarser
the gravel porti on, the l arger the sampl e requi red.
Figure 3-4. Sampling liquid bituminous materials from tank car or storage tank
NOTE: A wide-mouthed
glass bottle can be
improvised, using wire or
rope sling
Approx 1 1/2
Cork with
wire hook
Wire or rope lines
Metal sample bottle
Approx 5
Approximate sample locations
A
p
p
r
o
x

8
Sample bottle
D
e
p
t
h

o
f

f
l
u
i
d

H
Approx 5
Weight
STOCKPILES
I f the mater i al has been stockpi l ed pr evi ousl y, take car e i n obtai ni ng sampl es.
Ther e i s a natur al tendency towar d separ ati on of si mi l ar si ze fr acti ons i nto
groups i n the stockpi l e. The materi al near the outer edges and near the base
of the pi l e i s l i kel y to be coarser than the average. Cut a face i nto the stockpi l e
near the base, the center, and the top on at l east two opposi te si des. Combi ne
sampl es fr om at l east thr ee di ffer ent secti ons of the pi l e to gi ve a
representati ve sampl e.
COMMERCIAL AGGREGATES
I t i s preferabl e to obtai n sampl es of commerci al aggregates at the pl ant,
duri ng l oadi ng, from stockpi l es or bi ns. Obtai n separate sampl es at di fferent
ti mes whi l e the materi al i s bei ng l oaded, to determi ne vari ati ons i n the
gradi ng of the materi al . Take bi n sampl es from the enti re cross secti on of the
fl ow of materi al as i t i s bei ng di scharged. Testi ng separate sampl es gi ves a
better i dea of vari ati ons that occur, but sampl es shoul d be mi xed and reduced
by quarteri ng when the average condi ti on i s desi red. When i t i s not
practi cabl e to vi si t the pl ant to obtai n sampl es, the next preferred method i s to
sampl e the materi al i n cars or trucks or whi l e i t i s bei ng unl oaded. Take
rai l road-car sampl es from three or more trenches dug across the car at poi nts
that appear on the surface to be representati ve of the materi al . When
obtai ni ng the sampl e, remember that segregati on of the di fferent si zes has
probabl y taken pl ace and choose sampl es that are representati ve.
Laboratory tests conducted on bi tumi nous materi al s to check compl i ance wi th
speci fi cati ons are not consi dered fi el d tests. They are descri bed i n thi s secti on
for i nformati on purposes onl y. The fi el d tests di scussed i n thi s secti on are
l i mi ted to the bi tumen i denti fi cati on pr ocedur es, fl ash-poi nt tests, and
penetrati on tests. These tests are appl i cabl e to both tars and asphal ts and are
conducted to determi ne safe uses for a materi al .
Fi el d i denti fi cati on enabl es the mi l i tary engi neer to determi ne the type of
surface that can be constructed wi th the type and grade of materi al avai l abl e.
Wi th the type of surface known, the constructi on procedure may be outl i ned
and schedul ed. Thi s procedure wi l l then determi ne the proper equi pment and
the necessary safety procedures.
The aggregate materi al s must al so be tested for acceptabl e bi tumi nous
constructi on use.
BITUMEN FIELD-IDENTIFICATION TESTS
Perform fi el d tests to i denti fy the bi tumi nous pavi ng materi al s as asphal t
cement, asphal t cutback, asphal t emul si on, road tar, or RTCB. I n addi ti on,
i denti fy the vi scosi ty grade of the bi tumen. To di sti ngui sh among the several
asphal ti c and tar products, i t i s necessary to know somethi ng of thei r ori gi n,
physi cal properti es, and the manner i n whi ch they are normal l y used. Some
of thi s i nformati on i s contai ned i n Tables 3-3 and 3-4, pages 3-8 through 3-11.

SECTION III. FIELD IDENTIFICATION
The i denti fi cati on pr ocedur e outl i ned i n Figure 3-5 i s based on a consi derati on
of the physi cal pr operti es of these mater i al s.
Figure 3-5. Identification of unknown bituminous materials
Unknown bituminous materials
Solubility test
Dissolves
asphalt
Beads
emulsions
Strings
tar
Color test
Water-mixing test
Flame test
Stone-coating test
Will not mix
RS
Will mix
MS or SS
Pour test
Pour test
Will not pour
Asphalt cement
Will pour
Asphalt cutback
(Determine viscosity 30 - 3,000)
150-300
Soft
85-150
Med
40-85
Hard
1-3
RT
4-7
RT
8-12
RT
Tacky
RTCB
Oily
RT
Tacky
RC
Oily
MC or SC
Definite kerosene odor
MC
No odor
SC
Penetration test
Smear test
Smear test
Heat odor test
Ensure that al l tests are performed away from open fl ames and i n wel l -
venti l ated areas. Al so ensure that al l materi al s are properl y di sposed of
accordi ng to l ocal envi ronmental pol i cy.
ASPHALTS AND TARS
The fi rst procedure i n i denti fyi ng an unknown bi tumi nous materi al i s to
determi ne, by a sol ubi l i ty test, whether i t i s an asphal t or a tar. Attempt to
di ssol ve an unknown sampl e (a few drops, i f l i qui d, or enough to cover the
head of a nai l , i f sol i d) by sti rri ng i t i n any petrol eum di sti l l ate. Kerosene,
gasol i ne, di esel oi l , or jet fuel i s sui tabl e for thi s test. Si nce asphal t i s deri ved
from petrol eum, i t wi l l di ssol ve i n the petrol eum di sti l l ate. Road tar wi l l not
di ssol ve. I f the sampl e i s an asphal t, the sampl e di sti l l ate mi x wi l l consi st of a
dark, uni form l i qui d. Asphal t cements or cutbacks di ssol ve compl etel y.
Asphal t i n emul si ons i s al so di sti ngui shabl e as i t di ssol ves and forms bl ack
beads or gl obul es i n the bottom of the contai ner of di sti l l ate. A road-tar
sampl e wi l l be a dark, stri ngy, undi ssol ved mass i n the di sti l l ate. A check can
be made by spotti ng a pi ece of paper or cl oth wi th the mi x. Asphal t di ssol ved
i n di sti l l ate wi l l produce a brown to bl ack stai n. The cl ear di sti l l ate above the
settl ed tar wi l l not cause a stai n. The sol ubi l i ty test provi des a posi ti ve
method of i denti fi cati on.
ASPHALT CEMENT AND CUTBACKS
Perform the fol l owi ng procedure to determi ne i f the speci men i s an asphal t
cement or a cutback.
The vari ous grades of asphal t cement are sol i d at room temperature whi l e
cutbacks are l i qui d, and a pour test wi l l di sti ngui sh between them. Pl ace a
sampl e of the materi al i n a smal l contai ner and attempt to pour i t. I f the
materi al does not pour, i t i s an asphal t cement. I f i t pours, i t i s a cutback or
an emul si on. Note that at 77F even the softest asphal t cement wi l l not pour
or deform i f the contai ner i s ti l ted.
The vari ous grades of asphal t cement are di sti ngui shed pri nci pal l y by thei r
hardness, as measured by a fi el d penetrati on test. The i nformati on obtai ned
may be suffi ci ent for pl anni ng for or starti ng emergency constructi on. The
exact penetrati on grade i s not determi ned, but the fi el d test wi l l di sti ngui sh
between hard, medi um, or soft groups of asphal t cement. Perform the test by
pushi ng a sharpened penci l or nai l i nto the contai ner of asphal t (at about
77F) usi ng about 10 pounds of force. I f onl y a sl i ght penetrati on i s made wi th
consi derabl e di ffi cul ty, a hard asphal t cement i s present. I f the penetrati on i s
made wi th some di ffi cul ty, a medi um asphal t cement i s present. I f the
penetrati on i s made wi th ease, the asphal t cement i s a soft asphal t cement i n
the hi gh-penetrati on scal e. Even the hi ghest penetrati on wi l l not pour or
deform at 77F i f i ts contai ner i s ti l ted.
ASPHALTIC-CUTBACK TESTS
There are three tests used to determi ne the grade of an asphal ti c cutback:
Pour Test
As stated previ ousl y, an asphal t cement wi l l not pour at 77F, but a cutback
wi l l . The pour test can be used to determi ne whether the unknown materi al i s
an asphal t cutback. I f the materi al pours, i t i s an asphal t cutback. The
approxi mate vi scosi ty grade number of the cutback i s found by compari ng the
fl ow to wel l -known materi al s such as water, syrup, and others. I f thi s test i s
made at a temperature bel ow 77F, the materi al s wi l l appear more vi scous
(sti ff) than at 77F and the opposi te i f tested when warmer than 77F. The
cutbacks of a gi ven vi scosi ty grade wi l l pour i n a manner si mi l ar to the
fol l owi ng:
30water.
70l i ght syrup.
250syrup.
800mol asses.
3,000barel y deform.
After the pour test, the approxi mate vi scosi ty grade of the cutback i s known,
but the type (RC, MC, or SC) i s not.
Smear Test
Perform the smear test to determi ne i f a cutback i s an RC. Thi s i s done by
maki ng a uni form smear of the substance on a pi ece of gl azed paper or other
nonabsorbent surface. Vol ati l e materi al s, i f present, wi l l evaporate. Si nce RC
materi al s are cut back wi th a very vol ati l e substance, most of the vol ati l es wi l l
evaporate wi thi n 10 mi nutes. The surface of the smear then becomes
extremel y tacky. Thi s i s not true of the l i ghter grades (MC and SC), whi ch
remai n fl ui d and smooth for some ti me. An MC wi l l not resul t i n a tacky
surface for a matter of hours. SC materi al s may requi re several days.
Perform a prol onged smear test to i denti fy an 800- or 3,000-grade MC or SC
cutback. Thi s i s necessary because these grades contai n such smal l quanti ti es
of cutter stock that they may become tacky i n the 10-mi nute per i od speci fi ed
above. Pl ace a thi n smear of the materi al on a nonabsorbent surface and l et i t
cure for at l east 2 hours. By the end of that ti me, i f the materi al bei ng tested
i s not an MC or SC, the smear wi l l be hard or just sl i ghtl y sti cky. However, i f
the materi al bei ng tested i s an MC or SC, the smear wi l l be uncured and sti l l
qui te sti cky. I f the materi al i s an RC-3,000, i t wi l l cure compl etel y i n 3 hours,
whereas an RC-800 wi l l take about 6 hours to cure. Even after 24 hours, an
MC or SC wi l l sti l l be sti cky.
Heat-Odor Test
The mai n di fference between MC materi al and SC materi al i s that the MC
materi al i s cut back wi th kerosene and the SC wi th di esel or a l ow-vol ati l i ty
oi l cl ass. I n thi s test, appl y heat to the sampl e to dri ve off the kerosene, i f i t i s
pr esent, and make i t show up i n the for m of an odor. Heat the unknown
sampl e i n a cl osed contai ner to capture the escapi ng vapors, usi ng mi ni mal
heat. An MC sampl e wi l l have a strong petrol eum or kerosene odor. An SC
sampl e wi l l have no kerosene or petrol eum odor but may have a fai nt odor of
hot motor oi l . The abi l i ty to di fferenti ate between the RC, the MC, and the SC
i s an essenti al part of fi el d i denti fi cati on.
ASPHALT-EMULSION (ANIONIC) TESTS
Another asphal ti c materi al used i n pavi ng i s asphal t emul si on, whi ch i s a
mi xture of asphal t, water, and an emul si fyi ng agent. The ani oni c emul si ons
speci fi cati ons cover three types of asphal t emul si onRS grades 1 and 2, MS
grade 2, and SS grades 1 and LH.
Solubility Test
The sol ubi l i ty test wi l l make an emul si ons i denti ty known by formi ng i nto
gl obul es or beads that fal l to the bottom of the contai ner of petrol eum
di sti l l ate. Duri ng thi s test, the emul si on wi l l present a di sti ncti ve dark brown
col or whi l e al l other bi tumi nous materi al s are bl ack.
Water-Mixing Test
I f mi xed wi th water, an emul si on wi l l accept the extra water and sti l l remai n a
uni form l i qui d. The sampl e and water wi l l mi x uni forml y i f the materi al i s an
emul si on. Thi s test i s posi ti ve si nce no other bi tumi nous materi al wi l l mi x
wi th water.
Flame Test
Si nce an emul si on contai ns water, a smal l pi ece of cl oth satur ated wi th i t wi l l
not burn i f a fl ame i s appl i ed. The other bi tumens wi l l burn or fl ame.
Stone-Coating Test
After establ i shi ng that the materi al i s an emul si on, determi ne whether the
emul si on i s a mi xi ng grade (MS or SS) or a nonmi xi ng grade (RS). Mi x a
smal l amount (6 to 8 percent by wei ght) wi th damp sand usi ng a metal spoon.
Exerci se care not to add so much emul si on to the sand as to saturate i t. An RS
emul si on wi l l break so qui ckl y i t wi l l not be possi bl e to mi x i t wi th sand. I t
breaks i mmedi atel y, gummi ng up the spoon wi th the rel ati vel y hard ori gi nal
asphal t cement. On the other hand, i f the sampl e i s a MS or SS emul si on, the
materi al wi l l mi x easi l y and coat al l the parti cl es compl etel y (as wel l as the
mi xi ng spoon) wi th a uni form coati ng of asphal t.
ROAD-TAR TESTS
There are three tests for road tarsthe sol ubi l i ty test, the pour test, and the
smear test.
Solubility Test
As determi ned earl i er, i f the unknown bi tumi nous materi al does not di ssol ve
duri ng the sol ubi l i ty test but forms a stri ngy mass, the materi al i s a tar (see
Figure 3-5, page 3-15). The next step i s to deter mi ne i ts vi scosi ty grade.
Pour Test
By compari ng the fl ow of the materi al to that of common materi al s (see Figure
3-3, page 3-6), the vi scosi ty of the tar may be cl osel y esti mated. The grades
run from RT-1 to RT-12 and vary i n consi stency from very fl ui d to sol i d.
Smear Test
I f, duri ng the pour test, the i denti fi ed tar seems to be i n the range of an RT-4
to RT-7 materi al , perform a smear test to determi ne whether i t i s a road tar or
an RTCB. Perform the smear test i n the manner previ ousl y descri bed for
cutback asphal t. The materi al i s a road tar i f the materi al remai ns wi th the
same amount of sti cki ness. I f i t shows a great i ncrease i n sti cki ness i n 10
mi nutes, i t i s an RTCB. I f fi el d i denti fi cati on yi el ds a grade of about 5 or 6, i t
i s not of parti cul ar i mportance speci fi cal l y whi ch grade of cutback i t i s si nce
both are used under approxi matel y the same condi ti ons.
AGGREGATE IDENTIFICATION AND SELECTION
I denti fy the aggregate by shape or roughness, hardness, cl eanl i ness,
hydrophobi ci ty, gradati on, and parti cl e si ze. Sel ect aggregate wi th the best
combi nati on of these characteri sti cs. Al so consi der the avai l abi l i ty, l ength of
haul , and overburden.
SHAPE AND ROUGHNESS
The aggregate i n a pavement must transmi t the traffi c l oad to the base,
usual l y by the i nterl ocki ng of the parti cl es. Thi s i nterl ocki ng i s much more
pronounced when the parti cl es are angul ar i n shape and rough i n surface
texture. I f angul ar pi eces of aggregate are i n a pavement, the i ndi vi dual
parti cl es wi l l not sl i p or sl i de over one another, but wi l l l ock together.
However, more bi nder may be requi red si nce the angul ar shape has a greater
surface area per uni t vol ume than a round parti cl e. Al though angul ar
parti cl es are desi red, the aggregate shoul d not contai n an excessi ve number of
fl at or el ongated par ti cl es, as these par ti cl es cause bri dgi ng, thereby maki ng
compacti on di ffi cul t.
Aggregates very sel dom occur i n nature as angul ar, so i t i s necessary i n most
cases to crush the aggregate to obtai n the desi red angul ar parti cl es.
HARDNESS AND DURABILITY
The aggregate must be abl e to wi thstand the appl i ed l oads wi thout cracki ng
or bei ng crushed. Resi stance to weatheri ng i s al so a functi on of the durabi l i ty.
An aggregate's resi stance to wear can be determi ned by the Los Angel es
abrasi on test. The Mohs hardness scal e may be used to determi ne the
hardness of the aggregate. Thi s scal e i s ful l y expl ai ned i n FM 5-410. I t
ranges from 1 for tal c or mi ca to 10 for di amond. By tryi ng to scratch the
aggregate or the common materi al , i t i s possi bl e to establ i sh whi ch i s harder;
thi s determi nes the hardness of the aggregate. I f both are scratched, the
hardness of both i s the same. Rub the scratch mark to see that i t i s real l y a
scratch and not a powderi ng of the softer materi al . Some common materi al s
and thei r approxi mate l evel of hardness are as fol l ows:
Fi ngernai l 2.0.
Copper coi n3.5.
Kni fe bl ade5. 0.
Wi ndow gl ass5.5.
Steel fi l e6.5.
CLEANLINESS
The bi tumi nous bi nder must penetrate i nto the pores of the aggregate and
al so adhere to the surface of the parti cl es. Aggregates coated wi th cl ay or dust
or havi ng water-fi l l ed pores prevent the penetrati on or the adherence of
bi tumen and resul t i n stri ppi ng of the bi nder. I f the aggregate i s not cl ean, i t
shoul d be washed, ei ther as part of the crushi ng operati on or by spreadi ng i t
on a hard surface and hosi ng i t wi th water. When washi ng i s i mpracti cal , dry
screeni ng may remove a great deal of dust and cl ay. Handpi cki ng may have to
be done i f no other method can be used. The aggregate shoul d be made as
cl ean as possi bl e wi th the equi pment and manpower avai l abl e.
HYDROPHOBICITY
Affi ni ty for water can make an aggregate undesi rabl e. I f the aggregate i s
porous and absorbs water easi l y, the bi nder can be forced out of the pores, the
bond between the aggregate and bi nder can weaken and break, and stri ppi ng
can occur. Stri ppi ng i s the l oss of bi tumi nous coati ng from the aggregate
parti cl es due to the acti on of water, l eavi ng exposed aggregate surfaces. One
of the fol l owi ng tests can be used to deter mi ne the detri mental effect of water
on a bi tumi nous mi x:
The stri ppi ng test.
The swel l test.
The i mmersi on-compressi on test.
Stripping Test (ASTM D 1664-80)
Prepare a test sampl e by coati ng a 100-gram aggregate sampl e wi th
bi tumi nous materi al at the ri ght temperature for the grade of bi tumen to be
used. Spread the mi xture i n a l oose, thi n l ayer and ai r-cure i t for 24 hours.
Pl ace a representati ve sampl e i n a jar (no more than hal f ful l ) and cover i t
wi th water. Cl ose the jar ti ghtl y and al l ow i t to stand 24 hours. At the end of
24 hours, vi gorousl y shake the jar wi th the sampl e for 15 mi nutes. Make a
vi sual exami nati on to determi ne the percentage of exposed aggregate surface
and report i t as the percent of stri ppi ng.
Swell Test
Asphal ti c mi xtures contai ni ng fi nes of doubtful qual i ty are someti mes
measured for swel l as a basi s for judgi ng the possi bl e effects on a pavement.
Thi s test i s more frequentl y used wi th dense-graded mi xtures usi ng
emul si fi ed and cutback asphal ts. Compact a sampl e of the mi x i n a metal
cyl i nder (usual l y 100 mi l l i meters i n di ameter), and cool i t to room
temperature. Obtai n a hei ght measurement for the speci men. Pl ace the
speci men and mol d i n a pan of water, and mount a di al gauge above the
sampl e i n contact wi th the surface. Take an i ni ti al readi ng. Al l ow the
speci men to soak for a speci fi ed peri od (usual l y 24 hours) or unti l there i s no
further swel l i ng. Take another di al readi ng. The di fference i n readi ngs,
di vi ded by the ori gi nal hei ght and expressed i n percent, i s the swel l of the
mi xture. Experi ence has shown that bi tumi nous pavement made wi th cl ear,
sound stone; sl ag; or gravel aggregate and mi neral fi l l er produced from
l i mestone wi l l show test val ues of swel l of l ess than 1.5 percent of the ori gi nal
speci men thi ckness.
Immersion-Compression Test (ASTM D 1075-88)
Thi s test i s i ntended to measure the l oss of Marshal l stabi l i ty resul ti ng from
the acti on of water on compacted bi tumi nous mi xtures contai ni ng
penetrati on-grade asphal t. The resul t i s a numeri cal i ndex of reduced
stabi l i ty obtai ned by compari ng the Marshal l stabi l i ty wi th the stabi l i ty of
speci mens that have been i mmersed i n water for a prescri bed peri od. Prepare
si x standard Marshal l speci mens (4 i nches i n di ameter and 2 1/2 1/16 i nches
hi gh) for each test. Determi ne the speci fi c gravi ty of each speci men. Separate
the set of ei ght i nto two sets of four so that the average speci fi c gr avi ty of one
set i s essenti al l y the same as the other. Test one set usi ng the Marshal l
method. I mmerse the other set i n water (at 140F 1) for 24 hours and then
test i t. Compute the resul t as a rati o of soaked stabi l i ty to unsoaked stabi l i ty,
and express i t as a percentage as fol l ows:
where
S
1
=average stability of unsoaked specimens
S
2
=average stability of soaked specimens
Mi xes wi th an i ndex of l ess than 75 percent are rejected or an approved
method of processi ng aggregate and treati ng asphal t i s requi red to i ncrease
the i ndex to a mi ni mum of 75 percent.
GRADATION
The fol l owi ng desi gnati ons hel p i denti fy aggregates:
Uni form gradati on occurs when al l parti cl es are about the same si ze,
normal l y l ess than 1 i nch.
Macadam gradati on consi sts of uni forml y si zed parti cl es except that
they are i n excess of 1 i nch.
Open gradati on i nvol ves a consi derabl e range of parti cl e si ze, from
l arge to smal l , usual l y contai ni ng l i ttl e or no mi neral fi l l er. The voi d
spaces i n the compacted aggregate are rel ati vel y l arge.
Dense gradati on occurs when there i s a good representati on of al l
parti cl e si zes and coarse, fi ne, and mi neral fi l l ers.
PARTICLE SIZE
I n bi tumi nous constructi on, i t i s common practi ce to desi gnate aggregates
accordi ng to parti cl e si ze. There are three types of desi gnati ons under thi s
system, based on two si eve si zesNo. 4 and No. 200.
Coarse aggregate i s al l materi al too l arge to pass the No. 4 si eve (see
ASTM D 692-88).
index or reduced stability
S
2
S
1
----- 100 =
Fi ne aggregate passes the No. 4 si eve but i s retai ned on the No. 200
si eve. I n bi tumi nous pavi ng, the fi ne aggregate i s usual l y a sand, but
smal l pi eces of crushed rock may be used (see ASTM D 1073-88).
Mi neral fi l l er or mi neral dust refers to al l nonpl asti c materi al s whi ch
pass the No. 200 si eve. Most cl ays are too pl asti c and are not used.
General l y, crushed rock dust, agri cul tural mi neral fi l l er, l i me, or
portl and cement may be used as the mi neral fi l l er (see ASTM D 546-
88).
The fi el d-i denti fi cati on tests on bi tumens i denti fy the materi al duri ng
expedi ent condi ti ons or unti l more detai l ed tests can be performed. The
i denti fi cati on determi nes whether the materi al i s an asphal t or a tar and
whether i t i s a cutback or an emul si on.
Bi tumi nous materi al s are manufactured to meet speci fi cati ons establ i shed by
the federal government, the AASHTO, and the ASTM. These speci fi cati ons
defi ne the extreme l i mi ts permi tted i n the manufacture of the materi al and
assure the user that the materi al wi l l possess defi ni te characteri sti cs and
ful fi l l the project requi rements. Conformi ng to speci fi cati ons tests i ncl udes
determi ni ng the materi al s speci fi c gravi ty, sol ubi l i ty, anal ysi s by di sti l l ati on,
and softeni ng poi nt. The equi pment for performi ng these tests i s not i ncl uded
i n the asphal t test set and i s not normal l y avai l abl e to the materi al s
techni ci an. However, these tests are descri bed for i nformati on and, when the
equi pment i s avai l abl e, to i denti fy the materi al beyond fi el d i denti fi cati on, to
furni sh i nformati on for mi x desi gn, or to establ i sh safe-handl i ng procedures.
SPECIFIC-GRAVITY TEST (ASTMS C 127-88 AND C 128-93)
Speci fi c gravi ty of a bi tumi nous materi al i s defi ned as the rati o of the wei ght
of a gi ven vol ume of the materi al at 77F to the wei ght of an equal vol ume of
di sti l l ed water at the same temperature. The resul ts of a bi tumens speci fi c-
gravi ty test are used i n the sel ecti on of the temperature-vol ume-wei ght
correcti on factor to convert vol umes to vol ume at 77F. Space i s provi ded on
DD Form 1216 to make thi s determi nati on (see Figure 3-6). Wei gh an empty
pycnometer (speci fi c-gravi ty bottl e), fi l l i t wi th water, then rewei gh. Empty
the water from the bottl e and add the bi tumen. Wei gh the pycnometer and
bi tumen. Add water to the same l evel as the start of the test and wei gh the
enti re combi nati on. Fol l ow the procedure outl i ned on the form to compute the
wei ght of water di spl aced by the bi tumen and the bi tumen's apparent speci fi c
gravi ty. The speci fi c gravi ty of asphal t cements wi l l usual l y be i n the range of
1.00 to 1.06, wi th the hi gher val ues bei ng characteri sti c of the harder
materi al s. The speci fi c gravi ty of an asphal t has l i ttl e beari ng on qual i ty or
other pr operti es of the asphal t. However, the speci fi c gr avi ty i s needed for
other tests and computati ons. I t i s needed to adjust the speci fi c gravi ty of the
water bath i n the ducti l i ty test. I n acceptance and control testi ng on a job, i t
i s used as a check on the uni formi ty of succeedi ng shi pments of asphal t.

SECTION IV. BITUMEN TESTING

S
A
M
P
L
E
FLASH-POINT AND FIRE-POINT TESTS
These tests are appl i cabl e to asphal ti c materi al s and are of some use i n
i denti fyi ng these materi al s. Thei r greatest useful ness, however, i s i n
determi ni ng safe heati ng temperatures. Materi al heated above i ts fl ash poi nt
presents a real danger, parti cul arl y i f i t i s exposed to an open fl ame.
FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT BY CLEVELAND OPEN CUP
Perform thi s test on al l petrol eum products except fuel oi l s and those havi ng
open-cup fl ash poi nts above 175F.
Equipment
Use the fol l owi ng equi pment for thi s test:
The fl ash-poi nt apparatus (see Figure 3-7).
A kni fe.
A fryi ng pan or copper beaker.
A hot pl ate.
A stopwatch.
Figure 3-7. Flash-point apparatus; Cleveland open cup
Steps
Perform thi s test away from any bri ght l i ght or shi el d the apparatus, i f
necessary. Cl ean the cup thoroughl y before starti ng. Heat the bi tumi nous
materi al unti l i t i s fl ui d enough to pour i nto the cup. Do not move or di sturb
the cup and i ts contents wi thi n the l ast 30 before the expected fl ash poi nt i s
r eached. Prevent ai r movement or dr afts acr oss the speci mens sur face.
Per for m the fol l owi ng steps:
Step 1. Set up the open-cup apparatus.
Step 2. Adjust the thermometer i n a verti cal posi ti on, 1/4 i nch above the
bottom of the cup and about mi dway between the center and back of the cup.
Step 3. Fi l l the cup wi th the heated materi al unti l the top of the meni scus i s
exactl y at the fi l l l i ne. Let the materi al cool .
Step 4. Appl y heat to the cup so the speci mens temperature i s rai sed at a rate
of 25 to 30 per mi nute unti l a temperature of about 100 bel ow the probabl e
fl ash poi nt i s reached.
Step 5. Reduce the heat and adjust i t so that for the l ast 50 before the
expected fl ash poi nt the temperature ri se wi l l be not l ess than 9 and not more
than 11 per mi nute. Use the stopwatch to regul ate thi s rate. Fai l ure to set
the rate of ri se between these l i mi ts wi l l resul t i n i naccurate readi ngs.
Step 6. Adjust a test fl ame to 1/8 to 3/16 i nch i n di ameter, the si ze of the
compari son bead i f one i s mounted on the apparatus.
Step 7. Start at l east 50 bel ow the expected fl ash poi nt and pass the test
fl ame i n a strai ght l i ne across the center of the cup at ri ght angl es to the
thermometer and l evel to the upper edge of the cup. The ti me for each pass
shoul d be no more than 1 second. Repeat the test-fl ame pass for each
successi ve 5. The fl ash poi nt i s reached when a fl ash (di sti nct fl i cker)
appears at any poi nt on the surface of the materi al . Read the thermometer at
thi s ti me and record the temperature as the fl ash poi nt.
Step 8. Conti nue heati ng at the same rate and appl yi ng the test fl ame at the
same i nterval unti l the oi l i gni tes and conti nues to burn for at l east 5 seconds.
Record the temperature at thi s poi nt as the fi re poi nt.
Results
Dupl i cate tests on the same mater i al by the same operator shoul d not di ffer by
more than 15. Resul ts by di fferent l aboratori es shoul d be consi dered suspect
i f the fl ash poi nts di ffer by more than 30 and the fi re poi nts di ffer by more
than 25.
FLASH POINT BY TAG OPEN CUP (ASTM D 4552-87)
Perform thi s test on RC- and MC-asphal t cutbacks havi ng a fl ash poi nt bel ow
200F.
Equipment
A fl ash-poi nt tester.
A tag open cup (see Figure 3-8).
A hot pl ate.
A thermometer (20 to 230F i n 1 di vi si ons).
A torch or test fl ame.
Steps
Set up the tester i n a draft-free and di ml y-l i t l ocati on. Fi l l the copper water
bath to 1/8 i nch bel ow the top of the gl ass cup (when the top i s i n pl ace). The
bath may have an overfl ow to control the water l evel . Cl ean and dry the gl ass
cup and assembl e the water bath. Perform the fol l owi ng steps:
Step 1. Pl ace the thermometer verti cal l y mi dway between the center and the
outer edge of the cup and di ametri cal l y across from the gui de wi re. Set the
bottom of the bul b about 1/4 i nch above the bottom of the gl ass cup.
Step 2. Fi l l the gl ass cup wi th the sampl e to 5/16 i nch bel ow the edge.
Step 3. Pl ace the gui de wi r e i n posi ti on, touchi ng the r i m of the gl ass cup.
Figure 3-8. Flash-point apparatus; tag open cup
Step 4. Adjust the heat for the sampl e temperature to ri se at 2 1/2 per
mi nute. Sti r thi cker materi al occasi onal l y.
Step 5. Adjust the test fl ame to not greater than 5/32 i nch i n di ameter, the
si ze of the compari son bead i f one i s mounted on the apparatus. (Some
i nstruments have a 5/32-i nch hol e i n compari son i nstead of the bead.)
Step 6. Remove any bubbl es that may have formed on the surface before
starti ng the fl ame test.
Step 7. Pass the fl ame at successi ve 2 i nterval s; pass the fl ame across the
sampl e i n a conti nuous moti on, maki ng each pass l ast 1 second.
Step 8. Record as the fl ash poi nt the temperature at the ti me the test-fl ame
appl i cati on causes a di sti nct fl ash i n the i nteri or of the cup.
Step 9. Repeat the test usi ng a fresh sampl e and starti ng at l east 20 bel ow
the previ ousl y determi ned fl ash poi nt.
Results
The resul ts of two properl y conducted tests by the same operator on the same
asphal t shoul d not di ffer by more than 18F. The resul ts of two properl y
conducted tests from two di fferent sampl es of the same asphal t shoul d not
di ffer by more than 27F.
PENETRATION TEST (ASTM D 5-86)
The penetrati on test deter mi nes the grade of an asphal t cement. Penetrati on
i s defi ned as the di stance that a standard needl e verti cal l y penetrates a
sampl e of the materi al under standard condi ti ons of ti me (5 seconds),
temperature (77F), and l oadi ng (100 grams). The uni ts of penetrati on are
hundredths of a centi meter. Other condi ti ons of temperature, l oad, and ti me
that are used for speci al testi ng are gi ven.
EQUIPMENT
A hot-water bath.
A copper beaker or fryi ng pan.
A stai nl ess-steel box.
An el ectri c hot pl ate.
A si eve pan, 8-i nch di ameter.
An asphal t-testi ng penetr ometer (see Figure 3-9, page 3-28).
A thermometer (66 to 80F).
A stopwatch.

STEPS
The descri bed test depends on the water bath bei ng mai ntai ned as cl osel y as
possi bl e to the standard temperature of 77F. Si nce the penetrati on of an
asphal t cement vari es wi th temperature, mai ntai n the bath at 77F. I f thi s i s
i mpracti cal or l ess accuracy i s acceptabl e, perform the test wi th the sampl e at
room temperature. Perform the fol l owi ng steps:
Step 1. Mel t the sampl e at the l owest possi bl e temperature, usi ng the el ectri c
hot pl ate and fryi ng pan or copper beaker. Sti r thoroughl y unti l the sampl e i s
homogeneous and free of ai r bubbl es.
Step 2. Pour the sampl e i nto the sampl e contai ner (moi sture-content box) to a
depth of not l ess than 1.38 i nch for the harder grades and 1.77 i nch for the
softer grades. Protect the sampl e from dust and al l ow i t to cool i n an
atmosphere not l ower than 65F for 1 hour.
Step 3. Pl ace the sampl e i n i ts contai ner i n the si eve pan (or any other smal l ,
fl at-bottomed pan or contai ner that i s 2 i nches deep). I mmerse the pan and
sampl e for 1 hour i n the water bath mai ntai ned at 77F.
Step 4. Keep the sampl e i n the pan fi l l ed wi th water from the water bath.
The water shoul d compl etel y cover the sampl e contai ner to mai ntai n the
temperature duri ng the test. Pl ace the transfer di sh contai ni ng the sampl e i n
i ts contai ner and the water on the stand of the penetrometer.
Step 5. Adjust the needl e to make contact wi th the sampl es surface of the
sampl e. Pl ace a l i ght i n a posi ti on so that the actual needl e poi nt and i ts
i mage refl ected on the speci mens surface are cl earl y defi ned. Contact may be
judged wi th the poi nt and i ts i mage touch on the surface.
Step 6. Note the readi ng of the di al or bri ng the i ndi cator on the di al to zero.
Figure 3-9. Asphalt penetrometer
Step 7. Rel ease the needl e for a peri od of 5 seconds. Read the di stance
penetrated on the thermometer. The needl e and pl unger ar e desi gned to have
a standard wei ght of 100 grams. The di al i s di vi ded i nto 38 major di vi si ons,
each marked i n 10 smal l er subdi vi si ons. Each of the smal l er subdi vi si ons
represents a penetrati on by the needl e of 1/100 centi meter. Thus, readi ngs on
the di al gi ve penetrati on val ues wi thout conversi on.
Step 8. Test at l east three poi nts on the surface not l ess than 3/8 i nch from the
si de of the contai ner and not l ess than 3/8 i nch apart. After each test, return
the sampl e and pan to the water bath and careful l y wi pe the needl e toward i ts
poi nt wi th a cl ean, dry cl oth to remove al l adheri ng asphal t.
RESULTS
The r epor ted penetr ati on i s the average of at l east thr ee tests whose val ues do
not di ffer by more than amounts shown i n Table 3-5.
The penetrati on test, as poi nted out previ ousl y, i s used to cl assi fy asphal t
cements for purchasi ng and i denti fyi ng purposes, but i t has other uses as wel l .
I t can be used to detect overheati ng or prol onged heati ng of asphal ts i n
storage tanks. Al so, when an asphal t i s extracted from a pavement, the
penetrati on test affords a means of esti mati ng how the asphal t has changed
wi th ti me and weatheri ng.
DUCTILITY TEST
I n the ducti l i ty test, dumbbel l -shaped speci mens of asphal t are mol ded under
standard condi ti ons. The dumbbel l -shaped speci mens are condi ti oned i n a
water bath to standard temperature (usual l y 77F) then extended at the rate
of 5 centi meters per mi nute unti l the threads connecti ng the two ends break.
The di ffer ence i n centi meter s between the fi nal l ength at the break and the
ori gi nal l ength i s the ducti l i ty.
The ducti l i ty test i s hel pful i n esti mati ng an asphal ts abi l i ty to resi st cracki ng
and ravel i ng. Hi gh-ducti l i ty asphal ts have greater fl exi bi l i ty and tenaci ty.
Conversel y, l ow-ducti l i ty asphal ts are consi dered more l i kel y to crack under
heavy l oads or severe changes i n temperature. Ducti l i ty i s affected by vari ous
factors, such as method of refi ni ng and consi stency. Bl own asphal ts (asphal ts
that have been hardened by bl owi ng ai r through them, whi ch causes
oxi dati on) have l ow ducti l i ty. Thi s i s one reason why they are not used as
pavi ng asphal ts. Wi thi n the group of asphal ts produced by steam and vacuum
di sti l l ati on, ducti l i ty wi l l vary accordi ng to the consi stency at a gi ven
temperature. Note that the ducti l i ty test i s al so sensi ti ve to other factors,
such as i mperfecti ons i n the speci mens or i mpuri ti es such as mi neral fi l l er i n
a sampl e of asphal t recovered from a pavement.
Table 3-5. Penetration results
Penetration 0 to 49 50 to 149 150 to 249 250
Maximum difference
between highest and
lowest determination
2 4 6 8
SOFTENING-POINT TEST
For the softeni ng-poi nt test, posi ti on a 3/8-i nch-di ameter steel bal l on a brass
ri ng fi l l ed wi th asphal t. Pl ace the assembl y i n the beaker contai ni ng freshl y
boi l ed, di sti l l ed water and heat i t sl owl y. As the asphal t becomes warmer, i t
begi ns to soften, and the wei ght of the bal l forces the asphal t out of the ri ng.
Record the temperature at whi ch the asphal t touches the bottom of the beaker
as the softeni ng poi nt.
The softeni ng poi nt i s another consi stency test and vari es i nversel y wi th the
penetrati on test. Li ke the penetrati on test, the softeni ng-poi nt test can be used
to determi ne changes i n an asphal t due to excessi vel y hi gh or prol onged
heati ng. An abnormal i ncrease i n the softeni ng poi nt i s an i ndi cati on of
excessi ve heati ng. The softeni ng-poi nt test i s used i n studi es on asphal ts
recovered from pavements after extended servi ce to determi ne effects of agi ng.
I f an asphal t shows an unusual i ncrease i n softeni ng poi nt, consi derabl e agi ng
and hardeni ng have occurred.
VISCOSITY TESTS
There are two vi scosi ty tests for i denti fyi ng the qual i ti es of bi tumenthe
Saybol t-Furor test and the ki nemati c-vi scosi ty test.
SAYBOLT-FUROR TEST (ASTM D 244-89)
Thi s test measures the ti me, i n seconds, requi red to pass 60 cubi c centi meters of
asphal t-emul si on materi al , at a gi ven temperature, through a tube of standard
di mensi ons. I ts purpose i s to determi ne the vi scosi ty of the materi al from whi ch
the sprayi ng temperatures are establ i shed for fi el d appl i cati on of the bi tumen.
KINEMATIC-VISCOSITY TEST (ASTM D 2170-85)
Thi s test, l i ke the Saybol t-Furor test, measures the ti me that a gi ven amount
of l i qui d-asphal t materi al wi l l fl ow through a tube of standard di mensi ons
under ri gi dl y control l ed condi ti ons of temperature and pressure (or vacuum).
The test establ i shes the vi scosi ty of the l i qui d and, when correl ated wi th the
speci fi c gravi ty of the materi al at the same temperature, resul ts i n a
numeri cal desi gnati on cal l ed ki nemati c vi scosi ty. The uni ts used for
ki nemati c vi scosi ty are stokes (square centi meters per second) or centi stokes
(1/100 stoke). The ki nemati c-vi scosi ty test requi res speci al l aboratory
equi pment that i s not avai l abl e i n the fi el d.
SOLUBILITY TEST (ASTM D 2042-81)
The sol ubi l i ty of asphal t cement can be determi ned usi ng tri chl oroethyl ene.
Tri chl oroethyl ene i s toxi c; therefore, protecti ve equi pment (i ncl udi ng a
venti l ator, protecti ve goggl es, and protecti ve gl oves) must be worn whi l e usi ng
i t. Tri chl oroethyl ene waste i s a hazardous waste and must be di sposed of as
such. Consul t your i nstal l ati on envi ronmental offi ce for further gui dance as
to safe handl i ng and di sposal of tri chl oroethyl ene.
Di ssol ve 2 grams of the sampl e i n 100 mi l l i l i ters of sol vent. Pour the mi xture
i nto a tared Gooch cruci bl e and wash i t through. Dry and wei gh the cruci bl e.
The i ncrease i n the cruci bl es wei ght i s the porti on of the sampl e that i s
i nsol ubl e i n the sol vent.
The sol ubi l i ty test i s a qual i ty-control test used i n speci fi cati ons to ensure
getti ng an asphal t cement that i s not contami nated wi th mi neral matter or i s
not i mproperl y refi ned.
SPOT TEST
The spot test (often cal l ed the Ol i ensi s spot test) i s a sol ubi l i ty test that takes
advantage of the sel ecti ve sol vent acti on of certai n hydrocarbons; usual l y
standard naphtha i s speci fi ed. The test i s appl i cabl e onl y to petrol eum
asphal ts and shoul d not be appl i ed to natural asphal ts contai ni ng
nonbi tumi nous matter i nsol ubl e i n xyl ene.
Di ssol ve a 2-gram sampl e of asphal t i n 10 mi l l i l i ters of naphtha. Thoroughl y
sti r the mi xture wi th a sti rri ng rod. Pl ace a drop of the asphal t and sol vent on
a pi ece of Whatman No. 50 fi l ter paper. Exami ne the fi l ter paper after 5
mi nutes. I f the drop forms a yel l owi sh-brown stai n wi th a darker nucl eus, the
test i s posi ti ve. I f the stai n i s uni forml y brown, the test i s negati ve. I n the
l atter case, stopper the sampl e and set i t asi de for 24 hours, then repeat the
test. I f the stai n wi th the darker nucl eus agai n devel ops, the test i s posi ti ve
and i s so reported. A negati ve resul t i s an i ndi cati on that the asphal t sampl e
i s a homogeneous materi al . A posi ti ve resul t may i ndi cate that the sampl e i s
not a homogeneous materi al . A negati ve resul t i s regarded as favorabl e to the
sampl e; a posi ti ve resul t i s unfavorabl e and may be used to reject the asphal t.
Consi derabl e i mportance i s attached to the spot test by some asphal t
technol ogi sts and pavi ng engi neers. I t i s rel i ed on pri nci pal l y as a means of
detecti ng a cracked asphal t, whi ch i s a nonhomogeneous materi al not
regarded as a good pavi ng asphal t. The test can al so be used to detect an
asphal t that has been overheated or coked. Overheati ng or coki ng can occur
i n storage tanks or when the asphal t i s added to aggregate that i s too hot. I n
such cases, the asphal t i s no l onger a homogeneous substance, and the spot
test wi l l often show a nonuni form (posi ti ve) stai n.
THIN-FILM OVEN TEST (ASTM D 1754-87)
The thi n-fi l m oven test was devel oped to overcome the defi ci enci es of the
standard l oss-on-heati ng test. The test uses the same oven as the l oss-on-
heati ng test except for a modi fi cati on of the rotati ng shel f. The test has the
same peri od and temperature of heati ng (5 hours at 325F). The si gni fi cant
di fference i s i n the sampl e. I nstead of the 50-gram sampl e i n a 3-ounce
oi ntment can, a 1/8-i nch-thi ck l ayer of asphal t i s poured i nto a wi de, shal l ow,
ci rcul ar al umi num di sh. The di sh has a fl at bottom and i s 5 1/2 i nches i n
di ameter and 3/8 i nch deep. Wei gh the sampl e before and after the heati ng
peri od and compute the l oss i n wei ght. A penetrati on or vi scosi ty test may
al so be conducted on the sampl e after the heati ng peri od to eval uate changes
i n the asphal t.
The aggr egate tr ansmi ts the l oad, takes the abr asi ve wear of traffi c, and
pr ovi des a nonski d sur face. Desi r ed aggr egate character i sti cs i ncl ude
angul ar shape, r ough sur face, har dness, and gr adati on. Some of these

