i

TEXTBOOK OF EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY

ii iii TEXTBOOK OF EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY Ram Nath Sharma KANISHKA PUBLISHERS, DISTRIBUTORS NEW DELHI 110 002 iv KANISHKA PUBLISHERS, DISTRIBUTORS 4697/5-21 A, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 002. Phones: 327 0497, 328 8285 Fax: 011-328 8285 First Published 2000 Second Edition 2002 Author ISBN 81-7391-356-0 PRINTED IN INDIA Published by Madan Sachdeva for Kanishka Publishers, Distributors, 4697/5-21A, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi110 002; Typeset by Arora Computer Point, Delhi, and Printed at Nice Printing Press, Delhi. v

Preface
Though several books are available on Philosophy of Education, there is hardly any book which is according to University syllabi, to the point as well as comprehensive and including latest developments. The present book fulfills this long felt need. This comprehensive textbook on Philosophy of Education has been divided into four parts. Part First: Introductory, includes chapters on Introduction to Education, Introduction to Philosophy, Philosophy and Education and Philosophy of Education. Part Second: Philosophical Schools of Education, includes chapters on Idealism, Realism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, Existentialism, Logical Positivism, Socialism, Fascism, Marxism and Communism, Humanism and Secularism. Part Third: Indian Philosophy of Education, includes chapters on Philosophy of Education in India, Swami Dayananda, Annie Besant, Swami Vivekananda, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, Jawaharlal Nehru, M.N. Roy and Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan. Part Fourth: Western Philosophy of Education, includes chapters on Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, John Amos Comenius, Jean Jacques, Rousseau, Friedrich August Froebel, Maria Montessori, John Dewey and Bertrand Russell.

While the author has left no stones unturned to make this work an ideal textbook for the students and a reference work for the teachers, the readers are the best judge of its merit. Suggestions for improvement are cordially invited. Author vi vii

Contents
Preface PART I Introductory 1. Introduction to Education 2. Introduction to Philosophy 3. Philosophy and Education 4. Philosophy of Education PART II Philosophical Schools of Education 5. Idealism 6. Realism 7. Naturalism 8. Pragmatism 9. Existentialism 10. Logical Positivism 11. Socialism, Fascism, Marxism and Communism 12. Humanism 13. Secularism PART III Indian Philosophy of Education 14. Philosophy of Education in India 15. Swami Dayananda 16. Annie Besant 17. Swami Vivekananda 18. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 19. Rabindranath Tagore 20. Sri Aurobindo 21. Jawaharlal Nehru 22. Radical Humanism 23. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan PART IV Western Philosophers of Education 24. Socrates 25. Plato 26. Aristotle 27. John Amos Comenius 28. Jean Jacques Rousseau 29. Friedrich August Froebel 30. Maria Montessori (1870-1952) 31. John Dewey 32. Bertrand Russell Index 411 424 439 457 461 471 484 498 512 518 231 251 269 277 293 317 325 369 379 389 87 106 120 149 169 180 197 212 220 3 26 61 72 v

Part I INTRODUCTORY
23

1 Introduction to Education
The word education has its origin in the Latin word 'educatum' composed of two terms 'E' and 'Duco'. 'E' implies a progress from inward to outward while 'Duco' means developing or progressing. In its most literal sense, therefore, education means becoming developed or progressing from inside to outside. Education, thus, is the process of developing the inner abilities and powers of an individual. The term is also often connected with the Latin 'educere', meaning a propulsion from the internal to the external. This Latin term means to educate through a change brought about by practice or usage. In this manner, education implies some kind of change for the better in a person. In general usage, the term education is used either in its narrow sense or in its more liberal connotation. A slight elaboration of these two senses is given here.

MEANING OF EDUCATION IN THE WEST

Educational thinking, like every other branch of knowledge, started in the philosophical deliberation of the ancient Greek philosophers. Thus the meaning of education in West is initially available in the works of Plato. It is interesting to note that thousands of years ago Plato gave a meaning to education which is even now followed in the West with slight changes here and there. Definitions of Education in the West 1. Plato. Plato defined education as a life-long process 4 starting, "from the first years of childhood and lasting to the very end of the life."1 He used the term education in a very wide sense, "which makes a man eagerly pursue the ideal perfection of citizenship and teaches him how rightly to rule and how to obey."2 Education not only provides knowledge and skills but also inculcates values, training of instincts, fostering right attitudes and habits. In Republic, Plato points out, that "true education, whatever that may be, will have the greatest tendency to civilise and humanise them in their relation to one another and to those who are under their protection."3 This humanist definition of education propounded by Plato is still the most widely accepted meaning of education in the West. Education everywhere has been taken as a process of inculcating values. As Plato said, "Now I mean by education that training which is given by suitable habits to the first instincts of virtue in children."4 These views of Plato have been universally accepted in West as well as in the East. Education has been defined differently by the idealists, the pragmatists, the naturalists and the realist philosophers. However, its meaning has been generally idealistic. Without some sort of idealism there can be no education worth the name. 2. Robert R. Rusk. "We may accept that the aim of education is the enhancement or enrichment of personality, the differentiating feature of which is the embodiment of universal values."5 The Western educational philosophers have generally agreed that the growth of the human child is the essence of education. 3. A.G. Hughes. "The essence of discipline is, thus not forced subordination to the will of the hated tyrants, but submission to the example of admired superiors." In the middle ages Comenius declared education to be a process whereby an individual developed qualities relating to religion, knowledge and morality, and thereby established his claim to be called a human being. "The fundamental principles of education", according to Froebel, "instruction and teaching should be passive and protective not directive and interfering."6 The principle of liberty has found most eloquent expression in the definition of education given by Rousseau when he said, "Let us obey the call of Nature. We shall see that her yoke is easy and that when we give heed to her voice we find the joy in the answer of a good conscience."7 5 4. Aldous Huxley. "A perfect education is one which trains up every human being to fit into the place he or she is to occupy in the social hierarchy, but without, in the process, destroying his or her individuality."8 Meaning of Development

All the foregoing definitions have stated that education is the process of development. It, therefore, becomes necessary to discover what is implied in this development. Although the ability to learn depends upon development, but development is not synonymous with education. Development means the gradual and continuous progress of mind and body. Through this development the child acquires the following elements: 1. Knowledge of the environment by which he is surrounded. 2. The necessary motor control to fulfil his individual needs. 3. Linguistic abilities to enable him to converse. 4. Some knowledge of individual and collective relationships. The development of all these elements begins at home itself. The educator's task is to continue this process and to encourage it while the child is at school. In fact this process of development continues right through an individual's life time. Consequently, it is accepted that education in its general sense continues throughout a man's natural span of life. Even the successful teacher or educator himself remains a student throughout his life. On the one hand, he teaches certain things to some people but at the same time he learns something from them. All successful educators experience that the development undergone by their thoughts, personalities and abilities would have been impossible otherwise. In much the same way, people other than the educators, teach and learn simultaneously.

MEANING OF EDUCATION IN INDIA

Turning to the Indian approach, it becomes necessary to include the spiritual aspect also because it is accepted as a part of the 6 development by education. In fact, Indian thinkers have placed special emphasis upon this. 1. Yajnavalkya. Yajnavalkya opined that only that is education which gives a sterling character to an individual and renders him useful for the world. 2. Shankaracharya. Shankaracharya said that education is that which leads to salvation. Even the more recent educationists have stressed the importance of the spiritual aspect. 3. A.S. Altekar. "Education has always been regarded in India as a source of illumination and power which transforms and ennobles our nature by the progressive and harmonious development of our physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual powers and faculties."9 This spiritual tradition has been carried on by contemporary Indian philosophers of education in their integral approach, synthesis of idealism and pragmatism, rationalism and humanism, diversity in unity and harmony of the individual and society. 4. Vivekananda. "Religion is the inner most core of education."10 5. Sri Aurobindo. "The child's education ought to be an outbringing of all that is best, most powerful, most intimate and living in his nature, the mould into which the man's action and development ought to run is that of his innate quality and power. He must acquire new things but he will acquire them best, most wholly on the basis of his own developed type and inborn force."11 6. M.K. Gandhi. "By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind and spirit. Literacy is not the end of education not even the beginning. It is one of the means whereby man and woman can be educated. Literacy in itself is no education."12

SYNTHETIC DEFINITION
It is clear from the above discussion of the meaning of education in West and India, ancient and modern that it may be synthesised since all these accept some common characteristics of education. The following points concerning the meaning of education emerge from a review of the meaning of education in the West and in India: 1. A life-long process. Education according to most of the philosophers continues from birth to death. As Madam Paul

7 Richard pointed out, the education of man, "should begin at his very birth and it is to continue the whole length of his life."13 2. Unfolding. Education is a gradual unfolding. In his allegory of the cave Plato observed that "the power and capacity of learning exists in the soul already, and just as the eye was unable to turn from darkness to light, without the whole body, so too, the instrument of knowledge can only, by the movement of the whole soul, be turned from the world of the becoming into that of being and learn by degrees to endure the sight of being and of the brightest and best of being or in other words of the good."14 It is in the same sense that Sri Aurobindo said, "The chief aim of education should be to help the growing soul to draw out that in itself which is best and make it perfect for a noble use."15 3. Based on child psychology. Western thinkers unanimously agree that true education should be based on child psychology. This again his been accepted by Indian philosophers of education. According to Sri Aurobindo, "Nothing can be taught to the mind which is not already concealed as potential knowledge in the unfolding soul of the creature."16 Educational theory must be based on sound psychology. As Sri Aurobindo points out, "The true basis of education is the study of the human mind, infant, adolescent and adult."17 4. Individual as well as social. True education is individual as well as social. Plato brought out a scheme of education according to each individual's capacities to serve the society. Philosophers in the West have everywhere laid emphasis upon individual as well as social aims of education. Contemporary Indian philosophers also exhibit this tendency. M.K. Gandhi said, "I value individual freedom, but you must not forget that man is essentially a social being. He has risen to his present status by learning to adjust his individuality to the requirements of social progress."18 5. Total development. Thus education by general agreement is a total development, physical, mental and spiritual, individual as well as social. This total development is the meaning of self-realisation. This synthesis of the different aspects of man's development is characteristic of not only idealism but also naturalism, pragmatism and realism. It is again the meaning of 8 perfection, acclaimed as the aim of education by so many thinkers. It is also what is known as complete education. It is again the humanist meaning of education since man is a complex being having several aspects of his personality all of which require full development. According to Sri Aurobindo, education should help the individual to grow, "into a fulness of physical and vital energy and utmost breadth, depth and height of his emotional, his intellectual and his spiritual being."19 The total development lays equal emphasis upon physical as well as spiritual growth. Without physical culture mental training has been considered as one-sided. In the words of Aldous Huxley, "Where the body is maladjusted and under strain, the mind's relations, sensory, emotional, intellectual, conative, with external reality are likely to be unsatisfactory."20 Education aims at an all-round and total perfection of the individual and society. Hence, physical culture should form an important part of the educational process. As Sri Aurobindo puts it, "If seeking is for a total perfection of the being, the physical part of it cannot be left aside, for the body is the material basis, the body is the instrument which we have to use."21 Similar quotations may be hunted from other philosophers of education in West and East. The total development involves character development, development of social virtues and individual skills. It includes all the various aims of education. It involves all the functions of education in human life such as development of natural abilities, character building, personality integration, preparation for adult life, control and sublimation of basic instincts, creation of useful citizens, development of a sense of community, progress of culture and civilization, social welfare, use of leisure and synthesis of national as well as international consciousness.

TYPES OF EDUCATION
Education is a comprehensive concept which comprehends the knowledge obtained through newspapers, magazines, radio, television and other means, in addition to the formal education provided in colleges. The average individual interprets the term in the sense of college education, which is obviously different from the education obtained from the other sources. Educationists have distinguished between the various types of education in 9 order to remove this confusion. Briefly, education is of the following kinds: 1. General Education. As is evident from the name itself, general education is the minimal education required by an individual to satisfy all his various needs. It aims at developing the general qualities of the child, so that its personality can develop and it can become capable of adjusting to its environment. It also enables him to earn his livelihood and to

behave properly, in accordance with his age. It is generally believed that this general education continues upto the eighth class. All modern states make general education compulsory for all children, and in many cases it is provided free of charge. 2. Specific education. General education, which is outlined above, is a supplement to specific education, which, as is evident, trains the child to pursue some specific profession or job. The modern age is a period of specialization. As long as an individual cannot perform some particular task better than any other person, he will find it difficult to make a place for himself in society. It is for this reason that nowadays individuals are given vocational guidance in order to help them to take up professions for which their abilities are best suited. If the individual is given some specific education which concurs with his inherited capabilities, he stands the best chance of developing these qualities to the limit. General education is more liberal while specific education is comparatively narrow. It is not so closely connected with the development of the person's general personality and character. This is the task of general education. Specific education is spread over a long period of time and is often centred in specialized institutions such as medical colleges, engineering colleges, technical institutes, etc. In each case, the aim is to make the individual proficient in a particular skill, be it curing sick people, designing or repairing machines, growing crops, or anything else. Besides, specific education is also often more expensive than general education. Few people can afford the burden of sending their children to medical and engineering colleges. General education, on the other hand, is within the reach of almost all people. It also does not require the possession of special mental traits. Specific education, on the contrary, can be really profitable only if the individual possesses mental and physical qualities commensurate with that profession. Specific 10 education plays a very important role in a nation's development because it provides specially trained personnel in every field who can serve society and enhance the welfare of the nation. 3. Formal education. In another classification, education is divided into the formal and the informal. The former comprehends education as it is provided in educational institutions according to a particular pattern. In the school, the educator educates the educands according to a specific programme aiming at particular goal. He follows a predetermined syllabus. In this formal kind of education, the time and place of teaching are fixed, and the educand has to arrive at that place and at that specific time to receive education. The length of such education is also fixed in terms of years. Both the kinds of education mentioned earlier can be included under the formal classification because both are often provided in schools. The advantages of the formal kind of education lie in that it can be scientifically and consistently provided to a large number of children simultaneously. The objectives of this education are also determined beforehand. Although, of course, education in one form or the other continues as long as a person lives, education in its more common meaning starts at the age of four or five and continues to the age of twenty-five. During this period the individual passes through a succession of institutions of primary, secondary and advanced education in the form of schools, colleges and universities. At all these places of learning he receives formal education, provided on a pattern determined by syllabus which is itself framed with a view to achieving certain fixed targets. The fact that it can be provided to a large number of people is an advantage but also a drawback. Because of its completely formal nature, formal education often fails to touch certain aspects of one's personality and leaves it completely undeveloped. At times, it can also become so detached from reality that it hinders rather than helps the educand in satisfying his needs. This fact can be seen in the case of the contemporary pattern of formal education in India. It would not be inaccurate to state that, in India, the more formal education a person receives after a certain stage, the more useless he becomes in facing the problems of real life. His adjustment deteriorates instead of improving. 11 4. Informal education. Informal education complements the formal education outlined above, without which formal education remains incomplete. Education of this kind has no specific time or place at which it is provided. Even the educator is not fixed. All fixed syllabi, rules, formalities are absent from it. Education of this kind is the education one receives while playing in field, talking to family members in the house, roaming around somewhere, in fact, everywhere. This kind of education never comes to an end, and it teaches the individual more than he can ever learn through his formal education. A child learns many things when he comes in contact with new people. He discovers many new worlds when he goes to new places. This education that he receives cannot be evaluated as formal education can. Formal education can be evaluated by some specific techniques, and the quality and quantity of education imbibed by the educand can be known. But this is not true of informal education for there is no standard of measure in its case. It also does not provide the recipient with a certificate or a degree. Informal education is a gradual process, for people learn a few things after years of experience. But the things learnt in this manner prove to be more valuable than all the degrees accumulated through formal education. Formal education provides education on specific subjects while informal education is more general in nature. 5. Direct Education. In another classification, education is divided into the direct and indirect classes. Direct education is

the equivalent of formal education and specific education. In this form of education, the educator and the educand are in direct contact whence education on a specific subject is disseminated. Its chief advantage lies in the material learnt by the educand more by the example of the educator's personality and character than by the formal material he seeks to impart. It is for this reason that direct education was very much in vogue in India in the past. The student lived with the teacher and learnt various skills and sciences. Direct education becomes difficult when the number of students becomes very large, or education itself becomes very mechanical and purely vocational. It then loses the advantage of the direct contact between the educator and the educand. If the pattern of direct education is to be maintained, then the number of teachers must be very 12 large, for one teacher can establish rapport only with a small number of educands. Once the value of direct education was realized, educationists stressed the importance of limiting the size of a class. 6. Indirect education. Direct education was efficacious and practicable in the past when the population was not too large and life had not become as complex as it is today. With the present increase in population it is no longer possible to provide direct education to all the people. In the past this kind of education was popular also because of the comparative primitive forms of communication. Such modern developments as the printing press, radio, television, etc., have made it possible to communicate the ideas of the greatest thinkers to those people who have never come into direct contact with the thinkers themselves. For this reason, in the present context, indirect education has come to acquire greater significance than direct education. Many universities have undertaken to conduct correspondence courses, which are a fine example of indirect education. In this form of education, the subject of a lecture is printed and posted to the student. The student is required to answer certain questions sent along with the lecture. These answers are sent by him to the university where they are evaluated and returned to the student with the appropriate guidance. As this kind of indirect education offers a better and more practical adjustment to the circumstances of a very large number of individuals, it is becoming increasingly popular, particularly in the West. All the books that are written by the greatest thinkers and read by a vast audience are an excellent example of this indirect education. It cannot be denied that irrespective of the abilities of the educator, he cannot provide complete education to the educand without turning to books for assistance. For this reason the scope and field of indirect education is increasingly steadily. In the last few years, teaching through the medium of radio and television is becoming more popular and reaching a higher level of sophistication. In India, the All India Radio regularly broadcasts lectures and programmes on musical education, cultural education and the like. By this many millions of individuals gain some kind of education. 7. Individual education. Education is also classified into the individual and the collective groups. Many of the modern 13 educational psychologists have stressed the importance of individual differences between people and suggested that the educator should pay individual attention to each educand, remove his difficulties and, if necessary, modify the syllabi and the teaching programme to suit the specific abilities and traits of the educand. Scientifically considered, this advice is very good, and if arrangements can be made to provide individual education at this level, nothing could be better. Kindergarten, Montessori and Project methods, all of which are modern methods of child education, attempt to provide the highest degree of individual attention possible. But where education is to be provided to a very large number of individuals, it is the most expensive kind of education yet devised since one educator can pay attention to the specific needs of only a very small number of students. The experiment conducted by Rabindra Nath succeeded as an experiment, but if it is accepted as a pattern for large scale education, it would be completely impractical. That is why arrangements are made for collective education, although the value of individual education can be clearly visualized. 8. Collective education. Collective education is provided to a group of individuals collected at one place. Formal education is often also collective education. Keeping in mind the obvious advantages of individual education, efforts are made to restrict the size of the group of educands. The very meaning of education would be lost if the educator lost all contact with the educands, if they are in too large a number. This form of education is comparatively economical of time and money because one single educator can teach a large number of educands. In view of the present size of the population, and the possibilities of its growing further, collective education is the only practicable answer to the need for universal education. 9. Conscious education. Education is also divided into the conscious and the unconscious kind. The conscious kind of education is the education which is provided with a full knowledge of the objectives to be achieved through it. College education is of this kind. It is intended to fulfil certain predetermined objectives. Conscious education is arranged for the child by his parents and by the state, but the child deliberately receives conscious education. 14

10. Unconscious education. An individual does not learn all the things he actually knows consciously. Many of the important facts that a child learns are absorbed unconsciously from his natural and social environment which surrounds him. This kind of education is informal and since it supplements the education received consciously, neither can be said to be more or less important than the other. Of the various classifications listed above, the division into the formal and informal classes is the most common. All the other classifications are based on some specific approaches to education, although most of them resemble each other. For example, formal education is also collective education. This classification of education into different kinds has been made by different educationists according to their individual standpoint. A study of each one of these can help to throw much light on the vast field of education and on the various aspects of it. In every classification, both the kinds described, supplement each other because the process of education is many-sided and synthesizing. It takes place at all times and places, but it does not remain the same in every circumstance. It has a multiplicity of forms, means, quantity and quality. It is imbibed both consciously and unconsciously by the individual.

NATURE OF EDUCATION
Is Education an Art or Science? Some people associate the term science with a specific body of knowledge and then distinguish between science and arts. But as Biesanz and Biesanz have remarked, the criterion of science is attitude or approach, not subject matter. Karl Pearson has rightly pointed out that the unity of all sciences lies in their methodology, not in the subject matter. Science differs from art in its methodology. The other characteristics of science, besides its special method of working, are its factuality, its universality, the validity of its laws, its search for causal relations and its attempt to make predictions based on these laws. It is possible to distinguish between science and arts on the basis of these features. The arts do not possess these qualities, and neither can it profess a similar approach. Science is a system of truths 15 in which, through a definite language and terminology, a search is made for truth for its own sake. Despite the practical application of its principles and laws, science is a theoretical discipline. Science lies in knowledge, while art consists in skill rather than in knowledge. Criterion of art is the skill of the craftsman, while the criterion of a scientist's ability lies not in his skill but in his knowledge. Art raises any individual to a high pedestal, but science does not do this invariably. The aim of science is to know, that of art is to do. It cannot be denied that some practical sciences are nearer to the arts than to theoretical science, but they cannot be identified with the arts because of their distinctively scientific method of working. Art includes skill and practice in addition to knowledge. Art cannot be achieved without practice and repetition. The craftsman is better than other people in performing his own brand of skill. It is evident from the above delineation that education can be called a science as well as an art. Skill in teaching cannot be derived merely from theoretical or verbal knowledge. It is only after long practice that an individual can acquire some skill. This skill is not derived from his knowledge but from the qualities of his personality and character and his ability in explaining new problems in ever changing situations in education. In this manner the educator is an artist but at the same time, he is also a scientist. He approaches all elements which enter the sphere of teaching scientifically. He observes them, and on the basis of his observation he arrives at some general principles which can help in making forecasts for future situations. Theoretical and Applied Sciences In order to understand the scientific nature of education, it is desirable to understand a famous classification of the sciences. This classification divides the sciences into two categories theoretical and applied. Theoretical sciences are concerned with the search for truth for its own sake, without paying any attention to its practical applications. On the other hand, the applied sciences pay particular attention to the application of scientific principles to human life. In actual fact, if this distinction is analysed, it will be seen that no science can be classed as either purely theoretical or purely applied. A theory or principle 16 lacks body without any practical application, while action or application without theory is unfounded. For example, general psychology is the theoretical aspect of psychology whereas applied psychology is its practical aspect. In the same way, sociology has a branch known as applied sociology. Much the same thing can be seen in the case of all other sciences. In actual fact, it is improper to attempt a separation of the theoretical and the practical. The successful educator must concentrate not only on gaining theoretical knowledge of the various sciences but also on a practical application of

his knowledge in educational circumstances. In the field of science, a theory has value only so far as it has some practical utility. In the words of Prof. Sidgwick, "The history of education is the battleground and burial-ground of impractical theories and one who studies it is soon taught to abate his constructive self-confidence, and to endeavour humbly to learn the lessons and harmonise the results of experience." No teacher can hope to become a successful teacher by learning the principles of teaching. As Raymont puts it, "Good teaching, like the efficient practice of any other art, is a function of many variables, of which the study of principles and methods is only one." It is evident from this that the art of teaching comprehends many things such as practicein addition to the knowledge of the theories and methods of teaching. A Science as well as an Art In must be evident from the above discussion that education can neither be categorized as a science nor as an art. It is both a science and an art. It is as proper to use the term art of education as it is to use the term science of education. And even as a science, educational science is neither exclusively theoretical nor only practical because it has a theoretical as well as a practical aspect. In fact, it is more a practical and applied discipline than a theoretical one. Hence, in classifying sciences, we would place education in both the theoretical and the applied categories. It is a social science. But, at the same time, since it is also a study of the ideals of education, it is also a normative discipline. The art of education requires the objectivity of the physical sciences like biology, the social aspect 17 of the social sciences like psychology and sociology, and value considerations of the normative sciences like ethics and logic. In addition, it also needs practice in the process of teaching under actual educational circumstances.