SECTION V. AGGREGATE AND FILLER TESTING
char acter i sti cs (such as shape, sur face, and cl eanl i ness) ar e deter mi ned
vi sual l y. Dur abi l i ty and har dness cannot be seen but r equi re knowl edge
based ei ther on exper i ence or some for m of abr asi on testi ng. Rocks that soak
up water wi l l eventual l y r each the condi ti on wher e the bi nder i s forced fr om
the surface pores and the cementi ng acti on breaks down. Gr adati on may be
establ i shed to some extent by observati on. However, the gr ai n-si ze
di str i buti on (si eve) tests wi l l defi ne the par ti cl e si zes and amounts much
mor e accur atel y.
I n bi tumi nous pavi ng, the aggr egate consti tutes the bul k of the pavement.
Common pr acti ce subdi vi des the bi tumi nous aggr egates i nto a coar se
aggr egate, a fi ne aggr egate, and a mi ner al fi l l er. The No. 10 si eve separ ates
coar se from fi ne aggr egate, and the No. 200 si eve si ze i s the l ower l i mi t for
fi ne aggr egate. Usual l y 65 per cent or mor e of the mi ner al fi l l er wi l l pass the
No. 200 si eve. The di str i buti on of the di ffer ent si zes determi nes how many
voi ds wi l l r emai n and hel ps deter mi ne how much bi tumen wi l l be needed.
Bi tumi nous pavement speci fi cati ons defi ne acceptabl e gr adati on l i mi ts. The
bi tumen content for the mi x i s then deter mi ned fr om the tr i al -mi x proper ti es
that ar e defi ned i n the speci fi cati ons.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
A si eve anal ysi s of the aggr egates to be used i n a pavi ng mi xtur e i s r equi red to
determi ne the parti cl e-si ze di stri buti on.
MINERAL FILLER (ASTM D 242-85)
I n bi tumi nous pavi ng, parti cl es fi ner than the No. 200 si eve are referred to as
a mi neral fi l l er. To measure the amount of fi l l er i n a sel ected sampl e, perform
a washed si eve anal ysi s usi ng the No. 40 and No. 200 si eves. Di scard the
mater i al that has passed the No. 200 si eve, then r etur n the mater i al on the
si eves to the ori gi nal washed sampl e, oven-dry i t, and wei gh i t. The amount of
mi neral fi l l er i s computed as
FINE AND COARSE AGGREGATE (WASHED) (ASTMS D 1073-88, 448-86, AND 692-88)
When defi ni te amounts or l i mi ts of coarse and fi ne aggr egates ar e speci fi ed,
the si eve anal ysi s wi th prewashi ng must be made usi ng sui tabl e si eves. I f no
l i mi ts have been desi gnated, sel ect a range of si eves to gi ve adequate
i nformati on about gradati on. Record the resul ts on DD Form 1206 (see Figure
2-39, page 2-74) and pl ot them as a gradati on curve on DD Form 1207 (see
Figure 2-42, page 2-78). When testi ng aggr egates, obtai n a r epresentati ve
sampl e by quarteri ng, i f necessary. The mi ni mum si ze of the sampl e depends
on the maxi mum si ze of parti cl es i n the materi al (see Table 3-6).
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The speci fi c gravi ti es of aggregates and mi neral fi l l er used i n bi tumi nous
pavi ng mi xtures are requi red to compute the percent of ai r voi ds and percent
of voi ds fi l l ed wi th bi tumens. Apparent speci fi c gravi ty used wi th aggregate
bl ends showi ng water absorpti on of l ess than 2 1/2 percent i s based on the
apparent vol ume of the materi al , whi ch does not i ncl ude those port spaces i n
percent finer than No. 200
original dry weight washed dry weight
original dry weight
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100 =
the aggregate whi ch are permeabl e to water. Bul k-i mpregnated speci fi c
gravi ty i s used for aggregate bl ends wi th 2 1/2 percent or greater water
absorpti on. The methods for determi ni ng absorpti on of aggregates are
descri bed i n Chapter 4 of thi s manual .
APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF COARSE AGGREGATE
Apparent speci fi c gravi ty can be determi ned usi ng the method descri bed for
apparent and bul k speci fi c gravi ty, or i t may be determi ned usi ng the
Dunagan apparatus furni shed wi th the concrete test set. Addi ti onal
i nformati on for course-aggregate testi ng can be found i n ASTM C 127-88.
Equipment
Use the concrete test set to determi ne the apparent speci fi c gravi ty. The test
set i ncl udes
The Dunagan apparatus (see Figure 3-10, page 3-34).
Si eves (2-, 1 1/2-, 1/2-, and 3/8-i nch and Numbers 4, 10, 40, 60, 80, 100,
and 200).
Evaporati ng di shes.
An el ectri c oven.
Pans.
Table 3-6. Aggregate sizes and weights
Approximate Aggregate Size
Approximate Dry Weight
of Sample (in Grams)
Fine Aggregate
At least 95 percent finer than No. 10* 100
At least 90 percent finer than No. 4 and
more than 5 percent coarser than No. 10*
500
Coarse Aggregate
3/8-inch maximum size 1,000
1-inch maximum size 4,000
1 1/2-inch maximum size 5,000
* ASTM specifies Numbers 8, 16, 30, and 50 instead of Numbers 10,
40, and 60. Tests based on ASTM standards identify the appropriate
sieve sizes.
Steps
Per for m the fol l owi ng steps to deter mi ne the appar ent speci fi c gravi ty:
Step 1. Sel ect about 5,000 grams of aggregate from the sampl e, not i ncl udi ng
parti cl es smal l er than the 3/8-i nch si eve.
Step 2. Wash the aggregate to remove any dust or other coati ng and dry i t to
constant wei ght i n the oven. Record the total wei ght of the oven-dry
aggregate on DD Form 1216 (see Figure 3-6, page 3-23).
Step 3. I mmerse the aggregate i n water at 59 to 77F for a peri od of 24 hours.
Step 4. Soak the sampl e and pl ace i t i n a copper bucket fi l l ed wi th water.
Turn the bucket and aggregate sharpl y back and forth to remove any ai r.
Step 5. Suspend the bucket from the brass hanger and bri ng the water l evel
to the overfl ow pi pe.
Step 6. Determi ne the submerged wei ght usi ng wei ghts pl aced i n the scoop on
the ri ght-hand pan. Record the wei ght.
Calculations
The cal cul ati ons requi r ed to deter mi ne the appar ent speci fi c gr avi ty of
coar se aggr egate ar e shown on DD For m 1216 and ar e sel f-expl anator y (see
Figure 3-6).
APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE AGGREGATE (CALIBRATED FLASK)
Perform the procedure bel ow to determi ne the apparent speci fi c gravi ty when
a cal i brated fl ask i s avai l abl e.
Figure 3-10. Specific-gravity test; Dunagan apparatus
Equipment
Use the fol l owi ng i tems (see Figure 3-11) to determi ne the apparent speci fi c
gravi ty of fi ne aggregate (cal i brated fl ask):
A bal ance; 2,000 grams, sensi ti ve to 0.1 gram.
An evaporati ng di sh.
A battery fi l l er.
A vol umetri c fl ask; 500-mi l l i l i ter.
An el ectri c oven.
A pan.
A thermometer (0 to 300F, i n 1 gradati ons).
An absorbent paper or cl oth.
Steps
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for parti cl es fi ner than the No. 4 si eve (the data i s
recorded on DD Form 1208see Figure 2-36, page 2-65):
Step 1. Cal i brate a 500-mi l l i l i ter vol umetri c fl ask.
Step 2. Dry a representati ve sampl e wei ghi ng about 500 grams to constant
wei ght i n the el ectri c oven.
Step 3. Determi ne the oven-dry wei ght of the cool ed sampl e and record i n on
DD Form 1208 (see Figure 2-36).
Figure 3-11. Calibrated-flask apparatus for determining apparent specific gravity of fine
aggregate
2,000-gram balance
Volumetric flask
Evaporating dish
Thermometer
Battery filler
Pie plate
Step 4. Transfer the sampl e to the 500-mi l l i l i ter fl ask, bei ng careful not to
l ose any of the materi al .
Step 5. Add cl ean water unti l the l evel just reaches the neck of the fl ask.
Al l ow the sampl e to soak for 24 hours.
Step 6. Hol d the fl ask contai ni ng the soaked sampl e by the neck, and rol l i t
back and forth on a smooth surface unti l ai r bubbl es stop comi ng from the
sampl e (see Figure 3-12).
Step 7. Use the battery fi l l er to bri ng the water l evel up i n the neck of the
fl ask unti l the bottom of the meni scus coi nci des wi th the cal i brati on mark on
the fl ask. Use absorbent paper or cl oth to remove any drops of water from the
i nsi de of the neck and on the outsi de of the fl ask.
Step 8. Determi ne the wei ght of the fl ask, aggregate, and water. Record the
wei ght on DD Form 1208 (see Figure 2-36, page 2-65).
Step 9. Measure and record the temperature.
Calculations
The cal cul ati ons for apparent speci fi c gravi ty are the same as those i ndi cated
for soi l i n Fi gure 2-36.
APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE AGGREGATE (UNCALIBRATED FLASK)
Perform the procedure bel ow to determi ne the apparent speci fi c gravi ty when
a cal i brated fl ask i s not avai l abl e.
Equipment
Use the same equi pment as for the cal i brated-fl ask test, wi th the addi ti on of a
water bath mai ntai ned at 68F. Do not use thi s procedure unl ess the
temperature can be mai ntai ned.
Steps
Per for m the fol l owi ng steps to deter mi ne the appar ent speci fi c gravi ty:
Figure 3-12. Manipulation of calibrated flask to remove air
Step 1. Obtai n a representati ve sampl e of aggregate passi ng the No. 4 si eve
wei ghi ng about 500 grams. Dry i t to constant wei ght i n the el ectri c oven
mai ntai ned at a temperature of 230F + 9.
Step 2. Obtai n and record the dry wei ght after the sampl e has cool ed i n ai r.
Step 3. Transfer the sampl e to the fl ask, bei ng careful not to l ose any of the
materi al .
Step 4. Add cl ean water unti l i ts l evel just reaches the neck of the fl ask.
Al l ow the sampl e to soak for 24 hours.
Step 5. Rol l the fl ask back and forth on a smooth surface unti l ai r bubbl es
stop comi ng from the sampl e (see Figure 3-12).
Step 6. Use the battery fi l l er to bri ng the water l evel up i n the neck of the
fl ask to sl i ghtl y above the cal i brated mark.
Step 7. Pl ace the fl ask wi th water and aggregate i n the water bath
mai ntai ned at a temperature of 68F. Use the gl ass thermometer to check the
temperature of the water i n the fl ask from ti me to ti me.
Step 8. Bri ng the water i n the fl ask to a uni form temperature of 68F. Use
the battery fi l l er and absorbent paper to adjust the bottom of the meni scus to
coi nci de wi th the cal i brati on mark. Remove any drops of water i nsi de the
neck of the fl ask.
Step 9. Remove the fl ask from the bath and dr y the outsi de thoroughl y.
Determi ne and record the wei ght of the fl ask pl us the aggregate, pl us the
water at 68F. I t does not matter i f the l evel of the water i n the neck of the
fl ask changes after removal from the bath. The proper adjustment was made
at 68F, and the total wei ght i s not affected by the subsequent change i n
vol ume.
Step 10. Repeat the procedure i n steps 6 thr ough 9 above usi ng water onl y.
Enter the wei ght of the fl ask fi l l ed wi th water at 68F on DD Form 1216 (see
Figure 3-6, page 3-23). Thi s needs to be done onl y once for a gi ven fl ask; thi s
val ue can be tabul ated and used i n subsequent tests. The wei ght of the fl ask
fi l l ed onl y wi th water at 68F must be known.
Calculations
I ndi cate the cal cul ati ons necessar y to deter mi ne the appar ent speci fi c
gr avi ty of fi ne aggr egate usi ng an uncal i br ated fl ask on DD For m 1216 (see
Figure 3-6).
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF BULK-IMPREGNATED AGGREGATE
Thi s test i s used for determi ni ng the speci fi c gravi ty of the bl ended aggregates
(i ncl udi ng fi l l er) used i n hot asphal ti c mi xtures. Thi s method i s to be used
onl y when the water absorpti on for the enti re bl end of aggregate sel ected for
the job-mi x formul a exceeds 2 1/2 percent. The method i s not appl i cabl e to
determi ne speci fi c gravi ty of mi neral fi l l er except when i ncl uded i n the
bl ended aggregate. See Mi l i tary Standard (MI L-STD) 620A, method 105, for
addi ti onal testi ng detai l s.
Equipment
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to per form thi s test:
The Dunagan apparatus.
An el ectri c oven (sensi ti ve to 5 i n the range of 275 to 325F).
Gal l on-capaci ty pai l s.
A bal ance; 5-ki l ogram capaci ty sensi ti ve to 0.1 gram.
Baki ng pans.
A heavy sheet-metal stri p for sti rri ng the contents of the pai l .
A wi re handl e. NOTE: A wire handle is convenient for handling
the pail, but is not essential, since the container will be placed
in the copper bucket of the Dunagan apparatus to determine
the weight submerged in water. A No. 10 can (an empty fruit
or vegetable can) with the top smoothly cut out is satisfactory,
but care must be taken to eliminate air trapped under the
bottom when the can is submerged.
Sampl es shoul d consi st of 1,500 grams of bl ended aggregate (ensuri ng that
the sampl e represents prototype gradi ng) and 85 to 100 penetrati on-grade
asphal t cement.
Steps
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the speci fi c gravi ty of bul k-
i mpr egnated aggr egate:
Step 1. Dry the aggregate sampl e to constant wei ght at a temperature not
l ess than 230F nor greater than 290F. After cool i ng the sampl e i n ai r, wei gh
i t to the nearest 0.1 gram.
Step 2. Heat the asphal t to 280F 5, usi ng care to ensure that the
temperature never exceeds 285F. Add a suffi ci ent amount to the 1-gal l on pai l
to fi l l i t about 1/3 ful l .
Step 3. I nsert the sheet-metal sti rrer and al l ow the pai l and i ts contents to
cool to room temperature. Al l ow 8 hours for cool i ng (preferabl y overni ght).
Step 4. Wei gh the pai l pl us the asphal t and sti rrer i n ai r at room temperature
and submerged i n water at 72F 2.
Step 5. Pl ace the pai l of asphal t wi th sti rrer and al so the sampl e of aggregate
i n an oven at 280F 5 unti l temperatures of both are equal i zed. (A
mi ni mum of 4 hours i s usual l y requi red.)
Step 6. Remove the aggregate and asphal t from the oven and gradual l y add
aggregate to the asphal t, sti rri ng thoroughl y. After al l of the aggregate i s
added, conti nue sti rri ng unti l the total el apsed ti me from the start of mi xi ng
to the end of sti rri ng i s 2 mi nutes. Duri ng the cool i ng peri od, appl y a fl ame to
the surface to remove ai r bubbl es. Cool the sampl e to room temperature
(preferabl y overni ght).
Step 7. Wei gh the sampl e i n ai r and i n water at 72F 2.
Calculations
Cal cul ate the bul k-i mpregnated speci fi c gravi ty as fol l ows:

where
A =weight of oven-dry aggregate, in grams
B =weight of pail +stirrer +asphalt in air, in grams
C =weight of pail +stirrer +asphalt in water, in grams
D =weight of pail +stirrer +asphalt +aggregate in air, in grams
E =weight of soil +stirrer +asphalt +aggregate in water, in grams
Dupl i cate determi nati ons shoul d check wi thi n 0.04 gram. I f the val ues are
wi thi n the 0.04 tol erance, use an average val ue. I f the i ni ti al dupl i cate tests
are not wi thi n the 0.04 tol erance, repeat the tests i n dupl i cate. I f the second
set of test val ues i s wi thi n the tol erance, di scard the fi rst two test val ues and
use an aver age val ue of the second two tests.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MINERAL FILLER
The speci fi c gravi ty of mi neral fi l l er used i n bi tumi nous mi xes i s requi red for
voi d computati on. The methods descri bed i n the speci fi c-gravi ty test appl y
(i ncl udi ng procedures, cal i brati on, testi ng, and cal cul ati ons). Note that when
the bul k-i mpregnated speci fi c gravi ty i s used, the mi neral fi l l er i s i ncl uded i n
the bl ended aggregate. Detai l s can be found i n ASTM D 854-92.
LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST
The Los Angel es abrasi on test requi res a speci al machi ne consi sti ng of a
revol vi ng drum rotated at the rate of 30 to 33 revol uti ons per mi nute (rpm) by
an el ectri c motor. I nsi de the dr um i s a shel f that pi cks up the aggr egate
sampl e al ong wi th a charge of steel bal l s and drops them together on the
opposi te si de of the drum. Detai l s can be found i n ASTM C 131-89.
Conduct the test usi ng vari ous numbers of drum revol uti ons, si zes of sampl es,
and numbers of steel bal l s, dependi ng on the gradi ng of the sampl e. For a
sampl e that passes the 3/4-i nch si eve and i s retai ned on the 3/8-i nch si eve, use
5,000 grams of materi al wi th 11 bal l s and 500 revol uti ons. Wash and dry the
sampl e to constant wei ght before pl aci ng i t i n the machi ne. After the 500
revol uti ons are compl eted, remove the sampl e from the drum and si eve i t over
a No. 12 si eve. Wash, dry to constant wei ght, and wei gh the porti on retai ned
on the No. 12 si eve. The di fference between the ori gi nal wei ght and the fi nal
wei ght of the sampl e i s expressed as a percentage of the ori gi nal wei ght of the
sampl e
Job speci fi cati ons usual l y requi re that the l oss i n wei ght as determi ned i n the
Los Angel es abrasi on test shal l not be greater than 40 percent for pavement
aggregates and 50 percent for base and subbase aggregates.
bulk-impregnated specific gravity
A
D E ( ) B C ( )
------------------------------------------- =
Hot-mi x bi tumi nous concrete for pavements i s a mi xture of bl ended aggregate
fi l l ed wi th bi tumi nous cement bi nder. The materi al s are heated when mi xed
so that the bi tumen becomes fl ui d and thoroughl y covers the aggregate
parti cl es. The desi gn of a bi tumi nous concrete mi x i s an economi cal bl end and
gradati on of aggregates wi th bi tumi nous cement. Thi s produces a mi xture
that i s durabl e, has the stabi l i ty to wi thstand traffi c l oads, and i s workabl e for
pl acement and compacti on wi th the constructi on equi pment avai l abl e.
The procedures descri bed i n thi s secti on are performed duri ng the desi gn of a
hot-mi x bi tumi nous concrete. They i ncl ude testi ng, pl otti ng the resul ts on
graphs, and checki ng the readi ngs agai nst val ues from the desi gn tabl es.
Testi ng of the i ngredi ents and the mi x i s started before and conti nued
throughout the pavi ng operati ons. FM 5-430-00-1 covers the desi gn
consi derati ons i n more detai l . The pavi ng operati ons and the bl endi ng and
bi tumen-content cri teri a are expl ai ned i n TM 5-337. The testi ng phases are
descri bed i n thi s manual .
The sel ecti on of the mi x rati os of materi al s i s tentati ve. The bi tumen shoul d
be the same as the one used i n the constructi on. The aggr egates and fi l l ers
must meet defi ni te requi rements. I n general , several bl ends shoul d be
consi dered for l aboratory mi x-desi gn tests.
At ti mes i t wi l l be necessary to shorten the desi gn procedures to expedi te
mi l i tary constructi on. Suggesti ons for expedi ti ng desi gn mi x are gi ven at the
end of thi s chapter. The fi nal step i s the preparati on of a job-mi x formul a to be
furni shed to the constructi on uni t.
HOT-MIX DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The objecti ve of desi gni ng a hot mi x i s to determi ne the most economi cal bl end
of components that wi l l produce a fi nal product that meets speci fi cati ons.
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for determi ni ng the most economi cal bl end of
components:
Step 1. Prepare a si eve anal ysi s of the aggregate avai l abl e.
Step 2. Determi ne the aggregate bl end that wi l l achi eve the speci fi ed
gradati on (see TM 5-337). Pl ot the sel ected bl end proporti ons on a graph wi th
the al l owabl e l i mi ts to see that the bl end conforms.
Step 3. Determi ne the speci fi c gravi ty of the components
Step 4. Use sel ected percentages of bi tumen (see TM 5-337), make tri al
mi xes, and determi ne the mi xs desi gn test properti es.
Step 5. Pl ot the test properti es on i ndi vi dual graphs usi ng the sel ected
bi tumen percentages. Draw smooth curves through the pl otted poi nts.
SECTION VI. BITUMINOUS-MIX DESIGN
Step 6. Sel ect the opti mum bi tumen content for each test property from the
curves (as expl ai ned i n the cri teri a tabl es).
Step 7. Average the bi tumen content val ues from step 6 and from the graphs.
Read the test-property val ue correspondi ng to thi s average.
Step 8. Check these val ues read i n step 7 wi th the sati sfactori ness-of-mi x
cri teri a.
VARIABLES
Gradati on speci fi cati ons are based on l i mi ts establ i shed as sati sfactory by the
Cor ps of Engi neer s. Wi thi n these l i mi ts, the fol l owi ng vari abl es wi l l affect the
fi nal mi x desi gn:
The use of the mi x (surface course, bi nder course, or road mi x).
The bi nder (asphal t, cement, or tar).
Loadi ng (l ow ti re pressure [100 psi and under] or hi gh ti re pressure
[over 100 psi ]).
The maxi mum si ze of the aggregate (i n a stockpi l e or based on the
thi ckness of the pavement course).
BLENDS
Once the gradati on speci fi cati ons have been sel ected, check the avai l abl e
materi al s to determi ne how to proporti on the bl end to meet these
speci fi cati ons. Study the si eve anal ysi s of the avai l abl e aggregates, and
compute a seri es of tri al bl ends. Make any necessary adjustments of the bl end
after testi ng the desi gn and prepared mi x. The consi derati ons for establ i shi ng
and adjusti ng the bl end are expl ai ned i n TM 5-337.
OPTIMUM BITUMEN CONTENT
The determi nati on of opti mum bi tumen content i s based on the gyratory test
method or the Marshal l test method.
GYRATORY TEST METHOD
The purposes of the gyratory test are to
Prepare speci mens by kneadi ng compacti on at a pressure equal to the
ti re pressure for whi ch the pavement i s desi gned.
I ndi cate opti mum bi tumen content di rectl y by pl asti ci ty i ndi cators
cal l ed gyragraph recordi ngs and by di rect readi ngs of shear
resi stance. The gyragraph recordi ngs begi n to wi den, and the
sheari ng resi stance begi ns to decrease when the maxi mum
permi ssi bl e bi tumen content i s exceeded.
Measure shear at the appl i ed ti re pressure whi ch i s used to cal cul ate a
shear-strength factor. Thi s factor i s used to predi ct whether the
pavi ng mi xture wi l l wi thstand the proposed ti re-contact pressure.
Obtai n (by di rect measurement) uni t wei ght val ues requi red to
mi ni mi ze settl ement under the desi gn l oads. Uni t wei ght cal cul ati ons
are based on di rect measurement of the sampl e hei ght and the known
sampl e di ameter.
Definitions
The fol l owi ng ter ms are used for the gyr ator y test:
Gyragraph. A recordi ng of shear strai n experi enced by the
bi tumi nous mi xture duri ng the compacti on test.
Gyratory angl e. A measure of the magni tude of the gyratory strai n.
Three perti nent angl es are defi ned as fol l ows:
I ni ti al gyratory angl e or shear strai n (machi ne setti ng) 0
o
.
Mi ni mum gyratory angl e or shear strai n (mi ni mum gyragraph
band wi dth) 0
1
.
Maxi mum gyratory angl e or shear strai n (maxi mum gyragraph
band wi dth) 0
max
.
Gyratory stabi l i ty i ndex (GSI ). The rati o of the maxi mum gyratory
angl e to the mi ni mum gyratory angl e.
Gyratory compacti bi l i ty i ndex (GCI ). The rati o of the uni t mass (total
mi x) at 30 revol uti ons of the gyratory testi ng machi ne (GTM) to the
uni t mass (total mi x) at 60 revol uti ons of the GTM.
Gyratory shear strength (S
G
). The shear resi stance of the speci men
under the i mposed l oadi ng condi ti ons.
Gyratory shear factor (GSF). The rati o of the measured gyratory
shear strength to the approxi mate theoreti cal maxi mum i nduced
shear stress.
Equipment
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to per form the gyr ator y test:
A GTM and appurtenances (the pri mary equi pment for thi s test).
Spacer bl ocks. Two metal spacer bl ocks used to zero the equi pment
that measures the speci men hei ght. They are 2 i nches i n di ameter
wi th one each of the fol l owi ng l engths: 2.50 + 0.005 i nches and 3.75 +
0.005 i nches.
An oven, thermostati cal l y control l ed to mai ntai n the requi red
temperature wi thi n 5.
An el ectri c mi xer. A heavy-duty commerci al food mi xer compl ete wi th
mi xi ng bowl and beaters.
Bal ances. Two bal ances are requi red, one havi ng a capaci ty of 5
ki l ograms or more, sensi ti ve to 1.0 gram; and one havi ng a capaci ty of
2 ki l ograms or more, sensi ti ve to 0.1 gram.
Thermometers, armored gl ass or di al -type wi th metal stems are
recommended. A range from 50 to 400F wi th sensi ti vi ty to 5 i s
requi red.
A metal beaker, about 1,000-mi l l i l i ter capaci ty.
Tongs for the beaker.
A metal cooki ng pan, 12 i nches i n di ameter.
A ki tchen scoop.
Paper di sks, 4 i nches and 6 i nches i n di ameter.
Work gl oves.
Rags or paper towel s.
Kerosene (asphal t sol vent).
Creosote (tar sol vent).
Steps
The gyratory method i s appl i cabl e to mi xtures contai ni ng asphal t cement,
asphal t cutback, asphal t emul si on, tar or rubberi zed tar, and aggregate up to
1-i nch maxi mum si ze i n the 4-i nch-di ameter speci men and 1.5-i nch maxi mum
si ze i n the 6-i nch-di ameter speci men. Perform the fol l owi ng procedures for
the gyratory test:
Sel ect the Bi tumen Content
The bi tumen content i s expressed as a percent of the mi xtures total wei ght.
Usi ng the procedures outl i ned i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs, conduct
prel i mi nary tests wi th one speci men each at a mi ni mum of three bi tumen
contents: one above, one bel ow, and one at the esti mated opti mum. Once the
range of bi tumen contents for the desi gn test has been sel ected, test at l east
four speci mens at each of the sel ected bi tumen contents. The formul as l i sted
i n the surface-area method may be used to make a rough esti mate of opti mum
bi tumen content. The GTM i ndi cates excessi ve bi tumen by the wi deni ng of
the gyragraph and the reducti on i n upper-rol l er pressure duri ng the
compacti on test. I n these prel i mi nary tests, bracket the opti mum bi tumen
content by tests i n whi ch these phenomena occur at the hi gher bi tumen
contents.
The i ncremental change of the bi tumen content shoul d be general l y 0.5
percent. For extremel y cri ti cal mi xes, l ower the i ncremental change of
bi tumen content to 0.3 percent. For hi ghl y absorpti ve aggregate, i ncrease the
i ncremental change of bi tumen content to 1.0 percent. The gyratory method
does not use voi ds cri teri a to sel ect the opti mum bi tumen content. However,
the mi x must be suffi ci entl y dense (l ow i n voi ds) to wi den the gyragraph and
reduce the rol l er pressure si nce these i ndi cate overfi l l ed voi ds. For thi s
reason, the gyratory method sel ects mi xtures wi th the most desi rabl e
durabi l i ty properti es, the maxi mum permi ssi bl e bi tumen content, and the
mi ni mum acceptabl e voi ds content.
Prepare the Aggregate
Procedures for determi ni ng parti cl e-si ze di stri buti on and bl endi ng to meet
speci fi cati on requi rements have been di scussed. The amount of aggregate
requi red i s di scussed bel ow.
Prepare the Mi xture
For mi xes empl oyi ng penetrati on grades of bi tumen, the temperature of the
aggregate and asphal t at the ti me of mi xi ng shoul d correspond to the
temperatures anti ci pated at the pl ant whi l e manufacturi ng the pavi ng mi x.
These temperatures wi l l be i n the range of 200F for rubberi zed tar mi xes.
For tar and r ubber i zed tar, the temper atur e of the aggregate and the bi nder at
the ti me of mi xi ng shoul d cor r espond to the temper atur e to be used at the
pl ant duri ng manufacture of the pavi ng mi x. Thi s temperature wi l l usual l y
not exceed 225F for tar mi xes and 250F for rubberi zed tar mi xes.
For mi xtures empl oyi ng l i qui d asphal ts (cutbacks or emul si ons), the aggregate
shoul d be dri ed to the moi sture content expected duri ng constructi on (up to a
maxi mum of 2 percent by dry wei ght). Combi ne the l i qui d asphal t wi th the
aggregate at the temperature recommended for fi el d appl i cati on. Fol l owi ng
mi xi ng, cure the l oose mi xture i n a venti l ated oven mai ntai ned at 140F 5
for at l east 12 hours before compacti on at thi s temperature. Occasi onal l y sti r
the mi x duri ng curi ng to accel erate the l oss of vol ati l es.
Combi ne the aggregates i nto batches l arge enough to make speci mens about
2.50 i nches l ong i n the 4-i nch-di ameter mol d and 3.75 i nches l ong i n the 6-
i nch-di ameter mol d. For normal aggregates, thi s wi l l requi re about 1,200
grams for the 4-i nch-di ameter speci men and about 4,050 grams for the 6-i nch-
di ameter speci men. Heat the aggr egate to the pr oper mi xi ng temperatur e,
then wei gh the r equi red amount of bi tumen at the pr oper temperatur e i nto
the aggregate mi xture. Mi x the aggregate and bi tumen as thoroughl y and
rapi dl y as possi bl e. Mechani cal mi xi ng i s recommended.
Perform the Compacti on and Shear Test
For thi s test, set the i ni ti al gyratory angl e, 0
o
, at 1. Rol l er posi ti ons 2 and 4
are used to set the i ni ti al gyratory angl e, T. Use a tri al batch of mi x i n maki ng
the 0
o
adjustment. Ensure that the speci men mol ds are thoroughl y cl ean and
free of defects. Excessi ve wear or groovi ng i n the mol ds i n the area of contact
wi th the upper and l ower pl ates wi l l have an adverse effect on the compacti on
as wel l as the gyragraph (shear strai n) recordi ng. (I nstructi ons for the
compacti on temperatures for the l aboratory speci mens are presented above.)
Set the GTM at 140F at l east 15 mi nutes before starti ng the compacti on test.
Preheat the mol d and basepl ate at 140F. Pl ace paper di sks i n the bottom of
the mol d and on top of the l oose mi x to prevent the bi tumen from adheri ng to
the end pl ates. Pl ace the enti re batch i n the mol d. Avoi d hand trowel i ng or
tampi ng so that the compacti on process wi l l be compl etel y control l ed
mechani cal l y and wi l l be the most preci se and reproduci bl e. Pl ace the wal l -
fri cti on yoke i n posi ti on, then use the mol d-carryi ng tray to l oad the mol d
contai ni ng the mi xture i nto the machi ne. Rai se the ram and use just enough
pressure to retai n the speci men whi l e ti ghteni ng the front of the mol d chuck
securel y i n posi ti on. When the mol d chuck i s securel y ti ghtened, i ncrease the
verti cal pressure to the ful l compacti on test pressure. Bri ng the gyragraph
recorder pi n i nto contact, actuate the rol l er carri age, and conti nue unti l 29
revol uti ons have been appl i ed. After 29 revol uti ons, stop the carri age and
record the speci men hei ght and rol l er-pressure readi ngs at three posi ti ons: 1,
3, and 4 (29 to 30 revol uti ons), thus compl eti ng 30 revol uti ons. Conti nue to
appl y addi ti onal revol uti ons unti l a total of 59 are reached. Agai n, record the
hei ght and rol l er pressure readi ngs at three posi ti ons: 1, 3, and 4 (59 to 60
revol uti ons), thus compl eti ng 60 revol uti ons.
Perform the Wal l -Fri cti on Test
I mmedi atel y fol l owi ng the compacti on and shear test, l ower the verti cal ram
sl i ghtl y to rel i eve the pressure on the bottom rol l er. Lower the bottom rol l er
enough turns to ensure that i t wi l l be out of contact wi th the mol d chuck.
(Keep account of the exact number of turns so that the rol l er can be reset to
exactl y the same posi ti on.) Reappl y the compacti on pressure to the ram, and
cycl e the rol l er carri age sever al ti mes to l evel the speci men. Wi th the
compacti on pressure sti l l acti ng on the speci men, l oosen the mol d-chuck bol ts
and remove the front of the chuck so that the speci men mol d i s no l onger
restrai ned by the chuck. I nstal l the two wal l -fri cti on apparatus jacks beneath
the wal l -fri cti on yoke.
Wi th the verti cal l oad acti ng on the speci men, determi ne the force requi red to
overcome wal l fri cti on and move the mol d by observi ng the pressure gauge of
the jack whi l e actuati ng the jack. The pressure readi ng wi l l i ncrease wi th
each thr ust of the jack unti l there i s enough for ce to move the mol d. The
pressure readi ng wi l l then stabi l i ze to about the same mi ni mum val ue after
each thrust of the jack. Record the l ow readi ng of the wal l -fri cti on gauge i n
the space provi ded. Remove the test speci men from the GTM i mmedi atel y
after the wal l -fri cti on test i s compl eted, and bri ng the l ower rol l er back to the
1 setti ng so that the machi ne i s ready for the next test speci men.
Cal i brate the Machi ne
When conducti ng shear tests wi th the GTM, i t i s necessary to make machi ne
correcti ons for the gyratory shear val ue S
G
. For thi s correcti on, shi ft the
Mohr's di agram for test resul ts on a cohesi onl ess materi al enough to cause the
envel ope to pass through the ori gi n of the Mohr's di agram. The cohesi onl ess
materi al used for thi s test i s standard dry ottawa sand, al l passi ng a No. 20
si eve and retai ned on a No. 40 si eve. A correcti on i s needed for each
combi nati on of compacti on pressure and gyratory angl e used i n the GTM
compacti on and shear tests. Thi s correcti on i s determi ned onl y once for any
combi nati on of verti cal pressure and gyratory angl e. The dry ottawa sand i s
fi rst compacted under the same pressure, gyratory angl e, and number of
revol uti ons as schedul ed for the compacti on and shear tests on a gi ven
bi tumi nous mi xture. The shear test on the dry sand i s then conducted for at
l east three di fferent magni tudes of verti cal pressure: starti ng at some l ower
val ue; i ncl udi ng an i ntermedi ate val ue; and fi nal l y, usi ng the same val ue that
was used for compacti on. The rol l er carri age i s cycl ed once after each
i ncremental adjustment i n verti cal pressure and before readi ng the upper
rol l er val ues under that pressure.
Calculations and Presentation of Results
Perform the fol l owi ng cal cul ati ons for the gyratory method:
Compacti on Cal cul ati ons
Cal cul ate the fol l owi ng compacti on properti es for each speci men:
Uni t mass, total mi x.
Uni t mass, aggregate onl y.
GCI .
Shear Cal cul ati on
Cal cul ate the fol l owi ng gyratory shear properti es:
GSI .
Gyratory shear strength (S
G
).
GSF.
Graphi cal Presentati on
For conveni ence of anal ysi s, the cal cul ati ons above are pl otted agai nst the
bi tumen content. The graphs may be to any conveni ent ari thmeti c scal es.
Application of the Gyratory Method
The bi tumen content must be as hi gh as possi bl e when usi ng the gyratory
method to sel ect the opti mum bi tumen content and judge the sati sfactori ness
of the mi x. The GSI must not be si gni fi cantl y greater than 1, and the GSF at
thi s bi tumen content must exceed 1.
MARSHALL TEST METHOD (ASTM D 1559-89)
The purposes of the Marshal l test method are to
Prepare speci mens by drop-hammer compacti on. The number of drop-
hammer bl ows used on the speci mens i s based on empi ri cal
correl ati ons wi th two di fferent traffi c condi ti ons: 50 bl ows on each
end of the speci men for ti res wi th l ess than 100-psi pressure and 75
bl ows on each end of the speci men for ti res wi th greater than 100-psi
pressure.
Fi nd the opti mum bi tumen content by averagi ng four measured
pr oper ti es: the peak of the compacti on cur ve, the peak of the stabi l i ty
curve, the percent of the voi ds of the total mi x at a speci fi ed amount,
and the percent of the voi ds fi l l ed wi th bi tumen at a speci fi ed amount.
These val ues for total mi x and bi tumen var y wi th the aggr egates
gradati on, absorpti on properti es, and compacti on effort. There are ten
separate sets of cri teri a to cover these vari ati ons. A speci al excepti on
i s made to use onl y voi ds total mi x when the overal l average fal l s
outsi de the voi ds total -mi x l i mi ts. Thi s occurs for open-graded mi xes
or hi ghl y porous aggregates. There are no standards for sand-asphal t
mi xes at 75-bl ow compacti on.
Measure maxi mum breaki ng l oad (stabi l i ty) and correspondi ng
deformati on (fl ow) for speci mens prepared accordi ng to the
compacti on procedure. These val ues of stabi l i ty and fl ow are
empi ri cal l y correl ated for condi ti ons outl i ned i n the paragraph above.
Obtai n the uni t wei ghts of speci mens from cal cul ati ons based on
wei ghi ng the speci mens i n ai r and i n water. Porous speci mens are
coated wi th paraffi n before wei ghi ng them i n water.
Equipment
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to perform the Marshal l test (see Figure 3-13):
A mi xi ng pan.
A hot pl ate.
Figure 3-13. Apparatus for bituminous mix designMarshall method
I nsul ated gl oves.
A l aboratory spatul a.
A trowel .
A spoon.
I nsul ated tongs.
A scoop.
A compacti on hammer.
A compacti on mol d.
An extractor.
Chemi cal -resi stant gl oves.
Tri chl oroethane techni cal .
A hol der, compacti on mol d.
A compacti on pedestal .
A tri pl e-beam scal e.
A wi re basket.
A thermometer.
A hot-water bath.
A Marshal l stabi l i ty-testi ng machi ne.
A fl ow i ndi cator.
Lab towel s.
A beaker wi th oi l .
A brush.
A stabi l i ty mol d.
Steps
The Marshal l method i s appl i cabl e to hot-mi x mi xtures usi ng penetrati on
grades of asphal t cement and contai ni ng aggregate wi th not more than 10
percent of the aggregate l arger than the 1-i nch si eve. The procedure for
handl i ng l arge aggregate as wel l as for col d mi x i s descri bed l ater. Use the
fol l owi ng procedure and exampl e to determi ne the opti mum asphal t content
for one parti cul ar bl end of aggregates:
Sel ect the Bi tumen Content
Start the l aboratory tests by esti mati ng the opti mum amount of bi tumen for
the aggregate to be tested. Conti nue the tests unti l resul ts show at l east two
bi tumen contents above and two bel ow what woul d be the opti mum content.
Si nce the opti mum i s not determi ned unti l after the resul ts are pl otted,
speci mens are usual l y prepared for each of si x di ffer ent contents. Pr epar e at
l east three speci mens at each bi tumen content. You may use 1 percent
i ncremental changes of bi tumen content for prel i mi nary work. However, use
i ncrements of 1/2 or 1 percent for fi nal tests. Express the percent of bi tumen
as a percent of the total wei ght of the batch of pavi ng mi x. The procedure for
establ i shi ng the esti mated opti mum content i s expl ai ned i n TM 5-337.
Prepare the Aggregate
Procedur es for deter mi ni ng the par ti cl e-si ze di str i buti on and bl endi ng to meet
speci fi cati on requi rements have al ready been presented. Dry 50 pounds of the
sel ected bl end to constant wei ght at 221 to 230F. Thi s amount of materi al
provi des for 1,220 grams per speci men for 18 speci mens (three i n each of si x
bi tumen contents) wi th al l owance for some l oss. The Marshal l method uses a
4-i nch-di ameter mol d and i s not appl i cabl e, wi thout speci al handl i ng, when
more than 10 percent of the aggregate i s l arger than 1 i nch. The previ ousl y
gi ven total amounts of aggregate requi red assume l ess than 10 percent of the
parti cl e wi l l exceed 1 i nch. (Speci al handl i ng of oversi ze aggregates i s covered
l ater.)
Prepare the Hot Mi xture
Heat the bi tumen and the aggregates to speci fi ed temperatures for mi xi ng.
These temperatures are based on the bi tumen that wi l l be used (see Table 3-7).
Bi tumen shoul d not be hel d at the mi xi ng temperature for more than 1 hour
before usi ng. Therefore, pl an the preparati on so that the mi xi ng wi l l be done
wi thi n thi s ti me l i mi t. Preheat the mi xi ng pans to a temperature about 50
above the mi xi ng temperature. Pour the heated dry aggregate fracti ons i nto the
pans and mi x thoroughl y. Form a crater i n the mi xed aggregate, and pour the
requi red amount of bi tumen at the proper temperature i nto the crater. At thi s
poi nt, the temperature of the i ngredi ents shoul d be wi thi n the l i mi ts speci fi ed
above. Mi x the aggregates and bi tumen as rapi d and as thorough as possi bl e to
ensure that the bi tumen i s uni forml y di stri buted throughout the aggregate.
Compact the Hot Mi xture
Prepare thr ee speci mens at each bi tumen content, and pr epare the mol ds to
r ecei ve the speci mens as soon as they are mi xed. Thor oughl y cl ean and heat
the stri ki ng face of the compacti on hammers and the compacti on mol ds to
200 to 300F. Oi l the mol d and other metal i n contact wi th the mi x before the
mi xture i s i ntroduced to faci l i tate removi ng the speci men after compacti on. A
si l i cone spray i s conveni ent for thi s use. Wi pe the parts wi th a rag or paper
towel before usi ng. Pl ace the mi x i n the mol d (roddi ng the materi al as i t i s
added). Remove the col l ar and, wi th a trowel , smooth the top surface of the
mi x to a sl i ghtl y rounded shape. The thi ckness of the compacted speci men
shoul d be 2.5 + .05 i nches. One or two tri al s wi l l i ndi cate the quanti ty of mi x
requi red to produce such a speci men. Repl ace the col l ar and pl ace the mol d
Table 3-7. Temperatures for mixing bitumens and aggregates
Bitumen Type
Mixing Temperature (F)
Aggregate Bitumen
Asphalt cement 300 + 5 270 + 5
Tar (RT-10, -11, or -12) 225 + 5 200 + 5
Rubberized tar 250 + 5 225 + 5
assembl y on the compacti on pedestal . The temperature at thi s poi nt must be
as speci fi ed i n Table 3-8 for compacti on.

Appl y the requi red number of bl ows wi th the compacti on hammer (see Figure
3-14). Remove the basepl ate and col l ar, and reverse and reassembl e the mol d.
Appl y the requi red number of bl ows to the other si de of the speci men. For
exampl e, roads, streets, and faci l i ti es for an ai rfi el d desi gned for ai rcraft
whose ti res carry 100 psi or l ess shoul d be compacted by 50 bl ows on each end
of the speci men. I f the pavement i s bei ng desi gned for ai rcraft whi ch carry
ti res wi th pressure greater than 100 psi , the compacti ve effort shoul d be 75
bl ows per si de.
Cool the Hot Speci men
After compacti ng, remove the basepl ate and col l ar, and ei ther ai r cool the mol d
and speci men (normal l y overni ght) or pl ace them i n col d water for a mi ni mum
of 2 mi nutes for fast cool i ng. Remove the cool ed speci men fr om the mol d wi th
an extensi on jack or by pl aci ng the col l ar on the fl oor (wi th the mol d and
speci men on top) and forci ng the speci men out wi th bl ows fr om the compacti on
hammer. The speci men i s easi er to remove i f the mol d i s pl aced i n a 140F
Table 3-8. Temperatures for compacting bitumens and aggregates
Bitumen Type
Compaction Temperature
(F)
Asphalt cement 300 + 5
Tar (RT-10, -11, or -12) 225 + 5
Rubberized tar 250 + 5
Figure 3-14. Compaction of bituminous trial-mix specimens
oven for a few mi nutes just before ejecti ng the speci men. Pl ace the speci men
(careful l y handl ed and sui tabl y i denti fi ed) on a smooth surface unti l i t i s
ready for testi ng as descri bed bel ow.
Wei gh the Speci men i n Ai r and i n Water
Wei gh each speci men i n ai r and i n water to obtai n the wei ght and vol ume
measurements used i n cal cul ati ng the uni t wei ght of the compacted mi x (see
Figure 3-15).
DD Form 1218 provi des space for recordi ng those measurements made at
room temperature (see Figure 3-16, pages 3-52 and 3-53). A di rect wei ght i n
water of open-textured or porous speci mens wi l l gi ve erroneous resul ts
because of water penetrati on and absorpti on. For such speci mens, you must
use other means to determi ne the vol ume. One means of measuri ng the
vol ume of the porous speci mens i s to coat i t wi th paraffi n to seal al l the voi ds
and then wei gh the coated speci mens i n ai r and i n water.
Measure Stabi l i ty and Fl ow
Bri ng the test speci mens to the desi red temperature for the test by i mmersi ng
them i n an oven for at l east 2 hours. The bath temperature for asphal t
sampl es i s 140F 1.8 and 100F 1.8 for tar sampl es (RT-10 to RT-12).
Record test measurements on DD Form 1218 (see Figure 3-16).
Cl ean the i nsi de surfaces of the test heads and the gui de rods thoroughl y
before performi ng the stabi l i ty test, and l ubri cate the gui de rods so the upper
test head wi l l sl i de easi l y over the gui de rods on the l ower test head. Remove
the speci men from the water bath and pl ace i t on i ts si de i n the l ower secti on
of the breaki ng head. Posi ti on the upper secti on of the breaki ng head on the
gui de r ods and on the speci men, then pl ace the compl ete assembl y i n posi ti on
i n the testi ng machi ne (see Figure 3-17, page 3-54). To pr event excessi ve
cool i ng of thi s speci men wi th a resul ti ng i ncrease i n stabi l i ty val ue, perform
the enti re procedure as qui ckl y as possi bl e (wi thi n 30 seconds) from the ti me
the speci men i s removed from the water bath.
Figure 3-15. Weighing compacted bituminous specimen in water
S
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Pl ace the fl owmeter over one of the gui de rods and take an i ni ti al readi ng,
esti mated to 0.01 i nch. Hol d the fl owmeter fi rml y over the gui de rod whi l e
l oadi ng the speci men. Read or remove the fl owmeter from i ts posi ti on over
the gui de rod just when the l oad fi rst begi ns to decrease, as i ndi cated by the
di al gauge i n the provi ng ri ng. DD Form 1218 provi des space for recordi ng the
fl ow val ve, whi ch i s the di fference between the i ni ti al readi ng and the fi nal
readi ng (see Figure 3-16, pages 3-52 and 3-53).
Appl y l oad to the speci men at a constant rate of strai n of 2 i nches per mi nute
unti l speci men fai l ure occurs. The l oad bui l ds up on the typi cal test as
movement occurs, unti l i t reaches a maxi mum and fal l s off. The maxi mum
readi ng of the di al , converted to pounds, i s the stabi l i ty val ue for the
speci men. Record thi s readi ng on the form (see Figure 3-16).
Calculation and Presentation of Results
DD Form 1218 i s used to summari ze the measured and cal cul ated Marshal l
test properti es (see Figure 3-16). The speci men numberspl aced on each
speci men wi th a marki ng crayonare gi ven for i denti fi cati on. Note that
there are four dupl i cate tests for each bi tumen content and that these four
test val ues are averaged i n each i nstance. Note al so that the speci mens
thi ckness i s not i ndi cated si nce the vol ume can be used to fi nd the stabi l i ty
correl ati on rati o from Table 3-9. The theoreti cal speci fi c gravi ty i s transferred
from DD Form 1218 to cal cul ate the voi ds (see Figure 3-16, pages 3-52 and
3-53). Note that the stabi l i ty val ue i s shown di rectl y i n pounds. Unl ess the
testi ng machi ne provi des a l oad-measuri ng devi ce that reads di rectl y i n
pounds, i t wi l l be necessary to convert thi s val ue. Use the cal i brati on factor
Figure 3-74. Stability-test assembly
furni shed wi th the ri ng dynamometer on the testi ng machi ne. The stabi l i ty
val ue vari es di rectl y wi th the speci mens thi ckness. Therefore, i t i s necessary
to correct the stabi l i ty val ues for speci mens of a thi ckness greater or l ess than
the standard 2 1/2 i nches. Table 3-9 shows the necessary conversi on factors
for speci mens varyi ng i n thi ckness from 1 to 3 i nches. Table 3-9 al so contai ns
data whereby the stabi l i ty conversi on factor can be determi ned on the basi s of
the vol ume of the speci men, si nce the vol ume i s a di rect functi on of hei ght for
Table 3-9. Stability correlation ratios, Marshall stability test
Volume of Specimen
(in Cubic Centimeters)
Approximate Thickness of
Specimen (in Inches)
Correlation Ratio
200 to 213 1 5.56
214 to 225 1 1/16 5.00
226 to 237 1 1/8 4.55
238 to 250 1 3/16 4.17
251 to 264 1 1/4 3.85
265 to 276 1 5/16 3.57
277 to 289 1 3/8 3.33
290 to 301 1 7/16 3.03
302 to 316 1 1/2 2.78
317 to 328 1 9/16 2.50
329 to 340 1 5/8 2.27
341 to 353 1 11/16 2.08
354 to 367 1 3/4 1.92
368 to 379 1 13/16 1.79
380 to 392 1 7/8 1.67
393 to 405 1 15/16 1.56
406 to 420 2 1.47
421 to 431 2 1/16 1.39
432 to 443 2 1/8 1.32
444 to 456 2 3/16 1.25
457 to 470 2 1/4 1.19
471 to 482 2 5/16 1.14
483 to 495 2 3/8 1.09
496 to 508 2 7/16 1.04
509 to 522 2 1/2 1.00
523 to 535 2 9/16 0.96
536 to 546 2 5/8 0.93
547 to 559 2 11/16 0.89
560 to 573 2 3/4 0.86
574 to 585 2 13/16 0.83
586 to 598 2 7/8 0.81
599 to 610 2 15/16 0.78
611 to 625 3 0.76
a constant 4-i nch-di ameter speci men. Al l other cal cul ati ons are i ndi cated
di rectl y on the form (see Figure 3-16, pages 3-52 and 3-53).
Graphical Presentation
The average Mar shal l test pr oper ti es fr om the tabul ati on (see Figure 3-16)
for each bi tumen content ar e shown graphi cal l y on DD For m 1219 (see
Figure 3-18). The aver age val ues for each pr oper ty ar e pl otted on thei r
r especti ve gr aphs usi ng the bi tumen content as or di nates. A smooth curve i s
dr awn thr ough the pl otted poi nts i n each i nstance.
Application of the Marshall Test
Table 3-10, page 3-58, l i sts the cri teri a for determi ni ng the opti mum bi tumen
content al ong wi th the Marshal l speci fi cati ons for a sati sfactory mi x. The
opti mum bi tumen content i s determi ned by averagi ng the bi tumen content
read from the curves i n Figure 3-18 at the four poi nts i ndi cated for
determi nati on of the opti mum bi tumen content i n Table 3-10. Once thi s
average bi tumen content i s obtai ned, the Marshal l properti es at thi s average
are read from curves representi ng the mi x, as i n Figure 3-18. These val ues
are compared wi th the speci fi cati on l i mi ts i n Table 3-10 to eval uate the
sati sfactori ness of the mi x. The excepti ons al l owed when the val ues obtai ned
fai l to conform wi th the speci fi cati on l i mi ts gi ven i n the tabl e are shown i n
notes at the bottom of Table 3-10.
Modified Marshall Test for Cold-Mix Pavement
Thi s method i s used as an ai d i n determi ni ng the asphal t content for col d-mi x
desi gn of l i ght-duty pavement. I t can be used where asphal t cutbacks wi l l be
the bi nder. The procedure fol l ows those used for hot-mi x desi gn i n general ,
wi th the fol l owi ng modi fi cati ons:
Aggregates. These are dri ed to a moi sture content expected duri ng
constructi on (up to a maxi mum of 2 percent by wei ght).
Asphal t. The sel ected bi tumen i s mi xed wi th the aggregates, but at
the temperature recommended for fi el d appl i cati on. The aggregates
remai n at room temperature.
Curi ng. Before compacti on, the mi xture i s cured at l east 12 hours i n
an oven set at 140F 5.
Compacti on. After curi ng, the mi xture i s compacted at 140F usi ng 50
bl ows of the hammer at each end of the speci men.
Cool i ng. After mol di ng, the speci mens are cool ed to room temperature
i n the mol ds. Care must be taken to remove the speci mens,
undi sturbed and undamaged, from the mol ds.
Testi ng. The speci mens are heated i n an oven to 100F 2 and tested
i n the Marshal l machi ne. Heati ng wi l l normal l y take about 2 hours.
Desi gn amount of asphal t. The asphal t contents at maxi mum densi ty
and maxi mum stabi l i ty, after averagi ng, are used as the desi gn
amount.
Figure 3-75. Asphalt mix curves, Marshall test properties
S
A
M
P
L
E