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN HUMAN LIFE

Whatever is acquired in human life is the result of formal or informal education. When the child is born, he has no knowledge of his surroundings. Gradually he comes to recognize his environment by using his sense organs and by coming in contact with other people. Many ideas and habits he learns merely by observing others. But in no civilized society is it believed possible for an individual to be fit for adult life if he does not have some degree of formal education. For this reason, one finds arrangements for education everywhere. Not only in civilized societies, but even in primitive societies the adults try to educate adolescents in the ways of adult life. Among the tribals of India, this social education of the young girls and boys takes place at the dormitories. To put it briefly, the individual's character, personality, culture, thinking, commonsense, skills, habits and even the other less significant things of life depend upon education. The importance of education in human life is thus evident. This importance is further clarified if we look at the following functions of education: 1. Development of natural abilities. When child is born, he is already possessed of many kinds of natural abilities. As the body grows the mind also grows, but the innate abilities and qualities do not develop quite so naturally and without aid. It is often said that if the mind is not exercised its abilities cannot be developed. Hence, the first aim of education is to try to develop such abilities as power of imagination, of thinking, etc., by providing appropriate opportunities and stimuli. It is for this reason that, as a part of child education, one of the first steps is to put various kinds of instruments and apparatus before the child so that he can learn to use his sense organs. This is called education of senses. The child is also made to improve his power of thinking by presenting many different kinds of problems. His imagination is allowed to develop through the medium of various arts and skills. He is taught to concentrate 18 by using many kinds of techniques to attract his attention. The various methods of learning are brought to his notice by letting him do different kinds of work. He is also taught to make adequate use of the different parts of his body by various games and sports. Such basic requirements of life as eating, sleeping, sitting and walking, moving around, are taught to the child by the family itself. All these activities are part of the child's early education. 2. Character-building. Psychologists contend that the foundation of the child's character is laid in the first few years of his life. The impressions about behaviour and conduct that fall upon the infant's mind are later exhibited in the form of his character. The importance of character is hardly a subject to be discussed. It is developed by education, mainly informal education. Putting it differently, the infant's character is built up not so much by lectures and lessons as by the examples presented to him in the family, school, neighbourhood, group, etc. Character is the organisation of various sentiments. The focus of this organisation is the sentiment of self-regard. And it is upto the teacher and the child's parents to develop this sentiment of self-regard in the child. Once this is developed, the child can then move further on the road to selfdevelopment. Education is of particular significance in the development of a moral character because the child is not naturally endowed with the power of distinguishing between the right and the wrong. The difference between right and

wrong is taught by adults. Socialization is an important factor in the development of a moral character. This is aided by story-telling, setting good examples and providing education of social life. In fact, many educationists believe that the aim of education is to develop a moral character. As Herbart has expressed it, the development of a good moral character amounts to education. 3. Development of personality. The patterns of behaviour that a child chooses in his adjustment with the individuals and objects in his environment depend upon his personality. It is the development of personality which leads to a development of individuality, which is an inevitable characteristic of an educated individual. The informal development of the personality takes place through his family, neighbourhood, the conditions of work, etc., but educationists believe that one important 19 objective of education is to develop personality. Hence, the child is given opportunities of performing different kinds of work so that his personality may develop. Games play an important role in personality development. Child's personality achieves integration and strength in facing the many kinds of problems which make up a game. The social aspect of his personality is developed in the communal life of the school. Social customs, traditions, the forms of social control, cultural element, etc., also play an important part in developing the personality. It is for this reason that distinct differences can be seen in the personalities of individuals belonging to different cultures and societies. The first and most permanent influence upon the child's personality development is of the family. Such things as his order of birth in the family, his place among his brothers and sisters, the social and economic status of the family, the parents' behaviour towards the child, the mutual behaviour of the parents themselves, their profession etc., influence his personality. It is said that parental education plays a large part in building the personality of great men. Apart from this, the child's personality is influenced by many kinds of literature such as biographies of great men, stories, novels, essays, etc. It is believed that it is the duty of the teacher to prevent his wards from developing bad habits and also to see if the wards are developing balanced personalities. The teacher can take the assistance of the psychologist and also of the parents in ensuring a healthy development of personality. If the child does not develop a balanced personality, it can be said that his education is incomplete. 4. Preparation for adult life. Livelihood is believed to be the aim of education. Economic factors controlling life in the present day world have become so complex that no one who is not properly educated can hope to successfully earn his living. In the past, most people pursued agriculture, which does not demand such a high degree of specialization. For them education was not so essential. But the recent developments in science and the increasing specialization of all professions has made it impossible for one individual to perform any job without previous training and education. As a general rule, highly paid jobs require specialized training of a very high calibre. The ability to earn enough is not the only factor to be considered in the 20 preparation for adult life. Earning money is one of the aspects of adult life, another is marriage and children. Once this stage is reached, the individual has to face all the attendant responsibilities. Education aims at training the individual to earn his livelihood, to marry, to bring forth children, to fulfil his duties towards other individuals and society in general. In fact, if the child is helped to develop a balanced personality and a good character, there can be no better preparation for adult life. If education can perform this task, then men and women become highly responsible and useful citizens. 5. Control and sublimation of basic instincts. Every living being is born into the world possessed of certain basic instincts. There may be difference of opinion about the instincts that the child is born with, but there can be no doubt about the presence of some instincts. The child's mind is not a blank tablet on which anything can be written. Psychologists have demonstrated that not only does the human infant possess some instincts, but also that there are individual differences in respect of these instincts. If a human being lives alone, he can give expression to his instincts in any manner that he likes. But human beings live in groups, and hence it becomes necessary for them to control some instincts and to change the mode of expression of other instincts in such a manner that they do not injure other people. Besides, there are certain instincts which can be fulfilled only with the co-operation of another human being. Sex is one much instinct. Since, from the moral standpoint, the individuality and the humanity of every individual must be respected, it becomes necessary for people to control their instincts in all forms of communal life, such as marriage. Civilized life would become impossible if such instincts as aggressiveness and sex were not sublimated. Education helps in the control, sublimation and change of instincts. Various kinds of arts are used as a medium of sublimation. Education in social life helps the child to learn how to control his instincts. The same end is served through the system of reward and punishment found in the family, college or society at large. Rules of administration and the means of social control also help in this work. 6. Creation of useful citizens. Although many thinkers have dreamt of a society without government, in actual fact no such society exists. Individuals who have been deprived of their

21 citizenship or have never been granted this, make all kinds of efforts to get the citizenship of one nation or another. If they cannot obtain it, they have to face all kinds of difficulties. Hence, the relationship between the individual and the state is universal. In this relationship, the status of the individual is called the status of citizenship. Hence, it is desirable that the individual should be trained in behaving as a citizen so that he can fulfil his duties to the state. In the present age, this function of education is emphasized very much because most states themselves are responsible for providing education. In democratic systems, the public also plays a hand in guiding the educational system. But in Communist countries, the state has complete control of the educational system. Despite this, it is believed that education must provide capable citizens, because in the absence of such citizens the adjustment between the individual and the state would suffer. The thinkers of ancient Greece believed that this is the most important function of education. Nowadays almost all thinkers agree that true democracy in any country is possible only when almost all its citizens are properly educated. Education in responsible citizenship is also given through the medium of political parties, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, etc. 7. Development of a sense of community. The statement that man is a social animal means no more than that he lives in society. It does not imply that the human child is possessed of social qualities at birth. These social qualities are acquired and taught. One major objective of education, therefore, is the teaching of social qualities and development of a sense of community. This community feeling urges the child to co-operate with his fellows, to make sacrifices if they become necessary, to rise above the considerations of caste and creed and develop a sense of oneness with the nation, etc. The development of this feeling depends upon opportunities provided in family life, play groups and schools and colleges. For this reason educational institutions pay particular attention to this. The student is given the opportunity of collectively running the administration, of organising extracurricular programmes, of devising constructive programmes which help in developing this sense of community. This feeling is the basis of national unity. The efforts being made in India today to evolve an 22 emotional unity are in fact efforts to develop this feeling of community. 8. Protection and increase of culture and civilization. As compared to other animals, man has progressed more because human society has succeeded in protecting its knowledge and in conveying it to future generations. This has been done through the medium of culture and civilization. A child born in the present time does not think of everything from the beginning. His thinking and modes of behaviour are determined by customs, traditions and social institutions, which are repositories of the experience and thinking of his ancestors. For this reason, societies which have a more ancient culture show signs of greater organisation, systematization and greater stability. Hence, it is now universally accepted that culture and civilization should be protected and allowed to grow through new developments. This is mainly achieved through education. The child receives the social heritage in the form of education. Then, through education the child develops his own knowledge, character and personality thus becoming capable of contributing to the literary, cultural and social life of his society. In this manner he helps to maintain his own culture and to add to it. Developments in the arts, literature, the sciences, etc., are all the efforts of educated people. Their efforts are collected in the form of books and objects in libraries, museums, etc., and thus passed on as social heritage to the coming generations. For this reason many contemporary thinkers in India have suggested that teaching of Indian culture should be made compulsory in all universities. 9. Encouragement to social welfare. Both formal and informal education helps the individual to evolve a critical attitude which helps him to analyse everything presented to him. If he finds any faults in it, he exercises his mind to find some ways of removing the faults. In this manner education has been the basis of all social welfare programmes. When English education was introduced in India, it brought along with it the Western tendencies of individualism, rationalism, etc. As a consequence all educated people in the country were impelled to re-examine ancient Indian traditions and institutions. This led to the development of such institutions as the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Theosophical Society etc. Each one aimed at social welfare. And the inspiration for each of these 23 institutions came from highly educated individuals. Education thus leads to a continuous analysis of the various constituents of society, its institutions, modes of social control, etc., and inspires efforts to make improvements where they are needed. 10. National development. The overall development of all national groups is essential for the development and progress of human society, but this is not possible without universal education. It is for this reason that the U.N.O. is making efforts to provide education to the backward countries. In every country, efforts are made to develop a sense of belonging among its citizens, the sense of nationality. It helps to induce the individual to do his best for the nation. Besides, almost every

nation has its own plan of national education which seeks to fulfil the aims of that nation. 11. Use of leisure. One of the main aims of education is to teach an individual to make the best use of leisure. Using leisure time in educational activities is itself useful. On the other hand, education itself guides the individual to utilize his leisure time properly. Educated people can use their leisure time effectively by devoting themselves to magazines, arts, etc. Even the standard of their normal conversation, discussions, etc., is higher than that of the uneducated person. Education helps to develop various kinds of interests so that leisure itself does not become a burden. 12. Increasing consciousness of other cultures. In countries in which many different cultural groups coexist, education helps to increase consciousness of these other cultures and of cultural exchange. This helps individuals to understand each other, thus increasing national unity. There are many different cultures in the world today. As long as education cannot create a feeling of co-operation and of mutual love, the ideal of a unified world cannot be realized. 13. Improving emotional unity. At the present time, many disintegrating forces such as regionalism, casteism, communalism, linguism, etc., are working towards a complete disintegration of the country. If the nation is to be saved from complete fragmentation, it is necessary to generate a sense of emotional unity in all men and women: Then individuals can be expected to feel that they are members of the same nation and to behave in the interests of the nation. Education can help to create this 24 emotional unity. Many educationists have given valuable suggestions for achieving this. 14. Developing an international feeling. As a result of the unprecedented improvements in the means of transport and communications, people of different nations are constantly coming into contact with each other. All kinds of people are also realizing the importance of internationalism, after having witnessed the havoc caused by the two recent world wars. All contemporary educationists in India, including Sri Aurobindo, Rabindra Nath, Vivekananda, have stressed the importance of creating this feeling of internationalism in all educands. In the present context, therefore, one of the main tasks of education is to generate this sense in the student community. From the foregoing description of the functions of education in human life, it is evident that the functions of education are the same as its objectives. To put it differently, the objectives which have been assigned to education by various thinkers are the tasks it has to do. It need hardly be stressed that the functions of education change when ideals governing it undergo changes. Nevertheless, the fundamental elements of human life are the same today as they were in Plato's and Aristotle's times. Hence, such aims of education as character building, development of personality, social welfare, proper use of leisure, protection of culture and civilization, development of community feeling, creating able citizens, preparation for adult life, development of innate qualities, etc., are permanent objectives which will remain the same in future also.

References
1. Plato, Protagoras, Jowett, 325. 2. Plato, The Laws, Jowett, 644. 3. Plato, The Republic, Jowett, 416. 4. Plato, The Laws, Jowett, 653. 5. Robert R. Rusk, The Philosophical Bases of Education, p. 154. 6. Froebel's Chief Educational Writings on Education, Translated by Dr. Fletcher, p. 32. 7. Rousseau, J.J., Emile, p. 151. 8. Huxley, A., Proper Studies, Chatto and Windus, London (1928), p. 136. 9. Altekar, A.S., Education in Ancient India, p. 8. 25 10. Vivekananda, Collected Works, Volume V, p. 161. 11. Sri Aurobindo, Essays on the Gita, Arya Publishing House, Cal. (1949), p. 319.

12. Gandhi, M.K., Harijan, 31-7-37. 13. Sri Aurobindo and the Mother on Education, Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry (First edition 1972), p. 59. 14. Plato, The Republic, Jowett, p. 518. 15. Sri Aurobindo, A System of National Education, p. 5. 16. Sri Aurobindo, The Synthesis of Yoga, New York, 1950, p. 2. 17. Sri Aurobindo, A System of National Education, p. 1. 18. Gandhi, M.K., Harijan, 27-5-39. 19. Sri Aurobindo, Birth Centenary Library, Vol. 15, 1971, p. 605. 20. Huxley, A., Ends and Means, p. 220. 21. Sri Aurobindo, The Supramental Manifestation, Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry (1952), p. 8.

Questions for Exercise

1. Give the meaning of Education in West and East and attempt a synthetic definition. 2. Discuss whether education is an art or a science. 3. Explain the functions of education in human life. 26

2 Introduction to Philosophy
To define a concept is to fix its bounds or limits, to determine with precision, to describe accurately or to fix the meaning of it. Thus definition is an explanation of the exact meaning of the concept. The most universal concepts of human reason, however, are the most undefinable and yet human thought, in its urge for more and more clarification, always stands in need of defining them. The philosopher has constantly to reflect on these concepts till they are matured enough to interpret the Reality corresponding to them, with the utmost approximation.1 Besides logical analysis, such a reflection is based on the meaning of the concept which, in its turn, is related to the experience to which it corresponds. Thus, in the ultimate analysis, to define any concept the Philosopher must proceed with the double process of logical analysis of the concept and critical reflection on the experience for which it stands. The philosopher in his synoptic vision would only point out the broad and general characteristic of a particular concept. Obviously, a definition of philosophy would not define this or that philosophy but philosophy in general. In this chapter, we have tried to arrive at a clarification of the concept of philosophy, its problems, attitude, aspects, nature, scope and value. To achieve this purpose, we are proceeding with a twofold process of logical analysis of the concept and a critical survey of the historical treatment of the subject. As a general rule, the history of philosophy is a collection of the reasoned interpretations of the experiences of the individuals representing different aspects of Truth. Hence, what is desirable is not a destructive criticism of other approaches, but the 27 assessment of their values in the light of the whole and to find in it a reasonable place for each of them.

HISTORICAL REVIEW
Aristotle devised Metaphysics to be studied after physics. Thus etymologically speaking, Metaphysics means "afterphysics". It is the last science, the science of sciences. It is also the first science, the mother of all sciences. He also calls it the science of being though such a science is impossible since science deals only with processes of phenomena. Philosophy deals with Being as much as with Becoming. Thus it includes sciences within its ken. Man experiences eternity as well as change. Philosophy as an explanation of the total experience of man seeks the integral truth. The rationalists, in the early dawn of Modern Philosophy, defined metaphysics as a knowledge deduced from self-evident

principles. This attempt at rationalisation or mathematisation of philosophy sought to make it more exact. But metaphysics with thought as its instrument, should never dream of being exact like mathematics since thought, though real, cannot be identified with Reality. To be inexact is both a weakness as well as the strength of metaphysics. The philosopher is a lover of knowledge and never a sole possessor of it. The complete comprehension of Infinite by Finite, is a logical impossibility and yet the destiny of man lies in progressing for an ever near approximation to it. Human thought which always bifurcates Reality in to form and essence, subject and object, "that" and "what" can never truly represent the Reality which is an all inclusive spiritual unity. Philosophy is not a matter of logico-mathematical deduction or inducion.1 The laws of Geometry are not applicable to Metaphysics any more than they are applicable to Chemistry or Physiology. Every new field of experience has its own laws. Philosophy, the moment it losses touch with immediate experience of Reality, forgets its way in the wilderness of human ratiocinations which lead us nowhere.2 The necessity of basing philosophy an experience was loudly proclaimed by the opposite school of empiricists represented by Locke, Barkeley and Hume. Locke pointed out that for its 28 content the form and instrument of metaphysics is dependent on experience. This was a great corrective to rationalistic extreme and yet by confining metaphysics to mere sense experience, the empiricists shifted the balance in the opposite direction which led to the negation of all metaphysics. This is obvious, since if sense experience is the only experience, philosophy is a mere wild goose chase. To be itself, philosophy should widen its field to include all types of experience, religious, moral, scientific, spiritual, etc. Hume defined the supermacy of Reason. But if reason is a slave to passion, the refutation of reason, being itself a ratiocination, stands self-condemned. All refutations of reason are subject to hysteronproteron. Hume's "criticism of rationalism and reductio ad absurdum of empiricism" however, gives a lesson which philosophy should not forget. Reason is its surest instrument but to get its data, it should rely on experience. Kant combines the Beconian idea of the extension of knowledge with the Cartesian idea of certainty. But he also fights shy of all metaphysics in the ultimate sense. Only the metaphysics of Nature and metaphysics of Knowledge is possible. Thus, it was left to Hegel to revive in full vigour the ultimate status of philosophy. The object of philosophy, according to him, is to search out the concept, the purpose, the significance of phenomena and to assign to these their corresponding positions in the world and in the system of knowledge. It systematises the values in a unified whole. Here, for the first time, we find a true view of Philosophy as a systematisation of values and facts. But, by the identification of Nature with Logic. Hegel arrives at an intellectualism which led Bradley to assert with a vengeance. "Metaphysics is the finding of bad reasons for what we believe on instinct."3 This curt remark is a timely warning to all those who attempt at reduction to Reality of mere thought but the rejection of all metaphysical speculation as bad reasons appears to be too sweeping. The intellect is not rejected in Spirit but transformed into a better instrument to receive the truth. Bergson's approach here seems to be more balanced than that of Bradley. Philosophy, according to him, must take into account not only sensory but also mental and intuitive experiences. It must be based on Real experience.4 Bergson shows 29 a true insight into the problem when he points out that the difference between various schools of philosophy is because of their fragmentary glimpse of Reality, supplemented by different kinds of intellectual interpretation and elaboration. He suggests that by mutual comparison and elimination of peculiarities, philosophers may grasp the universal character of basic Reality.5 Again, philosophy according to Bergson "does not only facilitate speculation; it gives us also more power to act and live. For with it we feel ourselves no longer isolated in humanity, humanity no longer seems isolated in the Nature that it dominates."5 Finally, Bergson is an anti-intellectualist only when by intellect he means the faculty in its usual capacity in practical life, intellect working on data supplied by sense-perception. Otherwise, the intellect may co-operate with intuition by assembling the data of intuition and forming fluid concepts.7 Intuition and Reason are equally indispensable instruments of Philosophy.8 Contemporary thought witnesses a chaos in the field of Metaphysics. All sorts of arguments have been advanced to support widely divergent views of Reality. All kinds of reactions are raising head under high sounding names of 'isms.' All types of methods have been put to test. The purpose of Nature beneath all this burning cauldron of ideologies, however, seems to be the manifestation of an integral philosophy which may reconcile all and transcend all, and rouse itself from its dogmatic slumber. A true philosophy is an esprite de ensemble, a synoptic vision of Reality. It is the intellectual search for the fundamental truth of things. It is generally agreed by all that philosophy must be based on experience but as we have already seen, often the term

experience has been limited to certain specific regions. The root fallacy underlying all the conflicting schools of philosophy is a shift from the centre to periphery, an exaltation of part as whole, a dogmatic denial of everything beyond the limited ken of intellect and finally, an unwarranted application of the logic of finite to the matters of the Infinite. "The work of philosophy" as Sri Aurobindo rightly points out, "is to arrange the data given by the various means of knowledge, excluding none, and put them into synthetic relation to the one truth, the one supreme and universal reality."9 Philosophy should be all 30 comprehensive, affirmative, synthetic and spiritual. Philosophy, meaning love of wisdom (philos=love, Sophia=wisdom) should be distinguished from mere opinion. Knowledge, as the Indians conceived it, is the knowledge of that by knowing which everything else can be known.10 Thus philosophy is the knowledge of Ultimate Reality. But Ultimate Reality, as Indian philosophy truly maintains, is not only Existence but also Consciousness and Bliss. Hence, philosophy, as the quest after ultimate truth, is science of value par excellence.11 It should not only criticise facts but also satisfy, religion and science. To quote Sri Aurobindo, "It should be a discovery of the real reality of things by which human existence can learn its law and aim and the principle of its perfection."12 Definition of Philosophy A beginner in philosophy is perturbed to find that different philosophers have given different definitions of philosophy. While some philosophers have laid emphasis on psychological facts, others have given more importance to values. According to John Dewey, "Whenever philosophy has been taken seriously, it has always been assumed that it signified achieving a wisdom that would influence the conduct of life."13 On the other hand, according to Windelband, philosophy is "... the critical science of universal values." While there is much difference in Indian and Western definitions of philosophy, one finds widely different definitions presented by Western philosophers also. Of these definitions some emphasize the critical aspect of philosophy while others lay emphasis upon its synthetic aspect. Some examples of these two types of definitions of philosophy are as follows: (a) Philosophy is a critical method of approaching experience. Examples of this type of definitions are as follows: 1. Edgar S. Brightman. "Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method of approaching experience rather than a body of conclusions about experience."14 2. Clifford Barrat. "It is not the specific content of these conclusions, but the spirit and method by which they are reached, which entitles them to be described as philosophical. . . ."15 31 3. C.J. Ducasse. "Were I limited to one line for my answer to it, I should say that philosophy is a general theory of criticism."16 (b) Philosophy is comprehensive synthetic science. The following definitions of philosophy emphasize its synthetic aspect: 1. Joseph A. Leighton. "Philosophy like science, consists of theories of insights arrived at as a result of systematic reflection."17 2. Herbert Spencer. "Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science." 3. Roy Wood Sellars. "Our subject is a collection of sciences, such as theory of knowledge, logic, cosmology, ethics and aesthetics, as well as a unified survey."18 The above mentioned definitions of philosophy show that while some philosophers have mainly emphasised critical philosophy, others have defined it as a synthetic discipline. In fact both these viewpoints are one-sided because philosophy is both critical as well as synthetic. Literally speaking, the word 'philosophy' involves two Greek words'Philo' meaning love and 'Sophia' meaning knowledge. Thus literally speaking, philosophy means love of wisdom. It should be noted here that the definition of philosophy is different from the sense in which the word "Darshan" has been taken in India. The literal meaning of philosophy shows that the philosopher is constantly and everywhere engaged in the search for truth. He does not bother so much to arrive at final conclusions and continues with his search for truth throughout his life. His aim is the pursuit oi truth rather than its possession. Those who enjoy journey do not care so much about the destination, neither are they perturbed when the destination is lost in sight in spite of continued long journey. In an effort to define philosophy, one arrives at the difficulty that there is no genus in this case and also no differentia. In

defining a science one points out to the genus science and also to the particular area of the particular science which differentiates it from others. This is however, not possible in the case of philosophy because philosophy is one and not many Hence in order to arrive at the meaning of philosophy you 32 will have to discuss its problems, attitude, method, process, conclusions and results. In brief, philosophy is a philosophical process of solving some characteristic problems through characteristic methods, from n characteristic attitude and arriving at characteristic conclusions and results. Some might find this definition very vague and inadequate. But while defining science, do we not say that science is scienteing or that it is method and can we understand this definition of science without understanding scientific method? When science cannot be understood without knowing scientific method, how can we hope to understand philosophy without knowing philosophical method? Again, in understanding the definition of science we are required to understand not only scientific method but also scientific attitude, scientific process, scientific problems and scientific conclusions because all these together form a science. Therefore, what is vague and inadequate if we say that in order to understand philosophy one must understand the attitude, problems, activity, conclusions and results peculiar to it? This will also clarify the distinction between philosophy and science which has been forgotten by many philosophers. 1. Philosophical Problems. Each branch of knowledge gives rise to certain peculiar problems. In the early human life on this planet when man was struck with wonder at the natural phenomenon or when he found complex and conflicting phenomena in life and was filled with discontentment at the existing order of things, it was the beginning of philosophy. While the philosophy of Vedas began in wonder, the philosophy of Gautam Buddha began in dicontentment with the miserable world. In the West the early beginning of philosophy was in wonder while the modern Western philosophy had its origin in doubt. In the words of Patrick, "Although philosophy among the ancients began in wonder, in modern times it usually begins in doubt."19 This wonder and doubt gave rise to several types of problems. A general characteristic of these problems was that they were concerned with general and universal questions and not with the questions of particular nature. In this sense the philosophical problems are different from scientific problems which have their origin in particular questions. Some examples of philosophical problems are: What is knowledge? What is world? Who has 33 created the world? Is there a God? Who am I? What is the aim of my life? Why should I live? What is the purpose of the world? etc. In fact, a description of all the philosophical problems will almost form a book. Hence for our present purpose it is sufficient to say that philosophical problems are those which arise in the field of philosophy. Now, what is the field of philosophy? The philosophical field includes epistemology, logic, philosophy of science, semantics, metaphysics, axiology, philosophy of religion, social philosophy, political philosophy, philosophy of history, philosophy of education, etc. In brief, the field of philosophy includes all knowledge but the philosopher raises questions of general nature only. For example, about the beautiful things his question will be what is beauty? Some philosophers have divided philosophical problems into the following three classes.20 (a) Concerning knowledge and experience. These include problems of epistemology, philosophy of science, semantics etc. (b) Concerning knowledge and experience. This class includes problems of metaphysics, ontology etc. (c) Concerning values. These include problems of axiology, aesthetics, ethics, social philosophy, philosophy of religion, political philosophy, philosophy of education, economic philosophy, philosophy of history etc. In the above mentioned classification of philosophical problems it should be noted that problems of different fields of philosophy cannot be absolutely isolated from each other because in fact philosophical problems are not so much problems of a particular field as problems of a particular type. In other words, as opposed to the particular problems of science, they are general problems. Philosophical problems can be viewed from two aspectscritical and synthetic. In the critical aspect the problem of philosophy is to critically examine the postulates and conclusions of different sciences. In the synthetic aspect, its problem is to present a complete world-view based on the conclusions of sciences. Thus, in brief, philosophy is a totality of some peculiar problems of which some are problems philosophical sciences while others are problems of criticism and synthesis of the postulates and conclusions of different sciences. 34 2. Philosophical Attitude. Philosophical attitude begins in wonder or doubt. It is critical, reflective, tolerant, detached,

continually progressive, directed by experience and reasoning and devoid of hurry in arriving at conclusions. 3. Philosophical Method. The philosophical method is not exclusively employed by philosophers only. Every man some time or the other, utilizes philosophical method in his thinking on philosophical problems. However, the philosophical method is mainly utilized by the philosopher. Secondly, the philosophical method is not absolutely different from scientific method. As has been already pointed out, philosophical problems have much in common with the scientific problems. It goes without saying that in solving its problems concerning science, the philosopher utilizes the same methods of induction and deduction as used by a scientist. Thus, in the understanding of the philosophical method, these two methods must be discussed: (i) Induction. The principles of different sciences are arrived at by means of inductive process. For examples, in psychiatry, some general principles concerning mental diseases are discovered by observation of the behaviour of mental patients, its recording, its analysis, classification and finally generalization to arrive at certain common principle. This is the method of induction. The philosopher does not act on the facts like the scientist. He has no laboratory work to do. He utilizes concepts and propounds new theories, e.g., materialism, idealism etc. And then he tries to explain his experiences satisfactorily on the basis of these theories. As in science so in philosophy a theory is acknowledged to the extent it satisfactorily explains experience, otherwise it is substituted by another theory which is more successful for this purpose. The cure of bad philosophy is not the negation of all philosophy but the affirmation of a better philosophy. The failure of a particular philosophical theory does not mean the failure of philosophy itself because very soon a better philosophical theory substituted the earlier and this process goes on ad infinitum. The process to arrive at a general proposition by means of several particular propositions is known as the inductive process and it 35 is equally found in philosophical as well as scientific thinking. (ii) Deduction. Deduction is the process to arrive at certain particular propositions from a general proposition. For example: All men are mortal, Socrates is a man, therefore, Socrates is mortal. Deductions like this arc occasionally made in philosophical thinking. Besides the two above mentioned methods, philosophical thinking involves another method peculiar to it, known as dialectical method. (iii) Dialectical method. This is a natural method of philosophical thinking. It is a commonplace experience that when we think over a problem we arrive at certain positive facts. This is thesis. Now, after some time we come to know some facts which are contradictory to the thesis; this is antithesis. Now these thesis and antithesis cannot live together for long and hence they are synthesised into a synthesis. This synthesis, arrived through antithesis, is more comprehensive than the original thesis. Thus knowledge grows in a dialectical process through thesis, antithesis and synthesis. To illustrate, in the beginning a philosopher takes the world to be true as it is. As he progresses in the knowledge and experience he finds that the world is untrue. When he proceeds further in the realm of knowledge and experience he finds that the world is neither true nor untrue but both. Thus philosophical thinking proceeds from thesis, antithesis to synthesis. In fact, the dialectical process is the thinking of thought. In it the man rethinks over his earlier thought and discovers hitherto known facts. While searching for the solution of his problems the philosopher utilizes two methods with regards to his experience, analysis and synthesis. While some philosophers have exclusively emphasized the value of philosophical thinking others have absolutely denied its value. It goes without saying that these two extremist views are equally one-sided. 36 (iv) Analysis. Analysis means the process of distinction between different elements involved in a particular state of experience so that they might be more clear. Realist philosophers have emphasised this procedure while absolutists have advanced arguments against it. (v) Synthesis. This process involves connecting together the scattered elements in a particular experience which brings into light new patterns and facts. The Idealist philosophers have laid emphasis on synthesis. But, as has been already pointed out, philosophical thinking requires both analysis and synthesis. Analysis, therefore, cannot be banished from the field of philosophy, though it might be useless in certain conditions.21 The contemporary school of Logical Positivism has taken analysis as the sole method in philosophy. Though the method of logical analysis solves many intricate problems in philosophy it does not negate the value of synthesis. Thus philosophical method is multisided. Though the philosophers have sometimes emphasized this or that method exclusively, yet all the above mentioned methods have been found to be useful in philosophical thinking.

4. Philosophical ActivityOnce an eminent psychologist was asked what is psychology? To this, he replied: psychology is what the psychologists do. Similarly, we can say, philosophy is philosophising, Philosophising involves thinking, criticism and the process of solving the philosophical problems through different philosophical methods. Philosophical activity begins in a state of wonder, discontentment and doubt. In it the philosopher thinks over his own experience. This thinking is critical and the attitude is philosophical. In brief, philosophical thinking has the following characteristics: (i) Philosophical thinking is gradually matured with the increase in knowledge and experience. (ii) Philosophical thinking is concerned with philosophical problems. (iii) Philosophical thinking utilizes philosophical methods and philosophical attitude. (iv) Philosophical thinking is done in individual and group situation, alone and together with others. 37 (v) Philosophical thinking is comprehensive while nonphilosophical thinking is one-sided. In the end, the real nature of philosophical thinking can be known only after one himself takes recourse to it. The above mentioned discussion only points out its chief characteristics. 5. Philosophical Effects. Different types of knowledge affect the individual and group differently. This effect of philosophy is as following: (i) Effect on the Philosopher. The effect of philosophy can be seen in the life of the philosopher, in his expectations and aspirations, in his aim of life, in his bent of mind and in his different activities. (ii) Effect on Group-Life. The effect of philosophy is seen not only in the life of the individual but also in group-life. The influence of democratic philosophy can be seen in the democratic societies of the world. (iii) Effect on Civilization and Culture. In any time and place contemporary philosophical trends express the process of thinking in contemporary culture. Philosophical changes are the expressions of cultural changes. A comparison of the history of philosophy with the history of culture will prove this fact. 6. Philosophical Conclusions. It has been said regarding philosophical conclusions that while a philosopher raises questions he does not answer them. Ordinarily, philosophical conclusions are the conclusions arrived at by the philosophers regarding philosophical problems where a question arises as to who is the philosopher. In answer to this question one may point out to the names of hundreds of thinkers who have presented widely different and mutually contradictory conclusions. A beginner in philosophy is very much perturbed to see this difference of opinion. He fails to understand as to which are the philosophical conclusions and which are non-philosophical. Another definition of philosophical conclusions may be given by calling them the conclusions of philosophical problems. Here it is difficult to prepare a final list of philosophical problems and even those which are quite well-known have been solved in so may different ways that no definite conclusions can be derived. 38 A non-philosophical person may raise a question as to why philosophers so much disagree regarding the conclusions of philosophical problems. Will the philosophical thinking always be unconcluded? Can all the philosophical conclusions not arrive at any final truths? Now, while we find differences in the views of different philosophers we also notice that the same philosopher presents widely different views at different times. But this is not the case with the philosophers alone. As William E. Hocking has said, "Everybody has a philosophy and the differences between man and man are chiefly philosophical differences. I will say more than that; the difference between a man and himself is a philosophical difference by which I mean that people frequently fall into a philosophy which does not belong to them, and leads them away from themselves because they borrow a philosophy from somebody else.22 The truths of this statement can be ascertained by any one who looks to his own experience and thinking. In fact the diversity of philosophical conclusions is not a weakness of philosophy. Different philosophers have thought over philosophical problems from different perspectives and however wide, integral and comprehensive a perspective might be, it always remains one-sided. The philosophical conclusions, therefore, are workable and limited. As the philosopher develops in his thinking, his philosophical conclusions are also modified and even changed. This does not mean that he is changing his position but only that he is visualizing new truths, which show the one-sidedness and limitations of the truths known earlier. In fact the philosophical aim is never completely achieved nor is the philosophical curiosity ever completely satisfied because if this is done then philosophical thinking will stop. Actually speaking, the aim

of the philosopher is not so much to arrive at certain final conclusions regarding the philosophical problems as to sustain philosophical thinking. His efforts should not be evaluated on the basis of definite conclusions but by his philosophical insight, maturity and constant thinking. To Glaucon who asked, "who are the true philosophers?" Socrates replied, "those who are lovers of the vision of truth."23 The above discussion regarding philosophical conclusions shows that the main function of the philosopher is to raise philosophical questions and constantly think over them through 39 philosophical methods and from philosophical standpoint. Hence, it cannot be said that philosophy raises certain questions and leaves them unanswered. If by leaving a question unanswered we mean the absence of any final answer to it then this is the case with the philosopher and this has been already discussed. But if leaving a question unanswered means absence of any efforts to solve it, it does not apply in the case of the philosopher. Thus it goes without saying that the philosopher raises certain questions, meditates upon them through philosophical methods and tries to arrive at certain conclusions but does not take them as final and therefore continues with his philosophical reflections.

NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
Whenever it is asked regarding a science as to what is its nature, it is said that it is scientific. Thus, the nature of psychology, sociology, economics, political science and other social sciences is scientific. Similarly, if it is asked that what is the nature of philosophy a natural answer will be that it is philosophical. In order to understand the scientific nature of a science we have to understand scientific method, scientific attitude, scientific problems and scientific activities. Similarly, in order to explain that the nature of philosophy is philosophical, we will have to explain the philosophical problems, philosophical attitude and philosophical activities etc. Philosophical problems are the general problems of different philosophical sciences. In its critical and synthetic aspects, the problems of philosophy are the examination and synthesis of the postulates and conclusions of different sciences. Philosophical attitude is reflective, curious, tolerant, guided by experience and reasoning and a persistent effort to reach the truth though never in a hurry to arrive at final conclusions. Philosophical methods include induction, deduction, analysis, synthesis and dialectical method. Philosophical activity begins in wonder, curiosity and discontentment at the existing order of things. This activity may be individual as well as social, alone as well as in group. The aim of this activity is to present a total world-view. Different philosophers arrive at different conclusions through philosophical methods. However different these conclusions might be, they 40 are different from scientific conclusions as a class by the very virtue of the fact that they are philosophical. The philosophical nature of philosophy shows the effect on the individual, group and community. In brief, the philosophical problems, philosophical attitude, philosophical method, philosophical activity, philosophical conclusions and their effect on the individual and society show that the nature of philosophy is philosophical. It follows that when we say that the nature of philosophy is philosophical we mean all these problems, methods, attitude, activity, conclusions and effects characteristic of philosophy.

PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophical Problems are General Problems Different types of questions give rise to the problems of different sciences. For example, if it is asked whether two and two make four, it is a problem for mathematics. If it is asked that in which year Akbar the Great ruled India, it is a problem for the historian. If it is asked as to what different types of climate are found in India, it is a question for geography. Similarly, the political, economic and social problems fall within the scope of political science, economics and sociology, respectively. The philosopher is not concerned with these particular problems. But, does it mean that his problems are entirely unconnected with the problems of different sciences? No, in the different problems mentioned above, the questions of general nature will fall within the scope of philosophy. For example, questions like: What is space? What is time? What is beauty? What is right? What is good? What is knowledge? are philosophical problems. Thus, it is clear that philosophical problems are concerned with general questions rather than with questions of particular nature. Types of Philosophical Problems Philosophical problems are mainly of two types. On the one hand, there are problems of those studies which are known as philosophical sciences. These include Epistemology, Logic,

41 philosophy of science, Metaphysics, Axiology, Aesthetics, Philosophy of Religion etc. On the other hand are the problems which fall within the field of philosophy as a universal science. Both these types of philosophical problems will now be discussed in sequence. Problems of Philosophical Sciences As has been already pointed out, philosophical problems include problems of the sciences which are different from physical sciences in spite of bearing the name science. The main distinction between philosophical sciences and the physical sciences is that the former raise more fundamental and basic questions as compared to the latter. For example: Aesthetics is not so much concerned with the distinctions between beautiful and ugly objects as with the fundamental question about the nature of beauty and art. What is beauty? What is art? Does art lie in the artist or in his artistic expression? Similarly, other philosophical sciences raise fundamental problems in their own field. Broadly, the main problems of philosophical sciences are as follows: 1. Metaphysical Problems. Metaphysics is the science of existence or reality. Its main problems are: What is Reality? Is the world one or many? What are the fundamental characteristics of creation? What is space? What is time? What is matter? What is relation? What is cause and effect? What is the purpose of creation? Is the world progressing? Is there a God? Is change real or unreal? In brief, metaphysics discusses the three aspects of Reality viz. the world, the self, and the God. Some thinkers fail to distinguish between metaphysics and philosophy. Metaphysics is a main branch of philosophy. Thus, philosophy includes many other branches covering widely different fields than metaphysics. When a student of philosophy studies the philosophical thought of any philosopher, he has to study not only his thoughts about metaphysical problems but also about the problems falling within the field of logic, ethics, religion and epistemology etc. However, it can be said that metaphysical problems constitute the central problems of philosophy. 2. Epistemological Problems. Epistemology is the science of knowledge and truth. Its problems are the fundamental problems 42 of the process of knowledge. Is it not strange that though so many thinkers are busy in the acquisition of knowledge, not many think over the general questions concerning the nature of knowledge, its limits and the relation of knower with the known? These questions are raised in epistemology. Therefore, epistemology provides the back foundation of knowledge. For example, an epistemological problem is concerning the question whether one knows the object outside him or only the content of his mind. Epistemology critically examines different methods to achieve different types of knowledge. Philosophers have discussed such problems since time immemorial and conclusions of philosophers like Immanual Kant of Germany have proved to be epoch-making. 3. Logical Problems. Logic is the science of methods of thought and the implication of judgment. It studies the structure of thought, its laws and fallacies. What is thought? What is its relation with Nature? How does mind solve a problem? What are the natural methods of thinking? What is definition, hypothesis, division, explanation etc.? How can we arrive at the meanings of a proposition? All these are the problems falling within the scope of logic. Thus, like epistemology, logic also provides fundamental basis is the science of correct or valid thinking. 4. Problems of Semantics. Semantics is the science of the meaning of words. It is concerned with the question about the relation of words and objects. In other words, it is a science of meaning of language. In it the different words, symbols, signs, etc., are analysed and their meanings fixed. It goes without saying that like epistemology and logic, semantics is also a basic science in the achievement of knowledge. Logical positivism, a contemporary school of philosophy, admits semantical problems as constituting the basic problems of philosophy. 5. Philosophy of Science. As has been already pointed out, philosophy is intimately connected with sciences and discusses their problems of general nature. For example, all the sciences believe in the postulate of causality. The philosophy of science critically discusses the concept of causality and finds out its truth and limitations. The philosophy of science also critically examines different scientific methods used in different sciences and finds out conditions in which they are valid. The philosophy of science is mainly concerned with developing a world-view 43 based on the conclusions of different sciences. Hence, in the modern times, the problems of the philosophy of science are considered to be very important. Even the philosophers who do not admit any value of philosophy in modern times, consider the function of philosophy of science to be very much valuable.

6. Axiological Problems. Philosophy is very much concerned with value. Axiology is the science of value. It discusses value from the philosophical point of view. Its main problems are: What is value? What are the fundamental values? What is good? What is beauty? What is art etc. Without discussing these fundamental problems regarding values, we cannot solve many problems concerning values in our every day life. The philosopher synthesizes the facts with values in his Weltanschauung. While the philosophy of science discusses facts, the discussion of values falls within the scope of axiology. 7. Problems of Aesthetics. Aesthetics is the philosophical study of beauty. Art creates beauty. Hence, the nature of art is an aesthetic problem. This, in its turn, raises many questions such as: Does art lie in the artist or in his creation of art? Is there beauty in music, drama, picture, statue, dance, woman or is it in our mind? The artist creates beauty, then is it in the content of his mind? What are basic characteristics of art? What are the criteria of judging beauty and art? All these are problems falling within the field of aesthetics. 8. Ethical Problems. Ethics is the science of good, the right and wrong. Its main problems are: What is right? What is wrong? What is good? What is conscience? What is responsibility? What are rights and duties and what is their interrelation? What is justice and how it can be attained? Thus, ethics discusses the ultimate good and explains rights and duties in its light. 9. Problems of Philosophy of Religion. Philosophy of religion, as is clear by the title, raises philosophical problems in the field of religion. For example: Is there a common element in different religions? What are the fundamental elements of religion? What is the relation of religion with ethics? How far is religion based on Reality? What is God? Is God one or many? 10. Problems of Social Sciences. While philosophy of science discusses problems of physical sciences, different branches of philosophy have been developed for discussing different problems of social sciences. The important among these social sciences 44 are education, sociology, economics, political science, history etc. Philosophy discusses the philosophical questions arising in these social sciences. This has given rise to different special branches of philosophy e.g. philosophy of education, social philosophy, economic philosophy, political philosophy, philosophy of history, etc. These philosophical disciplines based on social sciences raise general and fundamental problems in their field. For example, philosophy of education raises the fundamental question about the aim of education. Political philosophy discusses the nature of state and government, their rights and duties and their limitations. Social philosophy discusses the philosophical questions in the social relationship. Economic philosophy raises questions of fundamental importance in the fields of production, consumption and exchange. Philosophy of history examines the nature of historical and cultural processes and finds out their places in the total cosmic process. Besides problems of the special branches of philosophy, there are some other philosophical problems concerning matters of social importance, for example, the philosophical basis of marriage, family, physical development and even of dress. Problems of Philosophy as a Comprehensive Science As has been already pointed out, philosophy also acts as a comprehensive science. In this aspect, its important problems are as follows: 1. Criticism of different sciences. This philosophical problem is twofold (a) criticism of the basic postulates of different sciences, (b) criticism of the conclusions of different sciences. The critical analysis of the law of causality is an example of a problem of first type. A problem regarding the conclusions of different sciences arises in the form of the question whether man is determined by his circumstances or whether he is free. While psychology, biology and other social sciences conclude that man is determined by his circumstances and is bound to act according to them, jurisprudence, ethics and religion consider him free to act according to his will. Whether man is determined or free, this is an important question because it is closely 45 connected with the concept of responsibility. A man can be held responsible for his acts before law only when he is free to choose among several alternatives. It is only then that his act can be considered to be wrong or unlawful and

punishable. If a man is determined by his circumstances, the responsibility for his acts lies not on him but on his circumstances and he cannot be punished for what he has done. As different sciences have presented different conclusions regarding the question of man's freedom in his circumstances, this problem cannot be solved by sciences alone. On the other hand, different sciences present mutually conflicting conclusions on this issue. Such problems arising from the conflict in the conclusions of different sciences are philosophical problems. They are also considered philosophical because they are concerned not with any one particular science but fall within the field of several sciences and because each scientist in confined within his own limited field, no scientist can solve such problems. They are, therefore, left for the philosopher. 2. Synthesis of different sciences. According to A.N. Whitehead, "Philosophy is not one among the sciences with its own little scheme of abstractions which it works away at perfecting and improving. It is the survey of sciences, with the special object of their harmony and of their completion."24 Thus, the problem of philosophy, as a comprehensive science, is to weld the conclusions of different sciences into a world-view. Without this the conclusions of different sciences will remain scattered and cannot present a complete picture. Thus man cannot arrive at a total world-view without the help of philosophy. A world-view based on science alone will be one-sided, inadequate and deformed. The synthetic function of philosophy can be understood by the example of an elephant and several blind men, each blind man touches some part of the elephant's body and takes it to be the whole animal because he does not know other parts of its body. The total picture of the elephant's body can be clear to a person who has eyes to see. The blind men will only form a distorted picture of the elephant. Similar is the case with scientists regarding the nature of the world. Each scientist presents a picture of the world according to the conclusions arrived at in his own field. Thus, different scientists interpret the world differently. While for the biologists the world 46 is moved by biological laws, the psychologists lay more emphasis on psychological principles. Only a philosopher can give a total world-view by a synthesis of the conclusions of different sciences. Hence, the importance of the function of philosophy as a synthetic discipline. 3. Historical problems of the origin of sciences. It is a widely known fact that every science originally had its beginning in philosophy. It is hence that philosophy is called the mother of all sciences. One finds the influence of the thought of ancient philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in the fields of several sciences. Basically, both philosophy and science have their origin in man's curiosity and his wonder at the natural phenomena. The philosophers of the Vedas wondered as to how the hard, black cow gives soft white milk. They were amazed to see that though all the rivers flow to the sea yet the sea is never full. While these were philosophical problems, they were equally scientific. In the beginning human knowledge, philosophy and science were intermixed. It was only after gradual specialization and subtle study that division of labour resulted in the form of different sciences, separated from the main stem of philosophy. These sciences were again divided into separate branches which were gradually considered to be independent sciences. As mother of sciences, philosophy also performs a much more important function. In the process of scientific progress philosophy is always found at the apex. It always transcends science and goes further. It is hence that the philosophical problems of today become scientific problems of tomorrow. But does it mean that a time will come when the philosopher will be left with no problem of his own? No. The philosopher will always move further than the scientists, transcend scientific conclusions and discover new problems to think. These problems will be taken over by the scientists of tomorrow but then the future philosopher will again transcend sciences and discover further new problems for his philosophical reflection. Thus, new branches of philosophy will be born from the womb of philosophy and it will retain its title of the mother of sciences. The above detailed analysis of the philosophical problems shows that philosophy is concerned with the general problems of physical and social sciences, philosophy examines the 47 conclusions and postulates of sciences, solves their conflict, synthesises them and presents new problems thus giving rise to new branches of science. It is clear that no description of philosophical problems can be considered to be complete and final because while on the one hand ever new problems arise in the field of new sciences, on the other hand the philosopher himself also raises new problems in new fields. A beginner in philosophy will be amazed to see the wide difference of opinion among the philosophers on the solution of different philosophical problems. On the basis of this difference of opinion, some conclude that the philosophical process is useless. But is the arrival at the destination the only reward of the journey? Those who enjoy journey are satisfied even while they do not reach the goal. In fact, the philosopher is a lover of wisdom, never a sole possessor of it. The culmination of philosophical process lies in an ever burning thirst for new knowledge and not in arriving at final conclusions.

SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY

The above discussion of philosophical problems also clarifies its scope. Thus, the scope of philosophy can be divided into the following two parts: 1. Field of Philosophical sciences. The scope of philosophy includes different philosophical sciences such as metaphysics, epistemology, logic, semantics, philosophy of science, axiology, aesthetics, ethics, philosophy of religion, political philosophy, etc. All these sciences are important parts of the field of philosophy. 2. Field of Philosophy as comprehensive science. Philosophy is the science of sciences, the mother of all sciences. From this point of view, its scope includes the criticism and synthesis of the postulates and conclusions of the physical and social sciences. 3. Subject matter of philosophy. The scope of philosophy clarifies its subject matter. Its subject matter includes the conclusions and postulates of all the physical and social sciences besides their general problems. In the words of CD. Broad, "The object of philosophy is to take over the results of the various sciences, add to them the result of religious and ethical experiences of mankind and then reflect upon the whole, hoping to be able to 48 reach some general conclusions as to the nature of the universe and as to our position and prospects in it."25 The above discussion makes it clear that the philosophical problems, scope and subject matter depend on philosophical sciences and the conclusions and postulates of different sciences.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
The branches of philosophy are as follows: 1. Epistemology. Philosophy is the search for knowledge. This search is critical. Hence, the first problem which arises before a philosopher is about the nature of knowledge and its limitations. Therefore, epistemology is the most fundamental branch of philosophy. It discusses philosophically truth, falsehood, validity of knowledge, limits of knowledge and nature of knowledge, knower and known etc. 2. Metaphysics. This is the study of existence, reality or essence. Its main branches are as follows: (i) Cosmogony. This is a study of creation. Is the world created or is it eternal? How was world created? Why was it created? Who created the world? What is the purpose in creation? All these are the problems of cosmogony. (ii) Cosmology. The main problems of cosmology are: Is the world one or is it many, or is it both one and many? (iii) Ontology. Ontology is the study of ultimate reality. Is the reality oneor is it many or is it both one and many? If reality is many, what is the relation between these many elements? All these are ontological questions. (iv) Philosophy of self. This is mainly concerned with the philosophical analysis of self. What is self? What is its relation with the body? Is it free or does it depend on the body? Is it one or many? All these are problems of philosophy of self. (v) Eschatology. The discussion of the condition of soul after death, the nature of the other world, etc., form the subject matter of this branch of philosophy. 3. Axiology. This branch of philosophy philosophically studies value. It has been divided into the following three branches: 49 (i) Ethics. Ethics discusses the criteria of right and good. (ii) Aesthetics. Aesthetic discusses the nature and criteria of beauty. (iii) Logic. The subject matter of logic includes the methods of judgement, types of propositions, hypothesis, definition, comparison, division, classification and fundamental laws of thoughts, etc. 4. Philosophy of Science. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the philosophical examination of the postulates and conclusions of different sciences.

5. Philosophies of social sciences. The philosophical problems in different social sciences give birth to different branches of philosophy of which the main are as follows: (i) Philosophy of education. This is concerned with the aim of education and the basic philosophical problems arising in the field of education. (ii) Social Philosophy. This branch of philosophy discusses the philosophical basis of social processes and social institutions. (iii) Political Philosophy. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the forms of government, forms of state and other basic problems arising in the political field. (iv) Philosophy of history. The subject matter of this branch of philosophy is the nature of historical process, its purpose and its relation with the cosmic process. (v) Philosophy of economics. This branch of philosophy studies the aim of man's economic activities and the fundamental problems arising in the economic field. Besides the above mentioned branches of philosophy based on sciences, there may be certain comparatively lesser branches of philosophy such as philosophy of physics, philosophy of commerce, philosophy of physical education, philosophy of marriage, philosophy of family etc. These, however, are not sufficient to form independent branches of philosophy. 6. Semantics. The most important branches of philosophy, according to the contemporary school of Logical Positivism, is semantics which is concerned with the determination of the meanings of different words used in different languages. 50

PHILOSOPHICAL ATTITUDE
It is said that one day Gautama Buddha went out in the city and saw a dead body, a patient and an old man. He was much perturbed to see their miserable condition. His thinking was disturbed and he felt that the world is momentary and full of misery. His faith in the life was disturbed. He began to meditate upon the cause of misery in the world. He deliberated on various alternatives in this connection. For years together he remained wandering in the forests, meditating on the causes of misery and the ways to remove it. Though in the beginning he was much disturbed at the state of misery in the world but while meditating on its cause, his attitude was detached and unemotional. His mind was open and his view comprehensive. He meditated on the experiences of his life and tried to find out the root cause of misery and the ways to remove it. The above mentioned situation shows the fundamental characteristics of philosophical attitude. Sometimes one finds a bit different philosophical attitude than that of Buddha. When the ancient sages of the age of Vedas wondered at the phenomena of Nature, their philosophical attitude was that of wonder. On the other hand, the philosophy of the French philosopher Descartes began in doubt. He doubted in the efficacy of his sensations and perceptions. How can I know that my senses are not deceiving me? What is the proof that I exist? How can I be sure about the existence of the world around me? Thus, faling to find any solid proof of the existence of things around him and also of his own, Descarte's mind was full of doubt. This doubt was fundamental in his philosophical attitude. Characteristics of Philosophical Attitude The above mentioned example of the philosophical attitude of Gautama Buddha, the seers of the Vedas and Descartes, the father of modern Western philosophy, shows the following chief characteristics of philosophical attitude: 51 1. Sense of Wonder. Most of us are so much used to the world around us the we do not wonder even at things which are marvellous otherwise. The philosopher is a man who is given a childlike sense of wonder. He wonders at the system, sequence, variety and mutually contradictory phenomena in the world around him and tries to find out the cause behind all this. This was the beginning of philosophy in India and elsewhere. 2. Doubt. Philosophical attitude is against dogmatism. It examines every belief, it doubts in everything not because doubting is a philosophical habit but because the philosopher is in search of some solid proofs for the existence of things around him and also that of himself. 3. Criticism. Thus, the philosophical attitude is critical. The philosopher does not accept a thing as it is but examines it

and arrives at rational conclusions. 4. Reflection. Critical thinking involves reflection. Hence the philosophical attitude is reflective. 5. Tolerance. The philosopher is prepared to see every aspect of a problem. His mind is open and his stand point liberal and tolerant. 6. Acceptance of the Guidance of Experience and Reason. The philosopher thinks in the light of his experience and with the help of his reasoning. He has no prejudice and preconception of his own. He is prepared to go whenever his reason might take him. However, this may hit at his hitherto held beliefs. It is hence that the great social reformer Shankara of India declared the world as maya. 7. Absence of Hurry in Arriving at the Conclusons. The philosopher does not arrive at any conclusions unless he has some solid proofs for them. He does not worry about the amount of time involved in the process as he is in no hurry to reach the conclusions. 8. Detachment. The philosopher is neither a sceptic nor a dogmatist. He reflects with a detached and unemotional attitude. 9. Persistence. The philosopher ceaselessly persists in his thinking unless he arrives at some satisfactory conclusion. And because his conclusions are never final, his search continues throughout his life. To conclude, the philosophical attitude involves a sense of wonder, doubt, criticism, reflective thinking, tolerance, acceptance of the guidance of experience and reason, absence of hurry in arriving at the conclusions, detached attitude and a persistent effort for the search of truth. 52 As a comprehensive science, philosophy has two aspects critical and synthetic. This synthetic aspect of philosophy is known as speculative aspect because the philosopher has to take recourse to speculation in his philosophical synthesis. The philosophical synthesis is not merely a putting together of bits of knowledge. It involves a speculation. It is hence that the philosopher arrives at new truths and sees further than the scientist. The critical philosophy critically examines the postulates and conclusions of different sciences. On the other hand the synthetic philosophy presents a world-view by a synthesis of the conclusions of different sciences. The former type of philosophy is inadequate without the latter. The critical philosophy is discursive. The synthetic philosophy is constructive. The critical philosophy finds out the validity of the postulates of different sciences and examines their conclusions. It solves the problems which fall in the field of more than one sciences. On the other hand, the synthetic philosophy presents a total picture of the world arrived at by a synthesis of the conclusions of science. Thus it synthesizes, various sciences and also points out to those fields of knowledge where no research has been made so far. Thus it leads to the birth of new sciences. It is not that the critical philosophy examines the postulates and conclusions of sciences only, the philosopher also examines, postulates and conclusion of other philosophers and presents a more comprehensive world-view by a synthesis of different philosophies.