Test Variations
These vari ati ons appl y to aggregates wi th 10 percent or more l arger than 1-i nch
maxi mum si ze. The procedure previ ousl y descri bed i s appl i cabl e where the
amount of aggregate l arger than the 1-i nch si eve i s l ess than 10 percent of the
total . When the +1-i nch materi al exceeds 10 percent of the total , the fol l owi ng
vari ati ons are made i n the procedure:
Table 3-19. Marshall test specifications and determination of optimum asphalt content
Property Course
Criteria Determination of OAC
75 Blows 50 Blows
High Press Low Press
**High Press Low Press
Aggregate blends showing water absorption up to 2 1/2 percent (used with ASTM apparent specific gravity)
Stability
Unit weight
Flow
Percent voids total mix
Percent voids filled w/AC
Surface
Surface
Surface
Surface
Surface
1,800 or higher
16 or less
3 to 5 percent
70 to 80 percent
500 or higher
20 or less
3 to 5 percent
75 to 85 percent
Peak of curve
Peak of curve
Not used
4 percent
75 percent
Peak of curve
Peak of curve
Not used
4 percent
80 percent
Stability
Unit weight
Flow
Binder
Binder
Binder
Binder
Binder
1,800 or higher
16 or less
5 to 7 percent
50 to 70 percent
500 or higher
20 or less
4 to 6 percent
65 to 75 percent
Peak of curve*
Peak of curve*
Not used
6 percent
60 percent
Peak of curve*
Peak of curve*
Not used
5 percent
70 percent*
Stability
Unit weight
Flow
Sand asphalt
Sand asphalt
Sand asphalt
Sand asphalt
Sand asphalt
**
**
**
**
500 or higher
20 or less
5 to 7 percent
65 to 75 percent
**
**
Not used
**
**
Peak of curve
Peak of curve
Not used
6 percent
70 percent
Aggregate blends showing water absorption greater than 2 1/2 percent (used with bulk-impregnated specific
gravity)
Stability
Unit weight
Flow
Surface
Surface
Surface
Surface
Surface
1,800 or higher
16 or less
2 to 4 percent
75 to 85 percent
500 or higher
20 or less
2 to 4 percent
80 to 90 percent
Peak of curve
Peak of curve
Not used
3 percent
80 percent
Peak of curve
Peak of curve
Not used
3 percent
85 percent
Stability
Unit weight
Flow
Binder
Binder
Binder
Binder
Binder
1,800 or higher
16 or less
4 to 6 percent
55 to 75 percent
500 or higher
20 or less
3 to 5 percent
70 to 80 percent
Peak of curve*
Peak of curve*
Not used
5 percent
65 percent
Peak of curve*
Peak of curve*
Not used
4 percent
75 percent
Stability
Unit weight
Flow
Sand asphalt
Sand asphalt
Sand asphalt
Sand asphalt
Sand asphalt
**
**
**
**
500 or higher
20 or less
4 to 6 percent
70 to 80 percent
**
**
Not used
**
**
Peak of curve
Peak of curve
Not used
5 percent
75 percent

*If the inclusion of bitumen contents at these points in the average causes the voids total
mix to fall outside the limits, then the optimum bitumen should be adjusted so that the voids
total mix are within the limits.
**Criteria for sand asphalt to be used in designing pavement for high-pressure tires have
not been established.
Mi x bi tumen at the sel ected content wi th the enti re aggregate,
i ncl udi ng the +1-i nch porti on.
Pass the mi xed hot batch through a 1-i nch si eve. Di scard the +1-i nch
porti on.
Make compacted speci mens from the porti on that passes the 1-i nch
si eve and perform the Marshal l test. Do not cal cul ate the voi ds of the
compacted speci mens at thi s ti me.
Determi ne the bul k speci fi c gravi ty of the +1-i nch aggregate and, wi th
the speci fi c gravi ty of the compacted speci mens, compute the adjusted
speci fi c gravi ty (G
A
) as fol l ows:
where
A =weight of dry, 1-inch material expressed as a percentage of the total
batch weight (bitumen plus aggregate)
B =portion of the total batch remaining after the dry, +1-inch portion is
removed (100 percent A percent)
C =bulk specific gravity of the +1-inch aggregate
D =actual specific gravity of the compacted specimen
f =empirical factor =0.995
Cal cul ate the voi ds by usi ng the adjusted speci fi c gravi ty and appl y
the desi gn cri teri a for thi s val ue.
Use stabi l i ty and fl ow val ues as measured on the compacted
speci mens.
SURFACE-AREA METHOD
The fol l owi ng approxi mati on formul as may be used for esti mati ng the
opti mum bi tumen content when the gradati on of the aggregate bl end i s
known. These esti mates must be consi dered rough approxi mati ons si nce the
opti mum bi tumen content i s a functi on of the compacti on effort as wel l as the
gr adati on and sur face area. The greater the anti ci pated pavement l oadi ng,
the gr eater the compacti on effor t that must be used. The gr eater the
compacti on effort for a gi ven aggregate, the l ower the opti mum bi tumen
content.
Asphalt Cement
Use the fol l owi ng formul a for asphal t cement, based on the surface area of the
aggregate:
P =0.02a +0.07b +0.15c +0.20d
where
P =percent of asphalt material by weight of dry aggregate
a =percent of mineral aggregate retained on the No. 50 sieve
G
A
100
A
C
--- -
B
D
---- +

f
---------------------------- =
b =percent of mineral aggregate passing the No. 50 and retained on the No.
100 sieve
c =percent of mineral aggregate passing the No. 100 and retained on the No.
200 sieve
d =percent of mineral aggregate passing the No. 200 sieve
NOTE: Express all percentages as whole numbers.
Asphalt Emulsion
Use the fol l owi ng formul a for asphal t emul si on, based on the surface area of
the aggregate:
where
P =percent by weight of asphalt emulsion, based on weight of graded mineral
aggregate
A =percent of mineral aggregate retained on the No. 8 sieve
B =percent of mineral aggregate passing the No. 8 sieve and retained on the
No. 200 sieve
C =percent of mineral aggregate passing the No. 200 sieve
NOTES:
1. Express all percentages as whole numbers.
2. Absorptive aggregate, such as slag, lime rock, vesicular lava, and
coral, will require additional asphalt.
J OB-MIX FORMULA
When the necessary l aboratory tests have been compl eted and the opti mum
bi tumen content has been determi ned, the job-mi x formul a must be
establ i shed for use by pl ant personnel produci ng the pavi ng mi x. Setti ng up
the job-mi x formul a i nvol ves the rel ati ve percentages of the avai l abl e
aggregate and the bi tumen. I n the mi x-desi gn test al ready i l l ustrated, the
opti mum content was found to be 4.7 percent of the total mi x. Accordi ngl y, the
aggregate porti on of the mi x wi l l be 95.3 percent of the total mi x. Referri ng to
the aggregate-bl end cal cul ati ons on DD Forms 1217 (see Figure 3-19) and
1207 (see Figure 3-20, pages 3-62 and 3-63), the porti ons were 45 percent
coarse aggregate, 30 percent fi ne aggregate, 20 percent fi ne ri ver-bar sand
(FRBS), and 5 percent l i mestone dust or mi neral fi l l er.
The job-mi x formul a i s then computed as fol l ows:
Coarse aggregate = 95.3 x 45 = 42.9 percent
Fi ne aggregate = 95.3 x 30 = 28.6 percent
FRBS = 5.3 x 20 = 19.0 percent
Mi neral fi l l er = 95.3 x 5 = 4.8 percent
Bi tumen = 4.7 percent
Total = 100.0 percent
P 0.05A 0.1B 0.5C + + =
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(
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Aggregate i s mi xed i n correct proporti ons for speci fi ed constructi on i n hi gh-
type bi tumi nous pavi ng pl ants and i ntermedi ate-type pl ants. The type of
pl ant used depends on proxi mi ty and the requi rements for the aggregate.
Laboratory procedures must be done to obtai n correct mi xes and must be
correl ated wi th producti on procedures. Proper control over al l procedures and
equi pment must be exerci sed to ensure qual i ty for each aggregate speci fi ed.
PLANT TYPES
Figures 3-21 and 3-22 are schemati c drawi ngs of a batch pl ant and a drum-
mi x pl ant.
HIGH-TYPE BITUMINOUS PAVING PLANT
I n the operati on of a hi gh-type bi tumi nous pavi ng pl ant, aggregates from two or
more sources are fed i nto the aggregate dryer i n the approxi mate proporti ons
requi red to produce the desi red gradati on. Thi s i ni ti al proporti oni ng usual l y i s
accompl i shed by means of a hopper-type feeder, operati ng from one or more
bi ns, whi ch feeds the aggregates i nto a col d el evator that del i vers them to the
dryer. The mechani cal feeder i s l oaded by a cl amshel l or other sui tabl e means.
SECTION VII. PLANT CONTROL

Figure 3-21. Bituminous hot-mix batch plant
Cold elevator Hot elevator
Oversize rejects
Screens
Mineral filler
Dust collector
Hopper
Aggregate scale
Pug mill
Weigh box
Bitumen scale
Bitumen storage tank
Dryer
Feeder
Fine sand
Coarse sand
Stone
They are heated to the desi red temperature. Upon l eavi ng the dryer, they
pass over vi brati ng screens where they are separated accordi ng to si ze. The
usual screeni ng equi pment for a three-bi n pl ant consi sts of a rejecti on
(scal pi ng) screen for el i mi nati ng oversi zed materi al and screens for di vi di ng
the coarse aggregate i nto two separate si zes (bi ns). Fi ne aggregate goes i nto
the thi rd bi n. An addi ti onal screen i s provi ded for separati ng the coarse
aggregate i n a four-bi n pl ant. Addi ti onal mi neral fi l l er, i f requi red, usual l y i s
stored and wei ghed or proporti oned i nto the mi x separatel y. I t may be
obtai ned from the pl ant's dust col l ector or from an external source. Pl ant
screens may be changed to provi de a vari ati on i n the si ze of openi ngs. The
si zes used depend l argel y on the type of mi xture bei ng produced. I n some
cases, i t may be necessary to change the si ze of the scr eens to obtai n a pr oper
bal ance of aggregate si zes i n each bi n.
The aggregates must be fed through the pl ant uni forml y, preferabl y by a
mechani cal feeder, to obtai n effi ci ent pl ant operati on and to produce a desi red
mi xture. I t i s usual l y necessary to make some sl i ght adjustments i n the pl ant-
bi n proporti ons, si nce a screen anal ysi s of the hot storage bi ns wi l l not enti rel y
dupl i cate the screen anal ysi s used i n the l aboratory desi gn. Thi s may resul t
from
Fi nes l ost whi l e passi ng through the dryer (unl ess the equi pment
i ncl udes an effecti ve dust col l ector and the fi nes are returned to the
mi x).
Aggr egate degradati on i n the dryer.
Pl ant screens that are not compl etel y effi ci ent i n the separati on of the
aggregate, wi th the resul t that some fi nes are carri ed over i nto the
coarser bi ns.
Separati on of materi al at hot bi ns i nto more or fewer fracti ons than
represented at stockpi l es.
Figure 3-22. Bituminous hot-mix continuous-mix plant
Automatic weighing system
Cold-feed conveyer
Hot-mix conveyor
Mix surge silo
Asphalt storage tank
Cold-feed bins
Asphalt pump
Drum mixer
Automatic weighing system
Cold-feed conveyer
Hot-mix conveyor
Mix surge silo

Asphalt storage tank
Cold-feed bins
Asphalt pump
Drum mixer
INTERMEDIATE-TYPE PLANTS
An i ntermedi ate-type pl ant does not have the refi nements of the hi gh-type
pl ant descri bed above. Such i tems as the gradati on control uni t, the dryer
uni t, and even the storage hoppers or bi ns may not be components of thi s type
of pl ant. The aggregates from stockpi l es or trucks are added di rectl y (i n
correct proporti on) i nto the el evator and then fed i nto the mi xer. Correcti ons
or changes i n the aggr egate pr opor ti ons must be made dur i ng the feed. I f a
dryer i s not part of the pl ant, adjustment to compensate for moi sture must be
anti ci pated and made external l y.
INITIATING PLANT PRODUCTION
The heavi est demands on l aboratory faci l i ti es ari se at the begi nni ng of pl ant
producti on. Prel i mi nary computati ons, whi ch provi de the gradati on for the
mi xture desi gn, may be made to determi ne the wei ght of materi al from each
bi n. The gradati on of aggregate suppl i ed by the pl ant accordi ng to computed
bi n wei ghts may not reproduce preci sel y the desi red gradati on. The gradati on
of the pl ant-produced aggr egates approxi mates the one used i n desi gn, wi thi n
reasonabl e tol erances, i f i ni ti al sampl i ng has been done properl y and i f the
pl ant i s operated effi ci entl y. Cer tai n steps shoul d be taken, however, to ensur e
that sati sfactory mi xtures are reproduced from the begi nni ng and throughout
the peri od of pl ant producti on. Procedures outl i ned i n thi s secti on wi l l ensure
sati sfactory pavi ng mi xtures.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
A si eve anal ysi s i s made on materi al from each pl ant bi n. Sampl es for these
si eve anal yses are obtai ned after a few tons of aggregate have been processed
through the dryer and screens so that the sampl e wi l l be representati ve.
Fi nal bi n proporti ons may be based on these si eve anal yses.
MIX REDESIGN
The aggregates from the bi ns someti mes cannot be proporti oned to
sati sfactori l y reproduce the gradati on of the aggregate used i n the l aboratory
desi gn. I t i s then necessary to redesi gn the mi x, usi ng pl ant-produced
aggregates. Speci mens are prepared and tested for the new desi gn i n the
same manner as for the ori gi nal . Thi s gi ves opti mum asphal t content and a
sati sfactory mi x produced by the pl ant. Occasi ons may ari se i n whi ch the
gradati on of the pl ant-produced aggregate wi l l di ffer from the l aboratory
desi gn so that part of the aggregates may be wasted. The mi x shoul d be
redesi gned to use al l of the avai l abl e aggregate. Suffi ci ent addi ti onal tests
shoul d be performed to establ i sh opti mum asphal t requi rements and ensure
that the mi x meets appl i cabl e cri teri a.
CONTROLLING PLANT PRODUCTION
Obtai n from each of the fi rst four truckl oads enough pavi ng mi x for the
preparati on of four test speci mens. Prepare the four speci mens from each of
these sampl es and compact and test them accordi ng to standard procedures
descri bed previ ousl y. Conduct the tests as rapi dl y as possi bl e, and del ay pl ant
producti on unti l data from these tests are avai l abl e. The data must conform
to fi nal desi gn data at the same asphal t content, wi thi n reasonabl e tol erances,
before pl ant producti on i s resumed. I f necessary, make adjustments to secure
a conformi ng mi x. Such procedures wi l l del ay pl ant producti on general l y l ess
than 2 hours and assur e producti on of sati sfactor y mi xes. As soon as the data
fr om the testi ng of the pl ant-pr oduced mi x are obtai ned, compar e i t wi th
correspondi ng desi gn data for further adjustments of the mi x, i f necessary.
Probabl e causes of pavi ng-mi xture defi ci enci es for both batch and conti nuous
mi xi ng pl ants are shown i n Figure 3-23. These defi ci enci es are observed at
the pl ant. Other i mperfecti ons and thei r causes that may be encountered i n
pl aci ng the mi x i n the pavement are gi ven i n Figure 3-24, page 3-68.
GYRATORY TEST CONTROL
The GSI of the i ndi vi dual test speci mens shoul d never exceed 1.05. The GSF
of the i ndi vi dual test speci mens shoul d never be l ess than 1.0. The average
val ue of the other test properti es for the four test speci mens from any gi ven
truckl oad shoul d not devi ate fr om the fi nal desi gn val ues by mor e than the
fol l owi ng amounts:
Uni t wei ght total mi x 1.5 pcf.
Gyratory shear (S
G
) 15 percent.
Figure 3-74. Probable causes of paving-mixture deficiencies detected at plant
Probable causes of deficiencies in hot plant-mix paving mixtures
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9
1
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5
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6
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8
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Types of deficiencies that
may be encountered in
producing hot plant-mix
paving mixtures
Bitumen content formula error
Gradation formula error
Poorly mixed loads
Fat, rich mixtures
Lean or burned mixtures
Mixture temperature error
Smoking loads
Steaming loads
Overweight or underweight loads
Lack of mixture uniformity
Items 6 to 23 inclusive are applicable to all types of plants. Items 1 to 5 inclusive and items 24 to 28 inclusive are
applicable to batch plants and volumetric plants respectively.

MARSHALL TEST CONTROL
The fl ow val ue of the i ndi vi dual test speci mens shoul d never exceed the
speci fi cati on l i mi ts and shoul d not vary more than two poi nts between
speci mens. The average val ue of the other test properti es for the four test
speci mens from any gi ven truckl oad shoul d be wi thi n the speci fi cati on l i mi ts
and not vary from the fi nal desi gn val ues by more than the fol l owi ng amounts:
Uni t wei ght total mi x 1.5 pcf
Marshal l stabi l i ty 5 percent.
Voi ds total mi x 0.5 percent.
No l i mi t i s pl aced on voi ds fi l l ed si nce control i s ensured by the l i mi tati ons on
voi ds total mi x.
Figure 3-74. Probable causes of imperfections encountered in laying pavement
Probable causes of imperfections in finished pavements
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Types of pavement imperfections
that may be encountered in
laying hot plant-mix paving
mixtures
Bleeding
Brown, dead appearance
Poor surface texture
Rough uneven surface
Uneven lateral joints
Uneven longitudinal joints
Roller marks
Pushing
Waves
Cracking
Honeycomb
Distortion
Tearing of surface during laying
Rich or fat spots
PLANT-CONTROL EXECUTION
Stop pl ant producti on i f the measured test properti es fai l to compl y wi th the
l i mi tati ons ci ted above. Resume producti on on a tri al basi s unti l the probl em
has been i sol ated and correcti ve measures have been taken. Smal l vari ati ons
i n aggregate quanti ti es usual l y do not change test properti es si gni fi cantl y,
whi l e smal l changes i n bi tumen content (a few tenths of a percent) can have a
very si gni fi cant effect on test properti es. I f troubl e i s i ndi cated, check al l
cal cul ati ons as a fi rst step. Check the total of the batch wei ghts dumped i nto
the truck agai nst the total l oad on the truck. These total wei ghts shoul d not
vary from each other by more than 2 percent.
I mproper wei ghi ng or faul ty scal es may be detected readi l y. Take correcti ve
measures by mai ntai ni ng a cl ose check on l oad wei ghts. Check pl ant scal es
and gate openi ngs and recal i brate them as necessary. Adjust scal es and
proporti oni ng devi ces found to be i naccurate. After checki ng the pl ant
components and maki ng the necessary adjustments, obtai n, sampl e, and test
four addi ti onal truckl oads of pl ant mi x. Do not pl ace the pl ant i n conti nuous
operati on unti l the test properti es conform to the speci fi cati ons and al l owabl e
tol erance. Once the pl ant has been pl aced i n conti nuous operati on, prepare
test speci mens from appr oxi matel y each 400 tons of mi x pr oduced.
CENTRIFUGAL-EXTRACTION METHOD (ASTM D 2172-88)
The procedure for control of pl ant producti on (based on the test properti es
obtai ned by usi ng the Marshal l apparatus or the GTM) may be suppl emented
by the determi nati on of asphal t content usi ng a centri fugal -extracti on
apparatus. The measured asphal t content i s compared wi th the opti mum
asphal t content previ ousl y establ i shed. Di screpanci es may be corrected by
pl ant adjustments, i f necessary. After the asphal t has been extracted, the
remai ni ng aggregates may be subjected to a si eve anal ysi s for compari son
wi th the previ ousl y sel ected aggregate gradati on. Correcti ons agai n may be
made i n the operati on of the pl ant, as necessary. The method i s al so used to
test tar or tar-rubber mi xes.
PURPOSE
Use the centri fugal -extracti on-devi ce method to determi ne the asphal t
content of a bi tumi nous pl ant mi xture.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems for thi s method:
A bal ance; 2,000-gram capaci ty.
A beaker; 600-mi l l i l i ter capaci ty.
A varni sh brush.
A graduate; 1,000-mi l l i l i ter gl ass.
Evaporati ng di shes.
A centri fugal extractor, hand-dri ven wi th pad.
A fi l ter ri ng (paper-basket type).
An el ectri c oven.
A baki ng pan.
Sol vent (tri chl oroethane); 5-gal l on can.
A spatul a.
A cooki ng spoon.
Cruci bl e tongs.
The Dul i n-Rotarex centri fugal -extracti on devi ce and rel ated equi pment are
shown i n Figure 3-25.
STEPS
The centri fugal -extracti on test may be performed on a representati ve sampl e
taken from an i ndi vi dual batch or on a composi te sampl e representi ng several
batches. Perform the fol l owi ng steps:
Step 1. Take four sampl es upon i ni ti ati on of the asphal t pl ant operati on, one
from each of the fi rst four trucks to l eave the pl ant. Del ay pl ant producti on
unti l the test i s compl ete. After the pl ant i s i n normal operati ons, obtai n a
sui tabl e composi te sampl e by combi ni ng sampl es taken every 4 hours or every
400 tons of producti on, whi chever comes fi rst. Do thi s by usi ng a shovel and
cutti ng compl etel y across the stream of hot mi xture as i t i s di scharged from
Figure 3-75. Dulin-Rotarex extraction equipment
Graduate, 1,000 ml
Dulin-Rotarex
centrifugal extractor
Beaker
Pan, 3-qt
Filter ring
Lid
the mi xer. Pl ace the hot sampl es i n a ti n pai l or other contai ner wi th a ti ght-
fi tti ng l i d unti l the l ast sampl e for the day i s taken.
Step 2. Heat the sampl e i n a pan on the hot pl ate or i n the oven unti l i t i s soft
enough to be easi l y di si ntegrated wi th a l arge spoon. Ensure that the
i ndi vi dual parti cl es of aggregate are not crushed.
Step 3. Prepare a representati ve sampl e by the quarteri ng method and al l ow
i t to cool . Wei gh not l ess than 650 grams of a sampl e contai ni ng parti cl es
smal l er than 1/2 i nch and pl ace i t i n the bowl of the extracti on devi ce. Record
the i ni ti al wei ght of the sampl e.
Step 4. Wei gh an oven-dri ed, gasket-type, fi l ter-paper ri ng and record the
wei ght. Fi t the fi l ter paper on the ri m of the bowl . Posi ti on the cover pl ate on
the bowl and securel y l ock i t i n pl ace. Pl ace the bowl on the shaft of the
extractor and fasten i t securel y.
Step 5. Pl ace the empty 1,000-mi l l i l i ter gl ass graduate under the spout of the
extracti on apparatus. Pour about 200 mi l l i l i ters of sol vent i nto the bowl
through the sol vent funnel . Sol vent fl owi ng through the weep hol es i ndi cates
a ful l bowl . Al l ow the sol vent to set i n the bowl for 10 to 15 mi nutes before
operati ng the equi pment.
Step 6. Put the l i d on and rotate the bowl by turni ng the hand crank unti l the
sol vent di scharges from the spout i n a thi n stream. After the fi rst charge i s
drai ned, remove the l i d and add more sol vent. Repl ace the l i d and rotate the
bowl agai n. Repeat thi s operati on several ti mes unti l the di scharged sol vent
i s cl ean. Wi th a l i ttl e experi ence, the operator can soon judge exactl y what
treatment i s necessary for any gi ven materi al .
Step 7. Remove the bowl when the l ast addi ti on of sol vent has dr ai ned off.
Careful l y di sassembl e the bowl and al l ow the bowl , the cover pl ate, and the
fi l ter ri ng to ai r-dry. After ai r-dryi ng, careful l y brush the sampl e out of the
bowl and off the cover pl ate i nto the prewei ghed tare. Oven-dry the sampl e
and the fi l ter ri ng at 230F 9 to a constant wei ght. Al l ow the sampl e and
fi l ter ri ng to cool i n a desi ccator. Wei gh the sampl e and record the wei ghts.
Step 8. Subtr act the wei ght of the cl ean aggregate, pl us the wei ght of any
mi neral fi l l er retai ned i n the fi l ter paper, from the wei ght of the ori gi nal
sampl e to determi ne the amount of asphal t extracted. Thi s val ue for the
amount of asphal t extracted i s subject to correcti on, dependi ng on the amount
of mi neral fi l l er contai ned i n the sol vent, as i ndi cated bel ow.
Step 9. Determi ne the amount of mi neral fi l l er that passed through the fi l ter
paper and i s contai ned i n the sol vent extract.
a. Measure and record the total amount of sol vent extract (vol ume, i n
mi l l i l i ters).
b. Agi tate the sol vent thoroughl y, and measure 100 mi l l i l i ters i nto a
prewei ghed evaporati ng di sh.
c. Pl ace the evaporati ng di sh on a hot pl ate and evaporate over l ow heat
unti l al l that remai ns i n the di sh i s a bl ack resi due.
a. Heat the resi due to a dul l -red ash (932 to 1,112F). A l aboratory
furnace or bl ow torch may be used to heat the resi due. The heati ng
process wi l l burn off any organi c matter (asphal t bi nder) remai ni ng i n the
resi due.
b. Al l ow the resi due to cool to room temperature once i t has become a
dul l -red gl owi ng ash.
c. Prepare a saturated sol uti on of ammoni um carbonate and add i t to the
ash i n the proporti ons of 5 mi l l i l i ters of sol uti on to 1 gram of ash
remai ni ng i n the di sh. (A saturated sol uti on of ammoni um carbonate i s
prepared by di ssol vi ng as much ammoni um carbonate i nto water as the
water can retai n. At 60F about 100 grams of ammoni um carbonate wi l l
di ssol ve i n 100 mi l l i l i ters of water.)
NOTE: Prepare the solution at room temperature since ammonium
carbonate decomposes at 135F. Allow the ammonium-carbonate
solution and ash mixture to stand for 1 hour. Oven-dry the mixture at
230F to a constant weight. After oven-drying, allow the mixture to
cool in a desiccator. Weigh the mixture (in the evaporating dish), and
the record the weight.
CALCULATIONS
Perform cal cul ati ons on DD Form 1793 as shown i n Figure 3-26.
SIEVE ANALYSIS OF AGGREGATE
The cl ean aggr egate may be subjected to si eve anal ysi s. The amount of
materi al passi ng the No. 200 si eve (mi neral fi l l er) i n the si eve anal ysi s must
be i ncreased by the wei ght of fi l l er retai ned i n the fi l ter-paper gasket and i n
the sol vent as determi ned i n the cal cul ati ons.
TESTING TAR OR TAR-RUBBER MIXES
For tar or tar-rubber mi xes, the above procedure shoul d be modi fi ed as fol l ows:
Soak the sampl e i n crystal -free creosote overni ght.
Transfer the soaked sampl e and creosote to the centri fugal apparatus
and centri fuge to remove the creosote.
Wash the sampl e wi th benzene unti l the sol vent i s a l i ght straw col or.
DENSITY TESTS
Densi ty test sampl es shoul d be taken and tests performed as often as
condi ti ons requi re, but at l east once for every 400 tons of mi x pl aced. To
obtai n a sati sfactory speci men, take the sampl es earl y i n the morni ng when
the pavement i s cool . Perform any addi ti onal rol l i ng requi red as a resul t of
the tests duri ng the heat of the day. Take the sampl e for testi ng from any
porti on of the bi tumi nous pavement, provi ded the area i s typi cal of pl aci ng
and rol l i ng condi ti ons.
A cori ng machi ne or concrete saw may be used for cutti ng out the sampl es.
Avoi d chopped or jack-hammered sampl es, i f possi bl e, as these are l i kel y to
devel op cracks or other di sturbances whi ch woul d l ead to erroneous resul ts.
Cut sampl es compl etel y through the thi ckness of the pavement and remove
them careful l y to avoi d damage. I n hot weather, i t may be necessary to chi l l
the area wi th i ce for 15 to 30 mi nutes before cutti ng out the sampl e.
When densi ty sampl es are taken from a surface course pl aced on a bi nder
course, i t i s practi cal l y i mpossi bl e to remove the speci men from the tacked
bi nder-course surface. To assi st i n removi ng sampl es of the surface course
from the bi nder course, sel ect the spot for the test before l ayi ng the surface
course. Pl ace a pi ece of wrappi ng paper about 18 i nches square on the spot
sel ected. On the si de of the project l east subject to constructi on traffi c, dri ve
two nai l s i nto the base or pavement a conveni ent di stance apart and an equal
di stance from the center of the paper so that you may readi l y l ocate the center
of the paper after the surface course i s l ai d. The rol l er shoul d not treat the
mi x pl aced over the paper any di fferentl y than the remai nder of the
pavement. The area of pavement over the paper i s smal l , and practi ce has
demonstrated that speci men densi ty secured by thi s method i s about the same
as the densi ty i n the surroundi ng pavement. You shoul d not use frames or
separators around the proposed sampl e.
Determi ne the bul k speci fi c gravi ty for each speci men and use the fol l owi ng
formul a to cal cul ate the speci mens densi ty:
where
D =density of specimen, in pcf
G
m
=bulk specific gravity of specimen
62.4 =density of water, in pcf
Compare the cal cul ated densi ty of the bi tumi nous pavement wi th the
densi ti es obtai ned duri ng the bi tumi nous-mi x desi gn and Marshal l stabi l i ty
tests. Normal l y, the fi el d densi ty must be at l east 95 percent of the maxi mum
densi ty cal cul ated i n the bi tumi nous-mi x desi gn. However, i ndi vi dual project
speci fi cati ons do vary, and the acceptabl e densi ty ranges must be veri fi ed for
each project. When the densi ty test on sampl es from the bi tumi nous
pavement show that the mi ni mum speci fi ed fi el d densi ty has not been
obtai ned, correct the defi ci ency by addi ti onal rol l i ng or remove and repl ace the
pavement. Where constant di ffi cul ty i s experi enced i n meeti ng the speci fi ed
densi ty, check the job-mi x formul a thoroughl y.
EXPEDITING THE DESIGN
When mi l i tary expedi ency demands i t, the prel i mi nary l aboratory mi x desi gns
are el i mi nated, and the mi x i s desi gned di rectl y from pl ant-produced
aggregates. I n such cases, the engi neeri ng offi cer wi l l , on the basi s of si eve
anal ysi s or other i nformati on or judgment, sel ect the most promi si ng of the
avai l abl e aggregates and start the pl ant usi ng thi s aggregate. As poi nted out
previ ousl y, i n nearl y al l cases the aggregate wi l l show some breakdown of the
parti cl es because of heati ng and screeni ng. Consequentl y, the gradi ng curve
for the materi al that has passed through the pl ant wi l l di ffer from the gradi ng
curve of the materi al before enteri ng the pl ant. Laboratory tests usi ng
aggregate from the pl ant bi ns combi ned i n the most desi rabl e proporti ons
must be conducted to determi ne the opti mum asphal t content (OAC).
D G
m
62.4 =
Manufacture of the pavi ng mi x then can be i ni ti ated. I f the avai l abl e
aggregate must be used, regardl ess of whether i t produces a mi x that meets
al l the desi gn cri teri a at OAC, the asphal t content shoul d be sel ected to gi ve a
mi x whi ch meets the cri teri a for fl ow and percent of voi ds i n the total mi x.
The cri teri a for stabi l i ty and percent of voi ds fi l l ed wi th asphal t i s gi ven l ess
consi derati on.
RETURN TO TOC
Concrete 4-1
Chapter 4
Concrete
Thi s chapter di scusses the testi ng of both fr esh and hardened concrete and
the constructi on materi al s used to mi x i t. These tests are performed to
ensure that the concrete meets desi gn requi rements before i t i s pour ed.
Si nce ther e are many factors that contri bute to the success of the fi ni shed
pr oduct, al l test methods must adhere to ASTM standards.
Further i nfor mati on on concrete types, components, desi gn, and uses i n
mi l i tary constructi on can be found i n FM 5-428.
Concrete i s one of the most economi cal , versati l e, and uni versal l y used
constructi on materi al s. I t i s one of the few bui l di ng materi al s that can be
pr oduced by the user di r ectl y on the job to meet the speci fi c r equi rements.
Concrete i s an arti fi ci al stone whi ch, when fi rst mi xed, forms a pl asti c or
putty-l i ke mi xture. Thi s mi xture can then be pl aced i nto a form and al l owed
to harden or cure for a prescri bed l ength of ti me. When cured, the fi ni shed
concrete i s a hard, stone-l i ke materi al . I t i s used for pavements, foundati ons,
dams and retai ni ng wal l s, bri dges, and bui l di ngs of al l types.
DESCRIPTION AND COMPONENTS
Concrete i s a mi xture of portl and cement, fi ne and coarse aggregates,
entrapped or entrai ned ai r, and water. Duri ng mi xi ng, the cement, ai r, and
water form a fl ui d paste that contri butes to thorough mi xi ng and effecti ve
pl acement of the concrete. The cement and water, when mi xed, combi ne
chemi cal l y to bi nd the aggregate parti cl es together. Thi s combi ni ng process
cal l ed hydrati onresul ts i n a rapi d devel opment of strength i n the fi rst few
hours after mi xi ng, fol l owed by l ess rapi d gai ns i n strength duri ng the
fol l owi ng weeks.
CEMENT
Cement i s a substance that hardens wi th ti me and hol ds or entraps objects or
parti cl es i n a defi ni te rel ati on to each other. For concrete, portl and cement
usual l y i s used.
Portl and cement i s a substance that when mi xed wi th water, hardens and
bi nds objects or parti cl es together to form concrete. Thi s process begi ns
i mmedi atel y and conti nues as l ong as moi sture and temperature condi ti ons
are favorabl e. As hydrati on conti nues, concrete becomes harder and stronger.
Most of the hydrati on takes pl ace duri ng the fi rst 30 days. Hydrati on can
conti nue wel l over 50 years but at a much sl ower rate. References to cement
i n thi s manual mean portl and cement. The ASTM speci fi es ei ght common
SECTION I. CHARACTERISTICS AND IDENTIFICATION
RETURN TO TOC
4-2 Concrete
types of portl and cement (ASTM C 150-97). These are adequate for most
purposes. The vari ous types of portl and cement are known as hydraul i c
cements because they are capabl e of hardeni ng and devel opi ng strength i n the
presence of water. These cements i ncl ude
Type I . Cement used for general constructi on when speci al properti es
for any other type are not requi red.
Type I A. Ai r-entrai ni ng cement used for the same purposes as Type I ,
except that ai r entrai nment i s desi red. Entrai ned ai r i mproves
workabi l i ty and provi des resi stance to frost acti on, freezi ng, and
thawi ng.
Type I I . Cement used for general purposes, especi al l y when moderate
sul fate resi stance or moderate heat of hydrati on i s desi red. I t has a
l ower heat of hydrati on than the normal Type I , generates heat at a
sl ower rate, and has i mproved resi stance to sul fate attack. Type I I
cement i s used i n l ocati ons where a hi gh temperature ri se i n the
concrete i s objecti onabl e, as i n structures of consi derabl e mass such as
l arge pi ers, heavy abutments, and heavy retai ni ng wal l s.
Type I I A. Ai r-entrai ni ng cement used for the same purposes as Type
I I , except that ai r entrai nment i s desi red.
Type I I I . Cement used when a hi gh strength i s needed qui ckl y. Thi s
may be due to a demand for earl y use or i n col d-weather constructi on
to reduce the peri od of protecti on agai nst l ow or freezi ng
temperatures.
Type I I I A. Ai r-entr ai ni ng cement used for the same pur poses as Type
I I I , except that ai r entrai nment i s desi red.
Type I V. Cement used when a l ow heat of hydrati on i s desi red to keep
the amount and rate of heat generated to a mi ni mum. Type I V
cement devel ops strength at a sl ower rate than Type I cement but
hel ps prevent the devel opment of hi gh temperatures i n the structure
wi th the attendant danger of thermal cracki ng l ater when i t cool s.
Type V. Cement used when hi gh sul fate resi stance i s desi red.
Sul fates react chemi cal l y wi th the cement compounds, causi ng
undesi rabl e expansi on of the mi xtur e. The sul fates may be present i n
the water used to mi x the concrete or may be created by sul furous
gases from nearby i ndustri al areas. The pri nci pal source of sul fate
attack, however, occurs on foundati ons and other concrete i n contact
wi th the earth i n certai n regi ons and i s caused by a reacti on between
the groundwater (contai ni ng di ssol ved reacti ve mi neral s or aci d) and
the hardened cement. Type V cement i s l ow i n cal ci um al umi nate and
i s hi ghl y resi stant to sul fate attack.
AIR-ENTRAINED CEMENT
Concrete made wi th ai r-entrai ned cement i s resi stant to severe frost acti on
and to sal ts used for i ce and snow removal . I n general , ai r entrai nment may
be control l ed to a much greater extent by usi ng admi xtures wi th normal
cements duri ng mi xi ng. Thi s combi nati on resul ts i n concrete wi th ti ny,
di stri buted and separated ai r bubbl es (up to mi l l i ons per cubi c foot). The
Concrete 4-3
entrai ned ai r bubbl es i mprove the workabi l i ty of fresh concrete. These
bubbl es reduce the capi l l ary and water-channel structure wi thi n water, whi ch
prevents the bui l dup of damagi ng water. Ai r-entrai ned concrete has greatl y
i ncreased durabi l i ty i n outdoor l ocati ons exposed to freezi ng weather. Each of
the fi rst three Types (I , I I , and I I I ) are avai l abl e as ai r-entrai ned. To si gni fy
thi s characteri sti c, a l etter A i s added after the type. For exampl e, a Type I I
cement wi th an ai r-entrai ned admi xture i s i denti fi ed as Type I I A.
WATER
Water pl ays an i mportant part i n the concrete mi x. I ts pri nci pal uses are to
make the mi x workabl e and to start the chemi cal reacti on. Any materi al i n
the water that retards or changes the reacti on i s detri mental . A good rul e of
thumb i s, "I f i t's good enough to dri nk, i t may be used for concrete.
Ordinary Water
The materi al s found i n some types of water i ncl ude organi c compounds, oi l ,
al kal i , and aci d. Each has an effect on the hydrati on process.
Organi c materi al and oi l . These compounds tend to coat the aggregate
and cement parti cl es and prevent the ful l chemi cal acti on and
adherence. The organi c materi al may al so react wi th the cement and
create a weakened cementi ng acti on, thus contri buti ng to
deteri orati on and structural fai l ure of the concrete.
Al kal i es, aci ds, and sul fates. Certai n l i mi ti ng amounts of these
chemi cal i mpuri ti es i n the water tend to react adversel y wi th the
cement. The resul t i s i nadequate cementi ng and weakened concrete.
Water must be substanti al l y free of these chemi cal s for use i n concrete
mi xi ng.
Sea Water
The sal ts i n sea water are normal l y thought of as bei ng corrosi ve. However,
sea water i s someti mes used for concrete mi xi ng wi th sati sfactory resul ts. A
10 to 20 percent l oss i n compressi ve strength can be expected when usi ng the
same amount of sea water as fresh water. Thi s can be compensated for
somewhat by reduci ng the water-cement rati o.
AGGREGATES
The aggregates commonl y used for concrete are natural deposi ts of sand and
gravel , where avai l abl e, or crushed stone. Crushed aggregate may cost more
to produce; however, thi s may be the onl y way to obtai n substanti al quanti ti es
of l arge-si zed stone. Arti fi ci al aggregates such as a bl ast-furnace sl ag or
speci al l y burned shal es and cl ays are used.
Aggregates are di vi ded i nto the fol l owi ng types:
Fi ne aggregate.
Coar se aggr egate.
When pr operl y pr opor ti oned and mi xed wi th cement, these two gr oups wi l l
yi el d an al most voi dl ess stone that i s strong and durabl e. Aggregate shoul d be
equal to or better i n strength and durabi l i ty than the hardened cement paste
i f i t i s to wi thstand the desi gn l oads and effects of severe weather.
4-4 Concrete
Fine Aggregates
Fi ne aggregates are the materi al that wi l l pass a No. 4 si eve and wi l l be
predomi nantl y retai ned on a No. 200 si eve. To i ncrease workabi l i ty and for
economy as refl ected by usi ng l ess cement, the fi ne aggregates shoul d have a
rounded shape. Thei r purpose i s to fi l l the voi ds between coarse-aggregate
parti cl es and to modi fy the concretes workabi l i ty. Thi s workabi l i ty
characteri sti c i s di scussed more i n the descri pti on of fi ni shed concrete.
Coarse Aggregates
Coarse aggregates are the materi al that wi l l be retai ned on a No. 4 si eve. I n
determi ni ng the maxi mum si ze of coarse aggregate, other factors must al so be
consi dered. The coarser the aggregate used, the more economi cal the mi x, as
aggregate costs l ess than cement. Larger pi eces offer l ess surface area of the
parti cl es than an equi val ent vol ume of smal l pi eces. Usi ng the l argest
permi ssi bl e maxi mum si ze of coarse aggregate permi ts a reducti on i n cement
and water requi rements. One restri cti on usual l y assi gned to coarse aggregate
i s i ts maxi mum si ze. Large pi eces can i nterl ock and form arches or
obstructi ons wi thi n a concrete form. Thi s restri cts the area bel ow to a voi d or
at best, fi l l s the area bel ow wi th the fi ner parti cl es of sand and cement. Thi s
i s ei ther a weakened area or a cement-sand concentrati on that does not l eave
enough mortar to coat the rest of the aggregate. The capaci ty of mi xi ng
equi pment, the spaci ng of rei nforcement, or the mi ni mum wi dth of forms
l i mi ts the maxi mum aggregate si ze. A l i sti ng of maxi mum si zes of coarse
aggregate i s i ndi cated i n Secti on I I of thi s chapter.
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
To combi ne the i ngredi ents correctl y and to form the requi red concrete, i t i s
essenti al to know the requi red physi cal properti es of both the pl asti c and the
hardened concrete. The hardened concrete must have the fol l owi ng
properti es:
Strength.
Durabi l i ty.
Waterti ghtness.
Workabi l i ty.
Consi stency.
Uni formi ty.
The qual i ty and character of the hardened concrete i s greatl y i nfl uenced by
the properti es of the mi x when i t i s pl asti c. To attai n opti mum qual i ty, the
pl asti c mi x must be uni form, consi stent, and workabl e. Thi s permi ts pl aci ng
the concrete wi thout devel opi ng segregati on, honeycombi ng, or other defects
i n fi l l i ng the forms or i n produci ng the desi red smooth, hard, and resi l i ent
surface.
STRENGTH
Strength i s the concretes abi l i ty to resi st a l oad i n compressi on, bendi ng, or
shear (see Secti ons I V and V of thi s chapter). The desi red desi gn strength i s
Concrete 4-5
obtai ned by proporti oni ng the mi xture wi th correctl y graded aggregates, an
adequate amount of cement to coat the surface area of the parti cl es, and the
proper amount of mi xi ng water. The most i mportant i nfl uenci ng factor on
strength i s the rati o of water to cement (W/C rati o). For pl asti c and workabl e
mi xes, l ower val ues of the W/C rati o gi ve hi gher strengths. Two and one-hal f
gal l ons of water i s the mi ni mum amount necessary to hydrate a sack of cement
adequatel y.
Thi s mi ni mal amount of water i s not suffi ci ent to economi cal l y provi de the
needed pl asti ci ty and workabi l i ty for freshl y mi xed concrete. Addi ti onal water
must be added to the mi xture to i mprove workabi l i ty but must be mi ni mi zed to
obtai n the desi red strength wi th an economi cal cement content. Addi ti onal
water thi ns the paste content and therefore coats more parti cl es. Thi s i ncreases
the yi el d from each sack of cement and produces a more economi cal mi x.
Excessi ve amounts of water (too hi gh a W/C rati o) weakens the paste by
al l owi ng the cement parti cl es to hydrate whi l e suspended i n water wi thout
bei ng i n contact wi th the aggregate or other cement parti cl es. Thi s water
eventual l y evaporates, l eavi ng hol es or voi ds i n the hardened concrete that
cause addi ti onal l osses i n strength. Mi ni mum and maxi mum amounts of water
are speci fi ed to assure an economi cal mi x wi th no l oss i n strength. Thi s ranges
from 4 to 8 gal l ons per sack of cement (94 pounds).
DURABILITY
Durabi l i ty i s the concretes abi l i ty to resi st the el ements of weatheri ng and
l oadi ng. The pri mary el ements affecti ng concrete are wi nd, abrasi on, freezi ng
and thawi ng, wetti ng and dryi ng, and the chemi cal acti on of sal ts. As the W/C
rati o i s i ncreased (4 gal l ons per sack), more voi ds devel op i n the hardened
concrete. Therefore, more surface area i s avai l abl e for the detri mental
el ements to attack, resul ti ng i n a l ess-durabl e structure. Weak or easi l y
crushed rock or other mi neral parti cl es that break down under appl i ed l oads
i ntroduce i nternal stresses that cause a breakdown of the concrete. Rocks or
mi neral parti cl es that are absorpti ve or suscepti bl e to swel l i ng when
saturated wi l l deteri orate when subjected to severe weather condi ti ons.
Freezi ng moi sture causes expansi on stresses that can easi l y rupture
absorpti ve rocks. Rocks swol l en from the sun's radi ant heat and then
subjected to shri nkage from sudden cool i ng by rai n or temperature drop may
break down from the severe weatheri ng. The concrete aggregate must
wi thstand al l these forces of nature.
WATERTIGHTNESS
A wel l -mi xed, wel l -proporti oned concrete presents a sol i d surface to prevent
water penetrati on. Superfi ci al voi ds permi t some water to enter bel ow the
concretes surface but the water soon meets a dense, sol i d mass that prevents
further penetrati on. As the W/C rati o i s i ncreased, the excess water forms
more hol es or voi ds that eventual l y i nterconnect to form channel s i nto and
throughout the concrete. The end resul t i s a more porous concrete that
permi ts water to pass. For waterti ghtness, 6 gal l ons of water or l ess per sack
of cement wi l l meet the requi rement.
4-6 Concrete
WORKABILITY
Workabi l i ty i s the rel ati ve ease of di ffi cul ty of pl aci ng and consol i dati ng
concrete. I t i s control l ed pri mari l y by the amount of each aggregate i n
proporti on to a gi ven quanti ty of cement paste. As more aggregate i s added to a
gi ven amount of paste, the mi xture becomes harsh and sti ff. The i ncreased
sti ffness makes i t more di ffi cul t to work the concrete i nto the forms and around
the rei nforci ng bars. The consi stency needed depends on the condi ti ons under
whi ch the concrete must be pl aced and fi ni shed. Very dry and sti ff mi xtures
may be pl aced i n most si tuati ons where hi gh-frequency vi brati ons are used to
assi st i n consol i dati ng and compacti ng fresh concrete. I n other si tuati ons,
di ffi cul t pl aci ng condi ti ons may requi re a more fl ui d concrete mi xture to fi l l
narrow forms and to fl ow around rei nforcement.
CONSISTENCY
Concrete i s a fl ui d mi xture contai ni ng parti cl es of di fferent si ze, shape, and
mass. Heavi er parti cl es have a tendency to settl e out through the mi xture
faster than l i ghter parti cl es. Often the resul t i s a segregated mi xture of a very
poor qual i ty. When concrete i s properl y proporti oned and mi xed and careful l y
handl ed, segregati on i s hel d to a mi ni mum. The mi xture must have the
proper proporti on of cement/sand mortar to prevent the l arger coarse-
aggregate parti cl es from separati ng from the batch duri ng mi xi ng,
transporti ng, and pl aci ng. When cement i s al l owed to drop (free fal l ) over a
consi derabl e di stance, i t can cause segregati on of the mi xture. To mi ni mi ze
segregati on for drops i n excess of 3 to 5 feet, bottom dump buckets shoul d be
used to pl ace concrete as cl ose to the fi nal l ocati on as possi bl e. See TM 5-742
for constructi on procedures.
UNIFORMITY
Uni formi ty refers to a si ngl e batch of concrete and to al l batches for an enti re
project. The same amount of each i ngredi ent shoul d be mi xed i nto each batch
or a nonuni form structure wi l l resul t. Desi gn woul d not be met i n al l secti ons
of the structure and possi bl e fai l ure of these secti ons coul d resul t. Proper
supervi si on i n mi xi ng and handl i ng of the concrete ensures uni formi ty.
CONCRETE CURING
Concrete does not devel op i ts ful l strength unti l the chemi cal process of curi ng
(hydrati on) i s compl ete. Cement must have suffi ci ent water to conti nue i ts
hydrati on. Curi ng i s the means of keepi ng water avai l abl e so the hydrati on
can conti nue. The curi ng process takes pl ace over an extended peri od. The
most cri ti cal ti me i s the fi rst 7 days. The extent and rate of curi ng depends on
the
Temperature wi thi n the concrete.
Presence of moi sture.
TEMPERATURE
The i deal temperature for concrete work i s between 55 and 70F. Above thi s
temperature, rapi d evaporati on of moi sture creates seri ous probl ems such
as
Concrete 4-7
I ncreased water demand.
Sl ump l oss.
Decreased setti ng ti me.
I ncreased tendency for pl asti c shri nkage cracki ng.
The hydrati on process i s del ayed at l ower temperatures. Temperatures bel ow
32F compl etel y stop the hydrati on process. Si nce the chemi cal reacti on gi ves
off some heat, proper methods must be used to keep the heat wi thi n the
structure duri ng ti mes of l ow temperatures. Col d-weather constructi on may
requi re heati ng the i ndi vi dual i ngredi ents or the concrete and coveri ng the
empl aced concrete or provi di ng a heated encl osure. I n hot weather, extra care
i s requi red to prevent a hi gh temperature ri se and rapi d dryi ng of the fresh
concrete. Sprayi ng the aggregate stockpi l es wi th cool water hel ps l ower the
concrete temperature. To keep the water as cool as possi bl e, refl ecti ve whi te
or al umi num pai nt i s appl i ed to the water suppl y l i nes and storage tanks.
On massi ve constructi on projects, such as dams and heavy retai ni ng wal l s, the
mi xi ng water i s often kept cool by substi tuti ng i ce for part of the mi xi ng water.
The i ce must be mel ted by the ti me the concrete i s ful l y mi xed and i s ready to
l eave the mi xer. Large voi ds resul t from unmel ted i ce i n the concrete. Cement
repl acement materi al s (such as pozzol ans and di atomaceous earth, pumi ci tes,
or fl y ash) may be used to depress concrete temperature by reduci ng the heat
of hydrati on i n a structure. However, pozzol ans vary wi del y and may have
adverse effects on strength, ai r content, and durabi l i ty i f used i n excessi ve
amounts.
MOISTURE
Concrete curi ng depends on a chemi cal reacti on i n the presence of water.
Moi sture l ost duri ng the curi ng processby seepage or evaporati ondel ays
or prevents a compl ete hydrati on of the cement and ul ti matel y prevents the
devel opment of opti mum strength and waterti ghtness. Saturati ng the
subgrade on whi ch the concrete wi l l be pl aced wi l l del ay, i f not prevent,
seepage from occurri ng. I mpervi ous membranes (pl asti c or pol yethyl ene
sheets) can al so be used to prevent seepage through the subgrade. Wood
forms shoul d be thoroughl y wetted i f they have not been otherwi se treated
wi th a moi sture seal er.
One method of reduci ng evaporati on i s to cover the concrete wi th a materi al
such as straw, burl ap, pl asti c, or a sprayed-on chemi cal curi ng compound as
soon after fi ni shi ng as possi bl e. The preferred method of curi ng i s by usi ng
conti nuous sprays and fl owi ng or ponded water after the concrete has set
i ni ti al l y so i t does not damage the fi ni sh. Thi s water appl i cati on can al so be
part of the temperature control duri ng col d- and hot-weather concreti ng. The
i ncrease of the concretes compressi ve strength wi th age i s shown by the
curves i n Figure 4-1, page 4-8. Note the l ong-ti me gai n i n strength that occurs
when proper temperature and moi sture condi ti ons are mai ntai ned.
CONCRETE ADMIXTURES
Chemi cal agents or admi xtures are avai l abl e for al most any purpose such as
i ncreasi ng workabi l i ty, durabi l i ty, and strength or compensati ng for
i nadequate curi ng condi ti ons.
4-8 Concrete
ACCELERATORS
Someti mes i t i s desi rabl e to accel erate the hydrati on process to obtai n a hi gh-
earl y strength and a hi gh rate of heat producti on. Thi s combi nati on i s useful
for col d-weather concreti ng operati ons. The addi ti on of a chemi cal
accel erati ng admi xture (general l y cal ci um chl ori de) to the concrete mi xture
produces the desi red reacti ons. The recommended maxi mum dosage for
cal ci um chl ori de i s 2 percent by wei ght of cement. The ul ti mate strength of
concrete wi l l be sl i ghtl y l ower wi th the use of an accel erator.
RETARDERS
Retarders are used when excessi vel y hi gh heat or too-rapi d setti ng of concrete
wi l l prevent ful l hydrati on of the cement. Many materi al s retard the setti ng
of concrete, but the most common i s hydroxyl ated carboxyl i c aci d sal ts. Sugar
has al so been used qui te successful l y.
AIR-ENTRAINING AGENTS
The greatest i mprovement i n waterti ghtness and resi stance to the di srupti ve
acti on of freezi ng and thawi ng i s obtai ned by i ncorporati ng 4 to 7.5 percent by
vol ume of entrai ned ai r i nto the concrete. Workabi l i ty of fresh concrete i s al so
Figure 4-1. Increase of compressive strength with curing age
Compressive strength
(percent)
In air after 7 days
In air after 3 days
In air entire time
Moist-cured entire time
150
125
10
75
50
25
0
3 7 28
2
28 90
Age, in days
180
125
Concrete 4-9
enhanced by entrai ni ng ai r. Soaps, oi l s, aci ds, wood resi ns, al kal i sal ts, fi ne
pozzol ans, and several propri etary compounds are avai l abl e for use as ai r-
entrai ni ng admi xtures wi th hydraul i c cement. These agents form very smal l ,
uni forml y spaced, di screte ai r voi ds that rel i eve the bui l dup of damagi ng
pressures from the expansi on of freezi ng water i nto i ce.
WATER REDUCERS (PLASTICIZERS)
The concretes workabi l i ty i s governed by the proporti ons of cement, water,
and aggregate i n a concrete mi xture. When a reducti on of aggregate or an
i ncrease i n cement i s i mpracti cal , the concretes workabi l i ty can be i ncreased
by addi ng a water-reduci ng admi xture or pl asti ci zer. Another pri mary
characteri sti c i s the strength gai ned from a decreased water demand. Less
water i s requi red for the same workabi l i ty, whi ch l eads to a l ower W/C rati o,
and therefore hi gher strength. Water requi rements may be reduced as much
as 10 percent for most water-reduci ng admi xtures. Ai r-entrai ni ng agents are
al so consi dered as pl asti ci zers because the voi d system reacts as a l ubri cant i n
concrete.
Aggr egate used i n mi xi ng concr ete i s a mi xture of fi ne and coar se mater i al ,
usual l y sand wi th ei ther natur al gr avel or crushed r ock. I t ser ves as an
i ner t fi l l er to pr ovi de the bul k mater i al r equi r ed. Wel l -gr aded aggr egates
contai n par ti cl es of al l si zes, from the l ar gest per mi tted by the di mensi on of
the member to be for med to sand fi nes. The smal l er par ti cl es fi l l the spaces
between the l ar ger par ti cl es, thus pr ovi di ng a dense mater i al that r equi r es a
mi ni mum of cement paste for bi nder. The aggr egate mater i al s must be cl ean
and har d, r esi st weather i ng, and have no unfavor abl e reacti on wi th the
cement.
An aggr egate must pr ovi de maxi mum str ength and dur abi l i ty i n a concr ete
mi xtur e. Fi neness, coar seness, and aggr egate gr adati on ar e factor s
consi der ed when deri vi ng the corr ect concr ete mi x for a speci fi c constr ucti on
pur pose. Speci fi c gr avi ty, absorpti on, and moi stur e al so affect the
aggr egates abi l i ty to bi nd wel l wi th cement and water i n a concr ete mi x.
The components of the fi nal mi x (cement, water, and aggr egate) must bond
adequatel y for structur al str ength and must r esi st weather and l oads.
Cor r ect aggr egate sel ecti on al so r educes the projects cost. An engi neer i ng
anal ysi s deter mi nes the aggr egate best sui ted for a par ti cul ar pur pose.
Testi ng al l ows the best sel ecti on.
For the aggr egate tests to be wor thwhi l e, the sampl es for testi ng must be
r epr esentati ve of the aggr egates to be used. Take aggr egate sampl es as cl ose
as possi bl e to the fi ni shed product to gi ve the best r epr esentati ve sampl e of
the aggregate. Take a suffi ci ent si ze and number of sampl es fr om the
pr ocessi ng-pl ants di schar ge poi nt to r epr esent the mater i al i n the stockpi l e.
The sampl e shoul d consi st of at l east four ti mes as much materi al as i s
needed for the tests and shoul d be r educed to the desi r ed si ze through
spl i tti ng and or quar ter i ng the sampl e. Mi ni mum sampl e si zes can be found
i n Table 4-1, page 4-10.