PHILOSOPHY AND COMMON SENSE

Though the philosophical process is different from the process of common sense, it cannot be said that the two are entirely different. As Aldous Huxley has said, "Men live in accordance with their philosophy of life, their conception of the world." Common sense involves the intelligence required in understanding our day-to-day live. Life is impossible without, it. On the other hand, in philosophy one solves the basic and general problems arising in his experience. While common sense is concerned with particular questions it is inadequate without the understanding of basic and general problems. Therefore, philosophy and common sense are mutually complimentary. 53 Common sense is certainly not the maximum of philosophy but it is definitely the minimum of it. The systematic form of common sense observations provide the basis for science and the systematization of scientific conclusions leads to philosophy. Thus while common sense is narrow, philosophy is comprehensive. It is hence that some Indian philosophers have equated common sense with ignorance. But ignorance is not the contradictory of knowledge. It points out to knowledge negatively. This shows the intimate relationship of philosophy and common sense. In his everyday life the man finds much conflict and contradiction in the matters of common sense. When this conflict becomes excessive it gives rise to philosophical problems because the man is in need of going to the depth of the common sense problems and find out the harmony lying under the apparent contradictions. This is done by philosophy. Therefore, philosophy is not only required by the philosopher but also by the common man. The philosopher should never leave common sense. By being a philosopher he should be rather more successful in his every-day life though while engaged in the philosophical process

he might forget the world around him. However high may be the mind of the philosopher, his feet should always rest on the solid earth because ultimately man is the son of this terrestrial world and he has to grow here. It is clear that the philosopher cannot do without common sense.

VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy influence both the personal and social aspects of human life. Most of the Western philosophers have considered the goal of philosophy to be the achievement of knowledge, but the aim of philosophy is not merely intellectual. It is true that philosophy gives us knowledge but, as Sri Aurobindo has pointed out, "Still the truth once discovered must be realisable in our inner being and our outer activities; if it is not, it may have an intellectual but not an integral importance; a truth for the intellect, for our life, it would be no more than the solution of a thought puzzle or an abstract reality or a dead letter." The existentialist school of our time has emphasised the life of the individual, his feelings, expectations and frustrations, in 54 philosophical thinking. It is a revolt against logical and naturalistic system building, analytic intellect and dead thought which make philosophy a useless search for the ideas which are entirely unconnected with our practical life. Therefore the contemporary school of pragmatism emphasizes the pragmatic value of truth. Humanism lays emphasis upon the Protagorian principle of Homo-Mensura. The instrumentalism of John Dewey explains knowledge and intelligence as instruments for success in life. Hence philosophy and life are closely connected. This can be seen particularly in the following points: 1. Value of philosophy in personal life. In our personal life we daily come across the problems when we have to decide between right and wrong. This decision requires criterion of right and wrong or good and ultimate good. To present such a criterion is the job of moral philosophy. Thus it is clear that we are in need of philosophy at every step of our life. Man cannot live a thoughtless life. He has to always think over many types of problems. Is it not strange that though many people think, few know that laws of thought and the ways of thinking? The laws of thought and the ways of thinking form the subject-matter of an important branch of philosophy known as Logic. A man may sometimes think properly even without any knowledge of logic but a knowledge of logic will definitely make his thinking better and more valid. In the modern times, everywhere in urban areas one hears talk about art. Many want to refine their lives. Many want to live amidst beautiful things and beautify their surroundings. But how many persons think about the basic questions as to what in beauty? What is art? These questions are raised by an important branch of philosophy known as aesthetics. Many people are prepared to sacrifice their lives for the sake of their values. What is this value? What are the ultimate values? These questions are answered by Axiology. Every man, sometime or the other, tries to know what will happen to him after death? Is there a world other than our own? What happens to the man when he dies? These questions are raised in Eschatology, an important branch of philosophy. Again, some thoughtful persons, when they reach at some crossing in life, think as to where they have to go? Why have they come to this world? What is the aim of life? Who am I? These questions are raised in philosophy of self. When the man looks at the towering 55 tops of the mountains, murmuring sounds of the forests, pitch-dark nights, roaring oceans and ferocious earthquakes and other peculiar natural phenomena a question arises in his mind as to what is this world? What is its nature? How has it been made? Who made it? Why did He make it? All these questions are discussed in Cosmology and Cosmogony. Thus, numerous types of questions that are raised in our every day life fall beyond the scope of common sense or science because they are basically philosophical questions. The value of philosophy in a man's life is, therefore, quite clear. 2. Value in behaviour towards others. Whereas philosophy influences personal life, it influences social life a well. Our behaviour towards others is determined by our philosophers. If a man considers others as ends in themselves, his behaviour will be different from that of those persons who consider others as mere instruments to achieve their own selfish ends. Every man has divine element in him, this is a philosophical attitude. Everybody is a thief, this is a different philosophical attitude. It can be easily understood that these different philosophical attitudes will lead to different types of behaviour towards others. In fact, it will not be an exaggeration to say that at the root of the behaviour of different persons, there are some philosophical difficulties. For example, the hatred of a Communist towards a capitalist is the result of Marxist philosophy. 3. Value in political life. Philosophy also influences political life. Various types of political philosophies such as democratic socialism, communism, totalitarianism, anarchism etc., lead to different types of government and state and to a lot of difference concerning human rights and the different aspects of political life. 4. Value in economic life. Every one has to earn money in order to earn his livelihood. The question is as to what is the

aim of life. Is money an end or merely a means to it? This is a philosophical question and on the answer to it, depend not only the economic activities of the individuals but also those of nations. The form of production, consumption and exchange very much depends on the answer to this philosophical question. According to M.K. Gandhi, capitalists are the trustees of the capital of society. On the other hand, according to Karl Marx, the capitalists are the exploiters of the proletariat. These two 56 different philosophical attitudes have widely influenced economic life. 5. Value in social life. Society is a web of social relationships. These relationships are found in different institutions such a family, marriage, business etc., and in thousands of associations. All these are influenced by philosophy. For example, whether the wedlock between male and female is a religious sacrament, this is a philosophical question on the answer to which depends the form, stability and result of marriage in a particular society. Similarly, the relationships between parents and their children in a family do not depend on the biological and psychological attachments alone but also on their philosophical attitude towards life. Whether the children should be brought up as ends in themselves or whether they are mere instruments for the progress of the family, this is a philosophical question the answer to which determines many important issues in a joint family. Similarly, what are the rights of society over the individual and do these rights have a limit? How far should the individual accept social control and how far can he evade it? All these are philosophical questions which have important social influence. 6. Value in Cultural life. The philosophy of a nation is the index of its cultural progress. Thus philosophy influences each aspect of culture. The forms of dance, music, art, literature etc., are very much influenced by philosophy. A healthy philosophy will lead to a healthy attitude towards all these. To illustrate, Indian philosophy is mainly spiritual, therefore, one finds the stamp of spirituality on Indian dance, music, art, literature, etc. On the other hand, Western philosophy is materialistic. To quote John Dewey, "Thus philosophy makes a change of culture. In forming patterns to be conformed to in future thought and action it is additive and transforming in its role in the history of civilization."26 This is expressed in even more clear terms by Archie J. Bahm, when he says, "Without philosophy then there would be no civilization, and civilizations differ from one another as romantic, rationalistic, pacific, aggressive, mystical and mundane, partly because of their philosophical differences."27 The philosophy of a nation represents the infancy, adolescence and maturity of a nation's culture. Philosophical progress manifests cultural progress. In a nation where there is no philosophical progress, its culture is dead. Cultural revolutions 57 have also coincided with philosophical crises. In Greece when Socrates was made to drink hemlock, it was not because of the enimity of people against him only but also because of his opposition to philosophy of the community of his time. Similarly, many other great men have sacrificed their lives by challenging the philosophies of their contemporary philosophers and thus changing it through their blood. 7. Value in educational field. Though nowadays, the number of students of philosophy and departments of its teaching in Indian universities is gradually becoming less and less, no thoughtful person denies the value of philosophy in educational field. In the words of Blanshard and others. "The function of philosophy in universities in properly the same as its function in the cultural development of a society, to be the intellectual conscience of the community."28 The most fundamental question in the field of education is concerning its aim? This question raises another question as to what is man, because what he is not, he cannot become. He can become only that what is already implicit in him. Man's nature is, therefore, a philosophical question on the answer to which have developed so many philosophies of education which are the foundations of different modern methods of teaching. 8. Value in the field of knowledge. In the modern times, many educated persons who swear by science, consider philosophy to be useless in the age of science because they are ignorant of the function of philosophy in the field of science. It can be said without exaggeration that without a philosophical basis, any knowledge is imperfect, because no total picture can be presented without the synthetic function of philosophy. Without this total picture there will always be tension in the field of knowledge which leads to philosophical activities. As Aristotle has said, "Whether we philosophise or not, we must philosophise." This has been expressed by Perry in somewhat different terms when he says, "Philosophy is neither accidental nor supernatural, but inevitable and normal."29 Besides its synthetic function, another important function of philosophy is the criticism of the postulates and conclusions of different sciences. Whenever a scientist delves deeper in his own particular field, he reaches a depth where the process of his thinking is not scientific but philosophical. This can be seen in the thinking of many a great 58

scientists of the world. The importance of philosophy in the field of knowledge is, therefore, quite clear. From the point of view of different aspects of the individual and social life, and in different fields of knowledge, the discussion of the value of philosophy shows the utility of its study. In the words of J.W. Cunningham, "Philosophy thus grows directly out of life and its needs. Everyone who lives, if he lives, at all reflectively, is in some degree a philosopher."30 In the words of Chestertan, "The most practical and important thing about a man is his view of universe his philosophy. The employee is at the mercy of the philosophy of his employer and the employer stakes his business on the philosophy of his employees."31

References
1. "Both for spiritual and philosophical knowledge it is necessary to be clear and precise in one's use of terms so as to avoid confusion of thought and vision, by confusion in the words we use to express them." Sri Aurobindo Sri Aurobindo Mandir Annual, N. 6, p. 43. 2. "It is subtler even than chemical subtlety and therefore not to be deduced, induced, inferred or discovered by a reasoning which proceeds from a consideration of the elements of name and form and makes that its standard". Sri Aurobindo, The Advent, Vol. X, No. 2, p. 95. 3. Hegel, Preface to The Philosophy of Right. 4. Bradley, F.H., Appearance and Reality (Preface). 5. "Philosophy can only be an effort to dissolve again into the whole, the ocean of life in which we are immersed, whence we draw the very force to labour and to live and from which both matter and intellect originate." Bergson, Creative Evolution, p. 202. 6. "The object of Philosophy would be realised if this intuition could be sustained, generalised and above all, assured of external points of reference in order not to go astray." Bergson, Creative Evolution, p. 252. 7. Bergson, Creative Evolution, p. 285. 8. Ibid., p. 251. 9. Sri Aurobindo, The Renaissance in India, p. 72. 10. ???? Mundakopanisad, I, i, 3. 11. Maitra S.K., Sri Aurobindo Mandir Annual, Vol. II, p. 61. 12. Sri Aurobindo, The Human Cycle, p. 93. 59 13. John Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 378. 14. Brightman E.S., Introduction to Philosophy, Henery Holt&Co., New York, (125), p. 9. 15. Barret, C, Philosophy, The Macmillan Co. (1935), p. 5. 16. Ducasse, C.J., Philosophy of Art, Dial Press, New York (1929), p. 3. 17. Leighton, J.A., The Field of Philosophy, Appleton Century Crofts, New York (1910), p. 4. 18. Sellers, R.W., The Principles and Problems of Philosophy, The Macmillan Co., New York (1926), p. 3. 19. Patrick, C.T.W., Introduction to Philosophy, Houghton Mifflin, p. 3.

20. Bahm A.J., Philosophy, An Introduction, Asia, Bombay (1964), p. 7. 21. See Spaulding, E.G., The New Realism, p. 155. 22. Hocking, W.E., PhilosophyThe Business of Everyone, Journal of American Association of University Women, June 1937, p. 212. 23. Plato, The Republic, Book VI, p. 485. 24. Whitehead, A.N., Science and the Modern World, The Macmillan Co., New York (1926), pp. 126-27. 25. Broad, CD., Scientific Thought, Harcourt Branch Co., New York (1963), p. 20. 26. John Dewey, Philosophy and Civilization, G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1921, p. 6. 27. Bahm, A.J., Philosophy, An Introduction, p. 27. 28. Blanshard and Others, Philosophy in American Education, Harper&Bros., New York (1945), p. 80. 29. Perry, The Approach for Philosophy, p. 22. 30. Cunningham, J.W., Problems of Philosophy, p. 5. 31. Quoted by Hocking, Types of Philosophy, p. 4.

Questions for Exercise

1. What is philosophy? Is it true that philosophy raises the questions and leaves them unanswered. 2. What is philosophy? How do logic and metaphysics come under it? 3. What is philosophy? Differentiate between philosophy and science. How are they related to each other? 4. Try to define philosophy and elucidate its various problems. 5. What is philosophy? Bring out clearly the true nature of philosophical thinking. 6. Define philosophy. What is its scope? 7. What is the function and purpose of philosophy? 8. What is philosophy? Explain the relation of philosophy and religion. 60 9. What is the nature of philosophy? Is it useful in any sense? 10. Distinguish between critical and speculative philosophy. How is philosophy related to common sense? 11. What are the branches of philosophy? Give main characteristics of the philosophical outlook. 12. Discuss the scope of philosophy. 13. Explain briefly the nature of the problems of philosophy. Determine the scope of philosophy. 14. State and explain the main problems of philosophy. Show how philosophy is related to religion. 15. What according to Bahm, are the three main divisions of all philosophical problems? Discuss the subject matter of any two of the following: (i) Philosophy of Religion (ii) Epistemology (iii) Philosophy of Science,

(iv) Axiology. 61

3 Philosophy and Education

In order to comprehend the close relationship of philosophy and education the aspirant should first know the various branches of philosophy and then study their relationship with education. The most important branches of philosophy are: Metaphysics, Epistemology and Axiology. Again, the relationship of Philosophy and Education should be sought in different fields of education such as the aims and ideals, the methods of teaching, the curriculum, the school administration, discipline and finally evaluation. All these branches of education are based upon philosophical foundation. Needless to say that as the philosophical foundation differs so differ the aims and ideals, the teaching methods, the school administration and discipline in different educational systems. This will be explained in details in our study of the different systems of philosophy of education. At present, our discussion will be confined to provide a summary picture of the close relationship of philosophy and education.

METAPHYSICS AND EDUCATION

Aristotle developed the study of Metaphysics to be studied after physics. While physics studies the laws of the external form of existence, metaphysics thinks over the real essence of things. Its main problems are: What is the nature of existence? What is reality? What is truth? What are its different forms? Is the world one or many? What is time? What is substance? What is causality? What is fact? What is the purpose or aim? What is change? What is novelty? What is similarity? Who am I? Is there a purpose in creation? Is the world determined or 62 free? Is there a God? Has the world progressed? etc. Thus the subject-matter of metaphysics includes the self, the world, and the God. Its scope includes ontology, philosophy of self, cosmogony, cosmology and theology. Ontology is the science of reality. The metaphysics, in brief, deals with reality in man, world and hereafter. This has a close bearing upon the aims and ideals of education. The metaphysical attitude provides the educationists the proper perspective for devising aims and ideals of education. What we want to make out of man depends upon his nature and place in the universe. Again, the concept of self is the basis of the development of character, the central aim of education. Know thyself and be thyself is the universally acknowledged aim of education. The concept of world is directly concerned with the individual's relationships with society and nature. While Indian philosophy emphasises harmony between man and the world the Western philosophers have made too much of man's desire to overpower Nature. While the former philosophy has been the foundation of educational institutions like Vishwabharati or Sri Aurobindo's International University, the other approach is the philosophy behind the technological and scientific education of today. In fact the more integral is the world-view the more multi-sided will be the education based upon it. In the end, moral and religious education is based upon the metaphysical concept of God. This does not mean that moral education must necessarily be linked to religious education. It only shows that our explanation of the ultimate reality or the total reality, call it God or anything else, has important bearing upon education particularly its aims and ideals and therefore its means and plans. The most important metaphysical theories which have influenced education are: Naturalism, Idealism, Pragmatism and Realism. Naturalism has been manifest in different types of theories such as Atomic naturalism, Scientific naturalism, Mechanistic naturalism and Historical naturalism. These will be discussed in detail in our chapter on Naturalism as a philosophy of education. The most important metaphysical theory in the field of education is idealism. Idealism has been subjective, objective, phenomenalistic and absolute. These will be discussed in details in our chapter on Idealism as a philosophy of education. 63 The most influential metaphysical theory in today's field of education, however, is pragmatism. This is closely linked to Instrumentalism and Humanism. These will be discussed in our chapter on Pragmatism as a philosophy of education. In the end of the metaphysical theory known as Realism has very much influenced education concerning science and technology. This will be discussed in sequence.

EPISTEMOLOGY AND EDUCATION

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy which is concerned with the discussion of the problems concerning knowledge.

Its main problems are: What is the relation between the knower and known? Is the content of knowledge identical with the external object or is it different from it? How can we know that our knowledge is a real knowledge of the object? What are the limits of knowledge? What are the sources of knowledge? etc. Besides, the epistemologist raises certain other questions such as: What is knowledge? Is the knowledge of knower possible, if not, then what is known? If the known is an object then what is this object? Is the knowledge of the existence of an object possible without its being known? How can we distinguish between true and false knowledge? What is ignorance? Is it a form of knowledge or different from it? What is the process of knowledge? Do we know something which was already existent before our knowledge of it? What is the meaning of forgetting of knowledge? What is the basis of validity of knowledge? What are the errors possible in the process of knowledge? Is our knowledge definite or is the definiteness based purely on our feeling and faith? How is it that some beliefs are considered to be more valid than others? What are the distinctions between different types of knowledge? What are the relations of knowledge with science and philosophy? The above mentioned description of epistemological problems clarifies the scope of epistemology. Its subject matter is the process, methods, object, characteristics, conditions, validity and fallacies of knowledge. Epistemology is the philosophical discussion of all these problems. It should be remembered here that epistemology uses the philosophical methods of induction, and deduction, synthesis and analysis. In it is adopted the 64 philosophical attitude which is detached, tolerant, persistent and guided by experience and reasoning. One finds different conclusions presented by different epistemologists regarding epistemological problems/ While according to the realist philosophers knowledge is the knowledge of objects, the idealists define it as the knowledge of ideas. While some epistemologists think that the presence of object is necessary for knowledge, and, therefore, every knowledge is a knowledge of both knower and known, others think that the knowledge of known is different from the knowledge of knower. Thus, we find realists, idealists and empiricists, rationalists and critical philosophers in the field of epistemological problems. About the possibility of knowledge one finds different approaches such as agnostic, sceptic and mystic. All these approaches have thrown light on different aspects of knowledge. Besides, different epistemologists have criticized the views of other fellow epistemologists and this discussion has given rise to an interesting literature. Kant' famous book Critique of Pure Reason is a permanent contribution to epistemological literature. The explanation given above shows the importance of epistemology for education. Empiricist school of philosophy discussed the methods and value of empirical knowledge. Its opposite Rationalist school pointed out how some of the knowledge is innate. Scepticism shows the limits of knowledge. David Hume rightly pointed out that certainty can be possible only in mathematics and not in the field of sciences. Agnosticism shows the relativity of human knowledge. Criticism shows that our knowledge is neither a-priori nor a-posteriori. It shows that knowledge is synthetic, requiring sensibility, understanding and reasoning. Intuitionism shows that intellect and intuition are complementary. Mysticism shows the value of spiritual experiences in the field of religion. Pragmatism rightly maintains that the value of knowledge is in its use. Instrumentalism rightly points out that reason is an instrument for the satisfaction of human needs. Humanism rightly shows that the criterion of all knowledge is man himself and there is no ultimate knowledge. Experimentalism and relativism rightly point out that knowledge is experimental and relative. Thus all the schools of epistemology show the methods, limits and value of knowledge. They supply the necessary foundation for all knowledge, scientific and otherwise. 65

AXIOLOGY AND EDUCATION

Axiology includes three normative sciences: Logic, Ethics and Aesthetics. All these three are intimately related to education.

LOGIC AND EDUCATION

The term logic is derived from the Greek word 'Logos', which means reason or expression of reason in words, that is, discourse. Etymologically, therefore, Logic is the science of reasoning or argument. According to Dewey and Stebbing reasoning is reflective thinking, and reflective thinking is a process of finding way out of some difficulty or problem by weighing the evidence on the basis of a tentative hypothesis and thereby reaching some conclusion. The reasoning can be either deductive or inductive. In the deductive reasoning we argue from a general principle to a particular conclusion. For example, we say that since all men are mortal, an X, who is a man, is mortal. But if we argue that since X, Y, Z, who are men are subject to death, every man must be subject to death, we are arguing inductively. In logic we study the general principles governing both types of reasoning. Accordingly, we may define Logic as the science of laws of thought and reasoning. According to Morris R. Cohen and Ernest Negel, "Logic may be said to be concerned with the question of the

adequacy or probative value of different kinds of evidence. Thus, according to this definition of logic, logic is concerned with both conclusive as well as partial evidence. Traditionally, logic was concerned only with conclusive evidence. These authors, however, represent the modern approach which includes not only conclusive but also partial evidence as the subject-matter of logic. In the words of Cohen and Negel, "Logic may, therefore, be also defined as the science of implication, or of valid inference (based on such implication)". Thus logic is not concerned with the factual questions such as about the psychological processes of reasoning actually happening in mind, etc. Factual questions are material issues. They crop-up in an enquiry along with the questions concerning the implication. While evidence includes facts it also includes premises and conclusions the relation between which is known as implication. The former is the subject-matter 66 of physical sciences or human sciences, while the latter comes within the field of logic. In the words of Cohen and Negel, "Logic as a distinctive science is concerned only with the secondwith the relation of implication between propositions. Thus the specific task of logic is the study of the conditions under which one proposition necessarily follows and may therefore be deduced from one or more others, regardless of whether the latter are in fact true". The above discussion shows that logic is the basis of all knowledge. It is hence called the science of sciences. It studies various intellectual processes such as thinking, reasoning and judgement. All education is concerned with theory and practice. While the theory is arrived at by induction, the practice depends upon deduction. Both induction and deduction are the two important branches of logic. The knowledge of logic helps us in avoiding error and arriving at correct generalisation in every field of knowledge. It resolves doubts and points out fallacies. It is intellectual exercise necessary for all the serious students. The teacher must know logic in order to have successful communication.

ETHICS AND EDUCATION

According to philology, the word ethics is derived from the word Ethos, which means character. In this way, ethics is the science of character, habits of activity or behaviour of human beings. Ethics is also called Moral Philosophy. The word moral is a derivative from the Latin word 'mores' meaning conventions or practice. In this way ethics literally means the science of convention or practice. Ethics is the science of human conduct. Habits and behaviour are related to the permanent peculiarities of human character. Conduct is the mirror of character. Thus ethics is the science of character or habit. It evaluates human habits, character and voluntary determinations and discusses their propriety or otherwise. Ethics considers the duties of human beings. It is an ethical science and it pronounces ethical decisions upon conduct. There is a motive in conduct. In it there is voluntary determination. It manifests character. Character is manifested in determinations. Determination is the activated form of character. Therefore, it 67 studies what is right and what is wrong in character. But the propriety of habits and determination can be determined by measuring them with the ideals of life. These goods too have classes. Supreme good determines the propriety of the immediate good. For example, every student must take the examination, it being his immediate good because he has laboured for it throughout the year. But in some conditions it may be improper to do so. To take an example, he may have to desist from taking the examination in order to nurse his mother. Here the propriety of the immediate good of sitting for the examination is determined by the supreme good of postulating the superiority of duty to oneself. Thus ethics is above all the science of the supreme good. It studies the ideals of human life. It shows what ought to be done and what ought not to be done. In the words of James Seth, "As the science of the Good, it is the science par excellence of the ideal and the ought".1 Ethics is the science of character. But it is different from the natural and factual sciences. It is a normative science. In Muirnead's words, "It is related not merely, to temporal behaviour but to behaviour in the form of the basis of legal decision".2 Its function is to give decisions on behaviour, whether the behaviour is right or wrong. According to Mackenzie, "Ethics can be defined as the study of what is right or good in conduct".3 In this definition ethics has been accepted as the study of both right and good. But there is difference between right and good. 'Rectus' the Latin word from which right has been derived, means straight or according to law. Thus, good behaviour will correspond to law. Good comes from the German 'gut', meaning that which is useful for the supreme good. In this instance, good is that which leads to supreme good. Mostly good is taken to mean an end, not a means to an end. According to Prof. J.S. Mackenzie, the study of ethics admits classification into at least four divisions: "1. Psychology of ethical consciousness;

2. Sociology of an ethical life; 3. Theories of ethical criterion; and 4. The application of this criterion in ethical life."4 These four divisions of ethics are the foundations of all education. The most widely accepted aim of education is man 68 making or character building. As the science of character ethics analyses the psychology of ethical consciousness. It shows how different moral norms evolve in different circumstances but then it examines the validity of these norms and provides solid basis for social ethos of the educand. It examines the theories moral of standard and shows the possibility of arriving at a correct ethical criterion. Ethics is not only theoretical, it also helps in the application of moral principles in actual life. Ethical activities are accompanied by a feeling of vice and virtue. Ethics details the criterion for this vice and virtue. Its scope includes the descriptions of good qualities and bad qualities. Due to the relation of good and bad to every human activity, the field of ethics includes the conclusions of other sciences and arts. Ethics gives moral judgments on these too. In this way, many psychological, political, economic, sociological, religious and philosophical problems come to be included in the field of ethics. Philosophical problems like the real form of human personality, voluntary nature of volition, immortality of the soul, the existence of God, and unity and the moral order in the universe, etc., are included in ethics. The sociological problem relating the relation between the individual and the society is also an ethical problem. In this way, in brief, it may be said that wherever there is human behaviour and human volitions, there is scope for ethics. In John Dewey's words, "The foremost conclusion is that morals have to do with all activity into which alternative possibilities enter. For wherever they enter, a difference between better and worst arises."5

AESTHETICS AND EDUCATION

Aesthetics is the science of beauty, as logic is the science of truth and ethics is the science of good. Education seeks to realise the true, the good and the beautiful. Therefore, it requires not only logic and ethics but also aesthetics. The aim of education is to realise all-round development of the educand. In this development moral and aesthetic developments occupy foremost place. While moral development requires knowledge of ethics, aesthetic development requires training in aesthetics. Aesthetics again, is the basis of all literary and artistic criticism. It supplies the philosophical basis to literature and art. As literature and 69 art contribute significantly to education, the value of aesthetics in education is clear.

SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

The term 'Social Philosophy' includes two words, social and philosophy. Literally, it is the philosophy of the society. What is society? Society is the network of social relations. Here society means general society, not any particular society, because philosophical viewpoints towards universality even though, in actuality, it may become limited. Hence the subject of social philosophy is the human society as a whole. It does not concern itself with creatures other than the man, for, in the first place, they do not have any society, and in the second place, if at all they have one, their society is fundamentally different from the human society. Social philosophy is not concerned with nature either, because the relations that exist between the objects of nature are different from social relations. The latter have mental or psychic elements and are linked with consciousness. They are also coloured with feelings, emotions, instincts and passions. Bereft of these psychological elements, human relations are nothing more than the relations that exist between objects. Mere coexistence, either among the people of one nation or among the nations themselves, is not enough for social relations. In the field of social relations, social change and regulation cause integrative and disintegrative processes. Both similarity and dissimilarity are to be found in society though the former is more important. Unity in diversity is the basic trait of social relations. That explains why in the modern world, which is inhabited by various races, nations and states, etc, the consciousness of one world has become so powerful and the notion of world government so popular. Dissimilarity breeds interdependence among the social units, causes division of labour, differentiation and specialisation, and then leads to mutual cooperation and organisation. Society is to be measured not by men and their groups but by the interactions and inter-relations that exist among them. Precisely, these are the subjects studied by a social philosophy. It seeks to determine the facts and values involved in the network of social relations. It looks at the human society in all its perspectives, past, present and 70 future; east, west and universal. Its approach is all-pervasive. It evaluates the human achievements in the light of eternal

values and pronounces judgements upon them. It analyses various groups, committees, institutions, associations and their inter-relations from the philosophical viewpoint. The social philosopher examines the basic principles of human behaviour and supreme values of human life, and thus prepares a solid ground for social sciences. Just as the philosophy of science provides philosophical basis for physical sciences, social philosophy provides philosophical basis for social sciences. It studies the philosophical questions involved in social phenomena and processes. It views the problems of the social scientist from the philosophical point of view, and evaluates the social facts in the light of supreme social values. Different social sciences study different aspects of social life. Social philosophy seeks to harmonise the different conclusions of different social sciences and to fulfil the chasm amongst them. Without social philosophy, the knowledge of social sciences would be incomplete and scattered. In regard to the analysis of supreme issues, every social scientist has to consult the social philosopher. For example, the impact of Plato's and Aristotle's social philosophy may be seen on the different social scientists. In modern times, American behaviourist thinker, William James, and the utilitarian philosopher, John Dewey, have exercised considerable influence on different social sciences. The basic problem of education is now to secure man's development. For this it is necessary to know what is man. Social philosophy analyses human nature and finds out how far man is naturally social and how far not. While prescribing syllabi for educational institutions it is essential to keep in view what type of society we want to create. It is clear that social philosophy constructs the philosophical foundations of the educational system.

References
1. Seth, J., A Study of Ethical Principles, William Blackwood and Sons Ltd., London (1908), p. 37. 2. Muirnead, J.H., The Elements of Ethics, John Murray, London (1895), p. 33. 71 3. Mackenzie, J.S., A Manual of Ethics, University Tutorial Press Ltd., London (1929), p. 1. 4. Ibid., p. 25. 5. John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct in The World's Great Thinkers Series, "The Social Philosophers," Edited By Commins and Linscott, p. 449.

Questions for Exercise

1. Explain the relationship of Education to Metaphysics, Epistemology and Axiology. 2. What is the utility of Logic and Ethics to Education? 3. Discuss relationship of social philosophy and education. 72

4 Philosophy of Education
Our discussion of the concept of education and the concept of philosophy form the basis of arriving at the definition of philosophy of education. Thus philosophy of education is essentially a method of approaching educational experience rather than a body of conclusions. It is the specific method which makes it philosophical. Philosophical method is critical, comprehensive and synthetic. Therefore, philosophy of education is the criticism of the general theory of education. It consists of critical evaluation and systematic reflection upon general theories. It is a synthesis of educational facts with educational values. In brief it is a philosophical process of solving educational problems through philosophical method, from a philosophical attitude to arrive at philosophical conclusions and results. Thus it aims at achieving general and comprehensive results. This clarification of the definition of education will be further clarified by a discussion of the scope and nature of philosophy of education. It should be noted here that philosophy of education is a species of the genus philosophy, with the differentia that its proper scope is confined to the field of education. Thus it is philosophy in the field of education.

SCOPE AND NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

The scope of a subject directly follows from its definition. Therefore, the scope of philosophy of education is concerned with the problems of education. These problems are general in nature, such as the interpretation of Nature, the world and the 73 universe, explanation of aims and ideals, the relationship of the various constituents of the field of education. The main problems of philosophy of education include aims and ideals of education, analysis of human nature, relationship of education and state, educational values, theory of knowledge and its relationship to education, economic system and education, the place of school in educational system, the curriculum and the process of education and finally the relationship of education and social progress. The above mentioned problems of philosophy of education constitute its scope and clarify its nature. Its scope includes a critical evaluation of the different aims of education held and propagated from time to time such as character building, man making, human development, preparation for adult life, development of citizenship, utilisation of leisure; training for civic life, training for international living, total development of personality, evolution of democratic society, realisation of social change, realisation of cultural man, adjustment of society and individual and finally self-realisation and spiritual emancipation. These and other aims of education presented educational thinkers in different times and climes are scrutinised and evaluated. It should be remembered here that the chief function of philosophy everywhere is critical evaluation as well as construction. Thus philosophy of education critically evaluates different aims and ideals of education to arrive at the most sound and cogent aim of education. Here again, it is more concerned with the general and universal aim rather than any specific and particular aim of education. It is so since philosophy everywhere deals with most general. Again, philosophical process is comprehensive and total. Therefore, philosophy of education aims at presenting a synthesis of various aims and ideals of education. The same philosophical attitude pervades the discussion of human nature in philosophy of education. A philosophical picture of human nature is a result of the synthesis of the facts borrowed from all the human sciences with the values discussed in different normative sciences. The philosophical picture, therefore, is more integral as compared to the picture of man drawn by biology, sociology, psychology, economics and anthropology and so many other human sciences. 74 The most important part of the scope of the philosophy of education is formed by the educational values. Value is typically a philosophical subject since it is more abstract than concrete, mental than physical, integral than one-sided, universal than particular. Philosophical treatment of values not only evaluates them but also systematises them in a hierarchy. Educational values are determined by philosophical values. Educational values held by different philosophers have been derived from their world-view. Therefore, a scrutiny of the world-views, the specific function of philosophy, is necessary for any treatment of philosophical values. Education deals with knowledge. It is determined by the source, limits, criteria and means of knowledge. The discussion of all these however falls within the jurisdiction of epistemology, an area of philosophy. Therefore, an important area of the functioning of philosophy of education is concerned with theory of knowledge. The most important service of philosophy of education to the cause of education everywhere, is the prescription of criteria for deciding the relationship of state and education, economic system and education, curriculum administration, discipline, progress, etc. These problems have led to the evolution of different philosophies of education. The criteria of judgement everywhere are determined by philosophy. Therefore, philosophy of education prescribes criteria of judgement in these fields. The above discussion of the scope of philosophy of education also explains its nature. Thus, philosophy of education is an important branch of applied philosophy. Of the three divisions of philosophy, metaphysics, epistemology and axiology, philosophy of education falls in the third. It is, therefore, mainly concerned with educational values. As a branch of philosophy it utilises philosophical methods for the solution of philosophical problems with a philosophical attitude to arrive at philosophical conclusions. In this comprehensive process it includes facts concerning education and synthesises them with values.

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND THE TEACHER

According to John Dewey, "Philosophy of Education is not an external application of readymade ideas to a system of practice 75 having a radically different origin and purpose, it is only an explicit formulation of the problems of the formation of right

mental and moral attitudes in respect to the difficulties of contemporary social life. The most penetrating definition of philosophy which can be given is, then, that it is the theory of education in its most general phases."1 Thus the teacher gets his theory of teaching from the philosophy of education. Teaching methods are very much concerned with the philosophy of education the teacher holds. According to Spencer, only a true philosopher may give a practical shape to education. How he behaves with the students and how he communicates depends very much on how he defines the educands. Different philosophical systems of education have explained human nature in widely different ways. This very much governs the teacher's attitude to the method of teaching. Though philosophy is no substitute for the teacher's knowledge of the subject, it is certainly necessary for his enlightenment. In the words of Bertrand Russell, "Philosophy is to be studied not for the sake of any definite answers to the questionsbut rather for the sake of questions themselves; because these questions enlarge our conception of what is possible, enrich our intellectual imagination and diminish the dogmatic assurance which closes the mind against speculation, but above all because through the greatness of the universe which philosophy contemplates, the mind also is rendered great and becomes capable of that union with the universe which constitutes its highest good."2 The most important contribution of the philosophy of education to the teacher is, however, concerned with the aims and ideals of education. Without philosophy of education the teacher will not have any sense of purpose in his teaching. This is not possible by science however we may eulogise the role of science in the present-day education. In fact, while science supplies the means, only philosophy supplies the ends. In the words of John Dewey, "Philosophy is concerned with determining ends of education, while the science of education determines the means to be used."3 Again, philosophy of education helps the teacher in the determination of the curriculum of education. Defining a philosopher Plato said, "He, who has a taste for every sort of knowledge and who is curious to learn and is never satisfied, 76 may be justly termed a philosopher".4 Philosophy provides a comprehensive and total view of the educational situation. It leads to integral approach. It is a total viewpoint. Therefore, it is a good prophylactic against all one-sidedness. Criticising the anomaly of one-sidedness in our present educational system, A.M. Schlezinger has rightly pointed out, "We desperately need a rich emotional life, reflecting actual relations between the individual and the community".5 The world is faced today with two prominent approaches to life, the Eastern and the Western. These present two different cultural attitudes, two different philosophies of life. Mankind has made experiments for a proper human life in different crimes and times. The modern man may do well by synthesising the wisdom of different cultures. An ideal teacher imbibes combination of East and West, philosophy and science. Explaining this viewpoint, Kewal Motwani has said, "Now two types of cultures, with vastly different ideologies and values have come face to face in India and are engaged in a deadly combat. India, with her rural, agricultural, handicraft culture, with an integrated view of life, with its emphasis on indefinable, qualitative values, on individual uniqueness, on dharma, on self-imposed poverty, on social synthesis, on a subjective, broad-based nationalism, on man and machinery of the government, on a life of religious experience and unfoldment, on power through repose is confronted by a culture that stands for machine and science, for an unrbanised, industrialized order, for analytical view of life, with its emphasis on neuroses and complexes, for mass production, for quantitative values, for struggle for existence and survival of the fittest, for accumulation of wealth and economic imperialism, for assertive, arrogant nationalism, for democracy and dictatorship, for religion of scientific humanism and rationalism. India has sought the vision of the whole not of the parts, she has been interested in living not merely in the means of livelihood. She has combined philosophic contemplation with action, she has stood for beauty and dignity, not mere utility. But today the culture of machine and science has taken a firm grip of India and is slowly seeping into her soul."6 The complex modern civilization, overburdened with technology, is threatening a relapse into barbarism or an extinction of Homo Sapiens. Man is facing today the problems which are 77 characteristic of the atomic age and bred by industrialism. Everywhere, we find chaos and frustration. Solutions have been offered from all sides. Science and international law have proved helpless. Thoughtful men are looking towards religion, morality and spirituality. As an author puts it, "The alternative with which we are faced is: either atrophy of our brain power; degeneration of man, decline of his intellectual and spiritual activities which become more and more mechanical and in the end slavery in new totalitarian regimes with over-centralised control; or a spiritual revolution; an awakening of man to the fact that he, after all, is a spiritual being, with inexhaustible spiritual powers; and a stern determination to defend his liberty and to subordinate the so-called progress of science and technology to the moral and spiritual end of humanity within a democratic order."7 Therefore, the most essential thing for a teacher is his philosophy of education. The only remedy to cultural or any other type of one-sidedness is the philosophical approach. This philosophical approach is expressed in integral viewpoint admirably summed up by Sri Aurobindo in these words, "The heart and the mind are

universal Deity and neither a mind without heart nor a heart without mind is the human ideal."8 Warning against the neglect of philosophy of education on the part of the teacher Rusk maintained, "Teachers who assume that they can afford to ignore philosophy pay the penalty of their neglect, for their efforts, lacking a co-ordinating principle, are thereby rendered ineffective".9 Philosophy is needed not only in the determination of aims and ideals and the curriculum but also in the actual day-to-day programme of educational practice. In the words of Adler, "Thus we begin to see, not only the distinct sphere of the philosophy of education, as answering questions, unanswerable by science, but also the need for a philosophy of education for without it this could be no certain determination of the basic practical principles, underlying the policies which direct actual day-to-day educational practices".10 In the end the teacher is not only supposed to have a sound philosophy of education but he is required to develop a philosophical viewpoint among his students as well. In the words of K.L. Shrimali, "Thus, not merely must the teacher 78 have a philosophy of education, he must come prepared to develop among his students a philosophy of life".11 The teacher provides information and knowledge to the educands but his personal stamp is always in the form of a philosophy of life. What the great teachers have given to the world is philosophy and not information.

METHODOLOGY OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

The nature of a subject determines its methods. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, "The description of the status of knowledge to which we aspire determines the means of knowledge which we shall use".12 Philosophy of education is concerned both with facts and values about all the aspects of human being, the world around him and his status in the cosmos. Such a comprehensive field cannot be dealt with mind alone. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, "What the mind conceives must be need not be the measure of will be".13 This, however, does not mean the neglect of the importance of language and logic in philosophy of education. To quote Sri Aurobindo again, "A language has to be created which is at once intuitively metaphysical and revealingly poetical, admitting significant and living images as the vehicle of a close, suggestive and vivid indication".14 While a rational method alone is not sufficient to realise the purpose of philosophy of education, the same is true about an empirical method as well. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, "So long as we confine ourselves to sense evidence and physical consciousness, we can conceive nothing and know nothing except the material world and its phenomena".15 Only a synthesis of reason and experience may give us an insight into the problems of philosophy of education. As Sri Aurobindo has rightly pointed out, "Every concept is incomplete for us and to a part of our nature almost unreal unless it becomes an experience".16 Philosophy of education is both a criticism as well as realisation. Therefore, "In each case", as Aurobindo points out, "Understanding, discrimination, verification are necessary, but the subjective and the supraphysical must have another method of verification, than that which we apply successfully to the physical and external objective."17 Pointing out the function of philosophy Sri Aurobindo said, "It is an attempt to fix the fundamental realities and principles 79 of being as distinct from its processes and the phenomena which result from those processes".18 Therefore, neither synthesis nor analysis alone can be ideal methods of philosophy of education. Rational analysis is insufficient to solve the problems concerning educational values. To quote Sri Aurobindo, "All this labour of speculation has its utility in training the human mind and helping to keep before it the idea of something beyond and ultimate towards which it must turn. But the intellectual reason can only point vaguely or feel groupingly towards it or try to indicate partial and even conflicting aspects of its manifestation here, it cannot enter it and know it."19 This, however, does not mean a total rejection of intellectual processes in the field of philosophy of education. Even in the field of psychical and spiritual development reason and logic may play some role. To quote Sri Aurobindo again, "Reason is not the supreme light and yet it is always a necessary light bringer and unless it has been given its rights and allowed to judge and purify our first infrarational instincts, impulses, rash favours, crude beliefs and blind prejudgments, we are not altogether ready for the full unveiling of a greater inner illumination".20 Therefore, philosophy of education cannot do without utilising intuitive method. The intuitive method is a knowledge by identity, a knowledge by intimate direct contact. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, it is inclusion, indwelling and identity. He has rightly said, "Intuition, therefore, is present at the beginning of things and in their middle as well as at their consummation".21 This intuition is not only mental but psychical and spiritual. Explaining spiritual intuition, the sure foundation of any philosophy of education, Sri Aurobindo has said, "The spiritual intuition lays hold always upon the reality, it is the luminous harbinger of the spiritual realisation or else its illuminative light, it sees that which the other powers of our being are labouring to explore, it gets at the firm truth of the abstract representations of the heart and life, a truth which is itself neither remotely abstract nor outwardly concert, but something else for which these are only two aides

of its psychological manifestation to us".22 Spiritual intuition does not negate the experiences gained through physical, vital or mental instruments. Whereas the latter seek to abstract one particular type of experience from the whole, it is a knowledge through whole 80 being. "It is a direct vision, an authentic seeing, a comprehensive intuitive apprehension."23 Thus, educational philosophy utilises deductive and inductive reasoning, experiences of different types and the intuitions to arrive at inner as well as total truths. The utilisation of these methods, however, requires a constant development of the philosopher and the educator, his constant grappling with the actual problems arising in the everyday process of education.

NEED OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION IN MODERN TIMES

All modern educationists hold the view that not only should the educator be equipped with knowledge of a variety of subjects, but also that he should have his own philosophy of education, without which he cannot efficiently solve the problems that face in teaching from day-to-day. Fichte correctly pointed out that the art of education will never attain complete clearness in itself without philosophy. Hence, there is an interaction between the two, and either without the other is incomplete and unserviceable. Some people are so impressed by the achievements of science that they give a higher place to science than to philosophy in education. Psychologists are of the opinion that education should be based on psychological principles, while sociologists, impressed by the significance of social phenomena, suggest that education should be more influenced by their findings. But all these people forget that even sociologists and psychologists have failed to solve many difficulties that have arisen in connection with the aims of education, curriculum, teaching methods, discipline, etc. They have failed to provide a satisfactory criterion for determining techniques of assessment, standards of evaluation, selection of textbooks or of teaching methods. In actual fact, there is no rivalry between educational philosophy and educational practice because philosophy gives adequate importance to the principles enunciated by psychology and sociology. The only real difference is that philosophy of education is concerned with more fundamental problems, that it delves far more deeply than any one science, that its attitude is far more comprehensive and liberal and that it is an attempt at synthesizing most of the viewpoints from which any 81 phenomenon is examined. Hence, the educator can do nothing without philosophy. The educator is often faced with problems in the sphere of education which can be solved only on the basis of his conception of the universe. Every behaviour or action has its own principles. Hence educational behaviour, too, must have its own principles. The principles underlying all educational behaviour are derived from philosophy of education. It is only through a philosophy of education that one determines the curriculum, the textbooks, the methods of teaching, methods and standards of evaluation, the methods of maintaining discipline, etc. Hence the educator should study educational philosophy. "The educational system which we attempt to set up," says G.D.H. Cole, "must depend on the kind of society we mean to live in, on the qualities in men and women on which we set the highest value, and on the estimates which we make of the educability of both of those who are endowed with the higher intellectual or aesthetic capacities and of ordinary people."24 Philosophy of education is theoretical, the theory, however, aims at the guidance to practice. In the words of John Dewey, "Whenever philosophy has been taken seriously, it has always been assumed that it signified achieving a wisdom that would influence the conduct of life".25 Idealism has been the most ancient and the most prominent school in philosophy. In the words of Adams, "Idealism in one form or other permeates the whole of the history of philosophy".26 This idealism has been the most fundamental theory underlying educational principles. In the words of Robert R. Rusk, "It bestows dignity and grandeur upon human life by emphasising the distinctiveness of man's nature, attributing to him powers, not possessed by animals, which issue in idealslogical and aesthetic, it admits the existence of a Supreme Being, by its respect for human personality it provides the basis for democracy".27 The most fundamental question in the field of education is concerning its aim. This question raises queries about the nature of man and the possibility of its modification and transformation. Man's nature is very much concerned with his place in the cosmos. Therefore, the question of the aim of education is very much concerned with the question of the nature of the universe. Again, it is intimately concerned with the concept of culture prevalent in 82 a society. This makes for the close relation between philosophy and education. In the words of Blanshard and others, "The function of philosophy in universities is properly the same as its function in the cultural development of a society, to be

the intellectual conscience of the community".28 Education is based upon the distinctions between animal and human nature. It has generally aimed to develop the characteristics peculiar to man. In the words of Robert R. Rusk, "Those powers and their products are peculiar to man, and differentiate him from other animals. They lie beyond the range of the positive sciencesbiological and even psychological, they raise problems which only philosophy can hope to solve and make the only satisfactory basis of education a philosophical one."29 Education aims at imparting knowledge. Knowledge, however, requires a global outlook and a synthesis of various types of informations and experiences. This is a philosophical activity without which no education is possible. Therefore, the need of philosophical basis of education is rooted in the branch of philosophy known as epistemology. This has been expressed by Perry in somewhat different terms when he says, "Philosophy is neither accidental nor supernatural, but inevitable and normal".30 Besides its synthetic function, another important function of philosophy is the criticism of the postulates and conclusions of different sciences. Whenever a scientist delves deeper in his own particular field, he reaches a depth where the process of his thinking is not scientific but philosophical. This can be seen in the thinking of many a great scientist of the world. The importance of philosophy in the field of knowledge is, therefore, quite clear. From the point of view of different aspects of the individual and social life, and in different fields of knowledge, the discussion of the value of philosophy shows the utility of philosophy of education. In the worlds of J.W. Cunningham, "Philosophy thus grows directly out of life and its needs. Everyone who lives, if he lives at all reflectively, is in some degree a philosopher".31 In the words of Chesterton, "The most practical and important thing about a man is his view of universe his philosophy".32

References
1. Dewey, J., Democracy and Education, p. 386. 2. Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy, pp. 249-50. 3. John Dewey in Sources of Science of Education. 83 4. Plato, Republic, Book V. 5. Schlezinger, A.M., The Politics of Freedom, 1950, p. 237. 6. Kewal Motwani, "Sociology", University of Madras journal, July 1939, pp. 189-90. 7. F.H. Heinemann, Hibbert Journal, October 1957, p. 46. 8. Sri Aurobindo, Views and Reviews, p. 3. 9. Rusk, R.R., Philosophical Bases of Education, p. 9. 10. Adler, In Defence of the Philosophy of Education, 41st Year Book of the National Society for the Study of Education, p. 206. 11. Shrimali, K.L., Better Teacher Education, Ministry of Education, Government of India, 1954, p. 2. 12. Sri Aurobindo, Synthesis of Yoga, p. 351. 13. Sri Aurobindo, Letters on the Mother, p. 87. 14. Sri Aurobindo, Ibid. 15. Ibid., Vol. I, p. 72. 16. Ibid., p. 74. 17. Ibid., Vol. II, p. 434. 18. Ibid., p. 456. 19. The Riddle of This World, p. 24. 20. Sri Aurobindo, Evolution, p. 29.

21. Sri Aurobindo, Letters, Ist Series, p. 5. 22. Sri Aurobindo, The Synthesis of Yoga, p. 663. 23. Sharma, R.N., The Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo, IIIrd Ed. 1977, Kedar Nath Ram Nath, Meerut, pp. 57-58. 24. Cole, G.D.H., Essays in Social Theory, p. 47. 25. John Dewey, Democracy and Education, p. 378. 26. Adams, The Educational Theory, Macmillan&Co. 27. Robert R. Rusk, The Philosophical Bases of Education, University of London Press, p. 154. 28. Blanshard and Others, Philosophy in American Education, Harper&Bros., New York (1945), p. 80. 29. Rusk, R.R., The Philosophical Basis of Education, p. 154. 30. Perry, The Approach to Philosophy, p. 22. 31. Cunningham, J.K., Problems of Philosophy, p. 5. 32. Quoted by Hocking, Types of Philosophy, p. 4.

Questions for Exercise

1. Why should a teacher study educational philosophy? Would not educational psychology do? 2. Discuss whether there is a need for a philosophy of education over and above a science of education. 3. Discuss and elucidate, "All educational questions are ultimately questions of philosophy"Ross. 84 4. "Education is the dynamic side of philosophy." Discuss. 5. "Education may be regarded as the practical side of philosophy and philosophy as the intellectual aspect of education." How far do you agree with this statement? Give reasons. 6. "Both philosophy and education go hand in hand. Education depends on philosophy for its guidance and philosophy depends on education for its own formulation." Discuss. 7. What is Philosophy of Education? Discuss its scope and nature. 8. Point out the fields of Education in which a teacher needs philosophy. 9. Discuss the Methodology of Philosophy of Education. 10. Explain the need of Philosophy of Education in modern times. 85

Part II PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOLS OF EDUCATION

86 87

5 Idealism
Idealism is one of the oldest schools of thought in the world of philosophy, originating in human nature itself, continuing

from the primitive man to his present counterpart in some modified form or the other. From the idealistic standpoint it has overtones of spirituality since it believes that the ultimate existing element is spiritual in nature. The entire universe is an extension of the mind or soul. From the epistemological standpoint it is better called Idealism, implying thereby that thought or idea has greater validity than the physical object. From the normative standpoint it is accurately represented by the term Idealism which means that the theory attaches greater importance to ideals than to facts in this world. Obviously, the term idealism connotes different concepts when placed in various contexts. Whatever the context, the word definitely represents a particular theory in philosophy.

CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEALISM

It has always been believed that idealism is the philosophic theory which is a complete contradiction of the theory known as realism. Idealism has the following characteristics: 1. Universe subsists within the spirit or mind. According to this philosophic theory, the entire world is fundamentally of the nature of spirit or mind which accounts for its being called idealism. 2. Mechanistic explanation of universe is inadequate. Idealists refuses to accept that the world or universe is susceptible to a 88 mechanical explanation, or to believe that the processes of Nature can be explained on a mechanistic principle. For this reason the idealists are opposed to all deterministic thinking. 3. Teleological explanation of universe. Opposed to the mechanistic explanations of the universe the idealists turn to a teleological theory which holds that human life and natural processes have a common objective which both are simultaneously trying to achieve. They do not object to or reject science but for them the scientific explanation of the universe is not the last word on the subject. Their standpoint is best exemplified by the axiological attitude. 4. Synthesis between Man and Nature. It becomes inevitable for the idealists to believe that there is harmony between the natural processes and human activity. Both Man and Nature are busy in working out a common destiny. 5. Man is central to the universe. Idealists are also humanists from this standpoint. They believe that man, being the ultimate in spiritual existents, is central to the universe. Human life has a universal and omniscient importance or value. And in man's ultimate good lies the final objective of the universe. It is in man that mind, the spiritual element underlying the entire universe, realises its essential and purest nature. 6. Special attention to the normative and social sciences. Opposed to the realists and the materialists, the spiritualists or idealists do not accept the scientific explanation of the universe, based on scientific laws. They prefer the assistance of the normative and the social sciences in their own scheme of the universe. Ethics, aesthetics and logic make up the three normative sciences while the chief among the social sciences are psychology and sociology. The idealistic explanation of the universe makes greater use of psychology, ethics, logic, aesthetics, etc., than of chemistry, physics, mathematics and the rest of the natural sciences. It is only natural for such an explanation to be completely opposed to the materialistic or naturalistic explanation of the universe. 7. Evaluative explanation of the universe. In other words, the idealists profess an evaluative explanation of the universe and of human life, which is what makes them idealists. It should be kept in mind that the term idealists does not imply the vague-minded dreamer or imaginative visionary. The idealist does not reject the assistance of the natural sciences in comprehending 89 the universe but he does not accept such natural facts to be the be all and end all of human life. His notion comprehends the realization of truth, beauty and goodness in human life. 8. Conceptualists. In the field of epistemology the idealist is better called a conceptualist since he believes that the object has no existence apart from its concept. In professing this view the idealist propounds a theory completely at variance with the realist conception of the problem. He believes that the object and its qualities do not have any existence independent of the conception of them. Knowledge influences them. Knowledge of an object occurs not directly but indirectly, through the medium of thought. Objects are not public, since they change with the viewpoint from which they are observed. An object has no existence apart from the thought of it. Existence lies in being related to consciousness. 9. Universe is knowledge. The idealists hold that the universe can be known through the medium of reason or mind since

both mind and the universe are invested with an identical spiritual element. Hegel goes so far as to establish an identity between mind and Nature by positing that mental categories coincide with stages in the development of the universe. Whatever the minor differences among them, all idealists hold that the universe is knowable. 10. Emphasis on the mental or spiritual aspect of universe. Another important characteristic of the idealist thought is that it emphasizes the mental or spiritual aspects of the universe without nullifying or completely rejecting materialistic explanations of it. It is this higher aspect which conveys some meaning to the lower or material aspect. And everywhere the lower can be explained in terms of the higher. The naturalists or materialists reverse this by explaining the higher in terms of the lower. Idealism opposes this process. It is possible to derive some conception of the idealist position from the above elucidation.

IDEALISM VERSUS MATERIALISM

As two distinct systems of philosophy, idealism and materialism differ in the following respects: 1. Basic element in the universe. According to idealist theory, the basic element in the universe is mind or spirit while according 90 to the materialists the universe inheres in a material element or physical energy. 2. Element of creation. Idealists believe that the elements that are basic to creation are experience, thought, reason, intelligence, personality, values, moral and religious ideals, etc. On the other hand, the materialists believe that the basis of creation are substance, motion and physical energy. 3. Explanation of creation. In explaining creation the idealists postulate mind or spirit as prior to substance, and this helps them to provide a teleological explanation for the universe, or of conceiving the universe as an existent with an object. Materialist thinking tends to destroy this purposive edifice since it holds that it is material substance which is prior to mind and that the functioning of the universe can be explained with the help of such mechanical laws as conservation of energy and motion in electrically charged particles of matter. 4. Primary of mind or substance. In this manner, according to idealism, it is the mind which is the only real existent, material substance being no more than an impression, image or shadow of it. For the materialists, it is the material substance which has the highest reality while the mind is a secondary and accidental creation or emergent. According to the idealists, physical objects are only experimental while the actual reality in the universe is the mind. 5. Difference in epistemology. From the epistemological standpoint materialism is realism while idealism tends towards what can be called idealism. 6. Relation between Man and Nature. Idealism holds that man and Nature function in harmony while man is central to the scheme of the universe, a position that is completely denied and contradicted by the materialists. 7. Philosophic point of view. The philosophic standpoint of the idealists is idealist while the materialistic theory tends to a more realistic appraisal. Idealism makes a spiritual or evaluative appraisal of the universe and its functioning, materialism a more factual and realistic one. 8. Emphasis on normative versus physical sciences. In explaining the universe the idealists place greater emphasis upon the role played by such normative sciences as logic, aesthetics and ethics. Materialism, on the other hand, makes use of the natural sciences 91 physics, biology, chemistry and the rest of them to evolve a tenable theory of the origin and functioning of the universe. 9. Stress on spiritual versus physical aspect. In explaining the universe and the role of human beings and human life the idealists lay stress on the spiritual aspect of reality while the materialists transfer the importance to the physical side. As science has progressed inexorably the concepts of mind, spirit and matter have undergone considerable change, so much so that there is no conflict between materialism and spiritualism in present day philosophy. But it appears to be beyond doubt that idealism is nearer to an explanation of the modern human consciousness than materialism.

TYPES OF IDEALISM
Generally speaking, there are many varieties of idealism in vogue but the more prominent ones can be conveniently listed as follows: 1. Subjective Idealism. This particular species of idealism is to be found in the thought of Berkeley, the British philosopher in the tradition of empiricism. It is termed subjective since it holds that all objects of knowledge are subjective in as much that they depend upon the mind. It is equivalent to a conceptual theory since it also holds that the universe is composed of either minds alone or of minds and their ideas, nothing else besides. According to Berkeley, existence lies in perception, meaning thereby that a thing exists only when it is the subject of perception. Anything which cannot be the subject of mind cannot exist. He does not imply thereby that the object must be a subject of only a mind, but of any mind that exists in the universe. It is also difficult to have an infinite number of thoughts in one mind which is finite; they can exist only in an infinite mind, and this mind is God. Subjective idealism also holds that the qualities of an object have existence as elements in perception, not otherwise. Images depend upon the human mind while objects have their existence since they are perceived by God. Objects correspond to the knowledge of them while knowledge corresponds to the objects. Knowledge is direct awareness of the object. Objects are not public. 2. Phenomenalism. This particular form of idealism was propounded by Kant the German philosopher. Kant's first 92 discovery concerned the limits of man's knowledge, and it led him to the conclusion that the only knowledge that is possible to man is knowledge of the phenomenon. From this hypothesis he proceeded to argue that objects are phenomenal, that their existence as well as the existence of their qualities depends upon their being known. An object is just as it appears to being its phenomenal appearance. There is direct knowledge of the phenomenal object, and this knowledge depends upon the construction of the mind. We can never know the thing-in-itself, or what is otherwise called the Noumenal reality. Therefore, this kind of reasoning leads subjective idealism to a kind of scepticism. This type of idealism finds its greatest difficulties in the duality it has posited between phenomenal and noumenal reality, object and its sensations and their classes, and between the mind and its categories of thought. Hegel is the most important thinker of all those who indulged in the effort of trying to resolve this dualism. 3. Objective Idealism. The Hegelian form of idealism is also known as objective idealism. According to Hegel the ultimate reality is the absolute eternal substance, outside which nothing can and does exist. If he believed this, then obviously his thought resembled the subjective idealism of Berkeley. But his idealism is given a different designation for he combines it with a touch of realism. He believed that although objects are not independent of the mind they are real and not dependent upon the finite mind. He accepts the independent existence of objects, that is independent of the finite mind. Hence the name objective idealism. Deviating from the dualism between phenomenal and noumenal reality created by Kant, Hegel believes that objects are just what they appear to be although the perception of them changes along with the change in our knowledge of them. The existence of objects does depend upon knowledge, and so does the existence of their qualities. The nature or form of objects is determined by knowledge, which is direct. This knowledge of objects is private and personal rather than public because they are the subjects of individual and private minds, not limited by another mind. The Absolute is the ultimate subject, within which all the limited objects are mutually related. From the standpoint of the Absolute all knowledge is subjective but from man's standpoint it is objective. Hegel, therefore, represents the line of objective idealists. 93

IDEALISM IN EDUCATION
Ever since knowledge dawned in human mind man has been thinking about problems ontological, epistemological, eschatological and axiological. The questions of philosophy in the beginning of human knowledge were everywhere mixed with psychological problems. Thus, psychology in the beginning was concerned with the nature of the mind and the processes of consciousness. As men lived in small groups and the society was generally confined to a particular village, city or group of villages, the solutions offered were simple. There was hardly any distinction between social and political problems as the political institutions were developed as a means to social welfare. Therefore, most of the ancient thinkers did not distinguish between social philosophy and political philosophy. As the life was simple and social stratification and differentiation was not complex the thinkers offered solutions working in more than one field of knowledge. Most of the thinkers were teachers and men of education who used to pass their life completely free from worldly affairs. The state and the society generally extended support to these scholars and they were generally respected and followed. The job of instruction and education of the younger generation was generally entrusted to these men of letters. The state supported finance but not interfered in the process of education. These great teachers formed their own personal institutions where

their disciples collected to hear their learned discourses and learn through their lives. In this way, society was generally governed by the teachings of these great scholars though the administrative machinery was almost everywhere in the hands of the state.

AIMS AND IDEALS OF EDUCATION

Idealism has influenced every sphere of education. In the first place we will glance at the impact of idealism on the aims of education. Since idealism believes human personality to be the most important, it wants education to aim at the development of human personality culminating in self-realization. In the words of Home, "The end of ends, the goal of goals, according to Idealism, is the increasing realization of the Absolute Idea for the individual, society and the race". Further explaining 94 this aim of education, Rusk has commented, "We may accept that the aim of education is the enhancement or enrichment of personality, the differentiating feature of which is the embodiment of universal values".1 These universal values are expressed as the beauty, goodness and truth, and the aim of education is to concretise these values in the child's life. Thus the idealists cherish the following aims and ideals of education: 1. Development of personality. As has been already pointed out, the most important aim of education, according to the idealist thinkers, both ancient and modern, Eastern and Western, is the development of personality. This has been called man-making by Vivekananda. Explaining this ideal of education, Herman Harell Home says, "The forces that make men and women I find to be heredity, environment and will. Education is not a fourth elemental force, but it does its work in cooperation with these three. Education, through public-opinion influences and may come to control, the force of heredity, it is itself a part of the physical and social environment, it assists in the formation of will. By consciously directing, through education and otherwise, these forces shall in time have the true superman of our modern dreams, as well as the ideal people of Plato's Republic. But unlike Plato and Shaw, we shall have to work through, not without, the family as an institution."2 The idealists believe that man is God's finest and ultimate creation. That is why development of the human personality has been accepted as the aim of education, and stress has been laid on the teaching of humanitarian subjects such a literature, art, religion, ethics, etc. Through education the cultural and social heritage of the community must be maintained and transmitted to the following generations. Some other idealists believe that the aim of education is to guide the individual to self-realization, for this also includes the development of the personality. Such development, in fact, is the development of those divine qualities which are inherent in human beings but which are dormant at his birth. The educator's task is to manifest these qualities. And for this reason every human being has an equal right to education. 2. Self-realisation. As has been already pointed out, according to idealists the aim of education is self-realisation. This is the individualist aim of education emphasised by the idealist. 95 3. Development of will power. Self-realisation requires development of will power. H.H. Home has given eight points for the realisation of this ideal: (i) The training of the will should be indirect by activity rather than idea. (ii) The object lesson method according to time and context should be used. (iii) The power of will should be increased by self-suggestion, knowledge and practice. (iv) Practice is the only way to acquire will power. (v) Proper discipline leads to will power. (vi) The educands should be acquainted of facts concerning nature and society. (vii) Development of moral character by ethical instruction. (viii) Freedom to make choice in most of the matters concerning the individual. 4. Synthesis of Man and Nature. Another aspect of the idealistic conception of education is the synthesis between nature and human beings. Adams has suggested that education must aim at achieving an understanding of nature in human beings

and educating them to achieve harmony with it. This can be done by acquainting the educated with the permanent laws which guide and control natural phenomena. These laws of nature are the causes of all natural activity. Only through such knowledge can the educand arrive at a harmony with all that lies around him. 5. Cultural Development. Greatest significance is attached to the cultural environment created by religion, morality, art, literature, mathematics, science, etc. That is why the idealist tendency is to stress the teaching of humanities so that the cultural and social heritage is maintained intact and allowed to grow. Education is also concerned with enabling the individual to make his own contribution to the cultural development of the community. The ideals of beauty, goodness and truth are the spiritual ideals of the human race, and the child has to be trained to achieve them in reality. Education must transform the child into a true human being by educating him to manifest the divine qualities which are invested in him. The idealists argue that there is system in every part of the universe, and 96 hence the individual must also be taught to create some system in his life through intellectual and spiritual guidance. For this it is essential to develop every aspect of his lifethe physical, moral, ethical, intellectual, spiritual and the aesthetic. Failure to develop any one of these would create an imbalance in the individual's personality. In the words of Froebel, "The object of education is the realisation of a faithful, pure, inviolable and hence holy life. Education should lead and guide man to clearness concerning himself, and in himself, to face with nature, and to unity with God". 6. Exploration of Universal Values. Idealism places more emphasis upon more universal objects of education. Ross puts it thus, "The function of education is to help us in our exploration of the ultimate universal values so that the truth of the universe may become our truth and give power to our life. Education must aim at adapting not only to the physical environment but to every kind of environment."3 Rusk points out, "The purpose of education is to enable the child to reconcile himself to reality in all its manifestations, not merely to adapt himself to a natural environment". From among all these various kinds of environment, the cultural environment is considered to be the most important because man's cultural characteristics are his most distinctive qualities.

IDEALISM AND CURRICULUM

Explaining the idealist bases of curriculum as the imparting of spiritual and cultural heritage to the child along with his self and personality development, Herman H. Horne writes, "It is better to centre education in ideals for children and the race rather than in children themselves. After all children are immature, dependent and plastic members of the race. They are often irrational in their individuality." As Socrates said in effect to the sophists, "Not man but reason is the measure of all things, not individuality but universality, not percepts, but concepts. Ideals are the norms for all human experience, including that of children. After all, it is still true that obedience to just law is a virtue, that following physical laws leads to health, that truth is something to be discovered, rather than made, that conformity is a large element even in creativity, 97 that repression is a necessary phase of expression. Under the influence of paidocentrism (what a hybrid), self-expression may easily become self-explosion." Idealists insist on emphasis being placed on the study of humanities such as literature, art, religion, morality, etc., along with the teaching of science. All the elements necessary for attaining God are included in the curriculum suggested by idealistic followers of Plato, who laid down that education must aim to realize the ideals of truth, beauty and goodness. Hence, he has suggested the inclusion of all those subjects or disciplines which help in the realization of these ideals. Most significant among man's activities are the intellectual, the aesthetic and the moral. The teaching of language, literature, history, geography, mathematics and science will encourage intellectual activity while the aesthetic impulse can be reinforced through art and poetry. Moral activities can be taught and instilled in the educand through the teaching of religion, ethics, etc. This curriculum is determined on the basis of the goals to be realized through education and by the criterion that it must reflect the experience, culture and glory of the human race. Man's experiences relate not only to his physical or natural environment but also to his social experiences, knowledge of which can be obtained through a study of the natural and the social sciences. James Ross, the educationist, has classified human activity in two groupsphysical actions and spiritual activity. Physical activity includes the entire range of actions relating to bodily welfare and to motor skills. The teaching of these must also be a part of education and they can be taught through physiology, exercise, medicine, hygiene, etc. Spiritual activity comprehends all intellectual, ethical, aesthetic and religious activity, all of which can be taught through history, geography, science, mathematics, language, ethics, art and religion. Herbart, the idealist philosopher of education, grants these subjects the main place in the curriculum because these subjects can contribute more than any other to the spiritual progress of man. But this is the shortcoming of the idealistic philosophy because it does not attach any significance to the

teaching of science. Herbart points out that the part that literature and history can play in the spiritual development of man, cannot be played by science. 98 For that reason, scientific subjects such as the natural sciences, mathematics and even history and geography are granted a secondary role. T.P. Nunn, another educationist, has glanced at the idealistic conception of the educational curriculum, and has remarked, "The school is to consolidate the nation's spiritual strength, to maintain its historic continuity, to secure its achievements, and to guarantee its future".4 In order to achieve all these goals, education in the school should consider two kinds of activities. In the first group fall such activities which create conditions by which the individual and social life is ensured and maintained, and this can be done through physical health, customs, social organisations, ethical conduct, etiquette, religion, etc. Education must provide opportunities, therefore, for physical training, ethics, religion, etc. The second group of activities is the one which is more important outside the sphere of the school. In this group lie those activities which maintain the cultural life of the community because they are creative. In order to evolve skills for such activities, educationists advocate teaching of literature, art, music, various kinds of handicrafts and manual skills, sciences, mathematics, history, etc. Hence the curriculum must be so designed that it can help to acquaint the individual with his social and cultural heritage and also to enable him to make some positive contribution to this heritage. Nunn writes, "In the school curriculum all these activities should be represented. For these are the grand expression of the human spirit, and theirs are the forms in which the creative energies of every generation must be disciplined if the movement of civilization is to be worthily maintained."5

IDEALISM AND THE EDUCATOR

Idealistic pattern of education grants the highest place to the educator, and conceives of the educator and educand as two parts of an organic plan. The educator creates a specific environment for the educand's development and provides guidance so that the latter may progress towards perfection and a rounded personality. The most precise explanation of the educator's role is manifested in Froebel's kindergarten pattern 99 of education, in which the school is treated as a garden, the educand as a delicate plant which requires nurturing and the educator as the cautious gardener. Although even in the absence of the gardener the plant will continue to grow and will inevitably follow the laws governing its nature, the gardener has a certain significance in that he has the skill to develop plants. He may be unable to change a rose into a cabbage, but he certainly can contribute his mite to the plant's development. His efforts help in achieving perfection in this development, a level of perfection which would otherwise have been impossible. The educator plays a parallel role in the school. He can guide the educand appropriately because he knows the rules which govern the latter's development. Through his guidance he can make this natural development into a process leading to perfection and beauty. Ross explains, "The naturalist may be content with briars, but the idealist wants fine developing according to the laws of nature, to attain levels that would otherwise be denied to him".6 Clearly, the idealists attach much more value to the educator than do the naturalists. Adams opined that both the educator and the educand are two parts of the intellectual universe both of which should be considered equally important. The educator inspires the educand to realize the ideals of truth, goodness and beauty, and guides him along the path to its realization.

IDEALISM AND EDUCATIONAL METHODS

Turning to methodology in education, idealists suggest that the method must be oriented to achieving the complete development of all the innate abilities of the child and to train him for self-realization. In Rivers' words, "The process of education in childhood consists, or should consist, in the direction of innate or instinctive tendencies towards an end in harmony with the highest good of society of which the child is an active member. Idealists believe in a harmony between individual and social objectives The child must be provided with a liberal environment for his development and his education should be related to present experience. One finds, therefore, that many elements of the idealist methodology are common with those of the naturalist, realist and pragmatist methodology. 100 The idealist methodology in education lays special stress on the three following processes: 1. Instruction. The term instruction as used here implies educational instruction which is believed by Herbart to be essential to education. But instruction does not mean that the child's mind should be stuffed with various scraps of information. It implies a modification and a refinement of the child's mind. For this it is essential that the educator must

provide sympathetic guidance. The idealists believe that training of all kinds must be provided in the school. 2. Activity. Like the naturalist methodology, the educational methods recommended by the idealists also are based on activity. The child must learn through doing. Although the child can learn much by asking questions after lectures in the school, creative activity is much more important. This creative activity should be natural, continuous and progressive. This helps in moving towards self-realization, because it encourages the child to manifest his innate tendencies. Through mental activity the child learns cheerfully and happily and this also helps in the development of his personality. Besides, by these means the child learns rapidly. Hence, idealists also stress that instruction should be active. 3. Experience. Idealist methodology also places considerable stress on experience. Every educand must base all his education on his own experience. The educator's task is not to stuff his own experience in the educand's mind but to provide the latter some insight into his own experience. The guidance given by the educator helps to manifest many frustrated and repressed tendencies and drives of the educand. Independence is an essential pre-requisite for experience. For this reason idealists believe freedom to be an essential part of education but it must be remembered that this freedom is not absolute, but controlled and guided. It is evident from the foregoing account that idealists believe the experiences of both the educator and the educand to be of great importance. Both of them should be active and they should indulge in the mutual exchange of experience so that they can progress. The teaching method should be such that the child should recognise it as a mode of self-instruction. 101

IDEALISM AND DISCIPLINE

Discipline is a part of the question concerning educational methods and some people feel that idealists are in complete opposition to the naturalists for the latter believe in complete freedom while the former insist on discipline. The only grain of truth in this assumption in that idealists stress the value of discipline as part of the educative process, without, in any way, detracting from the importance of freedom and liberty. In fact, idealists interpret discipline as being based on independence and they try to harmonize the two. Rigorous discipline is never accepted by the idealists. Discipline must always take the shape of self-discipline, because only then can it guide the educand along the path of self-realization. Education basically aims at training the child in true independence. It is argued that the child is not independent at birth. This independence is granted to him or acquired by him in the process of education because, in the absence of education, there is no self-realisation, and without self-realization there is no independence. Rousseau believed that the individual was born free but that later on he is bound in chains. On the contrary, Froebel expressed the conviction that man is born in chains, and that he has to steadily win this freedom for himself, for, no one can grant it to him. Independence is not a divine gift, because even God cannot give independence. True independence can be won only by oneself, by one's own acts. Through the medium of education the individual can break the chains which bind him at birth. The educator must develop in his educands the capability of reasoning and arriving at a decision by the use of which the educand can achieve his own development, naturally and by his own inspiration. Independence lies not in a revolt against the environment but in achieving harmony with it. Hence, the child must be trained for independence in the school. He should be taught to discipline himself and to contribute to the disciplined behaviour of others, besides himself. Through a steady development of this kind, the individual becomes the member of a group of self-disciplined individuals. It can thus be concluded that the idealists do not favour the notion of allowing the child to roam free of any restraint but prefer to guide his freedom. For this reason, the child's activities are 102 controlled in the school. Physical punishment and external restraints are not the methods of achieving this. It is better realized through developing such qualities as self-resignation, obedience, humanity, politeness, etc. Once these qualities are evolved in the individual, he achieves a stage of self-discipline. Froebel denies any importance to any system of punishment. Instead, he believes that it is better to encourage self-control and self-guidance in the child through sympathy. He believes that the child should not be submitted to any external pressure. It is only through discipline that the child can realize the ideals of education, and once it has understood this, it can discipline itself. Idealists, therefore, believe in the efficacy of discipline through influence and impression, not through fear and coercion. But, discipline can be created among the educands only when the educators themselves create and present good models of discipline. Their own conduct and behaviour should be conditioned by a knowledge of the child's interests and inclinations. In their own behaviour, they must present the highest ideal of self-discipline, for only then can any discipline be expected from the educand. Idealists have criticised the establishment of discipline through threats, repression and punishment. They believe that the entire natural, social and spiritual environment in which the child lives should be fashioned in such a way that it should encourage the desire for self-discipline in the child. Plato believed that the child in the school is restrained with the intention that he may be granted greater liberty gradually as he develops higher. As the individual develops to a level of higher responsibility, he should be granted successively more liberty.

IDEALISM IN CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION

Though idealism may have been very much left aside in the contemporary field of education, it is undoubtedly the most ancient school which has influenced education throughout its history. Even now the following points may be noted concerning the influence of idealism in the contemporary field of education. 1. Wider and higher aims. As the nationalist aims of education are giving place to humanist aim, idealism has become more relevant to the modern educationist. The idealists present the 103 highest and the widest aims and ideals of education summed up in such terms as self-realisation, man-making, development of personality, harmony of man and nature, realisation of truth, goodness and beauty and realisation of heaven upon earth. All these aims have been emphasised by contemporary philosophers of education in East and West. 2. The ideal teacher. In this age of science the model of ideal teacher is still presented by idealism. Whatever may be said about the need of practical education and the utilisation of scientific means, no teacher can influence the educands without some sort of idealism. Teaching involves communication which very much depends upon rapport between the teacher and the taught. This is possible only when the teacher considers the taught as a part of his self and thus becomes selfless in his profession. The ideal of character building cannot be achieved unless the teacher himself presents the model of ideal character. 3. Integrated and multisided curriculum. While other systems of philosophy of education lay emphasis upon science and technology, the idealists point out the eternal value of humanities, social sciences, art and literature. In fact, they lay emphasis upon an integrated curriculum which may include every branch of knowledge. Thus the idealist curriculum is the most liberal, the most dynamic, the most multisided and therefore, most conducive to the cultural development of the individual and society. 4. Moral education. Thinkers everywhere today lament at the general loss of moral character. Everywhere development of moral character is being considered as an urgent need, to save the world from future catastrophe. The idealists explain the aims and means of moral education. 5. Self-discipline. The idealist concept of freedom as self-discipline has come to stay. It prescribes central place to the child in the system of education and lays emphasis upon natural development. Natural development requires freedom but freedom cannot be enjoyed without self-discipline. Contemporary educationists unanimously accept the need of freedom and discipline and agree that self-discipline is the only way for proper development. 6. Psychological methods. Even the pragmatists agree that some sort of idealism is necessary for teaching, particularly that of humanities, art and literature. The idealists include instruction, activity and experience in their methods of teaching. The idealist 104 method of teaching is most effective in religious and moral teaching. It is a solid ground for character building and realisation of intimate relations between the teacher and the taught. In spite of the abovementioned contribution of idealism to education, today it is more and more being left in the background while pragmatism and realism are coming to the front. This is due to the following disadvantages of the idealist philosophy of education: 1. Utopian aims. Plato, the first idealist philosopher of education, presented a scheme which was through and through Utopian in spite of its deep insight into human life here and there. In fact, in his idealistic flight the thinker often leaves the solid ground and presents aims and ideals which can be neither realised nor cherished. 2. Theoretical methods. The idealist method of teaching makes too much of memory, personal contact and brain faculties. They lay less emphasis upon the development of various types of interests and abilities which help the educand in playing important role in society. 3. Lack of specialization. The idealist curriculum is too wide and lacks specialisation which is a growing demand of modern education. 4. Neglect of science and technology. The idealist thinkers have laid emphasis upon culture in education and neglected

science and technology. Therefore, today most of the educational institutions have rejected idealistic curriculum. 5. Teacher-centred. While modern education is child-centred or educand-centred, the idealist system is teacher-centred. By expecting too much from the teacher it does not allow him to live as a human being with a multisided personality. Too much expectation from the teacher ultimately results in his criticism by the students and society. The role of teacher today is very much different from his role in ancient times. Education today is a life-long but limited part of life. It goes on even without the teacher. Various audiovisual means are replacing the all important role of the teacher. Therefore, neither the modern teacher nor the taught accept the ancient idealist concept and status of the teacher. From the perusal of the above mentioned advantages and disadvantages of the idealist philosophy of education it is clear 105 that though some sort of idealism must stay in every field of education, the aims and ideals, the methods, the curriculum and the school management, etc., the ideal of education cannot be realised without the help of naturalism, pragmatism and realism.

References
1. Rusk Robert R., The Philosophical Bases of Education, p. 194. 2. Herman Harrell Home, Idealism in Education, Preface, p. 10, Macmillan. 3. Ross, The Philosophical Bases of Education, p. 196. 4. Nunn, T.P., Education: Its Data and First Principles, London (1923), p. 221. 5. Ibid. 6. Ross, James, S., Groundwork of Educational Theory, p. 121.

Questions for Exercise

1. "Idealism in one form or another permeates the history of education the world over." Discuss and explain important characteristics of idealism. 2. Discuss idealist aims and ideals in education. 3. Write short note on Idealist Curriculum. 4. What is the role of an educator according to idealism? Explain idealist educational methods. 5. Write short note on Idealist Concept of Discipline. 6. Point out the influence of Idealism in the contemporary field of education. Show the disadvantages of Idealism. 106

6 Realism
Realism is the theory that holds that the existence of objects is real. For this reason it is also sometimes called objectivism. Both realism and objectivism are metaphysical theories concerned with the existence of things. In epistemology realism holds that in the process of knowledge things are independent of the existence and influence of the knower. Hence the main tenet of this theory in the epistemological field is that object and its qualities are independent of and uninfluenced by the knower and the process of knowledge.

THE CHIEF TENETS OF REALISM

As a general rule the chief tenets of realism are the following: 1. Existence of objects is independent of knowledge. According to the native realists objects exist irrespective of our knowledge of them. Scientific realism accepts this notion but according to it thoughts concerning the objects are based on

the mind. 2. Qualities are inherent in known objects. According to the naive realist the qualities that are experienced in the objects are part and parcel of the object while the scientific realist distinguishes between primary and secondary qualities, maintaining that primary qualities belong to the object while the secondary are attributed to the object by the mind in the process of knowing. 3. Knowledge does not effect the object or its qualities. According to the naive realist the object or its qualities do not suffer by becoming the subjects of knowledge but according to the scientific realist this theory does not hold true for secondary qualities. 107 4. Knowledge of objects is direct. According to the naive realist, knowledge of the objects is direct and perceptual. According to representationism, this is true of simple thoughts, for in complex thought knowledge is indirect since complex thoughts are compounded of simple ones. 5. Objects are common. According to the analytical realists objects are common while according to the representationists objects are commonly available only for the purposes of primary or elementary thought. Scientific realism holds that the same object may be experienced different by different individuals. 6. Relation between object and thought. Naive realism holds that there is relation between object and its thought, but the scientific realist rejects this theory.