SECTION II. AGGREGATE TESTING
4-10 Concrete
STOCKPILE SAMPLING (ASTM D 75-87)
I t i s di ffi cul t to ensur e that unbi ased sampl es ar e obtai ned from stockpi l es.
Thi s i s due to the segr egati on that often occurs when mater i al i s stockpi l ed,
wi th coar ser par ti cl es r ol l i ng to the outsi de base of the pi l e. For coar se or
mi xed coar se and fi ne aggr egates, ever y effor t shoul d be made to enl i st the
servi ces of power equi pment to devel op a separate, smal l sampl i ng pi l e
composed of mater i al s dr awn fr om sever al i ncr ements.
When power equi pment i s not avai l abl e, take sampl es fr om at l east thr ee
i ncr ementsfr om the top thi r d, the mi dpoi nt, and the bottom thi r d of the
pi l e. Shove a boar d ver ti cal l y i nto the pi l e just above the sampl i ng poi nt to
pr event fur ther segr egati on. When sampl i ng fi ne-aggregate stockpi l es,
r emove the outer sur face befor e taki ng the sampl e.
Take sampl es fr om near the top, mi ddl e, and bottom of the stockpi l e and
r ecombi ne them to r epr esent thei r par ti cul ar stockpi l e. Push a boar d i nto
the stockpi l e just above the poi nts of sampl i ng to pr event the materi al above
the sampl i ng poi nts fr om fal l i ng i nto the sampl e and causi ng si ze
contami nati on.
Pi t sampl es are sour ces of sand and gravel . Sampl e them by channel i ng
exposed faces or channel i ng i n pi ts i f exposur es are not avai l abl e. Take care
to ensur e that the sampl es i ncl ude onl y mater i al s that ar e bel ow the
over bur den or str i p zone.
GRADATION DETERMINATION
Gr adati on of aggr egate r efer s to the di str i buti on of par ti cl es of aggr egate
among var i ous si zes. Aggr egates havi ng a smooth gr adi ng curve and nei ther
Table 4-1. Minimum sample sizes
Nominal Maximum Size Minimum Weight of Test Sample
mm in kg lb
12.5 or less 1/2 or less 2 4.4
19.0 3/4 3 6.6
25.0 1 4 8.8
37.5 1 1/2 5 11.0
50.0 2 8 18.0
63.0 2 1/2 12 26.0
75.0 3 18 40.0
90.0 3 1/2 25 55.0
100.0 4 40 88.0
112.0 4 1/2 50 110.0
125.0 5 75 165.0
150.0 6 125 276.0
Concrete 4-11
a defi ci ency nor an excess of any one par ti cl e si ze usual l y pr oduces mi xtur es
wi th fewer voi ds between parti cl es. A too-l ar ge propor ti on of coar se
aggr egate l eaves voi ds that r equi r e mor e cement paste to fi l l . Thi s affects
the economy of the mi x. Too much fi ne aggr egate i ncr eases the amount of
sur face area that must be coated wi th cement paste. Thi s may weaken the
concrete and i s uneconomi cal . Good gr adati on r esul ts i n
A dense mass of concrete wi th a mi ni mum vol ume of voi ds.
An economi cal mi x.
A strong structure.
Opti mum str ength, water ti ghtness, and dur abi l i ty i n the har dened concr ete
r equi r e car eful contr ol of aggr egate gr adati on.
A gr adati on or si eve anal ysi s i ndi cates whether an aggr egates par ti cl e-si ze
di str i buti on meets the pr ojects requi r ements. Dense aggregates can r esul t
i n a concr ete that i s denser and str onger and mor e economi cal , water ti ght,
and r esi stant. See ASTM C 136-90 for anal ysi s methods and Table 4-2 and
Tables 4-3 and 4-4, page 4-12, for r ecommended si ze and gr adati on l i mi ts.
APPARATUS, TEST PROCEDURES, AND CALCULATIONS
The apparatus, test procedures, and cal cul ati ons requi red to determi ne the
gradati on of aggregate for portl and-cement concrete are the same as
expl ai ned for si eve anal ysi s, except that the No. 4 si eve i s taken as the
di vi di ng l i ne between fi ne and course aggregates. The mi ni mum sampl e si ze
requi red i n the si eve anal ysi s of fi ne aggregate i s 500 grams. The resul t of
thi s test i s a gradati on curve for the aggregate concerned.
MATERIAL FINER THAN .075 MILLIMETERS (NO. 200 SIEVE)
The extremel y fi ne mi neral materi al (cl ay, si l t, dust, or l oam) occurri ng i n
most aggregates requi res rel ati vel y l arge i ncreases i n the amounts of mi xi ng
water. Fi nes tend to work to the surface of concrete and cause cracki ng upon
dryi ng, due to shri nkage. I f the fi nes adhere to the l arger aggregate parti cl es,
they al so tend to i nterfere wi th the bond between the aggregate parti cl es and
cement-water paste. Speci fi cati ons l i mi t the amount of such materi al to a
smal l percentage. ASTM C 117-95 gi ves the standard test method for fi ne
Table 4-2. Maximum recommended size of coarse aggregate
Structure
Minimum Dimension (Inches)
2 1/2 to 5 6 to 11 12 to 29 30 or More
Reinforced walls, beams, and columns 1/2 to 3/4 3/4 to 1 1/2 1 1/2 to 3 1 1/2 to 3
Unreinforced walls 3/4 1 1/2 3 6
Slabs, heavily reinforced 3/4 to 1 1 1/2 1 1/2 to 3 1 1/2 to 3
Slabs, lightly reinforced 3/4 to 1 1/2 1 1/2 to 3 3 3 to 6
NOTE: Maximum size not to exceed 1/5 of minimum dimension of a wall or similar structure,
1/3 of slab thickness for horizontal slab, or 3/4 of minimum clear spacing between reinforcing
bars
4-12 Concrete
materi al s. The apparatus, test procedures, and cal cul ati ons to determi ne thi s
percentage are descri bed i n the test for i mpuri ti es. Fi ne materi al , not to
exceed 3 to 5 percent of the total aggregate wei ght, i s general l y not harmful to
concrete. For some purposes, a smal l amount of such fi nes may i mprove the
workabi l i ty.
Table 4-3. Desirable gradation for coarse aggregate in concrete
Percent Passing Indicated Sieve
Nominal
Sieve Size
(Inches)
4 3 1/2 3 2 1/2 2 1 1/2 1 3/4 1/2 3/8 No. 4
3 1/2 to 1 1/2 100
90 to
100
25 to
60
0 to
15
0 to 5
2 1/2 to 1 1/2 100
90 to
100
35 to
70
0 to
15
0 to 5
2 to 1 100
90 to
100
35 to
70
0 to
15
0 to 5
2 to No. 4 100
95 to
100
35 to
70
10 to
30
0 to 5
1 1/2 to 3/4 100
90 to
100
20 to
55
0 to
15
0 to 5
1 1/2 to No. 4 100
95 to
100
35 to
70
10 to
30
0 to 5
1 to No. 4 100
95 to
100
25 to
60
0 to
10
3/4 to No. 4 100
90 to
100
20 to
55
0 to
10
1/2 to No. 4 100
90 to
100
40 to
70
0 to
15
3/8 to No. 4 100
85 to
100
10 to
30
Table 4-4. Desirable gradation for fine aggregate in concrete
Sieve Size
US Standard
Percent by Weight
Passing
4 95 to 100
8 80 to 100
10 75 to 95
16 50 to 85
20 40 to 75
30 25 to 60
40 20 to 50
50 10 to 30
60 10 to 25
100 2 to 10
Concrete 4-13
FINENESS MODULUS
Fi neness modul us i s an empi ri cal factor that gi ves a rel ati ve measure of the
proporti onal parti cl e-si ze di stri buti on of an aggregates fi ne and coarse
parti cl es. The fi neness modul us does not represent any gradati on of the
materi al al though the process i s si mi l ar. A 500-gram sampl e of sand i s si eved
through a seri es of si eves (No. 4, 8, 16, 30, 50, and 100). The wei ght retai ned
on each si eve i s converted i nto a cumul ati ve wei ght and a cumul ati ve
percentage retai ned, starti ng wi th the No. 4 si eve. The sum of the 6
percentages di vi ded by 100 i s the fi neness modul us. Another procedure for
determi ni ng the fi neness modul us i s cal cul ated usi ng the cumul ati ve
percentage passi ng, the usual means of expressi ng aggregate gradati on. The
total number of si eves i nvol ved ti mes 100 mi nus the sum of the cumul ati ve
percentage passi ng and di vi ded by 100 gi ves the fi neness modul us. The
fi neness-modul us val ues range from 2.20 for fi ne aggregate to 7.50 for coarse
aggregate. Typi cal val ues are 2.70 for fi ne aggregate, 7.40 for coarse
aggregate, and 5.80 for 35 to 65 fi ne-coarse combi nati on. Fi neness-modul us
ranges for fi ne aggregate are shown i n Table 4-5.
TESTS FOR SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ABSORPTION, AND SURFACE
MOISTURE
Perform tests for speci fi c gravi ty, absorpti on, and surface moi sture on the
aggregates before maki ng the necessary cal cul ati ons to desi gn the concrete
mi xture. For aggregates used i n portl and-cement concrete, measure to
determi ne the bul k speci fi c gravi ty of the aggregates i n a saturated, surface-
dry (SSD) condi ti on. Thi s i s the condi ti on i n whi ch the pores i n each
aggregate parti cl e are fi l l ed wi th water and no excess water i s on the parti cl e
surface. When used i n concrete, thi s moi sture condi ti on of an aggregate can
be defi ned as nei ther absorbi ng water from nor contri buti ng water to the
concrete mi xture. Speci fi c gravi ty i s thus based on determi ni ng the total
vol ume occupi ed by the aggregate parti cl es, i ncl udi ng the permeabl e pore
space. Absorpti on and surface-moi sture determi nati ons are necessary to
cal cul ate the amount of mi xi ng water used i n a concrete mi xture.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND ABSORPTION OF COARSE AGGREGATE (ASTM C 127-88)
Thi s test method covers the speci fi c gravi ty and absorpti on of coarse
aggregate. The speci fi c gravi ty may be expressed as bul k speci fi c gravi ty, bul k
speci fi c gravi ty SSD, or apparent speci fi c gravi ty.
Table 4-5. Fineness-modulus ranges for fine aggregates
Fineness Modulus Designation
2.3 to 2.6 Fine sand
2.6 to 2.9 Medium sand
2.9 to 3.1 Coarse sand
4-14 Concrete
Equipment
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to perform tests for bul k speci fi c gravi ty SSD, percent
absorpti on, and surface moi sture:
A bal ance, sensi ti ve to 0.5 gram, capabl e of suspendi ng the sampl e
contai ner i n water from the center of the wei ghi ng pl atform or pan of
the wei ghi ng devi ce.
A wi re sampl e basket or a bucket wi th a 4- to 7-l i ter capaci ty for 1 1/2 -
i nch or smal l er aggregate and a l arger basket or bucket for l arger
aggregate si zes.
A water tank l arge enough to hol d the basket.
A pycnometer, 2 to 3 cubi c feet.
A heat source (oven or hot pl ate).
A metal sampl e contai ner.
A metal spatul a.
An absorbent towel .
Steps
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the bul k speci fi c gravi ty of coarse
aggregate i n an SSD condi ti on:
Step 1. Wash a representati ve sampl e over the No. 4 si eve to obtai n a sampl e
si ze accordi ng to Table 4-1, page 4-10.
Step 2. Dry the sampl e to a constant wei ght at 110C + 5.
Step 3. Al l ow the sampl e ti me to cool to 50C, i mmerse i t i n water, and al l ow
i t to soak at room temperature for 24 hours.
Step 4. Remove the sampl e from the water and rol l i t i n a l arge, absorbent
cl oth unti l al l vi si bl e fi l ms of water are removed. The surfaces of the parti cl es
wi l l sti l l appear to be sl i ghtl y damp. The l arger fragments may be wi ped
i ndi vi dual l y. The aggregate sampl e i s now i n an SSD condi ti on. Wei gh the
sampl e i n ai r i n i ts SSD condi ti on. Record thi s and subsequent wei ghts to the
nearest 0.5 gram on DD Form 1208.
Step 5. Pl ace the wei ghed SSD sampl e i mmedi atel y i n the wi re basket
contai ner. Determi ne i ts wei ght i n water at 23C + 1.7. Shake the basket or
contai ner whi l e i t i s i mmersed to remove any entrapped ai r. Thi s wei ght i s
the i mmersed wei ght (or wei ght i n water).
Step 6. Cal cul ate the bul k speci fi c gravi ty i n an SSD condi ti on as fol l ows:
where
B =weight, in grams, of SSD sample in air
C =weight, in grams, of SSD sample in water
B
B C
-------------
Concrete 4-15
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE AGGREGATE (ASTM C 128-93)
Thi s test method covers the speci fi c gravi ty and absorpti on of fi ne aggregate.
The speci fi c gravi ty of fi ne aggregate may be expressed as bul k speci fi c
gravi ty, bul k speci fi c gravi ty SSD, or apparent speci fi c gravi ty. For thi s test
method, fi ne aggregate i s defi ned as materi al smal l er than the No. 4 si eve and
l arger than the No. 200 si eve.
Equipment
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to perform thi s test:
A pycnometer; 500-mi l l i l i ter.
A mol d; metal -frustum (hal f-cone brass mol d) water-absorpti on cone.
A metal fl at-head tamper.
Steps
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the bul k speci fi c gravi ty of fi ne
aggregate i n an SSD condi ti on:
Step 1. Obtai n a representati ve sampl e wei ghi ng about 1,000 grams.
Step 2. Dry the sampl e to a constant wei ght at 110C.
Step 3. Cool the sampl e to a comfortabl e handl i ng temperature. I mmerse i t
i n water, and al l ow i t to soak for 24 + 4 hours.
Step 4. Decant the excess water careful l y, ensuri ng that no l oss of fi nes
occurs. Spread the sampl e on a fl at, nonabsorbent surface and sti r i t to obtai n
uni form dryi ng. Conti nue dryi ng the sampl e unti l i t approaches a surface-dry
condi ti on.
Step 5. Pl ace the metal frustum water-absorpti on cone (hal f-cone brass mol d,
see Figure 4-2) wi th the l arge openi ng down on a smooth surface and fi l l i t
l oosel y wi th the aggregate. Li ghtl y tamp the sur face (rai se the metal tamper
about 5 mi l l i meters and al l ow i t to fal l under i ts own wei ght) of the aggregate
25 ti mes wi th the metal tamper.
Figure 4-2. Water-absorption cone and tamping rod
4-16 Concrete
Step 6. Remove the l oose sand from around the base and l i ft the mol d
verti cal l y. The fi ne aggregate i s at the SSD condi ti on when i t sl i ghtl y sl umps
when you l i ft the mol d. I f the materi al does not sl ump, conti nue the dryi ng,
accompani ed by constant sti rri ng. Repeat the cone tests at frequent i nterval s
unti l the cone of fi ne arti l l ery sl umps sl i ghtl y upon removal of the water-
absorpti on cone.
Step 7. Wei gh 500 + 10 grams of the SSD sampl e, and i ntroduce i t i nto a
parti al l y water-fi l l ed 500-mi l l i l i ter pycnometer. Agi tate the sampl e to remove
al l entrapped ai r bubbl es. Adjust the water temperature to 23C + 1.7 and fi l l
the pycnometer to 90 percent of i ts cal i brated capaci ty. Rol l , i nvert, and agi tate
the pycnometer 15 to 20 mi nutes to el i mi nate the ai r bubbl es. Fi l l the
pycnometer to cal i brated capaci ty, wei gh i t, and record the wei ght to the nearest
0.1 gram.
Step 8. Cal cul ate the bul k speci fi c gravi ty i n an SSD condi ti on as fol l ows:
where
B =weight, in grams, of pycnometer filled with water to calibrated capacity
S =weight, in grams, of SSD specimen
C = weight, in grams, of pycnometer filled with the sample and water to
calibrated capacity
COARSE- AND FINE-AGGREGATE ABSORPTION
Absorpti on i n aggregates i s the aggregates abi l i ty to steal moi sture from the
concrete-mi x desi gn unti l i ts thi rst or attracti on i s sati sfi ed.
Equipment
The fol l owi ng procedure i s a conti nuati on of the speci fi c-gravi ty
determi nati ons; therefore, the same equi pment shal l be used.
Steps
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the percent absorpti on of coarse and
fi ne aggregates.
Step 1. Wei gh the coarse aggregate i n water and the fi ne aggregate i n the
pycnometer.
Step 2. Remove the aggregates and dry to a constant wei ght at a temperature
of 110C + 5.
Step 3. Wei gh and record the oven-dri ed sampl es.
Step 4. Cal cul ate the percent of absorpti on usi ng the fol l owi ng formul a:
where
P =absorption of the aggregate, in percent
S =weight of SSD specimen, in grams
A =weight of SSD sample in the oven-dried state, in grams
S
B S C +
-----------------------
P
S A
A
------------ 100 =
Concrete 4-17
The percent absorpti on represents the moi sture content (oven-dri ed basi s) of
the aggregate when i t i s i n an SSD condi ti on.
SURFACE MOISTURE
Surface moi sture i s the excess moi sture remai ni ng after the absorpti on
requi rement of the aggregate has been met. Thi s excess moi sture determi nes
how much water i s added to the concrete mi x to meet the requi red W/C rati o
for the proper strength requi rements. Perform thi s test just before mi xi ng the
concrete as desi gned. Thi s al l ows for adjusti ng the water, coarse-, and fi ne-
aggregate wei ghts to retai n desi gn i ntegri ty.
Surface moi sture i s the water present i n both the fi ne and coarse aggregates,
exceedi ng that whi ch corresponds to an SSD condi ti on. Thi s water wi l l
become part of the mi xi ng water when the aggregate i s used i n maki ng
concrete. The amount of mi xi ng water used must be corrected to al l ow for i ts
presence. See ASTM C 566-89 and ASTM C 70-79.
After concrete i s fi rst mi xed, a sl ump test and an ai r-content test are
performed and used as a control measure to determi ne the concretes qual i ty
and consi stency throughout a project.
Take sampl es of concrete for test speci mens at the mi xer by repeatedl y
passi ng a receptacl e through the enti re di scharged stream unti l suffi ci ent
concrete i s col l ected i nto the pan. I n the case of ready-mi xed concrete, take
sampl es from the transporti ng vehi cl e whi l e i ts di schargi ng the concrete (see
Figure 4-3).
Figure 4-3. Sampling concrete from a truck mixer

SECTION III. FRESH-CONCRETE TESTS
4-18 Concrete
The contents of a pavi ng mi xer shoul d be di scharged i nto a pi l e and sampl e
mater i al taken by a shovel fr om at l east fi ve di ffer ent por ti ons of the pi l e. The
sampl e of concrete from whi ch test speci mens are made wi l l be representati ve
of the enti re batch. Obtai n two or more sampl es by repeatedl y passi ng a scoop
or pai l through the di schargi ng stream of concrete from the mi ddl e porti on of
the batch to obtai n the amount of materi al requi red by the test method.
Transport the sampl es to the testi ng si te. To counteract segregati on, mi x the
concrete wi th a shovel unti l the concrete i s uni form i n appearance. Note the
truck, ti me, and l ocati on of the pl acement of the concrete for future reference.
I n the case of pavi ng concrete, sampl es may be taken from the batch
i mmedi atel y after deposi ti ng on the subgrade. Take at l east fi ve sampl es from
di fferent porti ons of the pi l e, and mi x these sampl es thoroughl y to form the
test speci men.
SLUMP TEST (ASTM C 143-90A)
When the mi xture appears to have reached the desi red consi stency, perform a
sl ump test. Thi s method of testi ng covers the procedure to be used i n the
l aboratory and i n the fi el d for determi ni ng the consi stency of concrete, whi ch
i s a characteri sti c of workabi l i ty. I t i s not an exact method, but i t gi ves
suffi ci entl y accurate resul ts.
Use thi s test to measure the consi stency of a concrete mi x by measuri ng the
verti cal di stance that the concrete settl es to the nearest 1/4 i nch.
NOTE: This test is not applicable when there is a considerable amount of
aggregate over 1 1/2 inches in the concrete.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to perform thi s test i n a fi el d or si mul ated fi el d
envi ronment:
A rul er.
A scoop.
A trowel .
A water source.
A fl at, smooth surface.
A sl ump cone wi th tampi ng rod.
A penci l .
Paper.
STEPS
Per for m the fol l owi ng steps to deter mi ne the sl ump:
Step 7. Moi sten the i nsi de of the sl ump cone and pl ace i t on a fl at, moi st,
nonabsorbent (ri gi d) surface. Hol d i t i n pl ace duri ng fi l l i ng by standi ng on the
two foot pi eces.
Step 8. Fi l l the sl ump cone to one thi rd of i ts vol ume (2 5/8 i nches hi gh) wi th
pl asti c concrete.
Concrete 4-19
NOTE: From steps 2 to 10, a total time of no more than 2 1/2 minutes should
elapse.
Step 9. Rod the concrete by appl yi ng 25 evenl y di stri buted strokes,
penetrati ng the ful l depth of the fi rst l ayer i n the sl ump cone.
Step 10. Add a second l ayer of concrete to the sl ump cone unti l two thi rds of
i ts vol ume i s fi l l ed (about 6 1/8 i nches hi gh).
Step 11. Rod the second l ayer i n the same manner as the fi rst, wi th the rod
just penetrati ng the underl yi ng l ayer.
Step 12. Add the thi rd and l ast l ayer of concrete, overfi l l i ng i f possi bl e.
Step 13. Rod the thi rd l ayer fol l owi ng the procedure i n step 5. I f the concrete
hei ght subsi des bel ow the top of the cone, add addi ti onal concrete to keep i t
above the top of the mol d.
Step 14. Stri ke off the excess concrete wi th a screedi ng and rol l i ng moti on of
the tampi ng rod so the cone i s compl etel y fi l l ed.
Step 15. Remove the sl ump cone from the concrete.
a. Pl ace the hands on the handl es and press downward.
b. Step off the foothol ds.
c. Rai se the cone careful l y and qui ckl y i n a verti cal di recti on. Rai se the
cone a di stance of 12 i nches wi thi n 5 to 7 seconds by a steady upward l i ft
wi th no l ateral or twi sti ng moti on.
d. Pl ace the cone di rectl y besi de the sl umped concrete. At thi s poi nt
about 2 1/2 mi nutes shoul d have el apsed si nce the start of fi l l i ng i n step 2.
Step 10. Measure and record the sl ump i mmedi atel y (see Figure 4-4).
Figure 4-4. Measuring the slump of fresh concrete
4-20 Concrete
a. Pl ace the tampi ng rod al ong the top of the cone so i t projects over the
concrete.
b. Measur e the sl ump from the bottom of the r od to the top center of the
concrete wi th a rul er.
c. Record the sl ump to the nearest 1/4 i nch.
SUPPLEMENTARY TEST PROCEDURE
After compl eti ng the sl ump measur ement, gentl y tap the si de of the speci men
wi th the tampi ng rod. The behavi or of the concrete under thi s treatment i s a
val uabl e i ndi cati on of the cohesi veness, workabi l i ty, and pl aceabi l i ty of the
mi x. A wel l -proporti oned, workabl e mi xture wi l l gradual l y sl ump to l ower
el evati ons and retai n i ts ori gi nal i denti ty. A poor mi x wi l l crumbl e, segregate,
and fal l apart. Sl ump i s usual l y i ndi cated i n the project speci fi cati ons as a
range, such as 2 to 4 i nches, or as a maxi mum val ue not to be exceeded. When
i t i s not speci fi ed, an approxi mate val ue can be sel ected from the l i st i n Table
4-6.

AIR-CONTENT TEST (ASTM C 231-97)
Add an ai r-entrai ni ng admi xture to the concrete mi x so that enough ai r wi l l be
entrai ned to i mprove the mi xtures workabi l i ty, durabi l i ty, waterti ghtness,
and freeze-thaw resi stance but not enough to substanti al l y reduce the
strength. Ai r-entrai ned cements may al so be avai l abl e for use i n some
mi l i tary si tuati ons. The desi red amount of ai r i s general l y from 4.0 to 7.5
percent of the total mi x.
Perform thi s test to determi ne the percentage (+ 0.5 percent) of entrai ned ai r
i n a pl asti c (fresh) concrete sampl e.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to perform thi s test i n a fi el d or si mul ated fi el d
envi ronment:
An ai r-entrai nment meter wi th 5 percent cal i brati on cup and
i nstructi ons.
A trowel .
Table 4-6. Recommended slumps for various types of construction
Types of Construction
Slump, in Inches
Maximum * Minimum
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 3 1
Plain footings, caissons, and substructure walls 3 1
Beams and reinforced walls 4 1
Pavements and slabs 4 1
Mass concrete 2 1
* May be increased 1 inch for consolidation by hand methods such as rodding
and spading.
Concrete 4-21
A tampi ng rod (5/8 i nch i n di ameter and 24 i nches l ong wi th a rounded
end).
A sampl e of pl asti c (fresh) concrete.
Water.
Oi l .
Rags.
A pai l .
A mi xi ng pan (from the concrete test set).
A ki tchen scoop.
Paper.
A penci l .
A rubber mal l et.
STEPS
There are many di fferent ai r-entrai nment meters currentl y fi el ded and
repl acements of ol d equi pment may not be the same. For thi s reason, i t i s
recommended that the steps outl i ned i n the manufacturers users manual be
fol l owed.
The fl exural strength of hardened concrete i s measured by usi ng a si mpl e
concrete beam and thi rd-poi nt l oadi ng mechani sm. The fl exural strength i s
determi ned by cal cul ati ng measured breaks of the beam and i s expressed as a
modul us of rupture i n psi .
TEST BEAMS
Beam forms for casti ng test beams from fresh concrete are avai l abl e i n many
si zes. The most commonl y used si ze i s 6 x 6 x 21 i nches. Al though equi pment
for obtai ni ng sawed speci mens may not be avai l abl e, the test may be
performed on beams sawed from exi sti ng concrete structures for eval uati on
purposes.
FORMING THE BEAMS (ASTMC 192-90A)
Assembl e a standard 6- x 6- x 21-i nch concrete-beam mol d and l i ghtl y oi l the
i nsi de. Fi l l the mol d wi th two l ayers of concrete from the producti on batches,
each about 3 i nches deep. Consol i date each l ayer by roddi ng, usi ng one stroke
per 2 square i nches (63 per l ayer), evenl y di stri buted over the l ayers surface.
Tap the si des l i ghtl y 10 to 15 ti mes wi th a rubber mal l et to cl ose the voi ds l eft
by roddi ng. Li ghtl y spade the concrete al ong the mol ds si des wi th a trowel to
hel p remove surface voi ds. When roddi ng the second l ayer, penetrate the fi rst
l ayer about 1/2 i nch. Stri ke off the top surface wi th a strai ghtedge, and fi ni sh
i t wi th a wood or magnesi um fl oat.
SECTION IV. FLEXURAL-STRENGTH TEST (MODULUS OF RUPTURE)
4-22 Concrete
TAKING THE SPECIMENS
Take test speci mens at l east once for each 100 cubi c yards or fracti on thereof,
for each cl ass of concrete pl aced i n any one day, or as di rected i n the project
speci fi cati ons. Make at l east three speci mens for each test age and mi xture
desi gn bei ng eval uated i n the l ab. Addi ti onal speci mens may be made for
future testi ng. Test ages are normal l y 14 and 28 days for fl exural -strength
tests. For testi ng fi el d-pl aced concrete, a mi ni mum of two speci mens for each
test age i s requi red.
CURING THE BEAMS
Pl ace a sui tabl e i denti fyi ng l abel on the fi ni shed surface of the speci mens.
Cover the enti re speci menssti l l i n the mol dwi th a doubl e thi ckness of wet
burl ap. Ensure that the speci mens remai n on si te and are undi sturbed for an
i ni ti al curi ng peri od (the fi rst 16 to 48 hours after mol di ng). After thi s curi ng
per i od, move them to the testi ng l aborator y and r emove them from the mol ds
for further curi ng. The most sati sfactory curi ng range for concrete i s 68 to
86F, wi th 73.4F bei ng the most favorabl e temperature. Moi st-cure the
beams i n saturated l i me water, total l y submerged i n a wet-tank humi di ty
room, or keep them wet unti l they are tested.
FLEXURAL-STRENGTH TEST (ASTMC 78-94)
Perform thi s test to determi ne the fl exural strength (modul us of rupture) of
the test speci men to + 10 psi . Record the speci men i denti fi cati on, modul us of
rupture, any defects noted, and speci mens age.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to perform thi s test i n a l aboratory envi ronment:
The fl exural -strength test apparatus.
A concrete beam, 6 x 6 x 21 i nches.
A measuri ng tape.
A stopwatch.
Pens.
Penci l s.
Paper.
Safety goggl es.
A provi ng-ri ng wi th provi ng-ri ng cal i brati on and constant.
Speci men i denti fi cati on.
A cal cul ator.
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the fl exural strength. Wear safety
goggl es throughout thi s test.
Step 1. Assembl e the test apparatus and check for functi onal operati on (see
Figure4-5).
Concrete 4-23
Step 2. Measure the l ength of span and record the measurement on a pi ece of
paper. The l ength of span i s determi ned by measuri ng the di stance from
center to center of the two l oadi ng poi nts (or supports) on the base of the
apparatus (see Figure 4-5). The normal l ength of speci men i s 21 i nches and
the normal l ength of span i s 18 i nches.
Step 3. Pl ace the speci men i n the tester and bri ng the l oadi ng surface i nto
contact wi th the test speci men (see Figure4-5).
Step 4. Zero the gauge. Some apparatus are equi pped wi th a hydraul i c pump
and correspondi ng gauge whi l e others are equi pped wi th a l oadi ng jack and
provi ng ri ng.
Step 5. Appl y a l oad at a conti nuous rate that constantl y i ncreases the
extreme fi ber stress between 125 and 175 psi per mi nute. Thi s i s an
approxi mate l oad of 1,500 to 2,100 pounds per mi nute.
Step 6. Obtai n the total l oad, i n pounds, at the ti me of speci men fai l ure, and
record the wei ght on the paper provi ded. On machi nes equi pped wi th
hydraul i cs, take the readi ng di rectl y from the gauge. For machi nes equi pped
wi th a provi ng ri ng, thi s readi ng i s the product of the di al -gauge readi ng and
the provi ng-ri ng constant.
Step 7. Determi ne and record the wi dth and depth of the speci men, i n i nches,
at the poi nt of fai l ure (normal l y 6 x 6 i nches).
Step 8. Determi ne the poi nt of fai l ure i n the speci men, and cal cul ate the
modul us of rupture. I f the speci men fai l s outsi de the mi ddl e thi rd of the span
l ength by more than 5 percent of the total span l ength, then the speci men i s
Figure 4-5. Apparatus for flexural-strength test
Steel rod
Specimen
Apply load here
Loading
Steel ball
Steel ball
Steel rod
Length of span
(d)
in
4-24 Concrete
consi dered unusabl e and shoul d be di scarded (not more than 0.9 i nches for an
18-i nch span (18 x 0.05 = 0.9).
a. Use the fol l owi ng formul a to cal cul ate the modul us of rupture i f the
speci men fai l s wi thi n the mi ddl e thi rd of the span l ength:
where
R =modulus of rupture, in psi
P =applied load, in pounds
L =length of span, in inches
b =width of specimen at failurepoint, in inches
d =depth of specimen at failurepoint, in inches
b. Use the fol l owi ng formul a to cal cul ate the modul us of rupture i f the
speci men fai l s outsi de the mi ddl e thi rd of the l ength of span by not more
than 5 percent of the span l ength:
where
a =distance between the failure point and the nearest support, measured
alongthecenterlineof thebottomof thespecimen, in inches
Step 9. Record the fol l owi ng i nformati on about the test (some i nformati on
may be unavai l abl e at the ti me of the test):
Speci mens i denti fi cati on number.
Average wi dth to the nearest 0.05 i nch.
Average depth to the nearest 0.05 i nch.
Span l ength, i n i nches.
Maxi mum appl i ed l oad, i n pounds.
Modul us of rupture, to the nearest 10 psi .
Curi ng hi story (how the speci men was cured) and apparent moi sture
content of the speci men at the ti me of the test.
Any defects noted i n the speci men.
The age of the speci men.
R
P L
b d
2
--------------- =
R
3P a
b d
2
---------------- =
Concrete 4-25
The compressi ve strength of hardened concrete, as measured by compressi on
tests on standard forms of cyl i ndri cal speci mens, i s used i n the desi gn of
structures. Compressi ve-strength tests are made on concrete tri al mi xtures to
eval uate the performance of avai l abl e materi al s and to establ i sh mi xture
proporti ons that gi ve the requi red strength. Strength tests are used al so to
control the qual i ty of concrete bei ng manufactured i n the fi el d. Compressi ve
str ength i s defi ned as the aver age of the str engths of al l cyl i nders of the same
age made from a sampl e taken from a si ngl e batch of concrete. At l east two
cyl i nders are requi red to consti tute a test. Therefore, a mi ni mum of four
speci mens are requi red i f tests are to be made at 7 and 28 days. The test
resul ts wi l l be the average of the strengths of the two speci mens tested at 28
days.
CASTING A CONCRETE CYLINDER
The standard test speci men i s a cyl i nder 6 i nches i n di ameter by 12 i nches
l ong, capped wi th a sui tabl e materi al to provi de smooth, beari ng surfaces on
each end. Load i s appl i ed to the end surfaces through metal pl atens on the
testi ng machi ne (cyl i nder breaker), causi ng compressi ve stress i n the
l ongi tudi nal di recti on of the cyl i nder.
Make the cyl i nders as near as possi bl e to the pl ace where they wi l l be stored
for the fi rst 16 to 48 hours. Suffi ci ent concrete (about 1 cubi c foot) for the
desi red number of cyl i nders must be avai l abl e i n the tri al mi xture or fi el d
sampl e. Materi al from the ai r-content test must not be reused, si nce thi s may
be contami nated wi th excess water. Use appropri ate sampl i ng procedures for
procuri ng your sampl e as stated i n Secti on I I I .
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems and i nformati on to perform thi s test i n a fi el d or
si mul ated fi el d envi ronment:
end).
A sampl e of fresh concrete.
A trowel .
Oi l .
Rags.
A di sassembl ed cyl i nder mol d.
A sheet of pl asti c or burl ap.
A ki tchen scoop.
A pan (24 i nches wi de x 24 i nches l ong x 3 i nches deep).
A grease penci l .

SECTION V. COMPRESSIVE-STRENGTH TEST
4-26 Concrete
Waterproof paper tags.
Gummed l abel s.
An i nk pen.
Paper.
Water.
The test-speci men number.
The ori gi n of a concrete sampl e.
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to produce and l abel a concrete cyl i nder for
testi ng:
Step 1. Prepare the mol d.
a. Cl ean and dry the mol d.
b. Oi l the mol d l i ghtl y.
c. Assembl e the mol d.
Step 2. Make the cyl i nder.
a. Fi l l the mol d one-thi rd ful l wi th fresh concrete.
b. Consol i date the concrete by appl yi ng 25 evenl y di stri buted strokes over
the mol ds surface area wi th the tampi ng rod. The tampi ng rod must
total l y penetrate the l ayer of concrete.
c. Tap the si de of the mol d 8 to 10 ti mes wi th the tampi ng rod.
d. Add concrete to the mol d so as to fi l l i t two-thi rds ful l .
e. Appl y 25 evenl y di stri buted strokes to the mol ds surface area usi ng the
rounded end of the tampi ng rod, whi ch must pass enti rel y through the
second l ayer of concrete and 1 i nch i nto the precedi ng l ayer.
f. Tap the si de of the mol d 8 to 10 ti mes wi th the tampi ng rod.
g. Add concrete to the mol d to sl i ghtl y overfi l l i t.
h. Repeat step 2e. The tampi ng rod must pass enti rel y through the top
l ayer and 1 i nch i nto the precedi ng l ayer.
i . Tap the si de of the mol d 8 to 10 ti mes wi th the tampi ng r od.
j. Trowel off the concr ete so that i t i s fl ush wi th the top of the mol d and
smoothl y fi ni shed.
Step 3. Label the mol d. The l abel shoul d i ncl ude, as a mi ni mum, al l of the
fol l owi ng i nformati on:
The speci men number.
The date the cyl i nder was made.
The project or pl acement that the concrete came from.
Concrete 4-27
The system of l abel i ng i s opti onal . The i nformati on shoul d be recorded on a
paper tag or gummed l abel and attached to the mol d.
Step 4. Cover the cyl i nder wi th pl asti c or wet burl ap to mai ntai n moi sture i n
the sampl e. The coveri ng shoul d be ti ght around the cyl i nder but shoul d not
make contact wi th the fresh concrete.
Step 5. Al l ow the cyl i nder to cure undi sturbed for 24 hours.
Step 6. Remove the coveri ng and the mol d from the cyl i nder after 24 (+ 8)
hours.
Step 7. Transfer the l abel from the mol d to the concrete cyl i nder. The l abel
i tsel f may be transferred or the i nformati on may be recorded di rectl y on the
cyl i nder wi th a grease penci l .
Step 8. Cure the cyl i nder.
NUMBER OF SPECIMENS
The number of speci mens tested depends on the job speci fi cati ons. I f no
requi rement i s l i sted i n the speci fi cati ons, a mi ni mum of 2 wi l l be mol ded for
each test age for each 100 cubi c yards, or fracti on thereof, of each cl ass of
concrete pl aced i n any one day. A thi rd speci men may be taken to assi st i n
determi ni ng when forms may be removed. The test speci mens must remai n
on si te and undi sturbed for an i ni ti al curi ng peri od (the fi rst 16 to 48 hours
after mol di ng). Normal l y the test ages are 7 and 28 days for compressi ve
strength tests.
CURING AND STORING CYLINDERS
After an i ni ti al curi ng peri od for 16 to 48 hours, remove (from the jobsi te)
speci mens that are i ntended for checki ng the strength of l aboratory tri al
mi xtures or to serve as the basi s for acceptance or qual i ty control of fi el d
concrete. Take them to the testi ng l aboratory and moi st-cure them at 73.4F.
Store them i n moi st rooms, i n damp sand or sawdust, or i n l i mewater to
mai ntai n free water on al l surfaces of the speci men at al l ti mes.
Occasi onal l y, test speci mens are made i n the fi el d to determi ne when forms
may be removed. Form these i n addi ti on to the speci mens formed for strength
determi nati on. Gi ve these speci mens (as much as possi bl e) the same
protecti on from the el ements on al l surfaces as i s gi ven to the porti ons of the
structure that they represent. Store them i n or on the structure as near as
possi bl e to the poi nt of use. Test them i n the moi st condi ti on resul ti ng from
the speci fi ed curi ng treatment. Speci mens i ntended for testi ng to determi ne
when a structure may be put i nto use are removed from the mol ds at the same
ti me the forms are removed from the structure.
When shi ppi ng speci mens from the fi el d to the l aboratory for testi ng, pack
them i n a sturdy wooden box or other sui tabl e contai ner surrounded by wet
sawdust or wet sand. Provi de protecti on from freezi ng duri ng storage or
shi pment. Moi st curi ng i s conti nued when the speci mens are recei ved i n the
l aboratory.
4-28 Concrete
CAPPING CYLINDERS
Pl ane the ends of compr essi on-test speci mens wi thi n 0.002 i nch and wi thi n
0.5 degr ee of bei ng perpendi cul ar to the axi s of the cyl i nder.
Cap (wi th neat cement) speci mens for med i n str ong metal mol ds havi ng
accur atel y fl at basepl ates 2 to 4 hour s after mol di ng. Make a sti ff paste of
por tl and cement and water at the ti me the cyl i nder i s mol ded so that the
cappi ng mi xtur e wi l l shr i nk befor e appl i cati on. Remove any fr ee water or
l ai tance a (l ayer of fi ne par ti cl es on the sur face) fr om the end of the
speci men. Appl y the paste to the top of the concr ete and wor k i t wi th a fl at
pl ate unti l i t i s smooth and l evel wi th the top of the mol d.
Gr i nd har dened concr ete speci mens to smooth the ends or cap them wi th a
materi al havi ng gr eater compr essi ve str ength than the concr ete. Pr epar ed
mi xtur es of sul fur and gr anul ar mater i al s, speci al hi gh-str ength gypsum
pl aster s, and neat hi gh-earl y str ength cement ar e sati sfactor y cappi ng
materi al s (or di nar y l ow-str ength pl aster of par i s, compressi bl e r ubber, or
fi brous materi al s ar e not sui tabl e for caps). Appl y the sel ected mater i al i n a
pl asti c state and fi ni sh i t to the desi red pl ane sur face by appl yi ng gl ass or
metal pl ates and squeezi ng out excess mater i al to pr ovi de a cap that i s as
thi n as possi bl e.
Appl y sul fur caps i n ti me to har den at l east 2 hour s befor e testi ng. Pl aster
caps cannot be stor ed over 4 hours i n the moi st r oom. Age neat cement caps
6 days or more i n the moi st r oom (2 days when Type I I cement i s used).
Dur i ng cappi ng, protect moi st-cured speci mens agai nst dr yi ng by cover i ng
them wi th wet bur l ap. There are numer ous al ter nati ves to sul fur caps l i sted
i n ASTM C 617-94. The metal cap wi th a r ubber membr ane i s not an ASTM-
appr oved method; however, speci fi c gui del i nes for thei r use ar e under r evi ew
by the ASTM. The test pr ocedur es used i n thi s manual r efer to the metal
caps due to thei r avai l abi l i ty wi thi n the suppl y system. I f you must use
sul fur caps, ensur e that sul fur vapor s ar e not i nhal ed whi l e heati ng the
cappi ng compound. Ensur e that there i s adequate venti l ati on and that
r espi r ator y protecti on i s used. Used sul fur cappi ng compound i s a
hazar dous mater i al and must be proper l y di sposed of.
DETERMINING COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF A CYLINDRICAL
SPECIMEN (ASTM C 39-96)
Perform thi s test to determi ne the compressi ve strength of the concrete
cyl i nder to wi thi n breakage and to determi ne anythi ng unusual about the
break.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to perform thi s test i n a wel l -venti l ated l aboratory:
A concrete cyl i nder (6 i nches i n di ameter and 12 i nches i n hei ght).
A concrete cappi ng set.
Cappi ng compound.
Concrete 4-29
A rul er accurate to 0.01 i nch.
Cal i pers wi th at l east a 6-i nch openi ng.
Paper.
Penci l s.
Safety goggl es and pr otecti ve apr on.
A face shi el d.
Oi l .
Rags.
A cal cul ator.
A concrete compressi on tester wi th a 250,000-pound capaci ty.
A hammer (bal l peen or carpenters).
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the concrete cyl i nders compressi ve
strength:
Step 1. Prepare the concrete cyl i nder.
NOTE: If rubber-filled metal is used, go to step 1j.
a. Mel t the cappi ng compound i n the mel ti ng pot. Ensure that you mel t
enough compound to make several caps.
b. Cl ean and l i ghtl y oi l the basepl ate of the cappi ng apparatus.
c. Set the basepl ate i nto the cappi ng-apparatus stand.
d. Pour a smal l amount of the heated (l i qui d) cappi ng compound i nto the
basepl ate.
e. Posi ti on the cyl i nder at mi dhei ght agai nst the backrest of the cappi ng
apparatus. Sl owl y l ower the cyl i nder i nto the basepl ate whi l e keepi ng the
cyl i nder fl ush agai nst the backrest. I f the cyl i nder i s not kept fl ush wi th
the backrest whi l e cappi ng, the caps and the cyl i nder wi l l not be
perpendi cul ar, and a proper break wi l l not occur.
f. Remove the cyl i nder from the cappi ng apparatus once the cappi ng
compound has sol i di fi ed.
g. I nspect the cap for uni formi ty and defects. I f you see any defects,
remove the cap and recap the cyl i nder; then return to step 1a.
h. Repeat steps 1a through 1g for the uncapped end of the cyl i nder.
i . Determi ne and record the average di ameter of the concrete cyl i nder.
The aver age di ameter i s the aver age of two di ameter s taken perpendi cul ar
to each other at mi dhei ght of the cyl i nder.
j. Cl ean and exami ne the bear i ng sur face of the steel cap (i f used) for
ni cks, gouges, and warpi ng. Check the rubber i nserts for tears, ri ps, cuts,
and gouges. Repl ace them i f they are i n poor condi ti on or i f the maxi mum
4-30 Concrete
number of servi ceabl e uses has been exceeded. Pl ace the steel cap fi rml y
on the cyl i nders ends.
Step 2. Prepare the compressi on tester (see Figure4-6).
a. Cl ean the testers beari ng pl ates (l oadi ng surfaces).
b. Check the tester for proper operati on.
c. Set the gauge to zero.
Step 3. Pl ace the capped cyl i nder i nto the compr essi on tester and center i t on
the bear i ng pl ates. Secure the pr otecti ve cage around the cyl i nder.
Step 4. Appl y the test l oad at a rate of 20 to 50 psi per second, not to exceed 50
psi per second (50 psi per second i s about equi val ent to a l oad [gauge readi ng]
of 1,400 pounds per second).
Step 5. Read the gauge and record the l oad appl i ed at the ti me of fai l ure.
Step 6. I nspect the broken cyl i nder and record the fol l owi ng i nformati on:
I denti fi cati on number.
Di ameter.
Cross-secti onal area, i n square i nches.
Maxi mum l oad appl i ed, i n pounds.
Compressi ve str ength, cal cul ated to the near est 10 psi .
Type of break (see Figure4-7).
Defects i n ei ther speci men or caps.
Age of speci men.
Step 7. Cal cul ate and record the compressi ve strength of the cyl i nder usi ng
the fol l owi ng formul a:
where
P =load at timeof failure, in pounds
A = r
2
P
A
--- =
Concrete 4-31
Figure 4-6. Compression tester
Figure 4-7. Types of fractures
Cone Cone and split Cone and shear Shear Columnar
Soil Stabilization 5-1
Chapter 5
Soil Stabilization
Thi s chapter pr esents cr i ter i a and tests for i mpr ovi ng the str uctur al
qual i ty and wor kabi l i ty of soi l s used for base cour ses, subbase cour ses,
sel ect mater i al s, and subgr ades for pavements. I t i s appl i cabl e to al l
el ements responsi bl e for Army, Ai r Force, or Navy pavement constr ucti on.
Stabi l i zed soi l s can often be adequate for ai rfi el ds, traffi c pavements, and
parki ng and storage areas where an al l -weather surface i s requi red, yet traffi c
does not justi fy a hi gher-strength pavement. Surface treatments are al so used
to provi de dust control . The most wi del y recogni zed form of stabi l i zati on i s
compacti on, whi ch i mproves the mechani cal stabi l i ty of vi rtual l y any soi l .
However, compacti on al one i s often not enough.
STABILIZATION
Stabi l i zati on i s the process of bl endi ng and mi xi ng materi al s wi th a soi l to
i mprove the soi l s strength and durabi l i ty. The process may i ncl ude bl endi ng
soi l s to achi eve a desi red gradati on or mi xi ng commerci al l y avai l abl e
addi ti ves that may al ter the gradati on, change the strength and durabi l i ty, or
act as a bi nder to cement the soi l .
USES OF STABILIZATION
Pavement desi gn i s based on the premi se that speci fi ed l evel s of qual i ty wi l l
be achi eved for each soi l l ayer i n the pavement system. Each l ayer must
Resi st sheari ng wi thi n the l ayer.
Avoi d excessi ve el asti c defl ecti ons that woul d resul t i n fati gue
cracki ng wi thi n the l ayer or i n overl yi ng l ayers.
Prevent excessi ve permanent deformati on through densi fi cati on.
As the qual i ty of a soi l l ayer i s i ncreased, the abi l i ty of that l ayer to di stri bute
the l oad over a greater area i s general l y i ncreased enough to permi t a
reducti on i n the requi red thi ckness of the soi l and surface l ayers.
Improve Quality
Stabi l i zati on i s commonl y used for better soi l gradati on, reducti on of the PI or
swel l i ng potenti al , and i ncreased durabi l i ty and strength. Soi l s stabi l i zed by
addi ti ves often provi de an al l -weather worki ng pl atform for constructi on
operati ons. These types of soi l -qual i ty i mprovements are referred to as soi l
modi fi cati ons.

SECTION I. MECHANICS OF SOIL STABILIZATION AND MODIFICATION
RETURN TO TOC
5-2 Soil Stabilization
Reduce Thickness
A soi l l ayers tensi l e strength and sti ffness can be i mproved by usi ng addi ti ves
and can thereby reduce the thi ckness of the stabi l i zed l ayer and overl yi ng
l ayers wi thi n the pavement system. Procedures for desi gni ng pavements that
use stabi l i zed soi l s are presented i n TM 5-822-5, Chapter 3, and TM 5-825-2,
Chapter 2. Before a stabi l i zed l ayer can be used to reduce the requi red
thi ckness i n the desi gn of a pavement system, the stabi l i zed materi al must
meet the durabi l i ty requi rements of vari ous types of addi ti ve stabi l i zati on and
the mi ni mum strength requi rements. General l y, as the percent of fi nes and
the PI i ncrease, pul veri zati on becomes more di ffi cul t and i t i s harder to obtai n
uni form di stri buti on of the stabi l i zi ng addi ti ve. For these types of soi l s,
preprocessi ng or pretreatment wi th other addi ti ves may be necessary. For
exampl e, fi ne-grai ned soi l s may be pretreated wi th l i me to ai d i n thei r
pul veri zati on, maki ng the mi xi ng of a bi tumen or cement addi ti ve more
successful .
METHODS OF STABILIZATION
The two gener al stabi l i zati on methods ar e mechani cal and addi ti ve. The
effecti veness of stabi l i zati on depends on the abi l i ty to obtai n uni for mi ty i n
bl endi ng the var i ous materi al s. Mi xi ng i n a stati onar y or tr avel i ng pl ant i s
pr efer red. However, other means of mi xi ng (such as scar i fi er s, pl ows, di sks,
gr ader s, and rotar y mi xers) have been sati sfactory.
The soi l -stabi l i zati on method i s deter mi ned by the amount of stabi l i zi ng
r equi r ed and the condi ti ons encounter ed on the pr oject. An accur ate soi l
descr i pti on and cl assi fi cati on ar e essenti al for sel ecti ng the corr ect mater i al s
and pr ocedur e. FM 5-410, Chapter 9, l i sts the most sui tabl e tr eatments for
vari ous soi l types to stabi l i ze these soi l s for di ffer ent objecti ves.
Mechanical
Mechani cal stabi l i zati on i s accompl i shed by mi xi ng or bl endi ng two or more
gradati ons of materi al to obtai n a mi xture meeti ng the requi red speci fi cati ons.
The bl endi ng of these mater i al s may take pl ace at the constructi on si te, at a
central pl ant, or at a borrow area. The bl ended materi al i s then spread and
compacted to the requi red densi ti es by conventi onal means. I f, after bl endi ng
these materi al s, the mi xture does not meet the speci fi cati ons, then
stabi l i zati on wi th an addi ti ve may be necessary.
Additive
Addi ti ve refers to a manufactured commerci al product that, when added to
the soi l i n the proper quanti ti es, wi l l i mprove the qual i ty of the soi l l ayer. The
two types of addi ti ve stabi l i zati on di scussed mai nl y i n thi s chapter are
chemi cal and bi tumi nous. Chemi cal stabi l i zati on i s achi eved by the addi ti on
of proper percentages of portl and cement, l i me, l i me-cement-fl y ash (LCF), or
combi nati ons of these materi al s to the soi l . Bi tumi nous stabi l i zati on i s
achi eved by the addi ti on of proper percentages of bi tumi nous materi al to the
soi l . Sel ecti ng and determi ni ng the percentage of addi ti ves depend on the soi l
cl assi fi cati on and the degree of i mprovement i n the soi l qual i ty desi red.
Smal l er amounts of addi ti ves are usual l y requi red to al ter soi l properti es
(such as gradati on, workabi l i ty, and pl asti ci ty) than to i mprove the strength
and durabi l i ty suffi ci entl y to permi t a thi ckness-reducti on desi gn. After the
addi ti ve has been mi xed wi th the soi l , spreadi ng and compacti ng are achi eved
by conventi onal means.
MODIFICATION
Modi fi cati on refers to the stabi l i zati on process that resul ts i n the
i mpr ovement i n some pr oper ty of the soi l but does not, by desi gn, r esul t i n a
si gni fi cant i ncrease i n the soi l s strength and durabi l i ty.
Soi l modi fi cati on usual l y resul ts i n somethi ng l ess than a thoroughl y
cemented, hardened, or semi hardened materi al . Thi s type of stabi l i zati on
may be accompl i shed by
Compacti ng.
Bl endi ng mechani cal l y.
Addi ng cementi ng materi al i n smal l amounts.
Addi ng chemi cal modi fi ers.
Cement and l i me modi fi ers (cement-modi fi ed and l i me-modi fi ed soi l s) are
used i n quanti ti es too smal l to provi de hi gh-strength cementi ng acti on. They
reduce the pl asti ci ty of cl ay soi l s. Cal ci um chl ori de or sodi um chl ori de are
added to the soi l to retai n moi sture (and al so control dust), to hol d fi ne
materi al for better compacti on, and to reduce frost heave by l oweri ng the
freezi ng poi nt of water i n the soi l . Bi tumi nous materi al s (such as cutback
asphal ts or APSB) and certai n chemi cal s (such as pol yvi nyl acetate emul si on
[DCA-1295]) are used to waterproof the soi l s surface and to control dust
Thi s secti on provi des a method for determi ni ng the type or types of stabi l i zers
and the amount of stabi l i zer to be used wi th a parti cul ar soi l . I t al so consi ders
the stabi l i zati on of soi l s wi th l i me, cement, fl y ash, and bi tumi nous materi al s.
TYPES OF STABILIZERS
To sel ect the proper stabi l i zer type for a parti cul ar soi l , perform a si eve-
anal ysi s test and an Atterberg-l i mi ts test accordi ng to the procedures gi ven i n
thi s manual .
CEMENT
Portl and cement can be used ei ther to modi fy and i mprove the qual i ty of the
soi l or to transform the soi l i nto a cemented mass wi th i ncreased strength and
durabi l i ty.
Cement can be used effecti vel y as a stabi l i zer for a wi de range of materi al s;
however, the soi l shoul d have a PI l ess than 30. For coarse-grai ned soi l s, the
amount passi ng the No. 4 si eve shoul d be greater than 45 percent. The
amount of cement used depends on whether the soi l i s to be modi fi ed or
stabi l i zed.

SECTION II. STABILIZING AGENTS
LIME
Experi ence shows that l i me wi l l react wi th many medi um-, moderatel y fi ne-,
and fi ne-grai ned soi l s to produce decreased pl asti ci ty, i ncreased workabi l i ty,
reduced swel l , and i ncreased strength. Soi l s cl assi fi ed accordi ng to the USCS
as CH, CL, MH, ML, OH, OL, SC, SM, GC, GM, SW-SC, SP-SC, SM-SC, GW-
GC, GP-GC, ML-CL, and GM-GC shoul d be consi dered as potenti al l y capabl e
of bei ng stabi l i zed wi th l i me. Li me shoul d be consi dered wi th al l soi l s havi ng
a PI greater than 10 and more than 25 percent of the soi l passi ng the No. 200
si eve.
FLY ASH
Fl y ash, when mi xed wi th l i me, can be used effecti vel y to stabi l i ze most
coarse- and medi um-grai ned soi l s; however, the PI shoul d not be greater than
25. Soi l s cl assi fi ed by the USCS as SW, SP, SP-SC, SW-SC, SW-SM, GW, GP,
GP-GC, GW-GC, GP-GM, GW-GM, GC-GM, and SC-SM can be stabi l i zed wi th
fl y ash.
BITUMINOUS
Most bi tumi nous soi l stabi l i zati on has been performed wi th asphal t cement,
cutback asphal t, and asphal t emul si ons. Soi l s that can be stabi l i zed
effecti vel y wi th bi tumi nous materi al s usual l y contai n l ess than 30 percent
passi ng the No. 200 si eve and have a PI l ess than 10. Soi l s cl assi fi ed by the
USCS as SW, SP, SW-SM, SP-SM, SW-SC, SP-SC, SM, SC, SM-SC, GW, GP,
SW-GM, SP-GM, SW-GC, GP-GC, GM, GC, and GM-GC can be effecti vel y
stabi l i zed wi th bi tumi nous materi al s, provi ded the above-menti oned
gradati on and pl asti ci ty requi rements are met.
COMBINATION
Combi nati on stabi l i zati on i s speci fi cal l y defi ned as l i me-cement, l i me-asphal t,
and LCF stabi l i zati on. Combi nati ons of l i me and cement are often acceptabl e
expedi ent stabi l i zers. Li me can be added to the soi l to i ncrease the soi l s
workabi l i ty and mi xi ng characteri sti cs as wel l as to reduce i ts pl asti ci ty.
Cement can then be mi xed i nto the soi l to provi de rapi d strength gai n.
Combi nati ons of l i me and asphal t are often acceptabl e stabi l i zers. The l i me
addi ti on may prevent stri ppi ng at the asphal t-aggregate i nterface and
i ncrease the mi xtures stabi l i ty.
TIME REQUIREMENTS FOR TESTING
The more thorough a testi ng program, the more assurance there i s for the
l ong-term success of the project. Ti me i s often of pri mary concern to a mi l i tary
engi neerparti cul arl y i n a tacti cal si tuati onand the rapi d compl eti on of a
project may overri de the requi rement for a compl ete seri es of l aboratory tests
(see Table 5-1). Because of thi s, the method presented al l ows for a rapi d or
expedi ent approxi mati on al ong wi th a more preci se l aboratory determi nati on
of the type and quanti ty of stabi l i zer. An esti mate for testi ng ti me i s
presented i n Table 5-1.

STABILIZER SELECTION
When sel ecti ng a stabi l i zer addi ti ve, many factors must be consi dered. These
factors, desi gn cri teri a, and the sel ecti on and mi xi ng of stabi l i zers can be
found i n FM 5-410, Chapter 9; TM 5-822-14; and FM 5-430-00-2.
I f l i me i s used as a prel i mi nary addi ti ve to reduce the PI or to al ter the soi l
gradati on before addi ng the pri mary stabi l i zi ng agent (such as bi tumen or
cement), then the desi gns l i me content i s the mi ni mum treatment l evel that
wi l l achi eve the desi red resul ts. For nonpl asti c and l ow PI materi al s i n whi ch
l i me al one general l y i s not sati sfactory for stabi l i zati on, addi ng fl y ash may
pr oduce the necessary r eacti on.
The l i me used for soi l stabi l i zati on i s al so used to determi ne l i me
requi rements i n the pH test.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems for the pH test:
A pH meter (the meter must be equi pped wi th an el ectrode havi ng a
pH range of 14).
150-mi l l i l i ter (or l arger) pl asti c bottl es wi th screw-top l i ds.
Di sti l l ed water, free of carbon di oxi de.
A bal ance.
An oven.
STEPS
Per for m the fol l owi ng steps to deter mi ne the pH:
Step 1. Standardi ze the pH meter wi th a buffer sol uti on havi ng a pH of 12.45.
Step 2. Wei gh, to the nearest 0.01 gram, representati ve sampl es of ai r-dri ed
soi l passi ng the No. 40 si eve and equal to 20.0 grams of oven-dri ed soi l .
Step 3. Pour the soi l sampl es i nto the 150-mi l l i l i ter pl asti c bottl es wi th screw-
top l i ds.
Table 5-7. Estimated time required for test procedures
Construction
Type
Stabilizing
Agent
Time
Required*
Expedient
Lime
LCF
Cement
Bitumen
None
None
None
None
Nonexpedient
Lime
LCF
Cement
Bitumen
30 days
30 days
6 to 9 days
1 day
*These criteria do not include time required for
gradation.
Step 4. Add varyi ng percentages of l i me, wei ghed to the nearest 0.01 gram, to
the soi l s. (Li me percentages of 0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 10based on the dry soi l
wei ghtmay be used.)
Step 5. Mi x the soi l thoroughl y and dry the l i me.
Step 6. Add 100 mi l l i l i ters of the di sti l l ed water to the soi l -l i me mi xtures.
Step 7. Shake the soi l -l i me-water mi xture for a mi ni mum of 30 seconds or
unti l ther e i s no evi dence of dr y mater i al on the bottom of the bottl e.
Step 8. Shake the bottl es for 30 seconds ever y 10 mi nutes.
Step 9. Transfer part of the sl urry, after 1 hour, to a pl asti c beaker and
measure the pH.
Step 10. Record the pH for each of the soi l -l i me mi xtures. The l owest percent
of l i me gi vi ng a pH of 12.40 i s the percent requi red to stabi l i ze the soi l . I f the
pH does not reach 12.40, the mi ni mum l i me content gi vi ng the hi ghest pH i s
requi red to stabi l i ze the soi l .
SOIL STABILIZATION IN FROST AREAS
Whi l e bi tumi nous, portl and-cement, l i me, and combi nati ons of LCF
stabi l i zati on are the most common addi ti ves, other stabi l i zers may be used for
pavement constructi on i n areas of frost desi gn, but onl y wi th approval from
Headquarters, Department of the Army (DAEN-MPE-D), Washi ngton,
DC 20314 (for Army projects).
Headquarters, Ai r Force Engi neeri ng and Servi ces Center (AFESC/
DEM), Tyndal l AFB, FL 32401 (for Ai r Force projects).
Headquarters, Naval Faci l i ti es Engi neeri ng Command, Al exandri a,
VA 22332 (for Navy or Mari ne Corps projects).
LIMITATIONS
I n frost areas, stabi l i zed soi l shoul d be used onl y i n a l ayer or l ayers
compri si ng one of the upper el ements of a pavement system and di rectl y
beneath the pavements surfaci ng l ayer. The structural advantage i n reduci ng
the requi red thi ckness of the pavement system compensates for the added cost
of stabi l i zati on. Treatment wi th a l ower degree of chemi cal stabi l i zati on
shoul d be used i n frost areas onl y wi th cauti on and after i ntensi ve tests,
because weakl y cemented materi al usual l y has l ess capaci ty to endure
repeated freezi ng and thawi ng than fi rml y cemented materi al . A possi bl e
excepti on i s usi ng a l ow l evel of stabi l i zati on to i mprove a soi l that wi l l be
encapsul ated wi thi n an i mpervi ous envel ope as part of a membrane-
encapsul ated soi l -l ayer pavement system. A soi l that i s unsui tabl e for
encapsul ati on due to excessi ve moi sture mi grati on and thaw weakeni ng may
be made sui tabl e for such use by a moderate amount of a stabi l i zi ng addi ti ve.
Materi al s that are modi fi ed by a smal l amount of a chemi cal addi ti ve to
i mprove certai n properti es of the soi l wi thout si gni fi cant cementati on al so
shoul d be tested to determi ne that the desi red i mprovement i s durabl e
through repeated freeze-thaw cycl es. The i mprovement shoul d not be
achi eved at the expense of maki ng the soi l more suscepti bl e to i ce segregati on.
CONSTRUCTION CUTOFF
For materi al s stabi l i zed wi th cement, l i me, or LCF whose strength i ncreases
wi th curi ng ti me, i t i s essenti al that the stabi l i zed l ayer be constructed
suffi ci entl y earl y i n the season to al l ow the adequate strength to devel op
before the fi rst freezi ng cycl e begi ns. The rate of strength gai n i s
substanti al l y l ower at 50F than at 70 or 80F. Chemi cal reacti ons wi l l not
occur rapi dl y for l i me-stabi l i zed soi l s when the soi l temperature i s l ess than
60F and i s not expected to i ncrease for one month or for cement-stabi l i zed
soi l s when the soi l temperature i s l ess than 40F and i s not expected to
i ncrease for one month. I n frost areas, i t i s not al ways suffi ci ent to protect the
mi xture from freezi ng duri ng a 7-day curi ng peri od as requi red by the
appl i cabl e gui de speci fi cati ons. A constructi on cutoff date wel l i n advance of
the onset of freezi ng condi ti ons may be essenti al .
WEATHER
Hot, dry weather i s preferred for al l types of bi tumi nous stabi l i zati on. When
asphal t cements are used for stabi l i zati on, proper compacti on must be
obtai ned. I f thi n l i fts of asphal t-stabi l i zed materi al are bei ng pl aced, the ai r
temperature shoul d be 40F and ri si ng and the compacti on equi pment shoul d
be used i mmedi atel y after l ay-down operati ons. Adequate compacti on can be
obtai ned at freezi ng temperatures i f thi ck l i fts are used. When cutbacks and
emul si ons are used, the ai r and soi l temperatures shoul d be above freezi ng.
Heavy rai ns on mi xed, uncompacted materi al may be detri mental .
PICK-AND-CLICK TESTS
Speci mens coveri ng a wi de range of cement contents (for exampl e: 10, 14, and
18 percents) are mol ded at opti mum moi sture and maxi mum densi ty. After at
l east 36 hours of hardeni ng whi l e kept moi st and after a 3-hour soaki ng
peri od, the speci mens are i nspected by pi cki ng wi th a poi nted i nstrument
(such as a dul l i ce pi ck or bayonet) and by sharpl y cl i cki ng each speci men
agai nst a hard object (such as concrete or another sound speci men) to
determi ne thei r rel ati ve hardness when set. I f the speci men cannot be
penetrated more than 1/8 to 1/4 i nch by pi cki ng, and i f i t produces a cl ear or
sol i d tone upon cl i cki ng, an adequate cement factor (CF) i s i ndi cated. When a
dul l thud or pl unky sound i s obtai ned, there i s i nadequate cement even
though the speci men may resi st pi cki ng.
The speci mens age i s a factor, and a speci men that may not test properl y at
fi rst may harden properl y a few days l ater. Some sati sfactory speci mens
requi re 7 days or l onger to produce adequate hardeni ng. The test resul ts wi l l
i ndi cate the proper content. I f the resul ts show that some i ntermedi ate
content may be sati sfactory, new test speci mens (at the suggested content)
shoul d be prepared and tested. I t i s i mportant to remember that too much
cement i s not harmful (al though more expensi ve), but too l i ttl e cement wi l l
not produce a sati sfactory stabi l i zati on.
WET-DRY AND FREEZE-THAW TESTS
After determi ni ng the maxi mum densi ty and OMC, mol d the speci mens for
the wet-dry and freeze-thaw tests.
PREPARATION
Prepare the speci mens usi ng the computed OMC and the cement contents
previ ousl y descri bed for the di fferent soi l cl assi fi cati ons. Sel ect the cement
contents i n 2 percent i ncrements on ei ther si de of the medi an val ue. Mol d two
speci mens for each of the three cement contentsone for the wet-dry test and
one for the freeze-thaw test. Use the same procedure to mol d the speci mens
as used for the OMC determi nati on. Take speci al care to scari fy the surfaces
between l ayer s to ensur e a good bond. When the second l ayer i s bei ng pl aced,
take a 750-gram sampl e for a moi sture determi nati on. Pl ace the mol ded
speci mens i n a moi sture cabi net i n an atmosphere of hi gh humi di ty for 7 days
to permi t cement hydrati on before testi ng.
WET-DRY TEST PROCEDURE
After the 7-day curi ng peri od, submerge the speci mens i n tap water at room
temperature for a peri od of 5 hours and then remove them. Dry the speci mens
i n an oven at 160F for 42 hours and then remove them. Wi re brush the enti re
surface area to remove al l materi al l oosened duri ng wetti ng and dryi ng. Use
two fi rm strokes on each porti on of the surface. Appl y these strokes the ful l
hei ght and wi dth wi th a 3-pound force. One cycl e consi sts of 5 hours of water
i mmersi on, 42 hours of dryi ng, and 1 hour of handl i ng. Repeat the operati on
for a total of 12 cycl es. After 12 cycl es of the test, dry the speci mens to a
constant wei ght at 230F, and wei gh them to determi ne the oven-dry wei ghts.
FREEZE-THAW TEST PROCEDURE
After the curi ng peri od, pl ace water-saturated fel t pads about 1/4 i nch thi ck,
bl otters, or si mi l ar absorpti ve materi al s between the speci mens and speci men
carri ers. Pl ace the assembl y i n a freezi ng cabi net wi th a constant
temperature not warmer than -10F for 24 hours and then remove them.
Al l ow the assembl y to thaw i n a moi st room or i n sui tabl e covered contai ners
wi th a temperature of 70F and a rel ati ve humi di ty of 100 percent for 23
hours. Make free water avai l abl e to the absorbent pads to permi t the
speci mens to absorb water by capi l l ari ty duri ng the thawi ng peri od. Gi ve the
speci mens two fi rm strokes on al l areas wi th the wi re brush to remove
materi al l oosened duri ng freezi ng and thawi ng. I f necessary, use a sharp-
poi nted i nstrument to remove any scal e that has formed. One cycl e consi sts of
24 hours of freezi ng, 23 hours of thawi ng, and 1 hour of handl i ng (total 48
hours). After bei ng brushed at the end of each thawi ng peri od, turn the
speci mens over, end for end, before repl aci ng them on the water-saturated
pads. Conti nue the test for a total of 12 cycl es, dry the speci mens to a constant
wei ght at 230F, and wei gh them to determi ne thei r oven-dry wei ghts.
CALCULATIONS AND CRITERIA
The resul ts of the wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycl es are i ndi cated as soi l -cement
l osses. These l osses are computed by usi ng the ori gi nal dry wei ghts and fi nal
corrected dry wei ghts.
Water-of-Hydration Correction
The fi nal oven-dry wei ght of the speci men i ncl udes some water used for
cement hydrati on that cannot be dri ven off at 230F. The average amount of
thi s water retai ned i n the speci men i s based on the type of soi l gravel s,
+ 1 1/2; sand, + 2 1/2 percent; si l t, + 3 percent; and cl ays, + 3 1/2 percent. Thi s
correcti on i s computed by the fol l owi ng formul a:
Exampl e: A sampl e composed mostl y of sand wei ghs 3.77 pounds at the end of
the test. Water of hydrati on i s 2.5 percent.
Soil-Cement Loss
The soi l -cement l oss can now be cal cul ated as a percentage of the ori gi nal dry
wei ght, or
Exampl e: A sampl e of soi l has an ori gi nal wei ght of 3.99 pounds.
Thi s val ue woul d be reported to the nearest whol e number or as 8 percent.
Weight-Loss Criteria
The mi ni mum cement content recommended for use i s the one for whi ch l osses
of speci men wei ght duri ng 12 cycl es of the wet-dry test or freeze-thaw test
conform to the fol l owi ng standards:
GW, GM, GC, SW, SM, SC, and SP soi l snot over 14 percent.
ML and MH soi l snot over 10 per cent.
GL, CH, OH, and OL soi l snot over 7 percent.
Strength Criteria
The str ength of soi l -cement speci mens tested i n compr essi on at var i ous ages
shoul d i ncrease wi th age and wi th i ncreases i n cement. The ranges of cement
contents shoul d produce resul ts meeti ng the requi rements above. A sampl e
that has an unconfi ned compressi on strength of about 300 psi after curi ng 7
days and shows i ncreasi ng strength wi th age can be consi dered adequatel y
stabi l i zed.
Cement Weight-to-Volume Conversion
The requi red cement content by wei ght must be converted to the equi val ent
cement content by vol ume for control duri ng constructi on si nce thi s i s the
easi er quanti ty to use i n the fi el d. The fol l owi ng formul a i l l ustrates the
cal cul ati on:
corrected oven-dry weight
measured oven-dry specimen wt
percent water retained
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100 +

100 =
corrected oven-dry weight
3.77
2.5
----------- 100 +

100 =
soil-cement loss =
original oven-dry weight final corrected oven-dry weight
original oven-dry weight
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

100
soil-cement loss
3.99 3.68
3.99
-----------------------------

100 =
where
D =oven-dry density of soil-cement, in pcf
94 =weight of 1 cubic foot of cement
The nomograph i n Figure 5-1 makes the conversi on wi thout computati on. Use
a strai ghtedge pl aced at the soi l -cement densi ty and at the percent by wei ght
of cement. Read the percent of cement by vol ume on the ri ght-hand scal e.
MODIFIED MIX DESIGN FOR SANDY SOILS
Sandy soi l s are usual l y the most readi l y and economi cal l y stabi l i zed because
they requi re the l east amount of cement for adequate hardeni ng and they
contai n a mi ni mum amount of materi al that prevents i nti mate mi xi ng of soi l
and cement. The fol l owi ng shortcut testi ng procedures for sandy soi l s wi l l not
al ways i ndi cate the mi ni mum cement contents requi red, but the resul ts wi l l
be cl ose enough to be on the safe si de and economi cal . I f ti me permi ts, the
procedures for the freeze-thaw test are fol l owed for greater desi gn economy.
The two procedures used are for
Soi l s wi th no materi al retai ned on the No. 4 si eve.
Soi l s wi th mater i al r etai ned on the No. 4 si eve.
The procedures can be used onl y wi th soi l s contai ni ng l ess than 50 percent of
materi al smal l er than 0.05 mi l l i meter (si l t and cl ay) and l ess than 20 percent
smal l er than 0.005 mi l l i meter (cl ay). Dark gray to bl ack sandy soi l s obvi ousl y
contai ni ng appreci abl e organi c i mpuri ti es together wi th mi scel l aneous
granul ar materi al s (such as ci nders, cal i che, chat, chart, marl , red dog, scori a,
shal e, and sl ag) shoul d be tested usi ng the ful l procedures and not tested by
the modi fi ed methods for sandy soi l s. When coarse-grai ned or sandy soi l s
(usual l y of groups GW, GP, GM, SW, or SM) are encountered, they may be
cl assi fi ed for testi ng purposes usi ng ei ther the fi rst or the second procedure.
There i s one other excepti on. Granul ar soi l s wi th materi al s retai ned on the
No. 4 si eve whose bul k speci fi c gravi ty i s l ess than 2.45 cannot be tested.
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for modi fyi ng the mi x desi gn for sandy soi l s:
Step 1. Determi ne the soi l gradati on.
Step 2. Determi ne the bul k speci fi c gravi ty of the materi al retai ned on the No.
4 si eve.
Step 3. Perform the moi sture-densi ty test of an esti mated soi l -cement
mi xture.
Step 4. Locate the i ndi cated cement requi rements from the charts.
Step 5. Perform compressi ve-strength tests to veri fy the cement requi rement.
volume of cement (percent)
D
D
C
----

94
-------------------- 100 =
C
100 percent cement by weight +
100
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ - =
SOILS WITH NO MATERIAL RETAINED ON THE NO. 4 SIEVE
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for soi l s wi th no materi al retai ned on the No. 4
si eve:
Figure 5-33. Relation of cement content by weight to cement content by volume

M
a
x
i
m
u
m

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

-

l
b

p
e
r

c
u

f
t

P
e
r
c
e
n
t

c
e
m
e
n
t

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

o
v
e
n
-
d
r
y

s
o
i
l

P
e
r
c
e
n
t

c
e
m
e
n
t

b
y

v
o
l
u
m
e

o
f

c
o
m
p
a
c
t
e
d

s
o
i
l

c
e
m
e
n
t
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
3
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Step 1. Determi ne the maxi mum densi ty and OMC for a mi xture of soi l and
cement. (Figure 5-2 wi l l gi ve an esti mated densi ty. Thi s val ue and the
percentage of materi al smal l er than 0.05 mi l l i meter are used wi th Figure 5-3
to determi ne an i ndi cated cement content.)
Figure 5-34. Average maximum densities of the 4 fraction of soil-cement mixtures

No. 4 to No. 50 sieve size material of 4 fraction - percent
0 20 40 60 80 100
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20% silt and clay of
4 fraction
0
%

s
ilt

a
n
d

c
la
y

o
f

4

f
r
a
c
t
io
n

5
%

1
0
%

1
5
%

2
0
%

110
115
120
110
115
120
125
130
125
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

m
a
x
i
m
u
m

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

o
f

4

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
,

p
c
f
Step 2. Use the maxi mum densi ty val ue and Figure 5-3 to determi ne an
i ndi cated cement requi rement.
Step 3. Mol d thr ee compr essi ve-str ength speci mens at maxi mum densi ty and
OMC.
Step 4. Moi st-cure the speci mens for 7 days and test for strength.
Step 5. Pl ot the val ue of the averaged compressi ve strength of Figure 5-4,
page 5-14. I f thi s pl ot i s above the curve, the CF i s probabl y too l ow and needs
adjusti ng. Prepare two new test speci mens: one at the cement content as
computed above, and the second wi th a 2 percent hi gher cement content.
Perform the ful l freeze-thaw test on these two speci mens.
SOILS WITH MATERIAL RETAINED ON THE NO. 4 SIEVE
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for soi l s wi th materi al retai ned on the No. 4 si eve:
Step 1. Determi ne the maxi mum densi ty and OMC for a mi xture of soi l and
cement. Use Figure 5-5, page 5-14, for an esti mated maxi mum densi ty. Usi ng
thi s densi ty, the percentage of materi al retai ned on the No. 4 si eve, and the
percentage smal l er than 0.05 mi l l i meter, determi ne the moi sture content (see
Figure 5-6, page 5-15). The 45 percent maxi mum retai ned on the No. 4 si eve
sti l l appl i es. Al so, repl ace any materi al l arger than 1/4 i nch wi th an
equi val ent wei ght of the materi al passi ng the 1/4-i nch si eve and retai ned on
the No. 4 si eve.
Figure 5-35. Indicated cement contents of soil-cement mixtures not containing material
retained on the No. 4 sieve

M
a
x
i
m
u
m

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

-

l
b

p
e
r

c
u

f
t
6% cement by weight
Material smallerr than 0.05 mm - percent
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
13%
12%
11%
10%
9%
8%
7%
7%
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%

M
a
x
i
m
u
m

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
,

p
c
f
6% cement by weight
Material smaller than 0.05 mm, percent
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
13%
12%
11%
10%
9%
8%
7%
7%
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
Figure 5-36. Minimum 7-day compressive strengths required for soil-cement not containing
material retained on the No. 4 sieve
Figure 5-37. Average maximum densities of soil-cement mixtures containing material retained
on the No. 4 sieve
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
200
250
300
Material smaller than 0.05 mm - percent

M
i
n
i
m
u
m

7
-
d
a
y

c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

-

p
s
i
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d

o
n

N
o
.

1
0

s
i
e
v
e

-

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
0 10 20 30
40
50
1
1
5
1
2
0
p
e
r

c
u

f
t
125 lb
a
v
e
r
a
g
e

m
a
x
i
m
u
m

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
1
3
0
1
3
5
1
3
5
Step 2. Determi ne the i ndi cated cement requi rement usi ng the maxi mum
densi ty from above and Figure 5-6.
Step 3. Mol d-test speci mens at maxi mum densi ty and OMC.
Step 4. Moi st-cure for 7 days and test for compressi ve strength and average.
Step 5. Use Figure 5-7, page 5-16, to determi ne the al l owabl e compressi ve
strength for the soi l -cement mi xture. Connect the poi nts on the ri ght- and
l eft-hand scal es of the nomograph, and read the mi ni mum requi red
compressi ve strength from the i ncl i ned center scal e. I f the strength i s equal to
or greater than the al l owabl e strength, the cement content i s adequate. I f the
strength i s too l ow, the CF i s al so too l ow and a ful l test shoul d be performed.
Figure 5-38. Indicated cement contents of soil-cement mixtures containing material retained
on the No. 4 sieve
13 12 11 10 9
8
7 6 5
Cement content by weight - percent
1
1
0
1
1
5
1
2
0
1
2
5
1
3
0
1
3
5
1
4
0

1
0
5

l
b

p
e
r

c
u

f
t

m
a
x
i
m
u
m

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
0
10
20
30
40
M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d

o
n

N
o
.

4

s
i
e
v
e

-

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
0 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
40
30
20
10
0
M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d

o
n

N
o
.

4

s
i
e
v
e

-

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
Figure 5-39. Minimum 7-day compressive strengths required for soil-cement mixtures
containing material retained on the No. 4 sieve
50
40
30
20
10
0
M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l

s
m
a
l
l
e
r

t
h
a
n

0
.
0
5

m
m

-

p
e
r
c
e
n
t

M
i
n
i
m
u
m

7
-
d
a
y

c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

-

p
s
i
M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l

r
e
t
a
i
n
e
d

o
n

N
o
.

4

s
i
e
v
e

-

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
45
40
20
2
0
0
2
1
0
2
2
0
2
3
0
2
4
0
2
5
0
2
6
0
2
7
0
2
8
0
2
9
0
3
0
0
2
9
0
2
8
0
2
7
0
2
6
0
2
5
0
2
4
0
2
3
0
30
10
0
RETURN TO TOC
Metric Conversion Chart A-1
Appendix A
Metric Conversion Chart
Thi s appendi x compl i es wi th cur rent Ar my di r ecti ves whi ch state that the
metri c system wi l l be i ncor por ated i nto al l new publ i cati ons. Tabl e A-1 i s a
conversi on chart.
Table A-1. Metric conversion chart
Metric to English English to Metric
Multiply By To Obtain Multiply By To Obtain
Length
Centimeters 0.0394 Inches Inches 2.54 Centimeters
Meters 3.28 Feet Feet 0.0305 Meters
Meters 1.094 Yards Yards 0.9144 Meters
Kilometers 0.621 Miles (stat) Miles (stat) 1.5609 Kilometers
Kilometers 0.540 Miles (naut) Miles (naut) 1.853 Kilometers
Millimeters 0.039 Inches Inches 25.40 Millimeters
Area
Square
centimeters
0.1550 Square inches Square inches 6.45
Square
centimeters
Square meters 10.76 Square feet Square feet 0.0929 Square meters
Square meters 1.196 Square yards Square yards 0.836 Square meters
Volume
Cubic
centimeters
0.610 Cubic inches Cubic inches 16.39
Cubic
centimeters
Cubic meters 35.3 Cubic feet Cubic feet 0.0283 Cubic meters
Cubic meters 1.308 Cubic yards Cubic yards 0.765 Cubic meters
Milliliters 0.0338 US liq ounces US liq ounces 29.6 Milliliters
Liters 1.057 US liq quarts US liq quarts 0.946 Liters
Liters 0.264 US liq gallons US liq gallons 3.79 Liters
Weight
Grams 0.0353 Ounces Ounces 28.4 Grams
Kilograms 2.20 Pounds Pounds 0.454 Kilograms
Metric tons 1.102 Short tons Short tons 0.907 Metric tons
Metric tons 0.984 Long tons Long tons 1.016 Metric tons
Temperature
Celsius
Add 17.8 and
multiply by 1.8
Fahrenheit Fahrenheit
Subtract 32
and multiply by
0.5556
Celsius
C2
Unified Soil Classification System B-1
Appendix B
The Unified Soil Classification System
The adopti on of the pri nci pl es of soi l mechani cs by the engi neer i ng
pr ofessi on has i nspi red numerous attempts to devi se a si mpl e
cl assi fi cati on system that wi l l tel l the engi neer the properti es of a gi ven
soi l . As a consequence, many cl assi fi cati ons have come i nto exi stence
based on certai n pr operti es of soi l s such as texture, pl asti ci ty, strength,
and other characteri sti cs. A few cl assi fi cati on systems have gai ned fai rl y
wi de acceptance, but rarel y has any system pr ovi ded the compl ete
i nformati on on a soi l that the engi neer needs. Near l y ever y engi neer who
pr acti ces soi l mechani cs wi l l add judgment and personal experi ence as
modi fi er s to whatever soi l cl assi fi cati on system he uses. Obvi ousl y, wi thi n
a gi ven agency (where desi gns and pl ans are revi ewed by persons enti rel y
removed from a pr oject) a common basi s of soi l cl assi fi cati on i s necessary
so that when an engi neer cl assi fi es a soi l as a certai n type, thi s
cl assi fi cati on wi l l convey the pr oper characteri sti cs and behavi or of the
materi al . Further than thi s, the cl assi fi cati on shoul d refl ect those
behavi or characteri sti cs of the soi l that are perti nent to the pr oject under
consi derati on.
BASIS OF THE USCS
The USCS i s based on i denti fyi ng soi l s accordi ng to thei r textural and
pl asti ci ty qual i ti es and on thei r groupi ng wi th respect to behavi or. Soi l s
sel dom exi st i n nature separatel y as sand, gravel , or any other si ngl e
component. They are usual l y found as mi xtures wi th varyi ng proporti ons of
parti cl es of di fferent si zes; each component part contri butes i ts characteri sti cs
to the soi l mi xture. The USCS i s based on those characteri sti cs of the soi l that
i ndi cate how i t wi l l behave as an engi neeri ng constructi on materi al . The
fol l owi ng properti es have been found most useful for thi s purpose and form
the basi s of soi l i denti fi cati on. They can be determi ned by si mpl e tests and,
wi th experi ence, can be esti mated wi th some accuracy.
Percentages of gravel , sand, and fi nes (fracti on passi ng the No. 200
si eve).
Shape of the grai n-si ze-di stri buti on curve.
Pl asti ci ty and compressi bi l i ty characteri sti cs. I n the USCS, the soi l i s
gi ven a descri pti ve name and a l etter symbol i ndi cati ng i ts pri nci pal
characteri sti cs.
PURPOSE AND SCOPE
I t i s the pur pose of thi s appendi x to descr i be the var i ous soi l groups i n detai l
and to di scuss the methods of i denti fi cati on so that a uni form cl assi fi cati on
procedure may be fol l owed by al l who use the system. Pl acement of the soi l s
RETURN TO TOC
B-2 Unified Soil Classification System
i nto thei r respecti ve groups i s accompl i shed by vi sual exami nati on and
l aboratory tests as a means of basi c i denti fi cati on. I t i s recogni zed that the
USCS i n i ts present form may not prove enti rel y adequate i n al l cases.
However, i t i s i ntended that the cl assi fi cati on of soi l s accordi ng to thi s system
have some degree of el asti ci ty and that the system not be fol l owed bl i ndl y nor
regarded as compl etel y ri gi d.
DEFINITIONS OF SOIL COMPONENTS
Befor e soi l s can be cl assi fi ed pr oper l y i n any system, i ncl udi ng the one
pr esented i n thi s manual , i t i s necessary to establ i sh a basi c ter mi nol ogy for
the var i ous soi l components and to defi ne the ter ms used. I n the USCS, the
terms cobbl es, gravel , sand, and fi nes (si l t or cl ay) ar e used to desi gnate the
si ze r anges of soi l par ti cl es. The gr avel and sand r anges ar e fur ther
subdi vi ded i nto the gr oups as pr esented i n Table B-1. The l i mi ti ng
boundari es between the var i ous si ze r anges have been ar bi trari l y set at
cer tai n US standar d si eve si zes as l i sted i n Table B-1. I n the fi nest soi l
component (bel ow the No. 200 si eve), the terms si l t and cl ay are used
r especti vel y to di sti ngui sh mater i al s exhi bi ti ng l ower pl asti ci ty from those
wi th hi gher pl asti ci ty. The mi nus No. 200 si eve mater i al i s si l t i f the LL and
PI pl ot bel ow the A l i ne on the pl asti ci ty chart and i s cl ay i f the LL and PI
pl ot above the A l i ne on the char t (al l LL and PL tests are based on mi nus
No. 40 si eve fr acti on of a soi l ). The for egoi ng defi ni ti on hol ds for i nor gani c
si l ts and cl ays and for or gani c si l ts but i s not val i d for organi c cl ays si nce
these l atter soi l s pl ot bel ow the A l i ne. The names of the basi c soi l
components can be used as nouns or adjecti ves when descri bi ng or
cl assi fyi ng a soi l .
THE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
I n i ts si mpl est form, Figure B-1 i l l ustrates the process of the cl assi fi cati on
system. The fol l owi ng paragraphs provi de detai l ed i nformati on on the soi l
properti es and groups as they pertai n to the system.
A short di scussi on of the USCS procedures (see Figure B-1, page B-3) i s
presented so that the succeedi ng detai l ed descri pti on may be better
understood. The procedures are desi gned to appl y general l y to the
Table B-1. Soil particle-size ranges
Component Size Range
Cobbles Above 3 inches
Gravel
Coarse
Fine
3 inches to No. 4 sieve
3 inches to 3/4 inch
3/4 inch to No. 4 sieve
Sand
Coarse
Medium
Fine
No. 4 to No. 200 sieves
Fines (clay or silt) Below No. 200 sieve (no minimum size)
F
i
g
u
r
e

B
-
1
.