TYPES OF REALISM
The main types of realism are the following: 1. Naive realism. This is propounded by common sense according to which objects are independent of mind whether they are known or not. Object possesses its own qualities. Knowledge does not affect the object. The object is precisely what it is seen to be. Objects are known directly and objects are common for all. 2. Representationism. This theory is the product of Locke's mind. It states that the object's existence is independent of knowledge but metaphysical thought depends upon the mind. Primary, objective, individual and secondary qualities are inherent in the object. Knowledge does not impress upon the object but it can influence metaphysical thought. Thoughts are the representations of objects. Knowledge of objects is direct in the case of simple thoughts but indirect in the case of complex ones. In simple thoughts objects are common or universal but not so in complex thinking. 3. Neo-Realism. This is a novel approach to the Platonic theory of reality. In this theory it is believed that the total object is not the subject of knowledge but its aspects are, and they are independent of knowledge. The qualities of the object are its own and knowledge does not affect them. An object is what it is manifestly seen to be. Knowledge of the aspects of an object is direct while logical entities are universal. 108 4. Critical Realism. The theory was first propounded in America at the turn of the century and is critical in nature. It also believes that the existence of objects does not depend upon knowledge in any way. The object is possessed of qualities and is directly known. Objects may or may not be universal. Critical realism does not hold that the object is previously what it is seen to be or that it is seen to be exactly what it is. When the object becomes object of knowledge it is influenced by knowledge. Knowledge can be direct as well as indirect. The relation between the knower and known is not direct but takes place through the medium of thought, which is the subject matter of knowledge. Different people can have different knowledge of an identical object. These different theories of realism have been arranged in order of their historical appearance and none of them has been found to satisfy completely. Each and every one has been objected to and found wanting in some respect.

COMPARISON OF IDEALISM AND REALISM

In the varied fields of epistemology, metaphysics and evolution, idealism and realism present two almost completely differing theories. They differ in the following respects: 1. Difference in epistemology. Idealism and realism differ in the following respects on the various questions of epistemology:

(i) According to idealism objects have no existence apart from their ideas, while according to realism, objects have an existence independent of any knowledge of them. (ii) Idealism maintains that qualities are imposed on the object by the mind while realism holds that qualities are a part of the object. (iii) The idealistic tenet is mat knowledge influences the object and its qualities while the realist theory is that objects cannot be affected in this way. (iv) According to idealism objects are known indirectly through the medium of their ideas but realism holds that objects are known directly. (v) In idealism it is believed that different objects appear differently to different people but in realism it is believed that objects are universal. 109 (vi) According to idealism objects are not what they appear to be since their knowledge is indirect but realism maintains that objects are precisely what they appear to be. 2. Metaphysical Differences. From the metaphysical standpoint realism and idealism differ in the following respects: (i) According to the idealists the universe exists within the mind while the realists are of the opinion that the natural world is independent of the mind. (ii) The idealists believe in some kind of synthesis between man and nature while the realists deny the existence of any such synthesis. (iii) Idealism states that man is the centre of the universe while realism does not attach the same importance to man with reference to universe. (iv) Idealists are idealistic while the realists are realistic. 3. Difference on cosmology. Realism and idealism differ in the following respects on questions regarding cosmology: (i) According to idealism the mechanistic explanation of the universe is not adequate while realists propound this mechanistic explanation. (ii) Idealism holds that creation of the universe is teleological while the realists do not believe in there being any purpose in creation. (iii) In explaining creation the idealists lay the stress on normative and social sciences while the realists rely more heavily on the natural sciences in their explanation of creation. (iv) Idealism puts forth a value judgement of the creation while realism is more factual in this analysis. (v) According to the idealists the world is known through the mind while realists do not attach so much importance to the mind in understanding the universe. (vi) Idealism stresses the mental and spiritual in its explanation of the world and realism the material and physical. From the above analysis of idealism and realism it should be fairly obvious that the two theories are almost contradictory 110 and mutually exclusive. In evaluating the two it must be said that idealism seems more appropriate for understanding the values of human life, which is, in fact, the aim of all our knowledge and science. A more comprehensive standpoint, on the other hand, will make it clear that both idealism and realism view the universe from different standpoint, and hence the difference in their respective metaphysics, epistemology and cosmology. To a liberal, dynamic philosopher with broad vision the two will appear to be complementary. In their respective ways both show glimpses of truth and according to one's standpoint one may be as satisfied with one as one may be with the other. It depends on one's mental make up as to which will appeal to one. Nevertheless, it must be said that idealism, on the whole, is a philosophy that is more mature, refined, optimistic, comprehensive and it elevates the lot of mankind. Nothing can be gained denigrating realism but there can be no denying superiority of idealism.

REALISM IN EDUCATION
Landmarks The following may be considered landmarks in the field of realistic thinking in education: 1. Erasmus (1446-1537). According to Erasmus knowledge is of two kinds: Object knowledge and world knowledge. Of these the world knowledge comes first and then comes object knowledge. However, object knowledge is more important than world knowledge. In the curriculum Greek, Latin and Grammar should be taught first of all. This helps in gaining proper object knowledge after which teaching in other subjects may be started. 2. Rabelais (1483-1533). Rabelais supported social, moral, religious and physical education in place of classical, linguistic and literary education. He pleaded for free thinking. According to him books should be not only mastered but also practised. The teaching should be made interesting. This is also true in physical education. The aim of education is to make practical life better. 3. John Milton (1608-1674). Milton's philosophy of education is available in his book entitled, Tractate on Education. According to 111 Milton the aim of education is to know God, to love Him and to be one with Him. Milton presented a plan of education for the child from 12 to 21 years of age. First of all, Latin, Grammar, Arithmetic, Geometry and morality should be taught. After it education may be imparted in agriculture, physiology, handicraft, natural philosophy, geography, etc. Poetry, literature, languages, economics, politics, history, etc., may be taught as supplementary studies. Milton gives more importance to ideas than words, to practical efficiency than ostentatious achievements. He defined education in these words, "I call, therefore, a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public of peace and war". 4. Michael de Montaigne (1533-1592). Montaigne represented socialistic realism which aimed at making child a worldly man. Socialistic realism supported utilitarian viewpoint in education. It criticised bookish knowledge and supported the idea to make knowledge practical. Montaigne was a humanist and a naturalist. He was a realist and a socialist. In fact, he was a socialistic realist. The aim of knowledge, according to him, is to enhance knowledge and reasoning power. Nothing should be admitted without understanding. It is improper to take abnormal interest in goods. Knowledge must be practical. The child should be trained for worldly activities. Virtues should be created since these are the bases of enjoyment of the world. The function of philosophy is not only to tell about thinking but about the livelihood. It gives us a knowledge of virtues. Moral knowledge should be gathered from the biographies of great persons. 5. Richard Mulcaster (1531-1621). Mulcaster represented sensuous or empirical realism. According to empirical realism real education emphasises training of senses and not the memory. Education is a natural process and should be based in nature. Philosophy of education should be scientific and not imaginary. Word knowledge should follow the perception of the object. New practical ways should be adopted. According to Mulcaster the aim of education is to develop physical and mental power. Child is the centre of education. Mother tongue should be the medium of education. The teachers should have a sound knowledge of the method of teaching. 6. Francis Bacon (1561-1626). Bacon was also a supporter of empirical realism. He condemned bookish education and tried 112 to make it practical. According to him practical knowledge may be gained through the study of Nature. Subjects such as philosophy, literature and language should be considered secondary. Knowledge can be gained by inductive method. This is particularly true in the field of science. Bacon is known as a great supporter of the inductive method in science. 7. Ratke (1571-1635). Ratke was also a supporter of empirical realism. He favoured education through mother tongue. He maintained that one thing should be taught at one time. Teaching should be done in free environment. Learning should be discouraged. Object knowledge should be acquired by direct experience and experiment. 8. Comenius (1592-1670). Comenius presented far more clear ideas than other realist philosophers. He laid emphasis upon mother tongue, graded curriculum, suitable textbooks, practical application of teaching and four stages of educational

structure. 9. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841). The aim of education according to Herbart, is the multisided development of interests. The child should be made interested in his social environment. The aim of education is character development. This, however, cannot be achieved by preaching but by presenting moral example before the children. 10. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Herbert Spencer was a naturalist as well as a realist. Complete living is the aim of education and also the aim of life. This may be realised by doing the following activities: 1. Self-preservation, i.e., care of health. 2. Earning a living (Preparation for vocation). 3. Fulfilling duties regarding race-preservation. 4. Fulfilling duties of a citizen. 5. Utilization of leisure. All these activities should be done scientifically.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
The realistic aim of education is a happy and integrated life. According to the American educationist Franklin Bobit, happiness in life may be achieved by fulfilment of human responsibilities and obligations such as: 113 1. Activities concerned with language, 2. Activities concerned with hygiene, 3. Citizenship activities, 4. Ordinary social activities, 5. Leisure activities, 6. Activities of mental health, 7. Religious activities, 8. Activities concerning race-preservation, 9. Vocational behaviour activities, 10. Vocational activities. The child should be provided complete knowledge of society. He should know the social circumstances, social organisation and natural environment. Learning is the art of leading practical life. This requires scientific attitude. Scientific attitude is a rational attitude. It is objective and sensuous. The aim of education is to enable the child to acquire knowledge of definite and real objects and to analyse it through reason. In the sphere of education, realism made its appearance as the revolt against theoretical and verbal education. From the earliest ages educationists have been trying to relate education to the social and natural environment, but very often this truth was forgotten and the process of education was allowed to become very theoretical and merely verbal. At all such times, realism has appeared as the reaction to this tendency. At the root of realism were two factorsthe disutility of ancient and medieval ideals, and the development of the scientific tendency. By the sixteenth century an awareness had broken upon men and ancient ideas could not satisfy their needs because they were impractical. In Europe, during the Renaissance, there was a reaction to old Monasticism and Scholasticism. It came to be believed that men must aim at evolving humane qualities, and for this it was felt that a study of the literature in Greek and Latin was essential. After the Renaissance, the next tendency which became prominent was Humanism in which the Greek and Latin literatures came to be called humanistic because of their unique contribution to the progress of mankind. Individuals in favour of these literatures came to be called Humanists and their ideas on education gave rise to the concept of Humanitarian education.

114 But very soon it was realised that the only thing which could be derived from Greek and Roman literature was a definite style and grammar. When Cicero's style became the object and aim of education, humanitarian education was converted to Ciceroism. An unnecessary emphasis upon the study of dead languages and bookish language within the school drew education far away from real life, and bore little relation to the life outside it. After the period of humanism came the period of Reformation. This, too did not go beyond obeying a set of rules and concepts, but it gave a tremendous fillip to research by showing a deep inclination towards reason and intelligence which encouraged free thinking. It was the unprecedented growth of science. A revolution in the sphere of knowledge was created by the researches of Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Kepler, Harvey, Bacon and others. In this manner, realism came into existence as the result of the growth of science and an inclination to search for the truth. According to the realists, education should be made to conform to the social and individual needs of the child so that he may lead a happy and contented life in the future. Whatever the other ideals of education, its primary purpose was to prepare the child for real life, and the criterion of successful education lay in its ability to prepare the child for adult life. One of the major problems which the individual has to face in adult life is the problem of earning one's livelihood. Hence, education must take care that it enables a man to earn his livelihood. And when the emphasis came to be laid on livelihood, it was only natural that the realist pattern of education should stress the need for teaching scientific subjects rather than artistic or literary subjects. In this, efforts are made to harmonise the child's education with real life. The environment of the school should be such that it creates qualities which are required in the life outside the school. Ancient and medieval education was both bookish and exclusively mental. According to the realists, the first function of education was to develop the qualities of determination, reason and intelligence so that he should facilely solve the problems of life. For this reason realists favour the empirical methods of teaching in which all education is done through actual experience. The realist thinkers also favour education through the medium of the mother tongue 115 through the medium of demonstrations, tours and actual experiments. This brings education nearer to life, and also stimulates the use of one's own intelligence instead of making demands only upon the educand's memory. In this manner, it can be concluded that the realists want education to keep in mind the social and individual needs of the educands.

CURRICULUM
According to the realists the child should be allowed to choose subjects according to his ability from detailed curriculum. He should be taught what is useful in his life. Learning according to one's abilities results in success in practical life. Subjects should be related to one another. They should be planned according to the needs of the society. Education should enable the student to adjust to changing social circumstances. Phrases such as, 'knowledge for the sake of knowledge', 'art for the sake of art', etc., are meaningless. The curriculum should have utility. Subjects such as literature, art, music, dance, etc., are unnecessary. The curriculum should lay emphasis upon science subjectsphysics, chemistry, biology, astrology, etc.

METHODS OF TEACHING
Realist thinkers emphasise objectivity, knowledge of scientific facts and the knowledge of the real. Students should be helped to know objectively. This requires knowledge through sense organs. Words are symbols to convey experience. They help in communication of knowledge. Practical verification is the test of all knowledge. Propositions which cannot be verified are nonsense. Facts are related to the present. The teacher should enable the student to know the world. He should not give personal opinions but clarify the facts. In fact, the facts should themselves be revealed without any distortion. Thus, the realists support fact-centred method of teaching. According to the realist the knowledge of the real involves two laws: Law of aggregation and the law of conversion of simplicity. There is continuity in nature. In concept formation the feelings should not be allowed to interfere. In the law of conversions of simplicity, it has been pointed out that space 116 and time are divided for the sake of convenience. The whole is the aggregate of parts. The parts do not loose their existence in the whole. Therefore, the proper method of teaching is to begin with the part and reach the whole. Knowledge should be analysed into principles, and principles into hypothesis. Facts should be analysed into propositions. Thus, the method of teaching should involve analysis and rational classification. Realist approach to education is child-centred. The method of teaching should change according to the requirement of the

child. The intellect of the child should be developed to enable him to know the facts. Experimentation should be the basis of facts. Knowledge is uniform in nature. The teacher should have firm faith in science. He should have a scientific attitude and develop the same in the educand. He should himself investigate and encourage the educands to do so. He should know the experimental method and train the educands in it. He should understand the needs of the student and fulfil them. He should render a clear, lucid and systematic understanding of scientific facts to the student. He should keep his personal opinion apart from objective teaching. He should keep an eye upon child psychology and adolescence psychology and mould his methods of teaching accordingly. He should make a selection of subject matter according to the interests of the student.

SCHOOL ORGANISATION
According to the realist the school should be organised on the basis of needs of society. Educational institutions should be opened according to local needs and not by political pressure. Science teaching must be done in every school as academic and literary subjects alone do not fulfil the needs of society. Science gives us an understanding of the real world. Educational institutions may have co-education since the two sexes have to adjust in society. Living together is the best way to learn this adjustment. Sex education may also be imparted to boys and girls in order to check population growth in future. Population education may also form a part of curriculum. The school should mirror the society and encourage all types of activities required in society. It is a miniature society and it should present a realistic picture of the world outside it. 117

DISCIPLINE
The school should be organised in such a way that the child should learn self-discipline. He should learn to control his feelings and desires and to perform his duties. Discipline is adjustment to objectivity. It is required to enable the child to adjust to his environment. It helps the child in concentrating on his studies. Every student is a part of the world and he should learn to adjust in his circumstances. Discipline, however, is not withdrawal. The students should remain in close touch with the harsh realities of life.

CONTRIBUTION OF REALISM TO EDUCATION

Like other systems of philosophy of education realism has its advantages and disadvantages. Its impact can be seen everywhere. The realist philosophers influence practical education. In seventeenth century academies for the teaching of natural sciences developed everywhere in Europe and later on in America in eighteenth century. Technical and vocational education has become a common feature of education everywhere. Thus, the following may be considered to be the contribution of realism to education. 1. Education in technical and vocational subject. Every society needs technocrats and people trained in different vocations. Therefore, in every country of the world today the plan of education is based upon the needs of such persons in the development of the nation. 2. Practical bias. The realist insisted upon the practical nature of education. Modern education is empirical, experimental and practical. 3. Practical aims. Even in the field of ideals of education practical aims such as national development, earning a livelihood, personality development or realisation of happiness are being emphasised. These aims conform to real social aspirations. 4. Widening of scope. Realists have widened the scope of education to include scientific and technical subjects as well as social sciences and humanities. 5. Scientific teaching methods. Modern teaching methods are more scientific. Help is taken from audiovisual means of 118 education particularly in the teaching of science subjects. Laboratory training is a must for science teaching. More stress is laid on inductive method. The universities are encouraging research in sciences and humanities. 6. Objective attitude. Today's education is objective. Personal opinions and feelings are ignored while objective facts are emphasised.

7. Sense training. Modern education is empirical, particularly in primary and nursery stages. Stress is laid on sense training so that the child may use his different senses with maximum efficiency in order to directly gain knowledge of the world around him. 8. Realistic school organisation. Modern school is organised to be a mini-society. Discipline means self-control and adjustment to facts. The students are required to develop all the traits of personality required in social life. The programmes in the school are geared to make him a responsible member of society. In spite of the above mentioned advantages and favourable influences of realism on education, there have been certain disadvantages and limitations in realistic philosophy of education. Of these the most important are as follows: 1. Too much emphasis on objectivity. The terms objective and subjective are relative. Absolute objectivity is impossible. No scientist claims absolute objectivity. Knowledge as well as ignorance, both are subjective as well as objective. Realist's exclusive emphasis on objectivity ignores so much content of knowledge. It neglects imagination, feeling, emotion and sentiments which are also important facts of individual and social life. This leads to negligence of values which, of course, are not facts. 2. Too much emphasis on facts. Facts and values are interwoven in the fabric of individual and social life. By their exclusive emphasis upon facts the realists tend to ignore values. The theory that values are social facts has led to immoral and corrupt implications. In a sense, values are sui-generis. They are self-evident. No real human life is possible without values. The realistic attitude often becomes factual but not value-oriented. Practice, of course, is useful but theory has also its value. Facts and ideas, both are part of knowledge. 119 3. Positivism and meliorism. Positivism pleads that science alone is the real knowledge. According to meliorism we can make this world better only through science. Both these have some grain of truth but they have their limitations as well. Science cannot substitute philosophy, art and literature. Liberal education should find a place for all these. Some persons have better talents in philosophy, art and literature. Therefore, it is wrong to make science compulsory at all stages of education. Not only academic subjects but even some sort of training in ethics and religion are necessary for a happy life. Exclusive emphasis upon science makes education one-sided. The above criticism is no condemnation. The contribution of realism is undeniable. The above discussion only shows its limitations. As has been already pointed out earlier, every type of philosophy has its positive and negative contribution to education. This is as much true of realism as of idealism, naturalism and other types of philosophies of education.

Questions for Exercise

1. What is Realism? Distinguish it from idealism. Who were the Realists who made a mark in education? 2. Explain main types of Realism and show their impact on education. 3. Explain the Realists Aims and Curriculum in education. 4. What is Realist method of teaching, school organisation and discipline. 5. Point out Realist's contribution to Education. 120

7 Naturalism
The discoveries in physics and other physical sciences in our age have proved that a materialistic explanation of the world is far from being adequate. In the field of physics recent discoveries have rejected the concept of matter altogether. There is nothing like material substance in this world. On the other hand, the modern scientists explain the natural phenomena on the basis of energy, motion, natural laws and causal relations. Thus, naturalism has taken the place of materialism, Naturalism, therefore, is a modified form of materialism.

WHAT IS NATURALISM?
Naturalism, as is clear by its name, explains all the natural phenomena on the basis of natural laws. According to this

view, Nature itself is the ultimate reality. Nature has been explained by means of motion and energy. The different phenomena in nature occur due to the motion and waves of electricity. Naturalism also accepts the principle of motion. It is also known as energism because of its acceptance of energy. According to energism, all the natural things are only different forms of energy. Naturalism is also known as positivism. Positivism means that the natural phenomena come within the scope of some or the other positive sciences and can be explained by means of scientific laws. In modern times, positivism was established by a French thinker August Comte. The nature of atom has been analysed in our time. Therefore, modern scientists do not believe in atomism. By the analysis of atom it has been found that it is not made of matter but consists of energy and its motion. Thus, 121 the concept of matter has been rejected due to the analysis of atom. This analysis has also led to the refutation of mechanism and determinism, because it has been found that motion in an atom cannot be absolutely predicted. There are electrons and protons in an atom which are organised on the pattern of our solar system. These electrons and protons are always active, and as has been already pointed out, the scientists have so far failed to discover definite laws of their motion and therefore accepted it as unpredictable. In the beginning the naturalists believed that the different natural phenomena can be explained on the basis of physics and chemistry. Modern naturalists distinguished between the laws operating in life and those determining the vegetation and immovable things. Therefore, the field of psychology and biology has been separated from that of physics and chemistry. According to modern naturalism, there is not only quantitative but also qualitative difference in different levels of evolution and no new level can be explained by the laws applicable to the level preceding it. Naturalism is also a type of physicalism. Therefore, there is no place for soul, God or other world in it nor does it believe in freedom of will, though some philosophers have tried to prove freedom of will as scientific on the basis of the refutation of determinism in the structure of atoms. Because of its being physicalism, naturalism has been the target of all the objections which have been levelled against physicalism. Because naturalism supports science or is based on it, its form changes along with new discoveries in different sciences. Therefore, some philosophers prefer to call their naturalistic philosophy by the name mechanism. But the claim of mechanism to be universally applicable has also been rejected nowadays. According to naturalism, the natural laws are universal and necessary. Thus, the naturalists believe in the principle of uniformity of nature. According to it the different natural phenomena occur mechanically without any purpose. There is no power of any God or other Being behind the natural laws. Thus, naturalism leads to atheism. An example of naturalism is the evolutionary theory of Darwin which is believed by many scientists but which cannot be applied to human life without raising many difficulties. 122

CRITICISM OF NATURALISM
The following objections can be raised against naturalism: 1. Different natural philosophers do not give any one definite meaning to nature and have presented different views in this connection. Thus even the basic concept of Nature is not clear in Naturalism. 2. Naturalism remains changing along with changes in the field of science. Thus, it has nothing of its own and becomes a mere hand maid of science. 3. Because naturalism is a kind of physicalism all the arguments raised against physicalism are applicable to it. 4. The naturalistic explanation of the universe is opposed to religious faith and ideas. Therefore, it cannot explain our religious experiences. 5. It is not proper on the part of naturalists to believe that the natural laws are necessary and universal because they are merely probable.

NATURALISM IN EDUCATION
In the history of philosophy of education naturalism is also as old as idealism. The term naturalism, by its ordinary meaning, means the ism laying emphasis upon nature in every field of education. Thus, the naturalist philosopher derives the aims and ideals, the means, the methods of teaching and the principles of curriculum and school management from the Nature. The most ancient form of naturalism was presented by Democritus (460-360 BC) in the form of atomistic

naturalism. In Greece, Democritus explained the composition of universe in terms of innumerable, individual and indestructible atoms. This materialistic explanation of the world was the ground of naturalism in education. This theory was partly amended by Epicurus (341-270 BC). This atomistic naturalism was the beginning of naturalism in the West. This, however, is not the basis of modern naturalism as a philosophy of education.

PHILOSOPHICAL PRESUPPOSITIONS
In metaphysics, the ultimate reality, according to naturalism, 123 is the Nature and Nature is material. In epistemology, the naturalists are empiricists. They believe that knowledge is acquired through sense organs and with the help of the brain. They do not accept the rationalist's position that all knowledge is innate. In modern Western philosophy John Locke, Bishop Berkeley and David Hume, the British philosophers were empiricists. They believed in the possibility of direct knowledge. In axiology, the naturalists believe in living according to Nature as the best type of life. 'Follow Nature' is their slogan. Be natural is their motto. They are pluralists since Nature has made all persons different.

PHILOSOPHICAL FORMS OF NATURALISM

From the standpoint of philosophical principles, the following three forms of naturalism are distinguished: 1. Naturalism of physical world. This principle seeks to explain human actions, individual experiences, emotions and feelings on the basis of physical sciences. It seeks to explain the entire universe in the light of the principles of physical sciences. It has little or no influence in the sphere of education, because all that it has done is to place knowledge of science above every kind of knowledge. It points out that not only is science one form of knowledge, but that it is the only form of valid knowledge. It is a concept of positivism, and it holds that even philosophical knowledge is worthless. 2. Mechanical positivism. According to this principle, the entire universe is a machine made of matter and is possessed of a self driving energy that ensures its functioning. This is materialism, for it suggests that matter is the only reality, and anything that exists is a form of matter. The human being is conceived of as nothing more than an active machine which is activated by certain environmental influences. The impact of this kind of positivism led to the emergence of the behavioural school in psychology which explained all human behaviour in terms of stimulus and response. Behaviourists do not believe in the existence of any consciousness distinguished from the material element. All processes of the mental faculty such as imagination, memory, winking, etc., are explained in physiological terms. This school also makes no distinction between human and animal, 124 because both can be explained in terms of stimulus and response. Behaviourism thus seeks to explain the entire range of human activity as a mechanical process. As naturalism it has had a tremendous impact on education. 3. Biological naturalism. It is naturalism in this form, as biological naturalism, which has had the greatest impact upon education. It has elaborated the theory of the natural man, and has explained that the evolution of man and animal is a single process. It refuses to admit the spiritual nature of man and expounds that his nature is the heritage he has received from his ancestors. That is why it traces many similarities between human and animal behaviour. Biological naturalism contends that all the processes of Nature and the entire existence of the universe cannot be explained in terms of mechanical and physical processes, because in the biological world, evolution is a more important phenomenon. All living beings have an instinct to live and for this reason life evolves from lower forms to higher and more complex ones. One can find all the characteristics of evolution in man's life. The principles underlying evolution can explain the form that a human being will ultimately assume and the manner in which he will progress. At the animal level, the process of evolution stops at the material or physical level, but in the case of human beings it is also manifested in the mental, moral and spiritual levels. This instinctive evolution is found not only in individual human beings but also in groups of human beings, because these groups also evolve to a stage of greater complexity. But this evolution is also governed by the same principles which govern the individual's evolution. In this process of evolution, the principles of struggle for existence and survival of the fittest have been considered the most important by Charles Darwin, because in his opinion the principle of self-preservation is the strongest law of nature.