U
S
C
S

p
r
o
c
e
d
u
r
e
s
.
.
.
.
.
i denti fi cati on of soi l s regardl ess of the i ntended engi neeri ng uses. Table B-2,
pages B-6 and B-7, al so assi sts i n i denti fyi ng the symbol s and soi l descri pti ons
wi thi n thi s system. Figure B-1 shows the schemati c method of cl assi fyi ng
soi l s from the resul ts of l aboratory tests. Col umns 1 through 5 of Table B-2,
pages B-6 and B-7 i denti fy the three major di vi si ons of the cl assi fi cati on
system and the group symbol s that di sti ngui sh the i ndi vi dual soi l types.
Names of typi cal and representati ve soi l types found i n each group are shown
i n col umn 6.
SOIL GROUPS AND GROUP SYMBOLS
Soi l s are pri mari l y i denti fi ed as coarse grai ned, fi ne grai ned, and hi ghl y
organi c. On a textural basi s, coarse-grai ned soi l s are those that have 50
percent or more by wei ght of the overal l soi l sampl e retai ned on the No. 200
si eve; fi ne-grai ned soi l s are those that have more than 50 percent by wei ght
passi ng the No. 200 si eve. Hi ghl y-organi c soi l s are, i n general , readi l y
i denti fi ed by vi sual exami nati on. The coarse-grai ned soi l s are subdi vi ded i nto
gravel and gravel l y soi l s (G) and sands and sandy soi l s (S). Fi ne-grai ned soi l s
are subdi vi ded on the basi s of thei r LL and pl asti ci ty properti es; the symbol L
i s used for soi l s wi th LLs of 50 and l ess and the symbol H for soi l s wi th LLs i n
excess of 50. Peat and other hi ghl y organi c soi l s are desi gnated by the symbol
Pt and are not subdi vi ded.
I n general practi ce there i s no cl ear-cut boundary between gravel l y soi l s and
sandy soi l s and, as far as behavi or i s concerned, the exact poi nt of di vi si on i s
rel ati vel y uni mportant. For i denti fi cati on purposes, coarse-grai ned soi l s are
cl assi fi ed as G i f the greater percentage of the coarse fracti on (that whi ch i s
retai ned on the No. 200 si eve) i s l arger than the No. 4 si eve. They are cl assed
as S i f the greater porti on of the coarse fracti on i s fi ner than the No. 4 si eve.
Borderl i ne cases may be cl assi fi ed as bel ongi ng to both groups. The G and S
groups are each di vi ded i nto four secondary groups as fol l ows:
Wel l -graded materi al wi th l i ttl e or no fi nessymbol W, groups GW
and SW.
Poorl y graded materi al wi th l i ttl e or no fi nessymbol P, groups GP
and SP.
Coarse materi al wi th nonpl asti c fi nes or fi nes wi th l ow pl asti ci ty
symbol M, groups GM and SM.
Coarse materi al wi th pl asti c fi nessymbol C, groups GC and SC.
The fi ne-grai ned soi l s are subdi vi ded i nto groups based on whether they have
a rel ati vel y l ow (L) or hi gh (H) LL. These two groups are further subdi vi ded
as fol l ows:
I norgani c si l ts and very fi ne sandy soi l s, si l ty or cl ayey fi ne sands,
mi caceous and di atomaceous soi l s, and el asti c si l tssymbol M, groups
ML and MH.
I norgani c cl ayssymbol C, groups CL and CH.
Organi c si l ts and cl ayssymbol O, groups OL and OH.
I n the fol l owi ng paragraphs, soi l s of the GW, GP, SW, and SP groups are
defi ned as havi ng l ess than 5 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve. Soi l s whi ch
have between 5 and 12 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve are cl assed as
borderl i ne and wi l l be di scussed l ater i n thi s appendi x.
GW and SW Groups
These groups compri se wel l -graded gravel l y and sandy soi l s havi ng l i ttl e or no
nonpl asti c fi nes (l ess than 5 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve). The presence
of the fi nes must not noti ceabl y change the strength characteri sti cs of the
coarse-grai ned fracti on and must not i nterfere wi th i ts free-drai ni ng
characteri sti cs. I f the materi al contai ns l ess than 5 percent fi nes that exhi bi t
pl asti ci ty, thi s i nformati on shoul d be eval uated and the soi l cl assi fi ed and
di scussed subsequentl y under Laboratory I denti fi cati on. I n areas subject to
frost acti on, the materi al shoul d not contai n more than 3 percent of soi l grai ns
smal l er than 0.02 mi l l i meter i n si ze.
GP and SP Groups
Poorl y-graded gravel s and sands contai ni ng l i ttl e or no nonpl asti c fi nes (l ess
than 5 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve) are cl assed i n the GP and SP groups.
The materi al s may be cl assed as uni form gravel s, uni form sands, or
nonuni form mi xtures of very coarse materi al and very fi ne sand, wi th
i ntermedi ate si zes l acki ng (someti mes cal l ed ski p graded, gap graded, or step
graded). The l atter group often resul ts from borrow excavati on i n whi ch
gravel and sand l ayers are mi xed. I f the fi ne fracti on exhi bi ts pl asti ci ty, thi s
i nformati on shoul d be eval uated and the soi l cl assi fi ed as di scussed
subsequentl y under Laboratory I denti fi cati on.
GM and SM Groups
I n general , the GM and SM groups compri se gravel s or sands wi th fi nes (more
than 12 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve) havi ng l ow or no pl asti ci ty. The PI
and LL of soi l s i n the group shoul d pl ot bel ow the A l i ne on the pl asti ci ty chart.
The gradati on of the materi al s i s not consi dered si gni fi cant and both wel l - and
poorl y graded materi al s are i ncl uded. Some of the sands and gravel s i n thi s
group wi l l have a bi nder composed of natural cementi ng agents, so proporti oned
that the mi xture shows negl i gi bl e swel l i ng or shri nkage. Thus, the dry strength
of such materi al s i s provi ded by a smal l amount of soi l bi nder or by cementati on
of cal careous materi al or i ron oxi de. The fi ne fracti on of other materi al s i n the
GM and SM groups may be composed of si l ts or rock-fl our types havi ng l i ttl e or
no pl asti ci ty, and the mi xture wi l l exhi bi t no dry strength.
GC and SC Groups
I n general , the GC and SC groups compri se gravel l y or sandy soi l s wi th fi nes
(more than 12 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve) whi ch have ei ther l ow or
hi gh pl asti ci ty. The PI and LL of soi l s i n the group shoul d pl ot above the A
l i ne on the pl asti ci ty chart. The gradati on of the materi al s i s not consi dered
si gni fi cant and both wel l - and poorl y graded materi al s are i ncl uded. The
pl asti ci ty of the bi nder fracti on has more i nfl uence on the behavi or of the soi l s
than does vari ati on i n gradati on. The fi ne fracti on i s general l y composed of
cl ays.

NOTES: 1. Values in columns 7 and 11 are for guidance only. Design should be based on actual test results.
2. The equipment listed in column 9 will usually produce the desired densities with a reasonable number of passes
when moisture conditions and thickness of lift are properly controlled.
3. The range of dry unit weights listed in column 10 are for compacted soil at OMC when using the Standard
Proctor Test (ASTM 1557-91).
Symbols Permeability
cm per sec
(8)
Major Divisions
(1) (2)
Letter
(3)
Hatching
(4)
Color
(5)
Name
(6)
Value for
Embankments (7)
GW
GP
GM
GC
SW
SP
SM
SC
ML
CL
OL
MH
CH
OH
Pt
R
e
d
Y
e
l
l
o
w
Y
e
l
l
o
w
R
e
d
G
r
e
e
n
B
l
u
e
O
r
a
n
g
e
Gravel
and
Gravelly
Soils
Sand
and
Sandy
Soils
Silts
and
Clays
LL < 50
Silts
and
Clays
LL > 50
Highly Organic
Soils
Coarse-
Grained
Soils
Fine-
Grained
Soils
Well-graded gravels or gravel-
sand mixtures, little or no fines
Poorly graded gravels or gravel-
Very stable, pervious shells of
dikes and dams
k > 10
2
k = 10
3
to 10
6
Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt
mixtures
Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-
clay mixtures
Well-graded sands or gravelly
sands, little or no fines
Poorly graded sands or
gravelly sands, little or no fines
Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures
Clayey sands, sand-silt
mixtures
Inorganic silts and very fine
sands, rock flour, silty or clayey
fine sands or clayey silts with
slight plasticity
Inorganic clays of low to medium
plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy
clays, silty clays, lean clays
Organic silts and organic silt-
clays of low plasticity
Inorganic silts, micaceous or
diatomaceous fine sandy or
silty soils, elastic silts
Inorganic clays of high
plasticity, fat clays
Organic clays of medium to
high plasticity, organic silts
Peat and other highly organic
soils
Reasonably stable, pervious
shells of dikes and dams
Reasonably stable, not
particularly suited to shells,
but may be used for
impervious cores or blankets
Fairly stable, may be used for
impervious core
Very stable, pervious sections,
slope protection required
Reasonably stable, may be
used in dike section with flat
slopes
Fairly stable, not particularly
suited to shells, but may be used
for impervious cores or dikes
Fairly stable, use for
impervious core or flood-control
structures
Poor stability, may be used for
embankments with proper
control
Stable, impervious cores and
blankets
Not suitable for embankments
Poor stability, core of hydraulic-
fill dam, not desirable in rolled-
fill construction
Fair stability with flat slopes,
thin cores, blankets and dike
sections
Not used for construction
k > 10
2
Not suitable for
embankments
k = 10
6
to 10
8
k > 10
3
k > 10
3
k = 10
6
to 10
8
k = 10
3
to 10
6
k = 10
3
to 10
6
k = 10
6
to 10
8
k = 10
4
to 10
6
k = 10
4
to 10
6
k = 10
6
to 10
8
k = 10
6
to 10
8
Table B-2. Characteristics of soil groups pertaining to embankments and foundations
Max Dry Unit Weight
Std Proctor (pcf)
(10)
Requirements
for Seepage
Control (12)
Compaction
Characteristics
(9)
Value for
Foundations (11)
Good; tractor, rubber-tired, or
steel-wheeled roller
Good; with close control; rubber-
tired or sheepsfoot roller
Fair; rubber-tired or sheepsfoot
roller
Good; tractor
Good with close control; rubber-
tired or sheepsfoot roller
Fair; sheepsfoot or rubber-tired
roller
Good to poor; close control
essential; rubber-tired or
sheepsfoot roller
Fair to poor; sheepsfoot or
rubber-tired roller
Fair to poor; sheepsfoot
roller
Poor to very poor; sheepsfoot
roller
125 -135
Good bearing value
Good to poor bear-
ing value depending on
density
Very poor, susceptible
to liquefaction
Fair to poor bearing
value, may have ex-
cessive settlements
Poor bearing value
Fair to poor bearing
value
Very poor bearing
value
Positive cutoff
Toe trench to none
None
Upstream blanket and
toe drainage or wells
None
Toe trench to none
None
None
None
None
None
Good bearing value
Positive cutoff
120 -135
Good bearing value
Compaction not practical Remove from foundations
115 -130 Good bearing value
Good; tractor
110 -130
100 -120
110 -125
105 -125
95 -120
95 -120
80 -100
70 - 95
75 -105
65 - 100
Good bearing value
Good to poor bearing
value depending on
density
Good to poor bear-
ing value
Good to poor bear-
ing value
Fair to poor; sheepsfoot
roller
Poor to very poor; sheepsfoot
roller
115 -125
Good; tractor, rubber-tired, or
steel-wheeled roller
Table B-2. Characteristics of soil groups pertaining to embankments and foundations
(continued)
Fine-Grained Soils
The fol l owi ng paragraphs di scuss fi ne-grai ned soi l s i n thei r subgroupi ngs:
ML and MH Groups
I n these gr oups, the symbol M has been used to desi gnate pr edomi nantl y si l ty
mater i al s and mi caceous or di atomaceous soi l s. The symbol s L and H
represent l ow and hi gh LLs, respecti vel y, and an arbi trary di vi di ng l i ne
between the two i s set at an LL of 50. The soi l s i n the ML and MH groups are
sandy si l ts, cl ayey si l ts, or i norgani c si l ts wi th rel ati vel y l ow pl asti ci ty. Al so
i ncl uded are l oess-type soi l s and rock fl ours. Mi caceous and di atomaceous
soi l s general l y fal l wi thi n the MH group but may extend i nto the ML group
when thei r LL i s l ess than 50. The same i s true for certai n types of kaol i n
cl ays and some el i te cl ays havi ng rel ati vel y l ow pl asti ci ty.
CL and CH Groups
I n these groups, the symbol C stands for cl ay, wi th L and H denoti ng l ow or
hi gh LL. These soi l s are pri mari l y i norgani c cl ays. Low-pl asti ci ty cl ays are
cl assi fi ed as CL and are usual l y l ean, sandy, or si l ty cl ays. The medi um and
hi gh pl asti ci ty cl ays are cl assi fi ed as CH. These i ncl ude the fat cl ays, gumbo
cl ays, certai n vol cani c cl ays, and bentoni te. The gl aci al cl ays of the northern
US cover a wi de band i n the CL and CH groups.
OL and OH Groups
The soi l s i n the OL and OH groups are characteri zed by the presence of
organi c matter, hence the symbol O. Organi c si l ts and cl ays are cl assi fi ed i n
these groups. The materi al s have a pl asti ci ty range that corresponds wi th the
ML and MH groups.
Highly-Organic Soils
The hi ghl y-organi c soi l s usual l y are very compressi bl e and have undesi rabl e
constructi on characteri sti cs. They are cl assi fi ed i nto one group, desi gnated by
the symbol Pt. Peat, humus, and swamp soi l s wi th a hi ghl y-organi c texture
are typi cal soi l s of the group. Parti cl es of l eaves, grass, branches, or other
fi brous vegetabl e matter are common components of these soi l s.
IDENTIFICATION OF SOIL GROUPS
The USCS i s arranged so that most soi l s may be cl assi fi ed i nto at l east the
three pri mary groups (coarse grai ned, fi ne grai ned, and hi ghl y organi c) by
means of vi sual exami nati on and si mpl e fi el d tests. Cl assi fi cati on i nto the
subdi vi si ons can al so be made by vi sual exami nati on wi th some degree of
success. More posi ti ve i denti fi cati on may be made through l aboratory testi ng.
However, i n many i nstances a tentati ve cl assi fi cati on determi ned i n the fi el d
i s of great benefi t and may be al l the i denti fi cati on that i s necessary,
dependi ng on the pur poses for whi ch the soi l s i n questi on are to be used. The
general or fi el d-i denti fi cati on methods as wel l as the i ndi vi dual l aboratory
test methods are al l expl ai ned i n great detai l i n Chapter 2. I t i s emphasi zed
that the two methods of i denti fi cati on are never enti rel y separated. Certai n
characteri sti cs can onl y be esti mated by vi sual exami nati on. I n borderl i ne
cases, i t may be necessary to veri fy the cl assi fi cati on by l aboratory tests.
Conversel y, the fi el d methods are enti rel y practi cal for prel i mi nary l aboratory
i denti fi cati on and may be used to an advantage i n groupi ng soi l s i n such a
manner that onl y a mi ni mum number of l aboratory tests need be run.
LABORATORY IDENTIFICATION
I denti fyi ng soi l s i n the l aboratory i s done by determi ni ng the gradati on and
pl asti ci ty characteri sti cs of the materi al s. The gradati on i s determi ned by si eve
anal ysi s, and a grai n-si ze curve i s usual l y pl otted as percent fi ner (or passi ng)
by wei ght agai nst a l ogari thmi c scal e of grai n si ze i n mi l l i meters. DD Form
1207 i s typi cal l y used for thi s purpose. Pl asti ci ty characteri sti cs are eval uated
by means of the LL and PL tests on the soi l fracti on fi ner than the No. 40 si eve.
The l aboratory test procedures for the LL and PL determi nati on can be found i n
Secti on I V of Chapter 2.
MAJ OR SOIL GROUPS
I n the l aboratory-i denti fi cati on procedures shown i n Figure B-1, page B-3, the
fi rst step i n i denti fyi ng a soi l i s to determi ne whether i t i s coarse grai ned, fi ne
grai ned, or hi ghl y organi c. Thi s may be done by vi sual exami nati on i n most
cases. I n some borderl i ne cases, as wi th very-fi ne sands or coarse si l ts, i t may
be necessary to screen a representati ve dry sampl e over a No. 200 si eve and
determi ne the percentage passi ng. Fi fty percent or l ess passi ng the No. 200
si eve i denti fi es the soi l as coarse grai ned, and more than 50 percent i denti fi es
the soi l as fi ne grai ned. The percentage l i mi t of 50 has been sel ected
arbi trari l y for conveni ence i n i denti fi cati on, as i t i s obvi ous that a numeri cal
di fference of 1 or 2 i n thi s percentage wi l l make no si gni fi cant change i n the
soi l s behavi or. After the major group i s establ i shed, the i denti fi cati on
procedure i s conti nued accordi ng to the proper headi ngs i n Figure B-1.
A compl ete si eve anal ysi s must be run on coarse-grai ned soi l s and a gradati on
curve pl otted on a grai n-si ze chart. For some soi l s contai ni ng a substanti al
amount of fi nes, i t may be desi rabl e to suppl ement the si eve anal ysi s wi th a
hydrometer anal ysi s to defi ne the gradati on curve for parti cl e si zes smal l er
than the No. 200 si eve si ze. Prel i mi nary i denti fi cati on i s made by
determi ni ng the percentage of materi al i n the gravel (above No. 4 si eve) and
sand (No. 4 to No. 200 si eve) si zes. I f there i s a greater percentage of gravel
than sand, the materi al i s cl assed as G; i f there i s a greater percentage of sand
than gravel , the materi al i s cl assed as S. Once agai n, the di sti ncti on between
these groups i s purel y arbi trary for conveni ence i n fol l owi ng the system. The
next step i s to determi ne the amount of materi al passi ng the No. 200 si eve.
Si nce the subgroups are the same for gravel s and sands, they wi l l be di scussed
joi ntl y i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
GW, SW, GP, and SP Groups
These groups compri se nonpl asti c soi l s havi ng l ess than 5 percent passi ng the
No. 200 si eve and i n whi ch the fi ne fracti on does not i nterfere wi th the soi l s
free-drai ni ng properti es. I f the above cri teri a are met, an exami nati on i s
made of the shape of the grai n-si ze curve. Materi al s that are wel l graded are
cl assi fi ed as GW or SW; poorl y graded mater i al s are cl assi fi ed as GP or SP.
A soi l s gradati on curve and curve data shoul d meet the fol l owi ng
qual i fi cati ons to be cl assed as wel l graded:
The grai n-si ze di stri buti ons of wel l -graded materi al s general l y pl ot as
smooth and regul ar concave curves wi th no si zes l acki ng or no excess
of materi al i n any si ze range.
The coeffi ci ent of uni formi ty (C
u
) of wel l -gr aded gr avel s i s gr eater
than 4 and of wel l -graded sands i s greater than 6. The C
u
i s
determi ned by di vi di ng the grai n-si ze di ameter passi ng at 60 percent
by the grai n-si ze di ameter passi ng at 10 percent.
The coeffi ci ent of curvature (C
c
) must be between 1 and 3. The C
c
i s
determi ned by the fol l owi ng formul a:
where
D
30
=grain diameter at 30 percent passing
D
60
D
10
The C
c
ensures that the gradi ng curve wi l l have a concave curvature wi thi n
rel ati vel y narrow l i mi ts for a gi ven D
60
and D
10
combi nati on. Al l gradati ons
not meeti ng the foregoi ng cri teri a are cl assed as poorl y graded. Thus, poorl y
graded soi l s (GP and SP) are those havi ng nearl y strai ght-l i ne gradati ons,
convex gradati ons, nearl y verti cal gradati ons, and hump gradati ons typi cal
of ski p-graded materi al s.
NOTE: In the preceding paragraph, soils of the GW, GP, SW, and SP
groups were defined as having less than a 5 percent fraction passing
the No. 200 sieve. Soils having between 5 and 12 percent passing the
No. 200 sieve are classed as borderline and are discussed later.
GM, SM, GC and SC Groups
The soi l s i n these groups are composed of those materi al s havi ng more than a
12 percent fracti on passi ng the No. 200 si eve. They may or may not exhi bi t
pl asti ci ty. For i denti fi cati on, the LL and PL tests ar e r equi red on the fracti on
fi ner than the No. 40 si eve. The tests shoul d be r un on r epresentati ve sampl es
of moi st materi al not on ai r- or oven-dri ed soi l s. Thi s precauti on i s desi rabl e
as dryi ng affects the l i mi ts val ues to some extent, as wi l l be expl ai ned further
i n the di scussi on of fi ne-grai ned soi l s. Materi al s i n whi ch the LL and PI pl ot
bel ow the A l i ne on the pl asti ci ty chart (see Figure 2-54, page 2-100) are
cl assed as GM or SM. Gr avel s and sands i n whi ch the LL and PI pl ot above
the A l i ne on the pl asti ci ty chart are cl assed as GC or SC. I t i s consi dered
that i n the i denti fi cati on of materi al s i n these groups, the pl asti ci ty
characteri sti cs overshadow the gradati on characteri sti cs; therefore, no
di sti ncti on i s made between wel l - and poorl y graded materi al s.
Borderl i ne Soi l s
Coarse-grai ned soi l s contai ni ng between 5 and 12 percent materi al passi ng
the No. 200 si eve are cl assed as borderl i ne and carry a dual symbol (for
exampl e, GW-GM). Si mi l arl y, coarse-grai ned soi l s havi ng l ess than 5 percent
passi ng the No. 200 si eve but whi ch are not free drai ni ng, or wherei n the fi ne
D
30
( )
2
D
60
D
10
-------------------------- between 1 and 3 =

fracti on exhi bi ts pl asti ci ty, are al so cl assed as borderl i ne and are gi ven a dual
symbol .
Fine-Grained Soils
Once the i denti ty of a fi ne-grai ned soi l has been establ i shed, further
i denti fi cati on i s accompl i shed pri nci pal l y by the LL and PL tests i n
conjuncti on wi th the pl asti ci ty chart. The pl asti ci ty chart i s a pl ot of LL
versus PI on whi ch i s i mposed a di agonal l i ne cal l ed the A l i ne and a verti cal
l i ne at a LL of 50. The A l i ne i s defi ned by the equati on PI = 0.73 (LL-20).
The A l i ne above a l i qui d l i mi t of about 29 represents an i mportant empi ri cal
boundary between typi cal i norgani c cl ays (CL and CH), whi ch are general l y
l ocated above the l i ne and pl asti c soi l s contai ni ng organi c col l oi ds (OL and
OH) or i norgani c si l ty soi l s (ML and MH). The verti cal l i ne at an LL of 50
separates si l ts and cl ays of l ow LL (L) from those of hi gh LL (H). I n the l ow
part of the chart bel ow an LL of about 29 and i n the range of PI from 4 to 7,
ther e i s consi der abl e over l appi ng of the pr oper ti es of the cl ayey and si l ty soi l
types. Hence, the separati on between CL and OL or ML soi l types i n thi s
regi on i s accompl i shed by a cross-hatched zone on the pl asti ci ty chart between
4 and 7 PI and above the A l i ne. The CL soi l s i n thi s regi on are those havi ng
a PI above 7 whi l e OL or ML soi l s are those havi ng a PI bel ow 4.
Soi l s pl otti ng wi thi n the cross-hatched zone shoul d be cl assed as borderl i ne.
The vari ous soi l groups are shown i n thei r respecti ve posi ti ons on the
pl asti ci ty chart. Experi ence has shown that compressi bi l i ty i s about
pr opor ti onal to the LL and that soi l s havi ng the same LL possess about equal
compressi bi l i ty (assumi ng that other factors are essenti al l y the same). On
compari ng the physi cal characteri sti cs of soi l s havi ng the same LL, you fi nd
that wi th i ncreasi ng the PI , the cohesi ve characteri sti cs i ncrease and the
permeabi l i ty decreases. From pl ots of the resul ts of l i mi ts tests on a number
of sampl es from the same fi ne-grai ned deposi t, i t i s found that for most soi l s
these poi nts l i e on a strai ght l i ne or i n a narrow band that i s al most paral l el to
the A l i ne. Wi th thi s background i nformati on i n mi nd, the i denti fi cati on of
the vari ous groups of fi ne-grai ned soi l s i s di scussed i n the fol l owi ng
paragraphs.
ML, CL, and OL Groups
A soi l havi ng an LL of l ess than 50 fal l s i nto the l ow LL (L) group. A pl ot of
the LL and PI on the pl asti ci ty chart wi l l show whether the soi l fal l s above or
bel ow the A l i ne and cross-hatched zone. Soi l s pl otti ng above the A l i ne
and cross-hatched zone are cl assed as CL and are usual l y typi cal i norgani c
cl ays. Soi l s pl otti ng bel ow the A l i ne or cross-hatched zone are i norgani c
si l ts or very fi ne sandy si l ts (ML) or organi c si l ts or organi c si l t-cl ays of l ow
pl asti ci ty (OL). Si nce two groups fal l bel ow the A l i ne or cross-hatched zone,
further i denti fi cati on i s necessary. The di sti ngui shi ng factor between the ML
and OL groups i s the absence or presence of organi c matter. Thi s i s usual l y
i denti fi ed by col or and odor. However, a compari son may be made between the
LL and PL of a moi st sampl e and one that has been oven-dri ed.
An organi c soi l wi l l show a radi cal drop i n pl asti ci ty after oven- or ai r-dryi ng.
An i norgani c soi l wi l l general l y show a change i n the l i mi ts val ues of onl y 1 or
2 percent, whi ch may be ei ther an i ncrease or a decrease. For the foregoi ng
r easons, the cl assi fi cati on shoul d be based on the pl ot of l i mi ts val ues
determi ned before dryi ng. Soi l s contai ni ng organi c matter general l y have
l ower speci fi c gravi ti es and may have deci dedl y hi gher water contents than
i nor gani c soi l s; ther efore, these pr operti es may be of assi stance i n i denti fyi ng
organi c soi l s. I n speci al cases, determi ni ng the organi c content may be made
by chemi cal methods, but the procedures just descri bed are usual l y suffi ci ent.
MH, CH, and OH Groups
Soi l s wi th an LL greater than 50 are cl assed i n group H. To i denti fy such
soi l s, the LL and PI val ues are pl otted on the pl asti ci ty char t. I f the poi nts fal l
above the A l i ne, the soi l cl assi fi es as CH; i f they fal l bel ow the A l i ne, a
determi nati on i s made as to whether or not organi c materi al i s present (as
descri bed i n the precedi ng paragraph). I norgani c materi al s are cl assed as MH
and organi c materi al s are cl assed as OH.
Hi ghl y-Organi c Soi l s
Li ttl e more can be sai d as to the l aboratory i denti fi cati on of hi ghl y-organi c
soi l s (Pt) than has been i denti fi ed i n the fi el d-i denti fi cati on procedures. These
soi l s are usual l y i denti fi ed readi l y on the basi s of col or, texture, and odor.
Moi sture determi nati ons usual l y show a natural water content of several
hundred percent, whi ch i s far i n excess of that found for most soi l s. Speci fi c
gravi ti es of the sol i ds i n these soi l s may be qui te l ow. Some peaty soi l s can be
remol ded and tested for the LLs and PLs. Such materi al s usual l y have an LL
of several hundred percent and fal l wel l bel ow the A l i ne on the pl asti ci ty
chart.
Borderline Classifications
I t i s i nevi tabl e i n the use of the cl assi fi cati on system that soi l s wi l l be
encountered that fal l cl ose to the boundari es establ i shed between the vari ous
groups. I n addi ti on, boundary zones for the amount of materi al passi ng the
No. 200 si eve and for the l ower part of the pl asti ci ty chart have been
i ncor por ated as a par t of the system, as di scussed subsequentl y. The accepted
rul e i n cl assi fyi ng borderl i ne soi l s i s to use a doubl e symbol (for exampl e, GW-
GM). I t i s possi bl e, i n rare i nstances, for a soi l to fal l i nto more than one
borderl i ne zone and, i f appropri ate symbol s were used for each possi bl e
cl assi fi cati on, the resul t shoul d be a mul ti pl e desi gnati on consi sti ng of three
or more symbol s. Thi s approach i s unnecessari l y compl i cated, and i t i s
consi dered best to use onl y a doubl e symbol i n these cases, sel ecti ng the two
that are bel i eved most representati ve of the probabl e behavi or of the soi l . I n
cases of doubt, the symbol s representi ng the poorer of the possi bl e groupi ngs
shoul d be used.
Coarse-Grai ned Soi l s
I n previ ous di scussi ons, the coarse-grai ned soi l s were cl assi fi ed i n the GW, GP,
SW, and SP groups i f they contai ned l ess than 5 percent of materi al passi ng
the No. 200 si eve. Si mi l arl y, soi l s were cl assi fi ed i n the GM, GC, SM, and SC
groups i f they had more than 12 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve. The range
between 5 and 12 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve i s desi gnated as
borderl i ne. Soi l s fal l i ng wi thi n i t are assi gned a doubl e symbol dependi ng on
both the gradati on characteri sti cs of the coarse fracti on and the pl asti ci ty
character i sti cs of the mi nus No. 40 si eve fr acti on. For exampl e, a wel l -gr aded
sandy soi l wi th 8 percent passi ng the No. 200 si eve, a LL of 28, and a PI of 9
woul d be desi gnated as SM-SC. Another type of borderl i ne cl assi fi cati on
occurs for those soi l s contai ni ng appreci abl e amounts of fi nes (groups GM, GC,
SM, and SC) and whose LL and PL val ues pl ot i n the l ower por ti on of the
pl asti ci ty chart. The method of cl assi fyi ng these soi l s i s the same as for fi ne-
gr ai ned soi l s pl otti ng i n the same r egi on, as pr esented i n the fol l owi ng
paragraph.
Fi ne-Grai ned Soi l s
Di scussi on has been presented of a zone on the pl asti ci ty chart bel ow a LL of
about 29 and rangi ng between PI val ues of 4 and 7. Several soi l types
exhi bi ti ng l ow pl asti ci ty pl ot i n thi s general regi on on the pl asti ci ty chart, and
no defi ni te boundary between si l ty and cl ayey soi l s exi sts. Thus, i f a fi ne-
gr ai ned soi l , groups CL and ML, or the mi nus No. 40 si eve fr acti on of a coarse-
grai ned soi l (groups GM, GC, SM, and SC) pl ots wi thi n the cross-hatched zone
on the pl asti ci ty chart, a doubl e symbol (such as ML-CL) i s used.
Note that i n the descri pti ve name of the soi l type as i ndi cated on Table B-2,
pages B-6 and B-7, si l ty and cl ayey may be used to descri be si l t or cl ay soi l s.
Si nce the defi ni ti ons of these ter ms are now somewhat di ffer ent fr om those
used by many soi l s engi neer s, i t i s consi der ed advi sabl e to di scuss thei r
connotati on as used i n thi s system. I n the USCS, the terms si l t and cl ay are
used to descri be those soi l s wi th LLs and PLs pl otti ng respecti vel y bel ow and
above the A l i ne and cross-hatched zone on the pl asti ci ty chart. As a l ogi cal
extensi on of thi s concept, the terms si l ty and cl ayey may be used as adjecti ves
i n the soi l names when the l i mi ts val ues pl ot cl ose to the A l i ne. For
exampl e, a cl ay soi l wi th an LL of 40 and a PI of 16 may be cal l ed a si l ty cl ay.
I n general , the adjecti ve si l ty i s not appl i ed to cl ay soi l s havi ng an LL i n
excess of about 60.
Expansi on of Cl assi fi cati on
I n some cases, i t may be necessary to expand the USCS by subdi vi di ng
exi sti ng groups to cl assi fy soi l s for a parti cul ar use. The i ndi scri mi nate use of
subdi vi si ons i s di scouraged and careful study shoul d be gi ven to any soi l
group before adopti ng such a step. I n al l cases, subdi vi si ons shoul d be
desi gnated preferabl y by a suffi x to an exi sti ng group symbol . The suffi x
shoul d be sel ected careful l y so there wi l l be no confusi on wi th exi sti ng l etters
that al ready have meani ngs i n the cl assi fi cati on system. I n each case where
an exi sti ng group i s subdi vi ded, the basi s and cri teri a for the subdi vi si on
shoul d be expl ai ned so that anyone unfami l i ar wi th i t may understand the
subdi vi si on properl y.
Descriptive Soil Classification
At many stages i n the soi l s i nvesti gati on of a projectfrom the prel i mi nary
bori ng l og to the fi nal reportthe engi neer fi nds i t conveni ent to gi ve the soi l s
he i s worki ng wi th a name rather than an i mpersonal cl assi fi cati on symbol
(such as GC). Thi s resul ts pri mari l y from the fact that he i s accustomed to
tal ki ng i n terms of gravel s, sands, si l ts, and cl ays and fi nds i t onl y l ogi cal to
use these same names i n presenti ng the data. The soi l names have been
associ ated wi th certai n grai n si zes i n the textural cl assi fi cati on as shown on
the grai n-si ze chart. Such a di vi si on i s general l y feasi bl e for the coarse-
grai ned soi l s; however, the use of such terms as si l t and cl ay may be enti rel y
mi sl eadi ng on a textural basi s. For thi s reason, the terms si l t and cl ay have
been defi ned on a pl asti ci ty basi s, as di scussed previ ousl y. Wi thi n a gi ven
r egi on of the countr y, the use of a name cl assi fi cati on based on texture i s often
feasi bl e si nce the general behavi or of si mi l ar soi l s i s consi stent over the area.
However, i n another area, the same cl assi fi cati on may be enti rel y i nadequate.
The descri pti ve cl assi fi cati on, i f used i ntel l i gentl y, has a ri ghtful pl ace i n soi l
mechani cs, but i ts use shoul d be careful l y eval uated by al l concerned.
Descri pti on From Cl assi fi cati on Sheet
Col umn 6 of Table B-2, pages B-6 and B-7, l i sts typi cal names gi ven to the soi l
types usual l y found wi thi n the vari ous cl assi fi cati on groups. By fol l owi ng
ei ther the fi el d- or l aboratory-i nvesti gati on procedure and determi ni ng the
proper cl assi fi cati on group i n whi ch the soi l bel ongs, i t i s usual l y an easy
matter to sel ect an appropr i ate name fr om the cl assi fi cati on sheet. Some soi l s
may be readi l y i denti fi ed and properl y named by onl y vi sual i nspecti on. A
word of cauti on i s consi dered appropri ate on the use of the cl assi fi cati on
system for certai n soi l s (such as marl s, cal yces, coral , and shal e) where the
grai n si ze can vary wi del y dependi ng on the amount of mechani cal breakdown
of soi l parti cl es. For these soi l s, the group symbol and textural name have
l i ttl e si gni fi cance and the l ocal l y used name may be i mportant.
Other Descri pti ve Terms
Records of fi el d expl orati ons i n the form of bori ng l ogs can be of great benefi t
to the engi neer i f they i ncl ude adequate i nformati on. I n addi ti on to the group
symbol and the name of the soi l , the general characteri sti cs of the soi l s as to
pl asti ci ty, strength, moi sture, and so forth provi de i nformati on essenti al to a
proper anal ysi s of a parti cul ar probl em. Local l y accepted soi l names shoul d
al so be used to cl ari fy the data to l ocal bi dders and to protect the government
agai nst l ater l egal cl ai ms. For coarse-grai ned soi l s, the si ze of parti cl es,
mi neral ogi cal composi ti on, shape of grai ns, and character of the bi nder are
rel evant features. For fi ne-grai ned soi l s, strength, moi sture, and pl asti ci ty
characteri sti cs are i mportant. When descri bi ng undi sturbed soi l s, such
characteri sti cs as strati fi cati on, structure, consi stency i n the undi sturbed and
remol ded states, cementati on, and drai nage are perti nent to the descri pti ve
cl assi fi cati on. Perti nent i tems to be used i n descri bi ng soi l s are shown i n
col umn 6 of Table B-3, pages B-16 and B-17. To achi eve uni formi ty i n
esti mati ng the consi stency of soi l s, i t i s recommended that the Terzaghi
cl assi fi cati on based on unconfi ned compressi ve strength be used as a tentati ve
standard. Thi s cl assi fi cati on i s gi ven i n Table B-4, page B-18.
Sever al exampl es of descr i pti ve cl assi fi cati ons are shown bel ow:
Uni form, fi ne, cl ean sand wi th rounded grai nsSP.
Wel l -graded gravel l y si l ty sand; angul ar chert gravel , 1/2 i nch
maxi mum si ze; si l ty bi nder wi th l ow pl asti ci ty, wel l -compacted and
moi stSM.
Li ght brown, fi ne, sandy si l t; very l ow pl asti ci ty; saturated and soft i n
the undi stur bed stateML.
Dark gray, fat cl ay; sti ff i n the undi sturbed state; soft and sti cky when
remol dedCH.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL GROUPS PERTAINING TO
EMBANKMENTS AND FOUNDATIONS
The major properti es of a soi l proposed for use i n an embankment or foundati on
that are of concern to the desi gn or constructi on engi neer are i ts strength,
permeabi l i ty, and consol i dati on and compacti on characteri sti cs. Other features
may be i nvesti gated for a speci fi c probl em, but i n general , some or al l of the
properti es menti oned are of pri mary i mportance i n an earth-embankment or
foundati on project of any magni tude. I t i s common practi ce to eval uate the
properti es of the soi l s i n questi on by means of l aboratory or fi el d tests and to
use the resul ts of such tests as a basi s for desi gn and constructi on. The factors
that i nfl uence strength, consol i dati on, and other characteri sti cs are numerous,
and some of them are not compl etel y understood; consequentl y, i t i s i mpracti cal
to eval uate these features by means of a general soi l s cl assi fi cati on. However,
the soi l groups i n a gi ven cl assi fi cati on do have reasonabl y si mi l ar behavi or
characteri sti cs. Whi l e such i nformati on i s not suffi ci ent for desi gn purposes, i t
wi l l gi ve the engi neer an i ndi cati on of the behavi or of a soi l when used as a
component i n constructi on. Thi s i s especi al l y true i n the prel i mi nary
exami nati on for a project when nei ther ti me nor money for a detai l ed soi l s-
testi ng program i s avai l abl e.
Keep i n mi nd that onl y general i zed characteri sti cs of the soi l groups are
i ncl uded therei n, and they shoul d be used pri mari l y as a gui de and not as the
compl ete answer to a probl em. For exampl e, i t i s possi bl e to desi gn and
construct an earth embankment of al most any type of soi l and on practi cal l y
any foundati on. However, when a choi ce of materi al s i s possi bl e, certai n of the
avai l abl e soi l s may be better-sui ted to the job than others. I t i s on thi s basi s
that the behavi or characteri sti cs of soi l s are presented i n the fol l owi ng
paragraphs and on the cl assi fi cati on sheet. A structures use i s often the
pri nci pal deci di ng factor i n sel ecti ng soi l types as wel l as the type of protecti ve
measures that wi l l be used. Si nce each structure i s a speci al probl em wi thi n
i tsel f, i t i s i mpossi bl e to cover al l possi bl e consi derati ons i n the bri ef descri pti on
of perti nent soi l characteri sti cs contai ned i n thi s appendi x.
FEATURES ON THE SOILS-CLASSIFICATION SHEET
General characteri sti cs of the soi l groups perti nent to embankments and
foundati ons are presented i n Table B-2, pages B-6 and B-7. Col umns 1
through 5 show major soi l di vi si ons, group symbol s, and the hatchi ng and
col or symbol s. The names of soi l types are gi ven i n col umn 6. The basi c
features are the same as those presented previ ousl y i n soi l s cl assi fi cati on.
Col umns 7 through 12 show the fol l owi ng: the sui tabi l i ty of the materi al s for
use i n embankments (strength and permeabi l i ty characteri sti cs); the
mi ni mum or range of permeabi l i ty val ues to be expected for the soi l groups;
general compacti on characteri sti cs; the sui tabi l i ty of the soi l s for foundati ons
(strength and consol i dati on); and the requi rements for seepage control ,
especi al l y when the soi l s are encountered i n the foundati on for earth
embankments (permeabi l i ty). Bri ef di scussi ons of these features are
presented i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.

NOTES:
O
r
a
n
g
e
1. Divisions of the GM and SM groups (column 3) into subdivisions of d and u are applicable to roads and
airfields only. Subdivision is based on the LL and PI; suffix d (for example, GMd) will be used when the LL
is 25 or less and the PI is 5 or less; the suffix u will be used otherwise.
Symbols
Major Divisions
(1) (2)
Letter
(3)
Hatching
(4)
Color
(5)
Name
(6)
Value As
Subgrade When
not Subject
to Frost Action (7)
GW
GP
GM
GC
SW
SP
SM
SC
ML
CL
OL
MH
CH
OH
Pt
R
e
d
Y
e
l
l
o
w
Y
e
l
l
o
w
R
e
d
G
r
e
e
n
B
l
u
e
Gravel
and
Gravelly
Soils
Sand
and
Sandy
Soils
Silts
and
Clays
LL < 50
Silts
and
Clays
LL > 50
Highly Organic
Soils
Coarse-
Grained
Soils
Fine-
Grained
Soils
Well-graded gravels or gravel-
Poorly graded gravels or gravel-
Excellent
Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt
mixtures
Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay
mixtures
Well-graded sands or gravelly
Poorly graded sands or gravelly
Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures
Clayey sands, sand-silt mixtures
Inorganic silts and very fine sands,
rock flour, silty or clayey fine sands
or clayey silts with slight plasticity
Inorganic clays of low to medium
plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy
clays, silty clays, lean clays
Organic silts and organic silt-
clays of low plasticity
Inorganic silts, micaceous or
diatomaceous fine sandy or silty
soils, elastic silts
Inorganic clays of high plasticity,
fat clays
Organic clays of medium to high
plasticity, organic silts
Peat and other highly-organic
soils
Good to excellent
Good to excellent
Good
d
u
Value As Subbase
When not Subject
to Frost Action (8)
Excellent
Good
Good
Fair
Good
Good
Fair to good
Fair to good
Fair
Poor to fair
d
u
Poor to fair
Poor to fair
Poor
Poor
Poor to fair
Poor to very poor
Not suitable
Fair
Fair to good
Fair to good
Poor to fair
Fair
Poor
Not suitable
Not suitable
Not suitable
Not suitable
Not suitable
Not suitable
Not suitable
Table B-3. Characteristics of soil groups pertaining to roads and airfields
Compressibility
and Expansion
(11)
Dry Unit
Weight
(pcf) (14)
Compaction
Equipment (13)
Crawler-type tractor, rubber-tired
roller, steel-wheeled roller
125 -140
Value As Base
When not Subject
to Frost Action
(9)
Good
Fair to Good
Fair to Good
Poor to not
suitable
None to
very slight
None to
very slight
Slight to
medium
Almost none
Almost none
Excellent
Drainage
Characteristics
(12)
Poor to practi-
cally impervious
CBR
(15)
40 -
80
Subgrade Modulus
k (lb per cu in)
(16)
Typical Design Values
Rubber-tired roller, sheepsfoot
roller; close control of moisture
Rubber-tired roller,
sheepsfoot roller
Poor to not
suitable
Slight to
medium
Very slight
Slight
Fair to poor
Poor to practi-
cally impervious
Excellent 110 -140
125 -145
115 -135
30 -
60
40 -
60
20 -
30
300 - 500
300 - 500
300 - 500
200 - 500
Not suitable
Not suitable
Not suitable
Not suitable
Not suitable
Not suitable
Not suitable
Poor
Poor to not
suitable
Poor
Not suitable
Not suitable
Slight to
medium
None to
very slight
None to
very slight
Slight to
high
Slight to
high
Slight to
high
Medium to
very high
Medium to
high
Medium to
high
Medium to
very high
Medium
Medium
Slight
Slight
Almost none
Almost none
Very slight
Slight to
medium
Slight to
medium
Slight to
medium
Medium
Medium to high
High
High
High
Very high
Excellent
Excellent
Fair to poor
Poor to practi-
cally impervious
Fair to poor
Poor to practi-
cally impervious
Practically
impervious
Poor
Fair to poor
Fair to poor
Practically
impervious
Practically
impervious
sheepsfoot roller
roller; close control of moisture
roller
sheepsfoot roller; close
control of moisture
sheepsfoot roller
sheepsfoot roller
sheepsfoot roller
sheepsfoot roller
sheepsfoot roller
sheepsfoot roller
Compaction not practical
130 -145
110 -130
105 -135
120 -135
100 -130
100 -135
90 -130
90 -130
90 -105
80 -105
90 -115
80 -110
20 -
40
20 -
40
10 -
40
15 -
40
10 -
20
5 -
20
15 or
less
15 or
less
5 or
less
10 or
less
15 or
less
5 or
less
- - -
200 - 500
200 - 400
150 - 400
150 - 400
100 - 300
100 - 300
100 - 200
50 - 150
50 - 100
50 - 100
50 - 150
25 - 100
2. The equipment listed in column 13 will usually produce the required densities with a reasonable number of passes when
moisture conditions and thickness lift are properly controlled. In some instances, several types of equipment are listed because
variable soil characteristics within a given soil group may require different equipment. In some instances, a combination of two
types may be necessary.
a. Processed base materials and other angular material. Steel-wheeled and rubber-tired rollers are recommended for hard,
angular materials with limited fines or screenings. Rubber-tired equipment is recommended for softer materials subject to
degradation.
b. Finishing. Rubber-tired equipment is recommended for rolling during final shaping operations for most soils and processed
materials.
c. Equipment Size. The following sizes of equipment are necessary to assure the high densities required for airfield
construction:
Crawler-type tractortotal weight in excess of 30,000 pounds.
Rubber-tired equipmentwheel load in excess of 15,000 pounds; wheel loads as high as 40,000 pounds may be necessary
to obtain the required densities for some materials (based on contact pressure of approximately 65 to 150 psi).
Sheepsfoot rollerunit pressure (on 6- to 12-square-inch foot) to be in excess of 250 psi and unit pressures as high as 650
psi may be necessary to obtain the required densities for some materials. The area of the feet should be at least 5 percent of the
total peripheral area of the drum, using the diameter measured to the faces of the feet.
3. The range of dry unit weights listed in column 14 are for compacted soil at OMC when using the Standard Proctor Test (ASTM
Potential
Frost
Action
(10)
Table B-3. Characteristics of soil groups pertaining to roads and airfields
(continued)
2. The equipment listed in column 13 will usually produce the required densities with a reasonable number of passes when
moisture conditions and thickness lift are properly controlled. In some instances, several types of equipment are listed because
variable soil characteristics within a given soil group may require different equipment. In some instances, a combination of two
types may be necessary.
a. Processed base materials and other angular material. Steel-wheeled and rubber-tired rollers are recommended for hard,
angular materials with limited fines or screenings. Rubber-tired equipment is recommended for softer materials subject to
degradation.
b. Finishing. Rubber-tired equipment is recommended for rolling during final shaping operations for most soils and processed
materials.
c. Equipment Size. The following sizes of equipment are necessary to assure the high densities required for airfield
construction:
Crawler-type tractortotal weight in excess of 30,000 pounds.
Rubber-tired equipmentwheel load in excess of 15,000 pounds; wheel loads as high as 40,000 pounds may be necessary
to obtain the required densities for some materials (based on contact pressure of approximately 65 to 150 psi).
Sheepsfoot rollerunit pressure (on 6- to 12-square-inch foot) to be in excess of 250 psi and unit pressures as high as 650
psi may be necessary to obtain the required densities for some materials. The area of the feet should be at least 5 percent of the
total peripheral area of the drum, using the diameter measured to the faces of the feet.
3. The range of dry unit weights listed in column 14 are for compacted soil at OMC when using the Standard Proctor Test (ASTM
1557-91).
4. The maximum CBR values (column 15) that can be used in design of airfields is, in some cases, limited by gradation and
plasticity requirements.
NOTES (continued):
Suitability of Soils for Embankments
Three major factors that i nfl uence the sui tabi l i ty of soi l s for use i n
embankments are permeabi l i ty, strength, and ease of compacti on. The
gr avel l y and sandy soi l s wi th l i ttl e or no fi nes (gr oups GW, GP, SW, and SP)
are stabl e, pervi ous, and abl e to attai n good compacti on wi th crawl er-type
tractors and rubber-ti red rol l ers. The poorl y graded materi al s may not be
qui te as desi rabl e as those whi ch are wel l graded, but al l of the materi al s are
sui tabl e for use i n the pervi ous secti ons of earth embankments. Poorl y graded
sands (SP) may be more di ffi cul t to use and, i n general , shoul d have fl atter
embankment sl opes than the SW soi l s. The gravel s and sands wi th fi nes
(groups GM, GC, SM, and SC) have vari abl e characteri sti cs dependi ng on the
nature of the fi ne fracti on and the gradati on of the enti re sampl e. These
materi al s are often suffi ci entl y i mpervi ous and stabl e to be used for
i mpervi ous secti ons of embankments. The soi l s i n these groups shoul d be
careful l y exami ned to ensure that they are properl y zoned wi th rel ati on to
other materi al s i n an embankment.
Of the fi ne-grai ned soi l s, the CL group i s best adapted for embankment
constructi on; the soi l s are i mpervi ous, fai rl y stabl e, and gi ve fai r to good
compacti on wi th sheepsfoot or rubber-ti red rol l ers. The MH soi l s, whi l e not
desi rabl e for rol l ed-fi l l constructi on, may be used i n the core of hydraul i c-fi l l
structures. Soi l s of the ML group may or may not have good compacti on
characteri sti cs and, i n general , must be cl osel y control l ed i n the fi el d to secure
the desi red strength. CH soi l s have fai r stabi l i ty when used on fl at sl opes but
have detri mental shri nkage characteri sti cs whi ch may necessi tate bl anketi ng
them or i ncorporati ng them i n thi n i nteri or cores of embankments. Soi l s
contai ni ng organi c matter (groups OL, OH, and Pt) are not commonl y used for
embankment constructi on because of the detri mental effects of the organi c
matter present. Such materi al s may often be used to advantage i n bl ankets
and stabi l i ty berms where strength i s not i mportant.
Permeability and Seepage Control
Si nce the permeabi l i ty (col umn 8) and requi rements for seepage control
(col umn 12) are essenti al l y functi ons of the same property of a soi l , they wi l l
be di scussed joi ntl y. The subject of seepage i n rel ati on to embankments and
foundati ons may be roughl y di vi ded i nto three categori es:
Table B-4. Terzaghi classification
Unconfined Compressive
Strength (Tons/Sq Ft)
Consistency
< 0.25 Very soft
0.25 to 0.50 Soft
0.50 to 1.00 Medium
1.00 to 2.00 Stiff
2.00 to 4.00 Very stiff
> 4.00 Hard
Seepage through embankments.
Seepage through foundati ons.
Control of upl i ft pressures.
These are di scussed i n rel ati on to the soi l groups i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
Seepage Through Embankments
I n the control of seepage through embankments, i t i s the rel ati ve permeabi l i ty
of adjacent materi al s rather than the actual permeabi l i ty of such soi l s that
governs thei r use i n a gi ven l ocati on. An earth embankment i s not waterti ght,
and the al l owabl e quanti ty of seepage through i t i s l argel y governed by the
use to whi ch the structure i s put. For exampl e, i n a fl ood-control project,
consi derabl e seepage may be al l owed and the structure wi l l sti l l ful fi l l the
storage requi rements; whereas for an i rri gati on project, much l ess seepage i s
al l owabl e because pool l evel s must be mai ntai ned. The more i mpervi ous soi l s
(GM, GC, SM, SC, CL, MH, and CH) may be used i n core secti ons or i n
homogeneous embankments to retard the fl ow of water. Where i t i s i mportant
that seepage not emerge on the downstream sl ope or the possi bi l i ty of
drawdown exi sts on upstream sl opes, more pervi ous materi al s are usual l y
pl aced on the outer sl opes. The coarse-grai ned, free-drai ni ng soi l s (GW, GP,
SW, SP) are best-sui ted for thi s purpose. Where a vari ety of materi al s i s
avai l abl e, they are usual l y graded from l east pervi ous to more pervi ous from
the center of the embankment outward. Care shoul d be used i n the
arrangement of materi al s i n the embankment to prevent pi pi ng wi thi n the
secti on. The foregoi ng statements do not precl ude the use of other
arrangements of materi al s i n embankments. Dams have been constructed
successful l y enti rel y of sand (SW, SP, and SM) or of si l t (ML) wi th the secti on
made l arge enough to reduce seepage to an al l owabl e val ue wi thout the use of
an i mpervi ous core. Coarse-grai ned soi l s are often used i n drai ns and toe
secti ons to col l ect seepage water i n downstream secti ons of embankments.
The soi l s used wi l l depend l argel y on the materi al that they drai n; i n general ,
free-drai ni ng sands (SW and SP) or gravel s (GW and GP) are preferred, but a
si l ty sand (SM) may effecti vel y drai n a cl ay (CL and CH) and be enti rel y
sati sfactory.
Seepage Through Foundati ons
As i n the case of embankments, the use of the structure i nvol ved often
determi nes the amount of seepage control necessary i n foundati ons. Cases
coul d be ci ted where the fl ow of water through a pervi ous foundati on woul d
not consti tute an excessi ve water l oss and no seepage control measures woul d
be necessary i f adequate provi si ons were made agai nst pi pi ng i n cri ti cal areas.
I f seepage control i s desi red, then the more pervi ous soi l s are the soi l s i n
whi ch necessary measures must be taken. Free-drai ni ng gravel s (GW and
GP) are capabl e of carryi ng consi derabl e quanti ti es of water, and some means
of posi ti ve control (such as a cutoff trench) may be necessary. Cl ean sands
(SW and SP) may be control l ed by a cutoff or by an upstream i mpervi ous
bl anket. Whi l e a drai nage trench at the downstream toe or a l i ne of rel i ef
wel l s wi l l not reduce the amount of seepage, ei ther wi l l serve to control
seepage and route the fl ow i nto col l ector systems where i t can be l ed away
harml essl y. Sl i ghtl y l ess pervi ous materi al (such as si l ty gravel s [GM], si l ty
sands [SM], or si l ts [ML]) may requi re a mi nor amount of seepage control such
as that afforded by a toe trench, or i f they are suffi ci entl y i mpervi ous, no
control may be necessary. The rel ati vel y i mpervi ous soi l s (GC, SC, CL, OL,
MH, CH, and OH) usual l y pass such a smal l vol ume of water that seepage
control measures are not necessary.
Control of Upl i ft Pressures
The probl em of control of upl i ft pressures i s di rectl y associ ated wi th pervi ous
foundati on soi l s. Upl i ft pressures may be reduced by l engtheni ng the path of
seepage (by a cutoff or upstream bl anket) or by measures for pressure rel i ef i n
the form of wel l s, drai nage trenches, drai nage bl ankets, or pervi ous
downstream shel l s. Free-drai ni ng gravel s (GW and GP) may be treated by
any of the afor ementi oned procedur es; however, to obtai n the desi r ed pr essur e
rel i ef, the use of a posi ti ve cutoff may be preferred, as bl anket, wel l , or trench
i nstal l ati ons woul d probabl y have to be too extensi ve for economi cal
accompl i shment of the desi red resul ts. Free-drai ni ng sands (SW and SP) are
general l y l ess permeabl e than the gravel s and, consequentl y, the vol ume of
water that must be control l ed for pressure rel i ef i s usual l y l ess. Therefore a
posi ti ve cutoff may not be requi red and an upstream bl anket, wel l s, or a toe
trench may be enti rel y effecti ve. I n some cases a combi nati on of bl anket and
trench or wel l s may be desi rabl e.
Si l ty soi l s (si l ty gravel s [GM], si l ty sands [SM], and si l ts [ML]) usual l y do not
requi re extensi ve treatment; a toe drai nage trench or wel l system may be
suffi ci ent to reduce upl i ft pressures. The more i mpervi ous si l ty materi al s may
not be permeabl e enough to permi t dangerous upl i ft pressures to devel op, and
i n such cases, no treatment i s i ndi cated. I n general , the more i mpervi ous soi l s
(GC, SC, CL, OL, MH, CH, and OH) requi re no treatment for control of upl i ft
pressures. However, they do assume i mportance when they occur as a
rel ati vel y thi n top stratum over more pervi ous materi al s. I n such cases, upl i ft
pressures i n the l ower l ayers acti ng on the base of the i mpervi ous top stratum
can cause heavi ng and formati on of boi l s; treatment of the l ower l ayer by some
of the methods menti oned above i s usual l y i ndi cated i n these cases. I t i s
emphasi zed that control of upl i ft pressures shoul d not be appl i ed
i ndi scri mi natel y just because certai n types of soi l s are encountered. Rather,
the use of control measures shoul d be based on a careful eval uati on of
condi ti ons that do or can exi st, and an economi cal sol uti on shoul d be reached
that wi l l accompl i sh the desi red resul ts.
Compaction Characteristics
Col umn 9 of Table B-2, pages B-6 and B-7, shows the general compacti on
characteri sti cs of the vari ous soi l groups. The eval uati ons gi ven and the
equi pment l i sted are based on average fi el d condi ti ons where proper moi sture
control and thi ckness of l i ft are attai ned and a reasonabl e number of passes of
the compacti on equi pment are requi red to secure the desi red densi ty. For l i ft
constructi on of embankments, the sheepsfoot and rubber-ti red rol l ers are
commonl y used pi eces of equi pment. Some advantages may be cl ai med for the
sheepsfoot rol l er i n that i t l eaves a rough surface that affords better bond
between l i fts and i t kneads the soi l affordi ng better moi sture di stri buti on.
Rubber-ti red equi pment referred to i n the tabl e i s consi dered to be heavi l y
l oaded compactors or earthmovi ng equi pment wi th a mi ni mum wheel l oad of
15,000 pounds. I f ordi nary wobbl e-wheel rol l ers are used for compacti on, the
thi ckness of a compacted l i ft i s usual l y reduced to about 2 i nches.
Granul ar soi l s wi th l i ttl e or no fi nes general l y show good compacti on
characteri sti cs, wi th the wel l -graded materi al s (GW and SW) usual l y
furni shi ng better resul ts than the poorl y graded soi l s (GP and SP). The sandy
soi l s, i n most cases, are best compacted by crawl er-type tractors; on the
gravel l y materi al s, rubber-ti red equi pment and someti mes steel -wheel rol l ers
are al so effecti ve. Coarse-grai ned soi l s wi th fi nes of l ow pl asti ci ty (groups GM
and SM) show good compacti on characteri sti cs wi th ei ther sheepsfoot rol l ers
or rubber-ti red equi pment; however, the range of moi sture contents for
effecti ve compacti on may be very narrow and cl ose moi sture control i s
desi rabl e. Thi s i s al so true of the si l ty soi l s i n the ML group. Soi l s of the ML
group may be compacted wi th rubber-ti red equi pment or wi th sheepsfoot
rol l ers. Gravel s and sands wi th pl asti c fi nes (groups GC and SC) show fai r
compacti on characteri sti cs, al though thi s qual i ty may vary somewhat wi th the
character and amount of fi nes.
Rubber-ti red or sheepsfoot rol l ers may be used. Sheepsfoot rol l ers are
general l y used for compacti ng fi ne-grai ned soi l s. The compacti on
characteri sti cs of such materi al s are vari abl el ean cl ays and sandy cl ays
(CL) bei ng the best, fat cl ays and l ean organi c cl ays or si l ts (OL and CH) fai r
to poor, and organi c or mi caceous soi l s (MH and OH) usual l y poor.
For most constructi on projects of any magni tude, i t i s hi ghl y desi rabl e to
i nvesti gate the compacti on characteri sti cs of the soi l by means of a fi el d test
secti on. Col umn 10 shows the ranges of uni t dry wei ght for soi l s compacted
accordi ng to the compacti on test method as descri bed i n ASTM 1557-91 and
Chapter 2 of thi s manual . I t i s emphasi zed that these val ues are for gui dance
onl y. Desi gn or constructi on control shoul d be based on l aboratory test
resul ts.
Suitability of Soils for Foundations
Sui tabi l i ty of soi l s for foundati ons of embankments or structures depends
pri mari l y on the strength and consol i dati on characteri sti cs of the subsoi l s.
The type of structure and i ts use wi l l l argel y govern the adaptabi l i ty of a soi l
as a sati sfactory foundati on. For embankments, l arge settl ements may be
al l owed and compensated for by overbui l di ng; whereas the al l owabl e
settl ement of structures (such as control towers) may be smal l to prevent
overstressi ng the concrete or steel of whi ch they are bui l t or because of the
necessi ty for adheri ng to establ i shed grades. Therefore, a soi l may be enti rel y
sati sfactory for one type of constructi on but may requi re speci al treatment for
other types.
Strength and settl ement characteri sti cs of soi l s depend on a number of
vari abl es (such as structure, i n-pl ace densi ty, moi sture content, and cycl es of
l oadi ng i n thei r geol ogi c hi story) whi ch are not readi l y eval uated by a
cl assi fi cati on system such as used here. For these reasons, onl y very general
statements can be made as to the sui tabi l i ty of the vari ous soi l types as
foundati ons. Thi s i s especi al l y true for fi ne-grai ned soi l s.
I n gener al , the gravel s and gr avel l y soi l s (GW, GP, GM, and GC) have good
beari ng capaci ty and undergo l i ttl e consol i dati on under l oad. Wel l -graded
sands (SW) usual l y have a good beari ng val ue. Poorl y graded sands and si l ty
sands (SP and SM) may exhi bi t vari abl e beari ng capaci ty dependi ng on thei r
densi ty. Thi s i s true to some extent for al l coarse-grai ned soi l s but i s
especi al l y cri ti cal for uni forml y graded soi l s of the SP and SM groups. Such
soi l s, when saturated, may become qui ck and present an addi ti onal
constructi on probl em. Soi l s of the ML group may be subject to l i quefacti on
and may have poor beari ng capaci ti es, parti cul arl y where heavy structure
l oads are i nvol ved. Of the fi ne-grai ned soi l s, the CL group i s probabl y the best
from a foundati on standpoi nt, but i n some cases, the soi l s may be soft and wet
and exhi bi t poor beari ng capaci ty and fai rl y l arge settl ements under l oad.
Soi l s of the MH groups and normal l y consol i dated CH soi l s may show poor
beari ng capaci ty and l arge settl ements. Organi c soi l s (OL and OH) have poor
beari ng capaci ty and usual l y exhi bi t l arge settl ement under l oad.
For most of the fi ne-grai ned soi l s di scussed above, the type of structure
foundati on sel ected i s governed by such factors as the beari ng capaci ty of the
soi l and the magni tude of the l oad. I t i s possi bl e that si mpl e spread footi ngs
mi ght be adequate to carry the l oad wi thout excessi ve settl ement i n many
cases. I f the soi l s are poor and structure l oads are rel ati vel y heavy, then
al ternate methods are i ndi cated. Pi l e foundati ons may be necessary i n some
cases and i n speci al i nstancesparti cul arl y i n the case of some CH and OH
soi l si t may be desi rabl e and economi cal l y feasi bl e to remove such soi l s from
the foundati on. Hi ghl y-organi c soi l s are general l y very poor foundati on
materi al s. These may be capabl e of carryi ng very l i ght l oads but, i n general ,
are unsui ted for most constructi on purposes. I f hi ghl y-organi c soi l s occur i n
the foundati on, they may be removed (i f l i mi ted i n extent), they may be
di spl aced (by dumpi ng fi rmer soi l s on top), or pi l i ng may be dri ven through
them to a stronger l ayer. Proper treatment wi l l depend on the structure
i nvol ved.
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF SOILS DATA
I t i s customary to present the resul ts of soi l s expl orati ons on drawi ngs or
pl ans as schemati c representati ons of the bori ngs or test pi ts wi th the soi l s
encountered usi ng vari ous symbol s. Commonl y used hatchi ng symbol s are
smal l , i rregul ar round symbol s for gravel ; dots for sand; verti cal l i nes for si l ts;
and di agonal l i nes for cl ays. Combi nati ons of these symbol s represent the
vari ous combi nati ons of materi al s found i n the expl orati ons. Thi s system has
been adapted to the vari ous soi l groups i n the USCS and the appropri ate
symbol s are shown i n col umn 4 of Table B-2, pages B-6 and B-7. As an
al ternati ve to the hatchi ng symbol s, they may be omi tted and the appropri ate
group l etter symbol wri tten i n the bori ng l og. I n addi ti on to the symbol s on
l ogs of bori ngs, the effecti ve si ze of coarse-grai ned soi l s and the natural water
content of fi ne-grai ned soi l s shoul d be shown by the si de of the l og. Other
descri pti ve abbrevi ati ons may be used as deemed appropri ate. I n certai n
i nstances, the use of col or to del i neate soi l types on maps and drawi ngs i s
desi rabl e. A suggested col or scheme to show the major soi l groups i s descri bed
i n col umn 5 of Table B-2.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL GROUPS PERTAINING TO ROADS AND
AIRFIELDS
The properti es desi red i n soi l s for foundati ons under roads and ai rfi el ds and
for base courses under fl exi bl e pavements are adequate strength, good
compacti on characteri sti cs, adequate drai nage, resi stance to frost acti on i n
areas where frost i s a factor, and acceptabl e compressi on and expansi on
characteri sti cs. Some of these properti es, i f i nadequate i n the soi l s avai l abl e,
may be suppl i ed by proper constructi on methods. For i nstance, materi al s
havi ng good drai nage characteri sti cs are desi rabl e, but i f such materi al s are
not avai l abl e l ocal l y, adequate drai nage may be obtai ned by i nstal l i ng a
properl y desi gned water-col l ecti ng system. Strength requi rements for base-
course materi al s (to be used i mmedi atel y under the pavement of a fl exi bl e
pavement structure) are hi gh and onl y good-qual i ty materi al s are acceptabl e.
However, l ow strengths i n subgrade materi al s may be compensated for i n
many cases by i ncreasi ng the thi ckness of overl yi ng concrete pavement or of
base materi al s i n fl exi bl e pavement constructi on. From the foregoi ng bri ef
di scussi on, i t may be seen that the proper desi gn of roads and ai rfi el d
pavements requi res the eval uati on of soi l properti es i n more detai l than i s
possi bl e by usi ng the general soi l s cl assi fi cati on system. However, the
groupi ng of soi l s i n the cl assi fi cati on system i s such that a general i ndi cati on
of thei r behavi or i n road and ai rfi el d constructi on may be obtai ned.
FEATURES ON THE SOILS-CLASSIFICATION SHEET
General characteri sti cs of the soi l groups perti nent to roads and ai rfi el ds are
presented i n Table B-3, pages B-16 and B-17. Col umns 1 through 5 show
major soi l di vi si ons, group symbol s, hatchi ng and col or symbol s; col umn 6
gi ves names of soi l types; col umn 7 eval uates the performance (strength) of
the soi l groups when used as subgrade materi al s that wi l l not be subject to
frost acti on; col umns 8 and 9 make a si mi l ar eval uati on for the soi l s when
used as subbase and base materi al s; col umn 10 shows potenti al frost acti on;
col umn 11 shows compressi bi l i ty and expansi on characteri sti cs; col umn 12
presents drai nage characteri sti cs; col umn 13 shows types of compacti on
equi pment that perform sati sfactori l y on the vari ous soi l groups; col umn 14
shows ranges of uni t dry wei ght for compacted soi l s; col umn 15 gi ves ranges of
typi cal CBR val ues; and col umn 16 gi ves ranges of modul us of subgrade
reacti on (k). The vari ous features presented are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng
paragraphs.
Subdivision of Coarse-Grained Soil Groups
Note that i n col umn 3 the basi c soi l groups (GM and SM) have each been
subdi vi ded i nto two groups desi gnated by the suffi xes d and u whi ch have
been chosen to represent desi rabl e and l ess desi rabl e (undesi rabl e) base
materi al s, respecti vel y. Thi s subdi vi si on appl i es to roads and ai rfi el ds onl y
and i s based on fi el d observati on and l aboratory tests on the behavi or of the
soi l s i n these groups. Basi s for the subdi vi si on i s the LL and PI of the fracti on
of the soi l passi ng the No. 40 si eve. The suffi x d i s used when the LL i s 25 or
l ess and the PI i s 5 or l ess; otherwi se, the suffi x u i s used. Typi cal symbol s for
soi l s i n these groups are GMd and SMu.
Values of Soils as Subgrade, Subbase, or Base Materials
The descri pti ons i n col umns 7 through 9 gi ve a general i ndi cati on of the
sui tabi l i ty of the soi l groups for use as subgrades, subbase, or base materi al s,
pr ovi ded they are not subject to fr ost acti on. I n ar eas where frost heavi ng i s a
probl em, the val ue of materi al s as subgrades or subbases wi l l be reduced,
dependi ng on the potenti al frost acti on of the materi al as shown i n col umn 10.
Proper desi gn procedures shoul d be used i n si tuati ons where thi s i s a probl em.
The coarse-grai ned soi l s, i n general , are the best subgrade, subbase, and base
materi al s. The GW group has excel l ent qual i ti es as a subgrade and subbase,
and i s good as base materi al . Note that the adjecti ve excel l ent i s not used
for any of the soi l s for base courses; excel l ent shoul d be used i n reference to a
hi gh-qual i ty processed crushed stone. Poorl y graded gravel s and some si l ty
gravel s (groups GP and GMd) are usual l y onl y sl i ghtl y l ess desi rabl e as
subgrade or subbase materi al s and, under favorabl e condi ti ons, may be used
as base materi al s for certai n condi ti ons. However, poor gradati on and other
factor s someti mes r educe the val ue of such soi l s to the extent that they offer
onl y moderate strength, and thei r val ue as a base materi al i s l ess. The GMu,
GC, and SW groups are reasonabl y good subgrade materi al s but are general l y
poor to not sui tabl e as bases. The SP and SMd soi l s are usual l y consi dered
fai r to good subgrade and subbase materi al s but, i n general , are poor to not
sui tabl e for base materi al s. The SMu and SC soi l s are fai r to poor subgrade
and subbase materi al s and are not sui tabl e for base materi al s. The fi ne-
grai ned soi l s range from fai r to very poor subgrade materi al s as fol l ows:
Si l ts and l ean cl ays (ML and CL)fai r to poor.
Organi c si l ts, l ean organi c cl ays, and mi caceous or di atomaceous soi l s
(OL and MH)poor.
Fat cl ays and fat organi c cl ays (CH and OH)poor to very poor.
These qual i ti es are compensated for i n fl exi bl e pavement desi gn by i ncreasi ng
the thi ckness of overl yi ng base materi al and i n ri gi d pavement desi gn by
i ncreasi ng the pavement thi ckness or by addi ng a base-course l ayer. None of
the fi ne-grai ned soi l s are sui tabl e as subbase or base materi al s. The fi brous
organi c soi l s (group Pt) are very poor subgrade materi al s and shoul d be
removed wherever possi bl e; otherwi se, speci al constructi on measures shoul d
be adopted. They are not sui tabl e as subbase and base materi al s. The CBR
val ues shown i n col umn 15 gi ve a rel ati ve i ndi cati on of the strength of the
vari ous soi l groups as used i n fl exi bl e pavement desi gn. Si mi l arl y, val ues of
subgrade modul us (k) i n col umn 16 are rel ati ve i ndi cati ons of strengths from
pl ate-beari ng tests as used i n ri gi d pavement desi gn. As these tests are used
for the desi gn of pavements, actual test val ues shoul d be used for thi s purpose
i nstead of the approxi mate val ues shown i n the tabul ati on.
For weari ng surfaces on unsurfaced roads, sand-cl ay-gravel mi xtures (GC) are
general l y consi dered the most sati sfactory. However, they shoul d not contai n
too l arge a percentage of fi nes and the PI shoul d be i n the range of 5 to about
15.
Potential Frost Action
The rel ati ve effects of frost acti on on the vari ous soi l groups are shown i n
col umn 10. Regardl ess of the frost suscepti bi l i ty of the vari ous soi l groups,
two condi ti ons must be present si mul taneousl y before frost acti on wi l l be a
major consi derati ona source of water duri ng the freezi ng peri od and a
suffi ci ent peri od for the freezi ng temperature to penetrate the ground. Water
necessary for the formati on of i ce l enses may become avai l abl e from a hi gh
groundwater tabl e or a capi l l ary suppl y, wi thi n the soi l voi ds, or through
i nfi l trati on. The degree of i ce formati on that wi l l occur i n any gi ven case i s
i nfl uenced by envi ronmental factors such as topographi c posi ti on,
strati fi cati on of the parent soi l , transi ti ons i nto cut secti ons, l ateral fl ow of
water from si de cuts, l ocal i zed pockets of perched groundwater, and drai nage
condi ti ons. I n general , the si l ts and fi ne si l ty sands are the worst offenders as
far as frost i s concerned. Coarse-grai ned materi al s wi th l i ttl e or no fi nes are
affected onl y sl i ghtl y i f at al l . Cl ays (CL and CH) are subject to frost acti on,
but the l oss of strength of such materi al s may not be as great as for si l ty soi l s.
I norgani c soi l s contai ni ng l ess than three percent of grai ns fi ner than 0.02
mi l l i meter i n di ameter by wei ght are general l y not frost suscepti bl e. Where
frost-suscepti bl e soi l s are encountered i n subgrades and frost i s a defi ni te
probl em, two acceptabl e methods of desi gn of pavements are avai l abl e. Ei ther
a suffi ci ent depth of acceptabl e granul ar materi al i s pl aced over the soi l s to
prevent freezi ng i n the subgrade and thereby prevent the detri mental effects
of frost acti on or a reduced depth of granul ar materi al i s used, thereby
al l owi ng freezi ng i n the subgrade, and the desi gn i s based on the reduced
strength of the subgrade duri ng the frost-mel ti ng peri od. I n many cases,
appropri ate drai nage measures to prevent the accumul ati on of water i n the
soi l pores wi l l hel p to di mi ni sh i ce segregati on i n the subgrade and subbase.
Compressibility and Expansion
Two types of soi l characteri sti cs are appl i cabl e to road and runway desi gn.
The fi rst i s the rel ati vel y l ong-term compressi on or consol i dati on under the
dead wei ght of the structure; the second i s the short-term compressi on and
rebound under movi ng wheel l oads. The l ong-term consol i dati on of soi l s
becomes a factor i n desi gn pri mari l y when heavy fi l l s are made on
compressi bl e soi l s. I f adequate provi si on i s made for thi s type of settl ement
duri ng constructi on, i t wi l l have l i ttl e i nfl uence on the pavements l oad-
carryi ng capaci ty. However, when el asti c soi l s subject to compressi on and
rebound under wheel l oad are encountered, adequate protecti on must be
provi ded, as even smal l movements of thi s soi l may be detri mental to the base
and weari ng course of pavements.
I t i s fortunate that the free-drai ni ng, coarse-grai ned soi l s (GW, GP, SW, and
SP), whi ch i n general make the best subgrade and subbase materi al s, exhi bi t
al most no tendency toward hi gh compressi bi l i ty or expansi on. I n general , the
compressi bi l i ty of soi l s i ncreases wi th an i ncreasi ng LL. The foregoi ng i s not
compl etel y true, as compressi bi l i ty i s al so i nfl uenced by soi l structure, grai n
shape, previ ous l oadi ng hi story, and other factors that are not eval uated i n the
cl assi fi cati on system. Undesi rabl e compressi bi l i ty or expansi on
characteri sti cs may be reduced by di stri buti ng the l oad through a greater
thi ckness of overl yi ng materi al . Thi s i s adequatel y handl ed by the CBR
method of desi gn for fl exi bl e pavements; however, ri gi d pavements may
requi re the addi ti on of an acceptabl e base course under the pavement.
Drainage Characteristics
The drai nage characteri sti cs of soi l s are a di rect refl ecti on of thei r
permeabi l i ty. The eval uati on of drai nage characteri sti cs for use i n roads and
runways i s shown i n col umn 12. The presence of moi sture i n base, subbase,
and subgrade materi al sexcept for free-drai ni ng, coarse-grai ned soi l smay
cause the devel opment of pore water pressures and l oss of strength. The
moi sture may come from i nfi l trati on of rai nwater or by capi l l ary ri se from an
underl yi ng water tabl e. Whi l e free-drai ni ng materi al s permi t rapi d drai ni ng
of water, they permi t rapi d i ngress of water al so. I f such materi al s are
adjacent to l ess-pervi ous materi al s and have free access to water they may
serve as reservoi rs to saturate the l ess-pervi ous materi al s. I t i s obvi ous,
ther efor e, that i n most i nstances adequate dr ai nage systems shoul d be
provi ded. The gravel l y and sandy soi l s wi th l i ttl e or no fi nes (groups GW, GP,
SW, and SP) have excel l ent drai nage characteri sti cs. The GMd and SMd
groups have fai r-to-poor drai nage characteri sti cs, whereas the GMu, GC, SMu,
and SC groups may be practi cal l y i mpervi ous. Soi l s of the ML, MH, and Pt
groups have fai r-to-poor drai nage characteri sti cs. Al l of the other groups have
poor drai nage characteri sti cs or are practi cal l y i mpervi ous.
Compaction Equipment
The compacti on of soi l s for roads and runways, especi al l y for the l atter,
requi res that a hi gh degree of densi ty be attai ned at the ti me of constructi on
so that detri mental consol i dati on wi l l not take pl ace under traffi c. I n
addi ti on, the detri mental effects of water are l essened i n cases where
saturati on or near saturati on takes pl ace. Processed materi al s, such as
crushed rock, are often used as base course and such materi al s requi re speci al
treatment i n compacti on. Types of compacti on equi pment that wi l l usual l y
produce the desi red densi ti es are shown i n col umn 13. Note that several types
of equi pment are l i sted for some of the soi l groups; thi s i s because vari ati ons
i n soi l type wi thi n a gi ven group may requi re the use of di fferent equi pment.
I n some cases, more than one type of equi pment may be necessary to produce
the desi red densi ti es.
Steel -wheel ed rol l ers are recommended for angul ar materi al s wi th l i mi ted
amounts of fi nes, crawl er-type tractors or rubber-ti red rol l ers for gravel s and
sands, and sheepsfoot rol l ers for coarse-grai ned or fi ne-grai ned soi l s havi ng
some cohesi ve qual i ti es. Rubber-ti red rol l ers are al so recommended for fi nal
compacti on operati ons for most soi l s except those wi th a hi gh LL. Suggested
mi ni mum wei ghts of the vari ous types of equi pment are shown i n note 2 of
Table B-3, pages B-16 and B-17. Col umn 14 shows ranges of uni t dry wei ght
for soi l s compacted accordi ng to the compacti on test method as descri bed i n
ASTM 1557-91 and Chapter 2. These val ues are i ncl uded pri mari l y for
gui dance. Desi gn or control of constructi on shoul d be based on actual test
resul ts.
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF SOILS DATA
I t i s customary to pr esent the r esul ts of soi l s expl orati ons on dr awi ngs as
schemati c representati ons of the bori ngs or test pi ts or on soi l profi l es wi th the
vari ous soi l s encountered shown by appropri ate symbol s. As one approach,
the groups l etter symbol may be wri tten i n the appropri ate secti on of the l og.
As an al ternati ve, the hatchi ng symbol s shown i n col umn 4 of Table B-2, pages
B-6 and B-7, or Table B-3, pages B-16 and B-17, may be used. I n addi ti on, the
natural -water content of fi ne-grai ned soi l s shoul d be shown al ong the si de of
the l og. Other descri pti ve abbrevi ati ons may be used as deemed appropri ate.
I n certai n i nstances, the use of col or to del i neate soi l types on maps and
drawi ngs i s desi rabl e. A suggested col or scheme to show the major soi l groups
i s i ndi cated i n col umn 5 of Tables B-2 or B-3.
RETURN TO TOC
Glossary-1
Glossary
% F percent of fi nes
% G percent of gravel
% S percent of sand
20d twentypenny
AASHTO Ameri can Associ ati on of State Hi ghway and Transportati on Offi ci al s
AC asphal t cement
ACI Ameri can Concrete I nsti tute
AFB Ai r Force Base
AFESC Ai r Force Engi neeri ng and Servi ces Center
AFJ MAN Ai r Force Joi nt Manual
AFJ P Ai r Force Joi nt Pamphl et
AFM Ai r Force Manual
agg aggregate
AP asphal t petrol eum
approx approxi matel y
Apr Apri l
APSB asphal ti c penetrati ve soi l bi nder
ASTM Ameri can Soci ety for Testi ng and Materi al s
attn attenti on
Aug August
C Cel si us
C cl ay
CB asphal t cutback
CBR Cal i forni a Beari ng Rati o
cc cubi c centi meter(s)
CF cement factor
CH cl ay, hi gh pl asti ci ty
CL centerl i ne
CL cl ay, l ow pl asti ci ty
cm centi meter(s)
CM-K medi um-setti ng cati oni c asphal t emul si on
Co company
RETURN TO TOC
Glossary-2
coeff coeffi ci ent
corr corrected
cu ft cubi c foot, feet
cu in cubi c i nch(es)
cu yd cubi c yard(s)
DA Department of the Army
DC Di stri ct of Col umbi a
DCP dynami c cone penetrometer
DD Department of Defense
Dec December
DM desi gn manual
ed edi ti on
elev el evati on
EM engi neeri ng manual
F Fahrenhei t
FL Fl ori da
FM fi el d manual
FRBS fi ne ri ver-bar sand
g gram(s)
G gravel
gal gal l on(s)
GC gravel , cl ayey
GCI gyratory compacti bi l i ty i ndex
GM gravel , si l ty
gm gram(s)
GP gravel , poor l y gr aded
GSF gyratory shear factor
GSI gyratory stabi l i ty i ndex
GTM gyratory testi ng machi ne
GW gravel , wel l graded
H hi gh pl asti ci ty
HQ headquarters
hydro hydrometer
IL I l l i noi s
in i nch(es)
kg ki l ogram
L l ow pl asti ci ty
lb pound(s)
Glossary-3
LCF l i me-cement-fl y ash
liq l i qui d
LL l i qui d l i mi t
LRA l ocal reproducti on authori zed
M si l t
max maxi mum
MC medi um-curi ng
MDD maxi mum dry densi ty
med medi um
MH si l t, hi gh pl asti ci ty
MIL-STD mi l i tary standard
min mi ni mum
ml mi l l i l i ter(s)
ML si l t, l ow pl asti ci ty
mm mi l l i meter(s)
MMC mi ni mum moi sture content
MS medi um setti ng
N/A not appl i cabl e
naut nauti cal
NAVFAC Naval Faci l i ti es Engi neeri ng Command
NCOIC noncommi ssi oned offi cer i n charge
NFS not frost suscepti bl e
NJ New Jersey
No. number
NRC Nucl ear Regul atory Commi ssi on
NSN nati onal stock number
NY New York
O organi c materi al
OAC opti mum asphal t content
OH organi c materi al , hi gh pl asti ci ty
OL organi c materi al , l ow pl asti ci ty
OMC opti mum moi sture content
oz ounce(s)
P poorl y graded
PA Pennsyl vani a
PCA Portl and Cement Associ ati on
pcf pounds per cubi c foot
PFC pri vate fi rst cl ass
Glossary-4
PI pl asti ci ty i ndex
PL pl asti c l i mi t
psi pound(s) per square i nch
Pt peat, hi ghl y organi c
PV2 pri vate second cl ass
PVT pri vate
qt quart(s)
RC rapi d-curi ng asphal t cutback
RPO radi ati on protecti on offi cer
RS rapi d setti ng
RT road tar
RTCB road-tar cutback
S sand
SC sand, cl ayey
SC sl ow-curi ng
SFC sergeant fi rst cl ass
SGT sergeant
SM sand, si l ty
SM-K medi um-setti ng cati oni c aphal t emul si on
SP sand, poorl y graded
SP4 speci al i st fourth cl ass
SPC speci al i st
SS sl ow setti ng
SS-K sl ow-setti ng cati oni c asphal t emul si on
SSD saturated, surface-dry
SSG staff sergeant
ST speci al text
stat statute
SW sand, wel l graded
TACOM Uni ted States Army Tank-automoti ve and Armaments Command
temp temperature
TM techni cal manual
TO theater of operati ons
TRADOC Uni ted States Army Trai ni ng and Doctri ne Command
US Uni ted States
USAES Uni ted States Army Engi neer School
USCS Uni fi ed Soi l Cl assi fi cati on System
VA Vi rgi ni a
Glossary-5
vol vol ume
w/ wi th
w moi sture content
W wel l graded
W/C ratio rati o of water to cement
wt wei ght
RETURN TO TOC
Glossary-6
References-1
References
SOURCES USED
These are the sources quoted or paraphrased i n thi s publ i cati on.
Joi nt and Mul ti servi ce Publ i cati ons
FM 5-430-00-1/AFJPAM 32-8013, Vol I . Planning and Design of Roads, Airfields, and Heliports
in the Theater of OperationsRoad Design. 26 August 1994.
FM 5-430-00-2/AFJPAM 32-8013, Vol I I . Planning and Design of Roads, Airfields, and Heliports
in the Theater of OperationsAirfield and Heliport Design. 29 September 1994.
TM 5-822-14/AFJMAN 32-1019. Soil Stabilization for Pavements. 25 October 1994.
TM 5-822-5/AFM 88-7. Pavement Design for Roads, Streets, Walks and Open Storage Areas.
12 June 1992.
TM 5-825-2/NAVFAC DM-21.3/AFJMAN 32-1014. Flexible Pavement Design for Airfields.
7 February 1997.
Army Publ i cati ons
FM 5-410. Military Soils Engineering. 23 December 1992.
FM 5-428. Concrete and Masonry. 18 June 1998.
FM 5-434. Earthmoving Operations. 30 September 1992.
TM 5-349. Arctic Construction. 19 February 1962.
TM 5-337. Paving and Surfacing Operations. 21 February 1966.
Other Mi l i tary Documents
AASHTO T 217-1986. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of
Sampling and Testing, Part I I , 13th ed., 1986.
ASTM C 39-96. Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete
Specimens. 1996.
ASTM C 70-79. Standard Test Method for Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate. 1979.
ASTM C 78-94. Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with
Third-Point Loading). 1994.
ASTM C 117-95. Standard Test Method for Materials Finer than 0.075-mm (No. 200) Sieve in
Mineral Aggregates by Washing. 1995.
ASTM C 127-88. Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate.
1988.
ASTM C 128-93. Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate.
1993.
ASTM C 131-89. Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse
Aggregate by Abrasion and I mpact in the Los Angeles Machine. 1989.
ASTM C 136-90. Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates. 1990.
ASTM C 143-90a. Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete. 1990.
ASTM C 150-97. Standard Specification for Portland Cement. 1997.
ASTM C 192-90a. Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the
Laboratory. 1995.
ASTM C 231-97. Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure
Method. 1997.
ASTM C 566-89. Standard Test Method for Total Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying. 1989.
References-2
ASTM C 617-94. Standard Practice for Capping Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. 1994.
ASTM D 5-86. Test Method for Penetration of Bituminous Materials. 1986.
ASTM D 75-87. Practice for Sampling Aggregates. 1987.
ASTM D 140-88. Practice for Sampling Bituminous Materials. 1988.
ASTM D 242-85. Specification for Mineral Filler for Bituminous Paving Mixtures. 1985.
ASTM D 244-89. Test Methods for Emulsified Asphalts. 1989.
ASTM D 422-90. Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils. 1990.
ASTM D 448-86. Classification for Sizes of Aggregate for Road and Bridge Construction. 1986.
ASTM D 546-88. Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Mineral Filler for Road and Paving Materials.
1988.
ASTM D 692-88. Specification for Coarse Aggregate for Bituminous Paving Mixtures. 1988.
ASTM D 854-92. Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soils. 1992.
ASTM D 1073-88. Specification for Fine Aggregate for Bituminous Paving Mixtures. 1988.
ASTM D 1075-88. Test Method for Effect of Water on Cohesion of Compacted Bituminous Mixtures.
1988.
ASTM D 1556-90. Standard Test Method for Density of Soil in Place by the Sand-Cone Method.
1990.
ASTM D 1557-91. Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Modified
Effort (56,000 ft-lbf/ ft
3
[2,700 kN-m/ m
3
]). 1991.
ASTM D 1559-89. Test Method for Resistance to Plastic Flow of Bituminous Mixtures Using
Marshall Apparatus. 1989.
ASTM D 1664-80. Test Method for Coating and Stripping of Bitumen-Aggregate Mixtures. 1980.
ASTM D 1754-87. Test Method for Effect of Heat and Air on Asphaltic Materials (Thin-Film Oven
Test). 1987.
ASTM D 1883-94. Standard Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of Laboratory-
Compacted Soils. 1994.
ASTM 2042-81. Test Method for Solubility of Asphalt Materials in Trichloroethylene. 1981.
ASTM D 2170-85. Test Method for Kinematic Viscosity of Asphalts (Bitumens). 1985.
ASTM D 2172-88. Test Methods for Quantitative Extraction of Bitumen from Bituminous Paving
Mixtures. 1988.
ASTM D 2216-90. Method for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil, Rock,
and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures. 1990.
ASTM D 2217-85. Standard Practice for Wet Preparation of Soil Samples for Particle-Size Analysis
and Determination of Soil Constants. 1985.
ASTM D 2487-93. Standard Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil
Classification System). 1993.
ASTM D 2922-96. Standard Test Methods for Density of Soil and Soil-Aggregate in Place by
Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth). 1996.
ASTM D 3017-96. Standard Test Method for Water Content of Soil and Rock in Place by Nuclear
Methods (Shallow Depth). 1996.
ASTM D 4318-95a. Standard Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity I ndex of
Soils. 1995.
ASTM D 4552-87. Practice for Classifying Hot-Mix Recycling Agents. 1987.
ASTM D 4643-87. Method for Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil by the Microwave
Oven Method. 1987.
EM 385-1-1. United States Army Corps of Engineers Safety and Health Requirements Manual.
1996.
NAVFAC DM-7.1. Soil Mechanics. 1986.
NAVFAC DM-7.2. Foundations and Earth Structures. 1986.
References-3
DOCUMENTS NEEDED
These documents must be avai l abl e to the i ntended users of thi s publ i cati on.
Department of the Army Forms
DA Form 2028. Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms. 1 February 1974.
Department of Defense Forms
DD Form 1205. Soil Moisture-Content Determination. December 1999.
DD Form 1206. Grain-Size Analysis (Sieve Method). December 1999.
DD Form 1207. Grain-Size Distribution GraphAggregate Gradation Chart. December 1999.
DD Form 1208. Special-Gravity Tests. December 1999.
DD Form 1209. Liquid- and Plastic-Limits Determination. December 1999.
DD Form 1210. Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil (Compaction Test). December 1999.
DD Form 1211. Laboratory Soil-Compaction Test Graph. December 1999.
DD Form 1212. Laboratory California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test Data. December 1999.
DD Form 1215. I n-Place Density DeterminationSand-Cone Method. December 1999.
DD Form 1216. Specific Gravity of Bituminous Mix Components. December 1965.
DD Form 1217. Bituminous Mix DesignAggregate Blending. December 1965.
DD Form 1218. Marshall MethodComputation of Properties of Asphalt Mixtures.
December 1965.
DD Form 1219. Bituminous Mix Curves. December 1965.
DD Form 1793. Determination of Asphalt Content (Dulin Rotarex Extractor) (LRA).
February 1971.
DD Form 1794. Grain-Size Analysis (Hydrometer Method). December 1999.
DD Form 2463. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Analysis. December 1999.
DD Form 2464. Report of Foundation and Borrow I nvestigation. December 1999.
READINGS RECOMMENDED
These readi ngs contai n rel evant suppl emental i nformati on.
Bowl es, Joseph E. Engineer Properties of Soil and Their Measurement, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hi l l
Book Company, 1978.
Flexible Pavement, Speci al Text, USAES ST 5-330-8, February 1972.
Head, H.H. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume I , Soil Classification and Compaction
Testing, Pentech Press, 1984.
Head, H.H. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Volume I I , Permeability, Shear Strength, and
Compressibility Tests, Pentech Press, 1984.
Head, H.H. Soil Technicians Handbook, Pentech Press, 1989.
Hot-Mix Asphalt Paving Handbook, USACE UN-13, Jul y 1991.
I ngl es, O. G. and J. B. Metcal f. Soil Stabilization, John Wi l ey & Sons, 1973.
Li u, Cheng, and Jack B. Evett. Soil Properties: Testing, Measurement, and Evaluation, 2nd ed.,
Prenti ce Hal l , 1984.
Nati onal Li me Associ ati on. Fundamentals of the Stabilization of Soil with Lime, Bul l eti n 332,
1987.
References-4
Ross, Steven S. Highway Design Reference Guide, McGraw-Hi l l Book Company, 1988.
Sowers, George B. and George F. Sowers. I ntroductory Soil Mechanics and Foundations, 3rd ed.,
The Macmi l l an Company, 1970.
The Asphal t I nsti tute. I ntroduction to Asphalt, MS-5, 8th ed., 1986.
The Asphal t I nsti tute. Soils Manual for the Design of Asphalt Pavement Structures, Manual
No. 10, 2nd ed., 1978.
The Unified Soils Classification System, Techni cal Memorandum No. 3-357, USAEWES Geotech
Lab.
Wal l ace, Hugh A. and J. Rogers Marti n. Asphalt Pavement Engineering, McGraw-Hi l l Book
Company, 1967.
Index-1
A
accel erators, 4-7
addi ti ve, 5-1, 5-2, 5-5, 5-6
admi xtures, 4-2, 4-3, 4-7, 4-8, 4-9, 4-20
adsorpti on, 2-6, 2-7
aeri al photographs, 2-28, 2-30, 2-32
aggregate, 3-1
base and pavement, 2-33, 3-39
bl ended, 3-37, 3-39, 3-40
characteri sti cs, 3-19, 3-31
coarse, 3-21, 3-32, 3-333-34, 4-4
deteri orati on, 4-5
durabi l i ty, 3-19, 3-32, 4-3, 4-9
fi ne, 3-21, 3-32, 3-343-37, 4-4
gradati on, 2-2, 3-21, 3-32, 3-41, 4-10, 4-11
i denti fi cati on, 3-19
i n concrete, 4-3, 4-4
mi neral fi l l er, 3-22, 3-32
sampl i ng, 3-13
sel ecti on, 4-97
si eve anal ysi s, 3-32, 3-66, 3-72, 4-4
speci fi c gravi ty, 3-323-39, 4-134-15
surface moi sture, 4-134-17
ai r-content test, 4-17, 4-20, 4-21
ai r-entrai ni ng agents, 4-2, 4-8, 4-9
apparent speci fi c gravi ty, 2-5, 2-69, 3-32,
3-333-37, 4-13, 4-14
asphal ts,
cement, 3-16
cutback, 3-4, 3-16
emul si ons, 3-4, 3-18
Atterberg l i mi ts, 2-7, 2-89
B
bi te test, 2-21
bi tumen,
characteri sti cs, 3-7
fi el d-i denti fi cati on tests, 3-14
asphal ts and tars, 3-16
asphal t emul si on, 3-18
cements and cutbacks, 3-16
road tars, 3-18
safety precauti ons, 3-7
bi tumi nous desi gn,
bl ends, 3-41
compacti on and shear test, 3-44
gyratory test, 3-41
hot mi x, 3-40
job-mi x formul a, 3-60
marshal l test, 3-46
opti mum bi tumen content, 3-41
surface-area method, 3-59
vari abl es, 3-41
wal l -fri cti on test, 3-45
borderl i ne soi l s, 2-11
bul k speci fi c gravi ty, 2-5, 2-69
C
cal ci um carbi de, 2-57, 2-58
cal i brati on,
gyratory test machi ne, 3-45
hydrometer, 2-79
Index
RETURN TO TOC
Index-2
cal i brati on (conti nued),
sand di spl acement, 2-117
vol umetri c fl ask, 2-64
Cal i forni a Beari ng Rati o (CBR),
expansi ve soi l s, 2-146
fi el d i n-pl ace test, 2-134
free-drai ni ng soi l s, 2-150
test, 2-123, 2-1242-134
undi sturbed sampl e test, 2-38, 2-134
cement, 4-1
ai r-entrai ned, 4-2
asphal t. See asphal ts, cement.
hardeni ng, 4-2
hi gh-earl y strength, 4-7
stabi l i zer, 5-3
types, 4-2
centri fugal extracti on, 3-69
cl ay, 2-6, 2-7, 2-12, 2-21, 2-87
coarse aggregate. See aggregate, coarse.
absorpti on, 4-13, 4-16
restri cti on, 4-4
si eve anal ysi s, 3-32
speci fi c gravi ty, 2-29, 3-33, 3-34
surface moi sture, 4-17
coarse-grai ned soi l s, 2-92-11
cohesi ve soi l s, 2-30, 2-32, 2-109 2-115
col d-mi x pavement, 3-56
compacti on,
curve, 2-109
equi pment, 2-115
speci fi cati ons, 2-112
test, 2-101, 2-154
CBR mol d, 2-45, 2-102
Proctor mol d, 2-102
compl ete saturati on, 2-109
composi te sampl e, 2-37
compressi on test, 4-25
concrete,
accel erators, 4-7
admi xtures, 4-7
aggregates, 4-3, 4-5, 4-94-17
ai r-content test, 4-20
cement i n, 4-1
compressi ve strength, 4-25, 4-28
curi ng, 4-6
cyl i nder, 4-25
pr oper ti es, 4-4
retarders, 4-8
sl ump test, 4-18
test beams, 4-21
consi stency l i mi ts. See Atterberg l i mi ts.
curi ng, 4-6, 4-22, 4-27
cutter stock, 3-4
D
del i berate survey, 2-26, 2-27
densi ty,
bi tumi nous pavement, 3-72
i n-pl ace, 2-116
maxi mum dry, 2-101
nucl ear moi sture-and-densi ty tester, 2-123
sand-di spl acement test, 2-117
soi l , 2-5
stress deformati on, 2-116
water, 2-113
water-di spl acement test, 2-123
di spersi ng agent, 2-80, 2-82
ducti l i ty test, 3-29
Dul i n-Rotarex, 3-70
Index-3
E
emul si ons,
asphal t, 3-4, 3-11, 3-18, 3-60
surface-area formul a, 3-59
entrapped ai r, 2-68
F
feel test, 2-21
fi ne aggregate. See aggregate, fi ne.
speci fi c gravi ty, 3-323-39
surface moi sture, 4-13
fi ne-grai ned soi l s, 2-11
fi neness modul us, 4-12
fl ash-poi nt and fi re-poi nt tests, 3-22
fl exural -strength test, 4-21, 4-22
fl occul ate, 2-21
freeze-thaw test, 5-7, 5-8
fresh-concrete strength tests,
ai r content. See ai r-content test.
sl ump. See sl ump test.
frost, 5-6
G
grai n shape, 2-3, 2-18
grai n-si ze, 2-18, 2-69
gyratory test, 3-41
H
hardened concrete,
compressi ve-strength test, 4-25
fl exural -strength test, 4-21
hasty survey, 2-26, 2-27
Hazens effecti ve si ze, 2-77
hot-mi x bi tumi nous concrete, 3-40
hydrati on, 4-1, 4-6, 4-7
hydrometer,
anal ysi s, 2-70, 2-79
cal i brati on, 2-83
di spersi ng agents, 2-82
meni scus correcti on, 2-82
test, 2-802-87
I
i mmersi on-compressi on test, 3-21
J
job-mi x formul a, 3-60
K
ki nemati c-vi scosi ty test, 3-30
L
l i mi ts,
Atterberg. See Atterberg l i mi ts.
l i qui d, 2-7, 2-90
pl asti c, 2-8
shri nkage, 2-8
Los Angel es abrasi on test, 3-39
M
maps,
agri cul tural , 2-29
geographi cal , 2-29
topographi c, 2-29
Marshal l test, 3-46
mechani cal anal ysi s, 2-70
mechani cal stabi l i zati on, 5-2
mi neral fi l l er. See aggregate, mi neral fi l l er.
modul us of rupture. See fl exural -strength
test.
moi sture, 2-6
capi l l ary acti on, 2-6
concrete curi ng, 4-6
content, 2-542-62
gravi tati onal , 2-6
hydroscopi c acti on, 2-6
surface, 4-17
Index-4
N
nonpl asti c fi nes, 2-10
nucl ear-moi sture-densi ty tester, 2-123
O
opti mum bi tumen content, 3-41
gyratory test, 3-41
surface-area method, 3-59
opti mum moi sture content, 2-54
P
penetrati on test, 3-27
penetrometer, 3-27
permafrost areas, 2-33
pH test, 5-5
pi ck-and-cl i ck test, 5-7
pl ant control ,
centri fugal extracti on, 3-69
control l i ng producti on, 3-67
densi ty test, 3-72
gyratory test, 3-68
hi gh-type, 3-65
i ntermedi ate type, 3-66
producti on, 3-66
pl asti ci zer, 4-9
Q
quarteri ng sampl es, 2-482-50
R
retarders, 4-8
ri bbon test, 2-25
rol l (thread) test, 2-22
S
sampl es,
aggregate, 3-13
bi tumi nous, 3-12
cyl i nders, 2-432-47
equi pment,
CBR mol d, 2-452-47
soi l traffi cabi l i ty sampl er, 2-43, 2-44
pi t, 3-13
quarteri ng, 2-48
stockpi l e, 3-14
sampl i ng procedure,
bag, 2-36
CBR, 2-45
chunk, 2-39
composi te, 2-36
cyl i nder, 2-43
moi sture content, 2-38
stockpi l e, 4-9
undi sturbed, 2-38
sand-di spl acement test, 2-117
Saybol t-Furor vi scosi ty, 3-30
sedi mentati on test, 2-19
shi ne test, 2-25
shri nkage l i mi t, 2-8
sl ump test, 4-18
softeni ng-poi nt test, 3-30
soi l ,
borderl i ne, 2-11
coarse grai ned, 2-92-11
fi el d i denti fi cati on, 2-13
fi el d tests, 2-15
fi ne-grai ned, 2-11
organi c, 2-8
symbol s, 2-9
Index-5
soi l fi el d-cl assi fi cati on tests,
bi te or gri t, 2-21
breaki ng or dry strength, 2-24
feel , 2-21
odor, 2-19
ri bbon, 2-25
rol l or thread, 2-22
sedi mentati on, 2-19
shi ne, 2-25
vi sual , 2-15
wet shaki ng, 2-23
soi l profi l e, 2-2
soi l stabi l i zati on,
addi ti ve, 5-2
bi tumi nous, 5-2, 5-4
frost areas, 5-6
mechani cal , 5-2
modi fi cati on, 5-3
stabi l i zi ng agents 5-3,
soi l traffi cabi l i ty, 2-43
soi l s,
defi ni ti on, 2-1
gradati on, 2-4
grai n-si ze determi nati on, 2-3
parti cl e shapes, 2-3
pl asti ci ty characteri sti cs, 2-2
properti es, 1-2
sol ubi l i ty test, 3-30
speci fi c gravi ty, 2-5, 2-622-68, 3-22
apparent, 2-5, 2-69, 3-33, 3-343-37
bul k, 2-5, 2-69
defi ni ti on, 2-5
mi neral fi l l er, 3-32
spot test, 3-31
stabi l i zati on,
addi ti ve, 5-2
fr ost areas, 5-6
mechani cal , 5-2
stabi l i zi ng agents, 5-35-4
Stokes l aw, 2-79
stri ppi ng test, 3-20
swel l potenti al , 2-146
swel l test, 3-20
T
tars, 3-6
techni cal soi l s report, 2-152
test beams, 4-21
test pi ts, 2-31
thi n-fi l m oven test, 3-31
U
undi sturbed sampl es, 2-134
Uni fi ed Soi l Cl assi fi cati on System,
cl assi fi cati on factors, 2-9
coarse-grai ned soi l , 2-92-11, B-5B-8,
B-9
embankments and foundati ons, B-15B-22
fi ne-grai ned soi l , 2-11, B-8, B-11
roads and ai rfi el ds, B-22B-26
soi l groups, B-4B-9
V
vi scosi ty tests, 3-30
ki nemati c, 3-30
Saybol t-Furor, 3-30
W
water, i n soi l , 2-6
absorpti on, 2-6
capi l l ary fri nge, 2-6
capi l l ary moi sture, 2-6
hygroscopi c moi sture, 2-6
Index-6
subsurface, 2-6
surface, 2-6
water bal l oon devi ce, 2-123
water-cement rati o, 4-5
wet-dr y test, 5-7, 5-8
wet-shaki ng test, 2-19
Z
zero ai r voi ds, 2-109
RETURN TO TOC
FM 5-472
C1
Washington, DC, 29 December 2000
Materials Testing
2-65 and 2-66 2-65 and 2-66
2-77 and 2-78 2-77 and 2-78
2-81 and 2-82 2-81 and 2-82
2-87 and 2-88 2-87 and 2-88
ERIC K. SHINSEKI
Chief of Staff
Official:
JOEL B. HUDSON
0031907
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and US Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance with the
initial distribution number 110133, requirements for FM 5-472.
Soils 2-65
S
A
M
P
L
E
2-66 Soils
where
w
(T
x
x
) (see Tabl e 2-7)
w
(T
i
i
) (see Tabl e 2-7)
W
bw
=wei ght of pycnometer and water, i n grams
W
b
=wei ght of pycnometer, i n grams
T
i
=observed/recorded temperature of water, i n C
T
x
=any other desi red temperature, i n C
A completed graph using the above formula for the following data
can beseen in Fi gure 2-37.
Calibration data:
W
bw
=656.43
W
b
=158.68
T
i
=24C
Table 2-7. Relative density of water and correction factor (K) at various temperatures
Temp
C
Relative
Density
Correction Factor
(K)
18.0 0.99862 1.0004
19.0 0.99843 1.0002
20.0 0.99823 1.0000
21.0 0.99802 0.9998
22.0 0.99780 0.9996
23.0 0.99757 0.9993
24.0 0.99733 0.9991
25.0 0.99708 0.9988
26.0 0.99682 0.9986
27.0 0.99655 0.9983
28.0 0.99627 0.9980
29.0 0.99598 0.9977
30.0 0.99568 0.9974
31.0 0.99537 0.9971
32.0 0.99505 0.9968
NOTE: Data obtained from ASTM. Correction factor, K, is found
by dividing the relative density of water at the test temperature by
the relative density of water at 20C.
W
bw
(for specified temperature,T
x
)

w
T
x
( )
w
T
i
( )
------------------
W
bw
at T
i
( ) W
b
W
b
+ =
Soils 2-77
Step 23. Determi ne the percentages for gravel , sand, and fi nes. Record the
i nformati on on the form.
Gravel i s the materi al retai ned on the No. 4 si eve.
Sand i s the materi al passi ng the No. 4 si eve and retai ned on the No.
200 si eve.
Fi nes are the materi al passi ng the No. 200 si eve.
Step 24. Prepare DD Form 1207 (see Figure2-42, page2-78).
a. Record the i denti fyi ng i nformati on for the sampl e i n the remarks bl ock.
b. Use the si eve-anal ysi s data to pl ot (on DD Form 1207) the si eve si ze
and the percentage passi ng the si eve.
c. Usi ng a french curve, connect the pl otted poi nts to form a smooth, free-
fl owi ng curve (the grai n-si ze di stri buti on curve, Figure2-42).
d. Determi ne the coeffi ci ent of uni formi ty (C
u
).
NOTE: The grain size, in millimeters, which corresponds to 10
percent passingon thegrain-size-distribution curve, iscalled Hazens
effective size. It is designated by the symbol D
10
. If the grain-size-
distribution curve extends to or below 10 percent passing, then the
C
u
can be determined. The uniformity coefficient is the ratio
between the grain diameter, in millimeters, corresponding to 60
percent passing (D
60
) and 10 percent passing on the curve. Use the
followingformula and record on theform:
If D
10
cannot be determined usingthe data fromthe sieve analysis, a
hydrometer analysismay berequiredtoobtain information about the
smaller size grains and to extend the distribution curve to make it
morecomplete.
e. Determi ne the coeffi ci ent of curvature (C
c
) by usi ng D
60
and D
10
as
previ ousl y di scussed and D
30
, the grai n di ameter, i n mi l l i meters,
correspondi ng to 30 percent passi ng on the grai n-si ze-di stri buti on curve.
These numbers are used i n the fol l owi ng formul a and recorded on the
form:
NOTE: The values for D
60
, D
10
, and D
30
are obtained by going to the
percent passing by weight on the left vertical scale, then moving
horizontally acrosstotheright until thegrain-size-distribution curve
is intercepted, and then vertically down to the horizontal axis where
the diameter of the material is read in millimeters. See Fi gure 2-42,
for thecompleted gradation chart.
Step 25. Determi ne the gradati on by usi ng the abbrevi ated i nformati on l i sted
bel ow. Record the i nformati on on the form.
column 18
block 23 column 16
block 23
--------------------------------------------------- 100 =
C
u
D
60
D
10
--------- =
C
c
D
30
( )
2
D
60
D
10
( )
----------------------------- =
2-78 Soils
S
A
M
P
L
E
F
i
g
u
r
e
2
-
4
2
.
S
a
m
p
l
e
D
D
F
o
r
m
1
2
0
7
Soils 2-81
S
A
M
P
L
E
2-82 Soils
Step 2. Determi ne the type of hydrometer. I f the hydrometer scal e ranges
from 1.000 to 1.038, i t i s a Type 151H and measures speci fi c gravi ty of the
suspensi on. I f the scal e ranges from 0 to 60, i t i s a Type 152H and measures
grams per l i ter of the suspensi on. The di mensi ons for both hydrometers are
the same.
Step 3. Determi ne the composi te correcti on.
NOTE: Before performing the hydrometer test, a composite
correction for hydrometer readings must be determined to correct
for items that tend toproduceerrors in thetest.
The first of these items needing correction is the meniscus reading.
Hydrometers are graduated by the manufacturer to be read at the
bottomof the meniscus formed by the liquid on the stem. Since it is
not possible to secure readings of soil suspensions at the bottom of
the meniscus, readings must be taken at the top and a correction
applied.
The second of these items needing correction is a result of using a
dispersing agent in the water to control flocculation. This leads to
errors in the analysis. While the dispersing agent assists in keeping
the soil grains from adhering to each other, it also increases the
specific gravity of thefluid used.
The net amount of the correction for the two corrections required is
designated as thecompositecorrection.
a. Pl ace about 500 mi l l i l i ters of di sti l l ed water i n a graduated cyl i nder.
b. Pl ace the amount of di spersi ng agent that was used i n step 1 i n the
cyl i nder and mi x wel l .
c. Add addi ti onal di sti l l ed water to the cyl i nder to reach the 1,000-
mi l l i l i ter mark.
d. Pl ace the hydrometer i n the cyl i nder and al l ow i t to settl e for 20 to 25
seconds. Read the hydrometer at the top of the meni scus formed on the
Table 2-9. Dispersing agents
Dispersing Agent
Stock Solution
Manufacturer
Concentration Grams Per Liter
Sodium tripolyphosphate 0.4N 29
Joliet, IL
Sodium polyphosphate 0.4N 36
Joliet, IL
Sodium tetraphosphate
(Quadrofos)
0.4N 31
Rumford Chemical Works,
Rumford, NJ
Sodium
hexametaphosphate
(Calgon)
0.4N 41 Calgon Co, Pittsburgh, PA
Soils 2-87
f. Compute the total percent fi ner for each hydrometer readi ng and record
i t on the form usi ng the formul a
Total percent finer =partial percent finer x decimal fines (block 12)
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Pl ot the grai n-si ze di stri buti on on DD Form 1207 usi ng the parti cl e di ameters
(D, grai n-si ze, i n mi l l i meters) and the total percent fi ner (percent passi ng) and
connect the pl otted poi nts wi th a smooth curve (see Figure2-44, page2-88).
Read the curve on the form and determi ne i f 3 percent or more of the parti cl es
are smal l er than 0.02 mi l l i meter i n di ameter; i f so, the soi l i s frost suscepti bl e.
Frost-suscepti bl e soi l s are l i sted i n four groups i n the order of i ncreasi ng
suscepti bi l i ty (see Table2-13, page2-89).
Soi l s i n group F-4 have hi gh frost suscepti bi l i ty. Record the frost-
suscepti bi l i ty group for the soi l type i n bl ock 27 of DD Form 1794 (see Figure
2-43, page2-81).
Thi s curve can be used to determi ne the coeffi ci ent of uni formi ty (C
u
) and the
coeffi ci ent of curvature (C
c
).
The data i n the exampl e shown on DD Form 1794 (Figure2-43, page2-81) i s
pl otted on DD Form 1207 to gi ve an exampl e of such a curve for a mi xed soi l
(see Figure 2-44). For thi s soi l , the di ameter correspondi ng to 60 percent
passi ng (D
60
) i s 0.5 mi l l i meter. The di ameter correspondi ng to 10 percent
passi ng (D
10
) i s 0.0045 mi l l i meter. Hence, the coeffi ci ent of uni formi ty i s as
fol l ows:
The di ameter for 30 percent passi ng (D30) i s 0.024 mi l l i meters. Thus, the
coeffi ci ent of curvature i s as fol l ows:
Table 2-12. Specific-gravity correction factors applied to hydrometer 152H
for computing partial percent finer
Specific Gravity 2.45 2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85 2.90 2.95
Correction Factor 1.05 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.94
C
U
D
60
D
10
---------
0.5
0.0045
---------------- 111.11 = = =
C
C
D
30
( )
2
D
60
D
10
-------------------------
0.024 ( )
2
0.5 0.0045
------------------------------
0.000576
0.00225
---------------------- 0.256 = = = =
2-88 Soils
S
A
M
P
L
E
F
i
g
u
r
e
2
-
4
4
.
S
a
m
p
l
e
D
D
F
o
r
m
1
2
0
7
FM 5-472
C2
Washington, DC, 1 July 2001
Materials Testing
2-83 and 2-84 2-83 and 2-84
2-103 and 2-104 2-103 and 2-104
4-29 and 4-31 4-29 through 4-31
A-1 A-1
ERIC K. SHINSEKI
Chief of Staff
Official:
JOEL B. HUDSON
0119105
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and US Army Reserve: To be distributed in accordance
with the initial distribution number 110133, requirements for FM 5-472.
Soils 2-55
OVEN-DRY METHOD (ASTMD 2216-90)
The most accurate method of determi ni ng moi sture content i s the oven-dry
method. Thi s method uses an oven wi th a temperature or thermostati c
control . For expedi ent determi nati ons, soi l s are someti mes dri ed i n a fryi ng
pan or contai ner heated by an external source, ei ther a stove or an exhaust
mani fol d. However, heati ng most soi l s to excessi ve temperatures resul ts i n
chemi cal changes that may l ead to errors i n moi sture-content resul ts. Hence,
dryi ng soi l s by an uncontrol l ed heat source i s usual l y l ess accurate than
dryi ng them i n a thermostati cal l y control l ed oven.
PURPOSE
a desi red percentage.
EQUIPMENT
The fol l owi ng i tems are necessary for thi s test method:
A l aboratory oven.
A cal cul ator.
Moi stur e-deter mi nati on tar es.
A grease penci l .
DD Form 1205.
A penci l .
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the moi sture content:
Step 1. Record al l i denti fyi ng i nformati on of the sampl e i n bl ocks 1 through 5
of DD Form 1205 (see Figure2-32, page2-56).
Step 2. Label and wei gh the cl ean, dry moi sture-determi nati on tares, and
record the wei ghts on the form as the wei ght of the tare (l i ne D).
Step 3. Obtai n the requi red soi l sampl e. Pl ace i t i n the tare and cover i t wi th
the l i d.
When conducti ng thi s test as part of another test method, use the
speci men mass stated i n that test method.
When conducti ng thi s test wi th no mi ni mum speci men mass provi ded,
use the val ues provi ded i n Table 2-5, page 2-57, dependi ng on the
degree of accuracy of the reported water content.
Step 4. Wei gh the soi l sampl e and the tare to the nearest 0.01 gram. Record
the wei ght on the form as the wei ght of the tare and the wet soi l (l i ne A).
Step 5. Oven-dry the sampl e, wi th the moi sture-determi nati on tare l i d
removed, at 110C 5 unti l the sampl e wei ght becomes constant. Oven-dryi ng
2-56 Soils
S
A
M
P
L
E
Soils 2-57
ti me wi l l vary dependi ng on the type of soi l , the si ze of the sampl e, and other
factors. For routi ne water-content determi nati on, oven-dry a sampl e consi sti ng
of cl ean sands and gravel for a mi ni mum of 4 hours. For most other soi l s, a
mi ni mum dryi ng ti me of 16 hours i s adequate.
Step 6. Remove the sampl e from the oven and repl ace the moi sture-
determi nati on tare l i d. Al l ow the sampl e to cool unti l the tare can be handl ed
comfortabl y wi th bare hands.
Step 7. Wei gh the dri ed soi l sampl e and the tare. Record the wei ght as the
wei ght of the tare and dry soi l (l i ne B).
Step 8. Determi ne the wei ght of the water (W
w
the tare and dry soi l (l i ne B) from the wei ght of the tare and wet soi l (l i ne a).
Record the wei ght on the form (l i ne C).
Step 9. Determi ne the wei ght of the dry soi l (W
s
the tare (l i ne D) from the wei ght of the tare and dry soi l (l i ne B). Record the
wei ght on the form (l i ne E).
Step 10. Determi ne the water content (w), i n percent, and record i t usi ng the
When determi ni ng the average water content, the i ndi vi dual tests must be
wi thi n 1 percent. Any i ndi vi dual tests that do not meet thi s requi rement
wi l l not be used (see Figure 2-32). I f none of the i ndi vi dual tests meet thi s
requi rement, then addi ti onal testi ng i s requi red.
CALCIUM-CARBIDE-GAS PRESSURE METHOD (AASHTO T 217-1986)
Table 2-5. Recommended minimum test specimen for reporting water content
(100% Passing)
Standard Sieve Size
Minimum Moist Mass
for Reporting to 0.1%
Minimum Moist Mass
for Reporting to 1%
2.0 mm or less No. 10 20.0 g 20 g*
4.75 mm No. 4 100.0 g 20 g*
9.50 mm 3/8 in 500.0 g 50 g
19.00 mm 3/4 in 2.5 kg 250 g
37.50 mm 1 1/2 in 10.0 kg 1 kg
75.00 mm 3 in 50.0 kg 5 kg
* To be representative, not less than 20 grams shall be used.
CAUTION
The chemical reaction of calcium carbide with water produces acetylene gas which is extremely
flammable. Exercise extreme caution to avoid open flame when releasing the gas from the
speedy moisture tester. Perform the test in a well-ventilated area, as asphyxiation could occur if
performed in a confined area.
w
W
W
W
S
-------- 100 =
2-58 Soils
Use the cal ci um-carbi de-gas pr essur e method to deter mi ne the moi sture
content of a soi l sampl e usi ng the 26-gr am speedy moi stur e tester to wi thi n
0.5 per cent. I f another tester i s to be used, consul t the user s manual for
the tester before conducti ng the moi sture-content determi nati on.
PURPOSE
0.5 percent.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems for the cal ci um-carbi de-gas pressure test:
A cal ci um-carbi de-pressure (speedy) moi sture tester to hol d a 26-gram
soi l speci men.
A bal ance (readabl e to 0.1 gram).
Two 1 1/4-i nch steel bal l s.
A cl eani ng brush and cl oth.
A scoop (for measuri ng cal ci um-carbi de reagent).
Cal ci um-carbi de reagent.
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the soi l s moi sture content:
Step 1. Wei gh the soi l sampl e to be tested, ensuri ng that i t wei ghs exactl y 26
grams. Pl ace the soi l sampl e i n the testers body and add the two 1 1/4-i nch
steel bal l s.
Step 2. Pl ace three scoops (about 24 grams) of cal ci um carbi de i nto the cap of
the tester and, wi th the pr essur e vessel i n a hor i zontal posi ti on, i nser t the cap
i nto the pressure vessel . Seal the uni t by ti ghteni ng the cl amp, taki ng care
that no carbi de comes i n contact wi th the soi l unti l a compl ete seal i s achi eved.
Step 3. Rai se the moi sture tester to a verti cal posi ti on so that the reagent i n
the cap wi l l fal l i nto the pressure vessel .
Step 4. Shake the i nstrument vi gorousl y i n a rotati ng moti on so that al l l umps
are broken up to permi t the cal ci um carbi de to react wi th al l avai l abl e free
moi sture. Shake the i nstrument i n a rotati ng moti on so that the steel bal l s
wi l l not damage the i nstrument or cause soi l parti cl es to become embedded i n
the ori fi ce l eadi ng to the pressure di aphragm. Conti nue shaki ng at l east 1
mi nute for granul ar soi l s and up to 3 mi nutes for other soi l s to permi t
compl ete reacti on between the cal ci um carbi de and the free moi sture. Al l ow
ti me for the di ssi pati on of the heat generated by the chemi cal reacti on.
Step 5. Hol d the i nstrument i n a hori zontal posi ti on at eye l evel . Read the di al
when the needl e stops movi ng. Record the di al readi ng as the percent of
moi sture by wet mass.
Step 6. Poi nt the cap of the i nstrument away from the operator and rel ease the
gas pressure sl owl y. Empty the pressure vessel and exami ne the materi al for
l umps. I f the sampl e i s not compl etel y pul veri zed, repeat the test usi ng a new
Soils 2-83
stem. For the Type 151H hydrometer, the composi te correcti on i s the
di fference between thi s readi ng and 1. For the Type 152H hydrometer, the
composi te correcti on i s the di fference between the readi ng and 0.
e. Recor d the composi te cor r ecti on i n bl ock 11 of the for m (Figure2-43,
page2-81).
f. Remove the hydrometer from the di spersi ng-fl ui d cyl i nder and pl ace i t
i n a second cyl i nder fi l l ed wi th di sti l l ed water.
NOTE: From this point forward, all hydrometer readings will be
taken fromthetop of themeniscus.
Step 4. Perform the hydrometer test.
a. Record al l i denti fyi ng i nformati on for the sampl e, di spersi ng agent,
quanti ty used, and composi te correcti on on the form.
b. Obtai n the deci mal fi nes from the ori gi nal soi l sampl e from DD Form
1206. Record i t on DD Form 1794 (bl ock 12).
c. Obtai n the speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds (G
s
) of the soi l sampl e from DD
Form 1208. Record i t on DD Form 1794 (bl ock 13).
d. Empty and thoroughl y ri nse the graduated cyl i nder contai ni ng the
di spersi ng sol uti on from step 3.
e. Transfer the soaked sampl e to a di spersi on cup, usi ng di sti l l ed water to
wash any resi due from the di sh i nto the cup. Add di sti l l ed water to the
cup unti l the water surface i s 3 i nches bel ow the top of the cup. Pl ace the
cup i n the di spersi ng machi ne and mi x si l ts and sands for 5 mi nutes, l ow-
pl asti ci ty cl ay for 7 mi nutes, and hi gh-pl asti ci ty cl ay for 9 mi nutes.
f. Transfer the mi xed sol uti on to the cl ean 1,000-mi l l i l i ter graduated
cyl i nder, usi ng di sti l l ed water to wash any resi due from the cup i nto the
cyl i nder. Add di sti l l ed water unti l the 1,000-mi l l i l i ter vol ume mark i s
reached.
g. Pl ace the rubber cap over the open end of the cyl i nder. Turn the
cyl i nder upsi de down and back for a peri od of 1 mi nute to compl ete the
agi tati on of the sl urry.
NOTE: The number of turns during this minute should be about
60, counting the turn upside down and back as two turns. If any
soil remains at the bottom of the cylinder during the first few
turns, it should be loosened by vigorous shaking of the cylinder
whileit is in theinverted position.
h. After shaki ng the cyl i nder for 1 mi nute, pl ace i t on a l evel and sturdy
surface where i t wi l l not be di sturbed. Remove the cap and start the
ti mer. Remove any foam that has formed duri ng agi tati on by l i ghtl y
touchi ng i t wi th a bar of soap.
i . I mmerse the hydrometer sl owl y i nto the l i qui d 20 to 25 seconds before
each readi ng. Take the actual hydrometer readi ng (R1) at 1 and 2
mi nutes of el apsed ti me. As soon as the 1- and 2-mi nute readi ngs are
taken, careful l y remove the hydrometer and pl ace i t i n the second cyl i nder
of pure di sti l l ed water usi ng a spi nni ng moti on. Record the readi ng on the
form (bl ock 16).
2-84 Soils
j. Pl ace a thermometer i n the sol uti on. Record the temperature readi ng,
i n centi grade, to the nearest whol e degree. Record on the form (bl ock 18).
NOTE: It is extremely important to obtain accurate temperature
readings. The soil hydrometer is calibrated at 20C. Variations in
temperature from this standard temperature produces inaccuracies
in the actual hydrometer readings. These inaccuracies will be
compensated for later duringthecomputations.
k. Repeat steps 4i and 4j for the remai nder of the requi red readi ngs. Take
readi ngs at the fol l owi ng i nterval s: 5, 15, and 30 mi nutes and 1, 2, 4, and
24 hours. After each readi ng, remove the hydrometer, pl ace i t i n the
hydrometer of di sti l l ed water, and obtai n the temperature readi ng.
Record the i nformati on on the form for each readi ng.
Step 5. Determi ne the dry wei ght of the sampl e by careful l y washi ng al l of the
sampl e i nto a prewei ghed puddi ng pan or di sh (bl ock 24). Oven-dry the
sampl e, al l ow i t to cool , and determi ne and record the wei ght of the sampl e
and the pan or di sh (bl ock 23).
Step 6. Determi ne the wei ght of the dry soi l by subtracti ng the wei ght of the
pan from the wei ght of the pan and dry soi l . Record thi s i nformati on on the
form as the wei ght of the oven-dri ed soi l (W
s
) used for hydr ometer testi ng
(bl ock 25).
Step 7. Compute the resul ts on DD Form 1794 (see Figure2-43, page2-81).
a. Col umn 17. Obtai n the corrected readi ng (R) by addi ng the actual
hydrometer readi ng (col umn 16, R1) and the composi te correcti on (bl ock
11) and record the sum on the form.
R =R
1
+ compositecorrection
b. Col umn 19. Obtai n the temperature versus speci fi c gravi ty constant
(K) from Table2-10. Record i t on the form.
NOTE: Although typical specific-gravity values arelisted in Table2-
10, theremay becaseswhen asoil typefallsaboveor belowthisrange
of values. In thesesituations thevalueof K must becomputed using
thefollowingformula:
where
=coeffi ci ent of vi scosi ty of the l i qui d (water) i n poi ses (vari es wi th
changes i n temperature)
G
s
=Speci fi c gravi ty of sol i ds for the materi al bei ng tested
c. Col umn 20. Obtai n the effecti ve depth (L) for each corrected readi ng
(col umn 17) by usi ng Table2-11, page2-86, and record on the form.
K
30
G
s
1
--------------- =
Soils 2-103
EQUIPMENT
Perform the compacti on test usi ng the fol l owi ng i tems:
Cyl i nder mol ds (use one of the fol l owi ng mol ds, dependi ng on the soi l
sampl e bei ng processed):
Proctor mol d; 4-i nch (4.0-i nch i nsi de di ameter and 4.584-i nch
i nsi de hei ght havi ng an i nternal vol ume of 0.0333 cubi c foot),
havi ng an extensi on col l ar (2.375 i nches hi gh) and a detachabl e
metal basepl ate.
CBR mol d; 6-i nch (6-i nch i nsi de di ameter and 7-i nch i nsi de
hei ght), havi ng an extensi on col l ar (2 i nches hi gh) and detachabl e
metal basepl ate. The mol d shoul d al so have a metal spacer di sk
(5.94-i nch i nsi de di ameter and 2.416 i nches thi ck) for use as a
fal se bottom i n the mol d duri ng testi ng. When the spacer di sk i s i n
pl ace i n the bottom of the mol d, the i nter nal vol ume of the mol d
(excl udi ng extensi on col l ar) shal l be 0.075 cubi c foot.
A compacti ng hammer or tamper. A sl i di ng-wei ght type compacti ng
tamper, havi ng a 2-i nch-di ameter steel stri ki ng face, a 10-pound mass,
and an 18-i nch fal l .
A No. 4 si eve.
A 3/8-i nch si eve.
A 3/4-i nch si eve.
Moi sture tares.
A soi l s oven.
Fi l ter paper.
A l arge spoon.
A l arge kni fe.
A steel strai ghtedge.
A cal cul ator.
DD Form 1210.
DD Form 1211.
The amount of materi al (fi el d sampl e) requi red for the compacti on test
depends on the test procedure bei ng used and the fi el d sampl es moi sture
content. The fol l owi ng are gui del i nes for the amount of soi l requi red for the
test procedures:
Procedures A and B: Use about 35 pounds of dry soi l or at l east 50
pounds of moi st soi l .
2-104 Soils
Procedure C: Use about 75 pounds of dry soi l or at l east 100 pounds of
moi st soi l .
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps for the compacti on test:
Step 1. Determi ne the test procedure to be used.
I f the CBR desi gn and tests are to be devel oped for thi s project, do not
use thi s method. See Secti on I X for procedures to be used for CBR.
I f CBR i s not a factor, determi ne the test procedure by eval uati ng the
gradati on cri teri a of the procedures l i sted above (A, B, or C) wi th
col umn 17 (percent retai ned) on DD Form 1206.
a. Dry the sampl e unti l i t can be easi l y crumbl ed under a trowel . Dryi ng
may be done by ai r-dryi ng or by usi ng a dryi ng apparatus, provi ded the
temperature of the sampl e does not exceed 60C.
c. Si eve the sampl e over a No. 4 (pr ocedur e A), 3/8-i nch (pr ocedur e B), or
3/4-i nch si eve (pr ocedur e C). When pr epar i ng the mater i al by passi ng i t
over the 3/4-i nch si eve for compacti on i n the 6-i nch mol d, br eak up
aggr egates suffi ci entl y to at l east pass the 3/8-i nch si eve. Thi s
faci l i tates the di str i buti on of water thr oughout the soi l i n l ater mi xi ng.
d. Separate from the sampl e 5 equal porti ons representi ng each poi nt
desi red on the compacti on curve. The si ze of each sampl e for one mol d i s
about 2,700 grams for procedures A and B or 6,800 grams for procedure C.
Retai n al l excess soi l sampl e.
Step 3. Adjust the water content.
NOTE: The water-content adjustments in this step are designed to
provide approximations of the OMC. In no way should these
approximations be used for or be interpreted as the actual moisture
content. Exact moisture determinations will be conducted in a later
step.
a. Establ i sh the assumed or approxi mate OMC.
(1) Pl ace exactl y 100 grams of the excess soi l sampl e i n a di sh.
(2) Add 5 mi l l i l i ters of water to the sampl e and mi x thoroughl y. The
approxi mate OMC i s typi cal l y achi eved so that when the soi l i s
squeezed i n the pal m, i t wi l l adhere together on i ts own but i t wi l l
break cl eanl y i nto two separate pi eces wi thout ei ther pi ece shatteri ng
when bent. Usual l y thi s wi l l be sl i ghtl y l ess than the PL.
(3) Add smal l amounts of water (i n mi l l i l i ters), rememberi ng to record
the amounts added, unti l the approxi mate OMC i s achi eved. Do not
confuse the approxi mate OMC wi th the actual moi sture content of thi s
soi l , whi ch wi l l be determi ned i n a l ater step. For purposes of
conducti ng the test method, the approxi mate OMC wi l l be the amount
Concrete 4-21
end).
A sampl e of pl asti c (fresh) concrete.
Water.
Oi l .
Rags.
A pai l .
A mi xi ng pan (from the concrete test set).
A ki tchen scoop.
Paper.
A penci l .
A rubber mal l et.
STEPS
There are many di fferent ai r-entrai nment meters currentl y fi el ded and
repl acements of ol d equi pment may not be the same. For thi s reason, i t i s
recommended that the steps outl i ned i n the manufacturers users manual be
fol l owed.
The fl exural strength of hardened concrete i s measured by usi ng a si mpl e
concrete beam and thi rd-poi nt l oadi ng mechani sm. The fl exural strength i s
determi ned by cal cul ati ng measured breaks of the beam and i s expressed as a
modul us of rupture i n psi .
TEST BEAMS
Beam forms for casti ng test beams from fresh concrete are avai l abl e i n many
si zes. The most commonl y used si ze i s 6 x 6 x 21 i nches. Al though equi pment
for obtai ni ng sawed speci mens may not be avai l abl e, the test may be
performed on beams sawed from exi sti ng concrete structures for eval uati on
purposes.
FORMING THE BEAMS (ASTMC 192-90A)
Assembl e a standard 6- x 6- x 21-i nch concrete-beam mol d and l i ghtl y oi l the
i nsi de. Fi l l the mol d wi th two l ayers of concrete from the producti on batches,
each about 3 i nches deep. Consol i date each l ayer by roddi ng, usi ng one stroke
per 2 square i nches (63 per l ayer), evenl y di stri buted over the l ayers surface.
Tap the si des l i ghtl y 10 to 15 ti mes wi th a rubber mal l et to cl ose the voi ds l eft
by roddi ng. Li ghtl y spade the concrete al ong the mol ds si des wi th a trowel to
hel p remove surface voi ds. When roddi ng the second l ayer, penetrate the fi rst
l ayer about 1/2 i nch. Stri ke off the top surface wi th a strai ghtedge, and fi ni sh
i t wi th a wood or magnesi um fl oat.
SECTION IV. FLEXURAL-STRENGTH TEST (MODULUS OF RUPTURE)
4-22 Concrete
TAKING THE SPECIMENS
Take test speci mens at l east once for each 100 cubi c yards or fracti on thereof,
for each cl ass of concrete pl aced i n any one day, or as di rected i n the project
speci fi cati ons. Make at l east three speci mens for each test age and mi xture
desi gn bei ng eval uated i n the l ab. Addi ti onal speci mens may be made for
future testi ng. Test ages are normal l y 14 and 28 days for fl exural -strength
tests. For testi ng fi el d-pl aced concrete, a mi ni mum of two speci mens for each
test age i s requi red.
CURING THE BEAMS
Pl ace a sui tabl e i denti fyi ng l abel on the fi ni shed surface of the speci mens.
Cover the enti re speci menssti l l i n the mol dwi th a doubl e thi ckness of wet
burl ap. Ensure that the speci mens remai n on si te and are undi sturbed for an
i ni ti al curi ng peri od (the fi rst 16 to 48 hours after mol di ng). After thi s curi ng
per i od, move them to the testi ng l aborator y and r emove them from the mol ds
for further curi ng. The most sati sfactory curi ng range for concrete i s 68 to
86F, wi th 73.4F bei ng the most favorabl e temperature. Moi st-cure the
beams i n saturated l i me water, total l y submerged i n a wet-tank humi di ty
room, or keep them wet unti l they are tested.
FLEXURAL-STRENGTH TEST (ASTMC 78-94)
Perform thi s test to determi ne the fl exural strength (modul us of rupture) of
the test speci men to + 10 psi . Record the speci men i denti fi cati on, modul us of
rupture, any defects noted, and speci mens age.
EQUIPMENT
Use the fol l owi ng i tems to perform thi s test i n a l aboratory envi ronment:
The fl exural -strength test apparatus.
A concrete beam, 6 x 6 x 21 i nches.
A measuri ng tape.
A stopwatch.
Pens.
Penci l s.
Paper.
Safety goggl es.
A provi ng-ri ng wi th provi ng-ri ng cal i brati on and constant.
Speci men i denti fi cati on.
A cal cul ator.
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the fl exural strength. Wear safety
goggl es throughout thi s test.
Step 1. Assembl e the test apparatus and check for functi onal operati on (see
Figure4-5).
Concrete 4-23
Step 2. Measure the l ength of span and record the measurement on a pi ece of
paper. The l ength of span i s determi ned by measuri ng the di stance from
center to center of the two l oadi ng poi nts (or supports) on the base of the
apparatus (see Figure 4-5). The normal l ength of speci men i s 21 i nches and
the normal l ength of span i s 18 i nches.
Step 3. Pl ace the speci men i n the tester and bri ng the l oadi ng surface i nto
contact wi th the test speci men (see Figure4-5).
Step 4. Zero the gauge. Some apparatus are equi pped wi th a hydraul i c pump
and correspondi ng gauge whi l e others are equi pped wi th a l oadi ng jack and
provi ng ri ng.
Step 5. Appl y a l oad at a conti nuous rate that constantl y i ncreases the
extreme fi ber stress between 125 and 175 psi per mi nute. Thi s i s an
approxi mate l oad of 1,500 to 2,100 pounds per mi nute.
Step 6. Obtai n the total l oad, i n pounds, at the ti me of speci men fai l ure, and
record the wei ght on the paper provi ded. On machi nes equi pped wi th
hydraul i cs, take the readi ng di rectl y from the gauge. For machi nes equi pped
wi th a provi ng ri ng, thi s readi ng i s the product of the di al -gauge readi ng and
the provi ng-ri ng constant.
Step 7. Determi ne and record the wi dth and depth of the speci men, i n i nches,
at the poi nt of fai l ure (normal l y 6 x 6 i nches).
Step 8. Determi ne the poi nt of fai l ure i n the speci men, and cal cul ate the
modul us of rupture. I f the speci men fai l s outsi de the mi ddl e thi rd of the span
l ength by more than 5 percent of the total span l ength, then the speci men i s
Figure 4-5. Apparatus for flexural-strength test
Steel rod
Specimen
Apply load here
Loading
Steel ball
Steel ball
Steel rod
Length of span
(d)
in
4-24 Concrete
consi dered unusabl e and shoul d be di scarded (not more than 0.9 i nches for an
18-i nch span (18 x 0.05 = 0.9).
a. Use the fol l owi ng formul a to cal cul ate the modul us of rupture i f the
speci men fai l s wi thi n the mi ddl e thi rd of the span l ength:
where
L =length of span, in inches
b. Use the fol l owi ng formul a to cal cul ate the modul us of rupture i f the
speci men fai l s outsi de the mi ddl e thi rd of the l ength of span by not more
than 5 percent of the span l ength:
where
a =distance between the failure point and the nearest support, measured
alongthecenterlineof thebottomof thespecimen, in inches
Step 9. Record the fol l owi ng i nformati on about the test (some i nformati on
may be unavai l abl e at the ti me of the test):
Speci mens i denti fi cati on number.
Average wi dth to the nearest 0.05 i nch.
Average depth to the nearest 0.05 i nch.
Span l ength, i n i nches.
Maxi mum appl i ed l oad, i n pounds.
Modul us of rupture, to the nearest 10 psi .
Curi ng hi story (how the speci men was cured) and apparent moi sture
content of the speci men at the ti me of the test.
Any defects noted i n the speci men.
The age of the speci men.
R
P L
b d
2
--------------- =
R
3P a
b d
2
---------------- =
Concrete 4-29
A rul er accurate to 0.01 i nch.
Cal i pers wi th at l east a 6-i nch openi ng.
Paper.
Penci l s.
Safety goggl es and pr otecti ve apr on.
A face shi el d.
Oi l .
Rags.
A cal cul ator.
A concrete compressi on tester wi th a 250,000-pound capaci ty.
A hammer (bal l peen or carpenters).
STEPS
Perform the fol l owi ng steps to determi ne the concrete cyl i nders compressi ve
strength:
Step 1. Prepare the concrete cyl i nder.
NOTE: If rubber-filled metal is used, go to step 1j.
a. Mel t the cappi ng compound i n the mel ti ng pot. Ensure that you mel t
enough compound to make several caps.
b. Cl ean and l i ghtl y oi l the basepl ate of the cappi ng apparatus.
c. Set the basepl ate i nto the cappi ng-apparatus stand.
d. Pour a smal l amount of the heated (l i qui d) cappi ng compound i nto the
basepl ate.
e. Posi ti on the cyl i nder at mi dhei ght agai nst the backrest of the cappi ng
apparatus. Sl owl y l ower the cyl i nder i nto the basepl ate whi l e keepi ng the
cyl i nder fl ush agai nst the backrest. I f the cyl i nder i s not kept fl ush wi th
the backrest whi l e cappi ng, the caps and the cyl i nder wi l l not be
perpendi cul ar, and a proper break wi l l not occur.
f. Remove the cyl i nder from the cappi ng apparatus once the cappi ng
compound has sol i di fi ed.
g. I nspect the cap for uni formi ty and defects. I f you see any defects,
remove the cap and recap the cyl i nder; then return to step 1a.
h. Repeat steps 1a through 1g for the uncapped end of the cyl i nder.
i . Determi ne and record the average di ameter of the concrete cyl i nder.
The aver age di ameter i s the aver age of two di ameter s taken perpendi cul ar
to each other at mi dhei ght of the cyl i nder.
j. Cl ean and exami ne the bear i ng sur face of the steel cap (i f used) for
ni cks, gouges, and warpi ng. Check the rubber i nserts for tears, ri ps, cuts,
and gouges. Repl ace them i f they are i n poor condi ti on or i f the maxi mum
4-30 Concrete
number of servi ceabl e uses has been exceeded. Pl ace the steel cap fi rml y
on the cyl i nders ends.
Step 2. Prepare the compressi on tester (see Figure4-6).
a. Cl ean the testers beari ng pl ates (l oadi ng surfaces).
b. Check the tester for proper operati on.
c. Set the gauge to zero.
Step 3. Pl ace the capped cyl i nder i nto the compr essi on tester and center i t on
the bear i ng pl ates. Secure the pr otecti ve cage around the cyl i nder.
Step 4. Appl y the test l oad at a rate of 20 to 50 psi per second, not to exceed 50
psi per second (50 psi per second i s about equi val ent to a l oad [gauge readi ng]
of 1,400 pounds per second).
Step 5. Read the gauge and record the l oad appl i ed at the ti me of fai l ure.
Step 6. I nspect the broken cyl i nder and record the fol l owi ng i nformati on:
I denti fi cati on number.
Di ameter.
Cross-secti onal area, i n square i nches.
Maxi mum l oad appl i ed, i n pounds.
Compressi ve str ength, cal cul ated to the near est 10 psi .
Type of break (see Figure4-7).
Defects i n ei ther speci men or caps.
Age of speci men.
Step 7. Cal cul ate and record the compressi ve strength of the cyl i nder usi ng
the fol l owi ng formul a:
where
P =load at timeof failure, in pounds
A = r
2
P
A
--- =
Concrete 4-31
Figure 4-6. Compression tester
Figure 4-7. Types of fractures
Cone Cone and split Cone and shear Shear Columnar
Metric Conversion Chart A-1
Appendix A
Metric Conversion Chart
Thi s appendi x compl i es wi th cur rent Ar my di r ecti ves whi ch state that the
metri c system wi l l be i ncor por ated i nto al l new publ i cati ons. Tabl e A-1 i s a
conversi on chart.
Table A-1. Metric conversion chart
Metric to English English to Metric
Multiply By To Obtain Multiply By To Obtain
Length
Centimeters 0.0394 Inches Inches 2.54 Centimeters
Meters 3.28 Feet Feet 0.0305 Meters
Meters 1.094 Yards Yards 0.9144 Meters
Kilometers 0.621 Miles (stat) Miles (stat) 1.5609 Kilometers
Kilometers 0.540 Miles (naut) Miles (naut) 1.853 Kilometers
Millimeters 0.039 Inches Inches 25.40 Millimeters
Area
Square
centimeters
0.1550 Square inches Square inches 6.45
Square
centimeters
Square meters 10.76 Square feet Square feet 0.0929 Square meters
Square meters 1.196 Square yards Square yards 0.836 Square meters
Volume
Cubic
centimeters
0.610 Cubic inches Cubic inches 16.39
Cubic
centimeters
Cubic meters 35.3 Cubic feet Cubic feet 0.0283 Cubic meters
Cubic meters 1.308 Cubic yards Cubic yards 0.765 Cubic meters
Milliliters 0.0338 US liq ounces US liq ounces 29.6 Milliliters
Liters 1.057 US liq quarts US liq quarts 0.946 Liters
Liters 0.264 US liq gallons US liq gallons 3.79 Liters
Weight
Grams 0.0353 Ounces Ounces 28.4 Grams
Kilograms 2.20 Pounds Pounds 0.454 Kilograms
Metric tons 1.102 Short tons Short tons 0.907 Metric tons
Metric tons 0.984 Long tons Long tons 1.016 Metric tons
Temperature
Celsius
Add 17.8 and
multiply by 1.8
Fahrenheit Fahrenheit
Subtract 32
and multiply by
0.5556
Celsius
C2

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