NATURALIST EDUCATORS
As has been pointed out earlier, naturalism, like other isms, started in ancient Greece and ancient India. Democritus (460

BC), Leucippus (793-57 BC), Thales (640-546 BC), Epicurus (341-270 BC) and Lucretius (96-55 BC) were prominent naturalists in ancient Greece. In ancient India the philosophers known as 125 Charvakas were naturalists. In medieval period no significant naturalists prospered since religion had a wide influence upon thinkers. From the sixteenth to eighteenth century, the most important naturalist thinkers were Rousseau (17121788), Bacon (1561-1626) and Hobbes (1588-1679). Herbert Spencer (1820-1903 AD) presented a naturalist philosophy of education in contemporary times. Before an exposition of the views of modern naturalists, a review of its influence in education will be useful. As a philosophy, naturalism has influenced education by determining the aims and objectives of education, apart from explaining the methods of education and means or agencies of education, through an explanation of human nature. In the sphere of education, naturalism is neither the positivism of the physical world nor mechanical positivism or even biological naturalism. It is an entirely different concept which seeks to base education on the experience of the child, and thus is a repudiation of all textbook teaching. In the eighteenth century Rousseau launched a bitter offensive against all traditional forms of formal education, and instead advocated the basing of all education on education according to nature. Ever since then, so much stress has been placed on studying the nature of the child, that it has led to a veritable revolution in the field of education because it has motivated considerable research in this sphere and applied the principles discovered through this research. Nineteenth century saw comprehensive educational reforms all over Europe, and the appearance of a tendency to make all education scientific. Naturalism adopts a scientific posture in as much that it wants the educational process to follow the natural inclination of the child, and it is thus opposed to all traditional and static methods of education. It stresses the value of dynamic methods. It seeks to base all education on psychology. Adam has pointed out that naturalism is a word obscurely applied to those principles of training which do not depend upon books but instead upon the laws of the natural life of the educand. Hence all those systems which oppose the use of textbooks and prefer to centre education on the child can be called naturalistic. This principle is opposed to making education complex, for its motto is "Follow Nature". It is against artificiality of any kind. Naturalism is the inevitable reaction in education when education had been practically killed by the oppressive weight of tradition, stern 126 discipline, rules of the school, dry curriculum, the formal behaviour of the teacher, etc.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
Concerning the aims of education, naturalists adopt a biological and evolutionist attitude. Even among the different forms of naturalism one finds a variation in the objectives assigned to education. Mechanical naturalism suggests that education should aim at the efficiency and perfection of the human machine. But this concept does not represent completely the naturalist school. Biological evolution uses education to ensure the proper adjustment or adaptation of the child to his environment. McDougall points out that education aims at the transformation, synthesis and sublimation of instincts. Darwinists argue that education must train the individual to struggle successfully for his own survival. Lamarck and his followers agree with the concept of biological evolution, because for them also the aim of education is to adapt to the environment. On the other hand, Herbert Spencer believed education to be a preparation and a training for the complete life. Bernard Shaw believed that education must aim not only at the individual's development but also at making the individual capable of stimulating and sustaining social development, for this will add to the social heritage of the succeeding generations. T.P. Nunn prefers to use education as a means of making the individual capable of developing his own individuality and of contributing to society. Naturalists of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries believe that education should achieve a synthesis and adjustment between individual and society and also between man and nature. Rousseau believed that education should develop the child according to his natural ability. And it is accepted today that education should conform to the child's abilities. To quote Rousseau's words, "Now of the three factors in education, nature is wholly beyond our control; things are only partly in our power; the education of men is the only one controlled by us, and even here our power is largely illusory, for who can hope to direct every word and deed of all with whom the child has to do. What is the goal? As we have just shown it is the goal of nature since all three modes of education must work together, 127 the two that we can control must follow the lead of that which is beyond our control"1 The naturalist approach to the aims of education is rather narrow in that it fails to include the spiritual aspect of man's nature. Its inclusion would almost naturally remove the distance between idealism and naturalism and this is what is being attempted now.

CURRICULUM

As a system of philosophy, naturalism has been exceptionally susceptible to the development of science, and by virtue of this influence it has attached much importance to evolutionary theory, empirical teaching and scientific analysis, etc. As a result of the significance ascribed to scientific study naturalists want to introduce physical and social sciences at every level of education because they believe these to be more important than the humanities. Language and mathematics for the naturalists, are tools for the learning of science and both should be taught only so long as they assist the learning of science. Literature, in any case should not completely absorb the students' interest and attention. Curricula should be so constructed as to encourage the educand to take an interest in science and to gain knowledge which is factual and objective. Granting that the present is more important than the future, the naturalists have not fallen into the mistake of neglecting the past, because the past contains many valuable suggestions for the educand. For this reason, naturalists believe in the value of historical study. Such a study will enable them to construct a new social structure and thus plan for the future. Since evolutionists believe man to have developed or evolved, from the animal stage, and since they also believe that there is no gap or discontinuity in the transition from the animal to the human, they want education to develop the instincts and emotions. On the subject of curriculum, naturalists have expressed theories which differ from each other to some extent. Comenius wanted the educand to study every subject, without making any selection. Locke refuted this notion by demonstrating that every individual cannot be made to study the same subject, because of certain natural handicaps. Hence, much emphasis 128 was laid upon modifying the curriculum to suit the needs of the individual. Herbert Spencer arranged the curriculum with science as its nucleus and tried to synthesise the other subjects to science. The arts were given a secondary place in his programme because he believed that one must first create the basic elements before refining or making them sophisticated. In fact, he wanted to synthesise all subjects to the study of science, arriving at a conception of liberal education arranged around science. T.H. Huxley, another naturalist, attached greater importance to the cultural aspects of life than to the study of science. Thus, his conception of a liberal education differed materially from that of Spencer. In contrast, modern naturalists do not stress the importance of any one subject against that of any other, although more importance is attached to the sciences. Yet, the arts are not neglected, but given an important place in the curriculum so that it may acquire a definitely wide base.

EDUCATIONAL METHODS
Naturalist education is paidocentric. The child occupies the central place in it. The child, in order to develop, should be left on its own. The society or the state should not interfere in his contact with nature. This will allow the growth of the child in natural circumstances. Therefore, the most important method of teaching, according to the naturalist, is to leave the child free to learn from nature. Naturalism was responsible for a violent denunciation of the traditional methods of education. It opposed all kinds of negative techniques and the stress on rote learning. Instead, it favoured teaching by more positive methods. Being empirical, it preferred to educate the child by giving him actual experience of all that he is to learn. Locke believed that training of the sense organs or sensory training, should be the first stage in the child's education. Naturalists considered experience to be more important than books, for they propounded the principle of do and learn. They felt that the child learns much from natural consequences, and therefore it is best that the child be left to do as he is inclined, so that he may follow the dictates of his own nature. Much emphasis is laid upon direct experience. It is argued that the child learns more by direct experience of nature, men 129 and objects than through books. By the same reasoning, teaching of science can be more effective if it is done through practical work in the laboratory, just as geometry is better learnt by-calculating the configuration of actual objects and spaces than through hypothetical problems posed in the textbooks. Geography can be taught better through tours of places of geographical interest than through maps and charts. The same holds true of the teaching of history. Hence, the naturalistic educational methods depend more upon direct experience and personal observation than upon textbooks. Naturalist thinkers suggest the following two methods of education: 1. Positive method. In this the educator tries to inform the child about various subjects. This is the traditional method which the naturalist rejects as old fashioned and ineffective. 2. Negative method. Concerning the negative methods of education, Rousseau has commented, "I call a negative education

one that tends to perfect the organs that are the instruments of knowledge before giving them this knowledge directly and that endeavours to prepare the way for reason by the proper exercise of the senses". Hence negative education consists in training the child to use his sense organs and motor organs instead of filling his mind with bits and pieces of information. By using the various bodily powers at his disposal, the child will generate much knowledge for himself. The playway method of education is very popular with naturalists because, during play, the child gets the opportunity to manifest his dormant powers. He is often faced with situations which compel him to use these powers. Irrespective of the definition of playas recapitulation of man's ancient activities, as a rehearsal for the rough and tumble of future life, as safety valve for letting off excess energy it is undoubtedly the most natural and facile way of developing the child's natural inclinations. That games provide an outlet for man's creative power is true not only of the child's games but also of games played in adult life. Artificiality of any kind is another thing with the naturalists find objectionable. The atmosphere in the class and the school should be informal, and the time-table should not be rigorously adhered to. Apart from the subjects taught as part of the 130 prescribed syllabus, the child must be encouraged to take active part in various extracurricular programmes. And, in fact, the child should not be burdened by or compelled to submit to any definite teaching method at all. Left to himself the child is perfectly capable of evolving an educational technique which suits him best. If the educator wants to know what this method is, he should observe the child, since through such observation he can learn what the child wants, in which direction he is inclined, in what things he evinces interest. Consequently, the teacher will be enabled to mould his own technique to suit the child.

THE TEACHER
Naturalism opposes the traditional concepts of education in which the educator inflicted any and all kinds of punishment on the child in order to make it progress in the desired direction. Naturalists believe that the period of infancy is important in itself, not merely as a stepping stone to adult life. That explains their extreme emphasis upon the playway technique of education. They opine that the child should be encouraged to enjoy his infancy and childhood as much as he can, with the least possible interference from the teacher. Consequently, the teacher does not occupy as high and respected a position as he does under the idealistic tradition. One example of this is Neil's Summerhill School in which the educator mixed with the educands, played and practically lived with them. Even the matter of discipline was in the hands of the educands who selected a cabinet of five educands for this purpose. This cabinet was even empowered to expel an educand from the school, if it felt the necessity for such an extreme step. Neil's only function was to remove the various difficulties of the educands, after discussing everything with them. Hence, in this school, the educator was no more than just one of the members of the school. Naturalists suggest that the educator should be a guide and a friend, and that in his behaviour with the child, the educator should try to recollect his own childhood and infancy. The child is naturally inclined to laughter and happiness. Hence the educator should be jolly and not grave, for undue seriousness of manner and behaviour depresses the child. The educator's 131 role is primarily negative inasmuch as he is required to protect the child's inherent goodness from bad influences originating in the environment. He is responsible for creating an environment in which the child can experience the greatest amount of freedom. He must study the child's psychology and intervene in his activity only when some obstacle bars the way to the child's progress. Hence, the aim of education is, thus, to provide the child with opportunities for completely unrestricted self-expression. The role of educator, therefore, is only to protect the child from repressions, mental conflicts and mental disorders of all kind. Naturalism warns the educator against unnecessary seriousness, the desire to assert his authority, physical punishment, etc., since all these measures have a detrimental influence upon the child's development. The educator must think in terms of what he must avoid doing rather than think of things he must do. He can do even better and become literally a child in dealing with children. But his guidance is apparent when he can give a positive and confident opinion on controversial matters, and for this he must be possessed of unbounded self-confidence., He can also guide the children in their search for new things, and can train them in new techniques of doing things so that in later life they should become capable of doing things on their own. The role of the teacher is most clearly defined by Ross in the following words, "His (educator's) place, if any, is behind the scenes; he is an observer of the child's development rather than a giver of information, ideas, ideals and will power, or a moulder of character. These the child will forge for himself, he knows better than any educator what he should learn, when and how he should learn it. His education is the free development of his interests and motives rather than an artificial effort made on him by an educator. "It is evident,

therefore, that the educator should never have recourse to any kind of pressure or force, even to the use of his own authority. His task is simply to provide the theatre for the child's acting, to collect the materials required, to provide the child with an opportunity to do as he likes, to create an ideal environment. As a result of the impact of naturalism, many of the latest techniques of education, such as the Montessori system, Dalton plan, Project method, etc., all grant to the teacher a similar status. 132 Compared to naturalistic philosophy, the idealistic school grants a more responsible position to the teacher. Adams expressed the opinion that the educator himself has been through the same situations as the educand is experiencing at present. He is no less a part of the intellectual world than anyone else. Both the educator and the educand are two elements of the organic structure of the universe, and both have their own status and role in God's plan. The educator teaches and guides him along the path of perfection. The educator's role in the naturalist organisation of education is clarified by the example of Froebel's kindergarten system. In this system, the school is conceived to be a garden, the educand to be a delicate plant and the educator the careful, responsible and cautious gardener. The plant grows by itself, it seeks its own nourishment, and its development is governed by natural laws. It is impossible to turn one plant into a plant of another kind. This is beyond the abilities of even the greatest gardener. His only function is to make sure that the plant and the weed grows according to its own nature, and that this development is not hindered. Upto this point, the idealistic conception does not differ very much from the naturalistic conception. But, as Ross has commented, the naturalist may be satisfied with wild flowers, but the idealist can be satisfied only by the finest of roses. The idealist places greater stress on the aims of education, and believes this aim to be self-realisation or perfection. Hence, under the idealistic pattern of education, the educator allows the educand to follow the natural pattern of growth, but he reserves the right to guide the educand towards perfection. It is implied that such perfection cannot be achieved without the educator's guidance, and hence the educator does not remain merely a friend, but becomes a guide and a sage.

DISCIPLINE
As in the case of curriculum and educational methods, the naturalist philosophers oppose the traditional concepts of discipline. And more than anything else, they oppose the method of physical punishment for they believe that this gives rise to undesirable conflict in the child. Rousseau has written, "Children 133 should never receive punishment. Freedom and not power is the greatest good." If the child makes a mistake he will get his reward from nature itself, and thus he will learn to distinguish between the right and the wrong through the consequences of his own actions. For this reason the child should be given every liberty. To the naturalist, liberty does not imply freedom to interfere with the activity of others. The child can never be independent in this sense because he is controlled by many rules and laws which unconsciously or consciously operate in his mind. Only external and obvious discipline should be done away with. All the work of school administration and organisation should be left to the educand, for then he will learn to make the rules and to obey them. Respect of discipline is sought to be instilled in the child's mind through natural consequences. Spencer writes, "When a child falls, or runs its head against the table, it suffers a pain, the remembrance of which tends to make it more careful; and by repetition of such experiences, it is eventually disciplined into proper guidance of its movement". But, there is a limit to learning through this method. In fact, very often the child is not able to reason out the relation between his various actions and the total consequences. As a result, he repeats even the harmful activity many times. And, hence, in such a situation, as Dewey has hinted, it becomes necessary to scold the child, to caution it, or even to punish it. As T.H. Huxley observes, "Nature's discipline is not even a word and a blow, and the blow first, but the blow without a word. It is left to you to find out why your ears are boxed".2 Hence, it is not enough to abandon the child to learn for itself through these natural consequences of his actions. They do play a significant role in his training, but it is necessary to caution him at times. He should be warned against certain kinds of activities. The system of reward and punishment has been found effective everywhere. But it must be remembered that the value of the naturalist concept lies in that it hints at the shortcomings of excessive external discipline, although there is no doubt that the theory is definitely one-sided.

SCHOOL ORGANISATION
Naturalism distinguishes between formal and informal agencies. While the formal agency of education is the school and other

134 educational institutions, the informal agencies include family, society, community and state, etc. Of these the informal agency, family starts the education of the child. The state influences the formal agencies of education. The school management, according to naturalists, should be liberal, free and based upon natural laws. According to the naturalist philosophers nature itself is a school where the child is taught according to natural principles. The school should be organised in such a way so that the child may get natural atmosphere for his growth. The naturalists cherish democratic values. The social environment of the school should be based upon the principles of liberty, equality and fraternity. The teacher's role should be reduced to minimum. The students should themselves govern the school. They should receive training in leadership. The time-table of the school should be flexible because a rigid time-table hampers freedom. The naturalist school organisation may be found in Dalton plan where classes are changed into laboratories and there is no definite time-table in the school. The school buildings should have proper arrangement of light and air. Rousseau recommended organisation of schools according to the nature of children and the stages of development of the educands.

CONTRIBUTION OF NATURALISM TO EDUCATION

Like other systems of philosophy of education, naturalism has also made important contribution to education. It made education paidocentric, psychological, free, self-dependent, related to nature and society, based upon developmental psychology, democratic, multisided and natural to the stages of development. These points may now be discussed in detail. 1. Paidocentric education. In the naturalistic conception of education, the child is in the forefront while all other things such as the educator, the books, the curriculum, the school, etc., are all in the background. Sir John Adams called this the conception of paidocentric education. Naturalism stresses the fact that education should be guided by the nature of the child, that the natural inclination of the child is always good. Rousseau said, "Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Author of Nature but everything degenerates in the hands of man". It is, therefore, argued that the child is naturally 135 invested with all goodness, and all that is necessary is to protect him from a defective environment. He must be provided with the kind of environment which will encourage him to develop his innate goodness, his natural sense of the beautiful. He must be enabled to avoid the ugly, to manifest the natural truth inside him so that he can combat the falsity which is thrust upon him by the defective environment. In this process, the educator can perform only the function of the guide. Naturalists are not inclined to transform the child's nature through education or to apply to him the standards of the adult. Education according to them, is not the preparation for life but life itself. Children should live like children, because infancy has its own significance, and it is not merely a stepping stone to adulthood. The child is not to be prepared and made ready for his future, but instead to be allowed to enjoy the present. Munro opines that Rousseau was the first to state the principle, that, "Education finds its purpose, its process and its means wholly within the child life and the child experience". In this manner, it can be summarised that education is the process of living a natural life and moving towards evolution, because the child has within himself the germs of evolution. 2. Emphasis upon psychology. The influence of naturalism was the cause of the psychological tendency gaining so much prominence in the field of education. By stressing the fact of the child's nature, it emphasised the importance of natural development. And, in order to determine what is natural and what is abnormal in child development, the naturalists turned to the psychologists. Thus it came to be understood that education must study the child and observe him. Many psychological researches have established that the child is not a young adult, that he has a distinct psychology which differs from adult psychology. It has been established that the child's mental activities of thinking, memory, imagination, recall, learning, etc., all differ from similar activities in the adult. Hence, naturalism stressed the value of psychology for education. Rousseau is often created with introducing the psychological tendency in education for he was the first to point out that education should follow the child's nature, which must first be understood. Although Thomas Fuller had stressed 136 even before Rousseau the importance of studying the educand more than books, it was the latter whose theorising in this sphere took practical shape. Rousseau's ideas were put into practice by Pestalozzi, Herbert, Froebel and other educationists. The introduction of psychology into the sphere of education led to considerable research in child psychology, and the entire process finally culminated in the emergence of a distinct branch of psychology called educational psychology. William McDougall has made valuable contribution to the literature on and knowledge of child psychology by his analysis of the child's instincts and his definition of the process of character formation, determination and sentiment formation in

the child. Thorndike and other psychologists contributed great wealth of knowledge in the sphere of manual skill and other aspects of child learning. By comparing and examining the various stages in the evolution of the child, it was found that child psychology differed considerably in infancy, childhood and adolescence. As a consequence, great stress was placed on adopting different techniques of teaching at each one of these stages. Apart from this, education was further influenced by the discovery that children differed from each other to a very great extent in respect of their physical and mental capabilities, their nature and emotions, etc. It was considered desirable to make education flexible so that it could accommodate all such variations and still contribute to the healthy development of the child. But probably the greatest impact on education was that of the psychoanalysts. Freud put forward many novel theses about child psychology. Other psychoanalysts were responsible for many interesting and illuminating books on child psychology, and these were avidly read by educators the world over. In the main, the influence of psychoanalysis can be seen in the knowledge it provides of the harmful effects of repression and the fresh attitudes to sex, authority, the child's attitude to authority. Besides, this branch of psychology also warned educators against the harmful effects of threats, physical punishment and asserting oneself. Ross is of the opinion that the greatest benefit derived from psychoanalysis is that it has helped to explain the causes of juvenile delinquency and also suggested ways and means of curing it. 137 3. Emphasis upon free choice. Naturalists contend that a predetermined pattern of education must never be foisted upon the child even when the pattern is entirely scientific. Education must give the child an opportunity of making a free choice in everything that he wants to study or play or even the manner in which he wants to behave. No external restraints should be placed on his free choice. Some naturalists even object to the very institution of school education, because they fear that the school is an obstacle in their normal and independent development. They also believe that the atmosphere in the home is freer than the school environment but they are contradicted by others more conscious of the constant interruptions made by parents in the child's activities. Apart from this naturalists, in general, are opposed to all educands in one class being taught in the same manner, or by the same method of education. They even object to the introduction of any kind of time-table. One example of a completely unrestrained environment is to be found in Summerhill School established by A.S. Neil. It was taken for granted at this institution that the child was not expected to be fit for school, but that the school had to prepare itself for the child. Liberty was the first principle in the child's education, so much so that the children could play through the entire day if they were so inclined. They were given no religious education because a child is not naturally religiously inclined. No adult values were forced upon the children who were also taught none of the principles of culture. Naturalists also believe that the child should not be made cultured unless he realises the need for culture. It was, therefore, thought better to leave the child in his more primitive condition. The liberty granted to the children even extended to their being allowed to roam naked if they so wished. It was found that no moral difficulty was raised due to the sex instinct, and it was decided that a healthy attitude to sex could only be generated through coeducation. Neil was of the opinion that undesirable behaviour is due to moral and unnatural repression, and that no undesirable incidents take place due to co-education if the environment is completely free and liberal. 4. Place of the teacher. Naturalism grants to the teacher the place of the friend and the guide, not of the administrator, 138 for he is not to interfere in the child's activities, nor to make any attempt at influencing him. He is there merely to observe them, not to give them any information or to fill their minds with facts or to form their characters. It is for the child to decide what he wants to learn. He will learn from experience what he should learn and when, what he should do and what he should avoid. His interests and instincts should be given an opportunity to manifest themselves freely. All this does not imply that the teacher has no role at all in education, for he has a definite role inasmuch as he is the one who will provide the educative material, create the opportunities for learning, create the ideal environment and thus contribute to the child's development. For example, in the Montessori method of education, the child is given many kinds of equipment to play with, while the teacher looks on and observes. Naturalism, thus, favours the concept of self-education. Norman Mancken has gone one step further and suggested that children can even educate each other. Nothing should be done with a view to turning the child's mind in any particular direction. He is not to be taught to read or write, to make use of the various parts of his body, or be taught moral lessons, but merely to be left to himself so that he can develop independently. This is what Rousseau implied by his concept of the educator's negative effort in the process of education. Negative effort did not imply that the teacher was merely to pass his time, but to observe the child, avoid any interference in his activities, to prevent or protect him from defects, to protect him from a defective environment. The educator must be perfectly aware of all that he has not to do, but at the same time this negative attitude is to be supplemented by the positive one of love and sympathy. He can love the child only when he himself has been a child, that is, he has not completely forgotten his childhood. He should have the inclination to laugh and play like the child, to forget that he is an adult, to mix with the children and become one of them himself. Only then can he give anything to them. At times, one finds children developing some bad tendencies and it becomes necessary to guide them. But even this

should be done in the form of an informal conversation with the child. In such a dialogue the educator understands the 139 difficulties of the educand, shows his love and sympathy and encourages the educand to solve them himself. He makes the educand aware of the difficulties he is likely to face. Neil called this re-education. He saw in his own school that many of the children often sought opportunities for such informal dialogues. Whenever the children showed any disinclination for such dialogues, they were immediately abandoned. 5. Direct experience of things. Naturalists believe Rousseau's dictum, "Give your scholar no verbal lesson; he should be taught by experience alone." Hence, the naturalist lays stress on teaching through direct experience. The child will learn more by coming into contact through the objects surrounding him than through books. He should be allowed to examine these objects. Similarly the teaching of science should not take the form of verbal lectures, but actual performance of experiments in the laboratory. Geometry should be taught not by the problems written in books but by the actual measurement of the areas of the school and the height and other dimensions of the school buildings and other objects. If geography is to be taught, the educand should be taken to the various parts of the country, and not taught only through maps and charts produced on the blackboard. Thus naturalists insist that the educand must learn from the things that exist in the school, not through the lectures of the educator. 6. Direct experience of social life. What is true of the natural environment of the child, is also equally true of the social environment in which he lives. He should learn the various duties, obligations and responsibilities of social life not through lectures of the educator but through the natural society of the school, of which the educand is a member. Here, left to himself, he will learn to do those things which should be done and leave alone those which should be avoided. In Neil's Summerhill School the children themselves decided upon the form of behaviour which others found objectionable or which hindered their adjustment, and thus learnt to avoid it. This formed the basis of the child's social education. The concept of co-education is also favoured by the naturalists because then the society within the school resembles more closely the society outside school. Besides, it has been contended that unnatural attitudes to sex are the inevitable result of segregated 140 education of boys and girls. This is a very controversial subject and many educationists fail to agree with the naturalists, although in many cases the results of experiments in coeducation favoured the naturalists' thesis. It can undoubtedly be said, however, that the child's experience of the social life within the school, forms the basis of his later social and moral life. 7. Self-government. Another characteristic feature of the naturalist conception of education is the insistence on selfgovernment. Neil's Summerhill School experimented in this direction also by allowing the educands to form their own government. They created a cabinet of five educands whose function it was to reflect on various difficulties, to give decisions in cases of indiscipline and even to inflict punishment for such acts. These five cabinet members met every Saturday night, and one of them was elected to the chair. All problems were then discussed. The cabinet even had the authority to expel an educand from the school, if it so decided, although in fact this right was never exercised. Neil states that this arrangement led to the development of highly democratic qualities in his educands, and it was felt that this weekly meeting had a much greater influence and impact than an entire week of traditional teaching. And, in fact, no one can doubt that such an arrangement of self-government is very beneficial for training educands in democratic living. The condition of self-government does impose certain restrictions on the educand's activities, but because it is imposed through his own rules and regulations, it takes the form of self-government and self-discipline. All kinds of self-control can be learnt through self-government, and it has none of the drawbacks of the method of external control. There is undoubtedly no better way of teaching public morality. And it is only self-government which teaches cultured behaviour and cooperation. 8. Playway of education. Of the many methods of education, naturalists prefer the playway. In this technique, all that the child learns is through a sense of playing or indulging in sport. Psychologists contend that the child best manifests his instincts and tendencies in an independent game, and his development can also be achieved through sport. Whatever 141 the objectives of playthe recapitulation of man's primitive activities, the preparation for future life, or a kind of safety valve for an individual's excessive energyit is undoubtedly the most natural method of teaching. Playing affords education not only during childhood, for people learn many things through playing even in adult life. It also provides an opportunity for constructive activity. Games are an important medium of constructive or creative education. Naturalists have, therefore, placed adequate stress on the value of games a fact which even modern educationists accept without reservation. Nowadays the playway of education is adopted for the education of infants and children, and thus they

acquire all the advantages of a naturalist education. Montessori education, for example, is a good instance of this because in this method of teaching the child learns even reading and writing through play. Scouting is another activity in which the child is taught many things through the medium of play. In Neil's Summerhill School, more stress was placed on character than on learning. Children were free to play from morning till evening. There was no system of examination, and books had less importance in the school than most other kinds of activities. Some lessons were taught, but attendance was never compulsory because most of the work, in any case, was done outside the classroom. On the other hand, educands favoured the craftsrooms much more, where they were taught to make things out of wood, plastecine and metal. Educands and educators sat together to write plays. It was found that drama writing is an important means of developing the creative imagination. 9. Development of the child according to its nature. Naturalists stressed the fact that the child must develop according to his own nature, and educational pattern must be modified to suit the various needs of children, because children differ from each other on account of their innate individual differences. 10. Importance of developmental psychology. By stressing the value of studying child development, naturalists made contributions to the progress of developmental psychology which scientifically studies the various stages of man's development. 11. Comprehensive curriculum. Naturalists have favoured the adoption of a multi-faceted and comprehensive curriculum, 142 which reflects, apart from the scientific, sociological and psychological tendencies, the holistic tendency in education. The holistic approach is, in fact, a synthesis of the scientific, sociological and psychological tendencies. Schools make use of all kinds of modern audiovisual aids, and arrange for teaching of sciences and the various arts. Extracurricular programmes and activities are also believed to be of considerable importance. 12. Development of democratic qualities. Naturalism is opposed to repression and vigorous discipline of any kind. It seeks to replace the traditional by the modern, the dogmatic by the liberal and the progressive. It consequently helps in the development of such democratic qualities as liberty, equality and fraternity. It favours a complete rejection of the traditional modes of teaching and instead advocates greater dependence upon self-government. 13. Development of child psychology. Naturalists played a significant role in the development of child psychology as a result of their insistence on education being oriented to the child's nature. As a result of this development in child psychology, it was discovered that the child is not a young adult, but a distinct kind of human being possessed of a different psychology. Naturalists insist that the child is born good, and that education must seek only to protect him from evil. 14. Support of residential schools. Under the naturalist mode of teaching, the educator has the negative role of protecting the educand from evil. For this reason naturalists favour residential schools because the educand's environment can be controlled much better if the educand lives in hostels attached to the school. They also favour the pattern of co-education because this develops more natural attitudes in boys and girls. 15. Revolution in all fields of education. Finally, it can be said that naturalists were responsible for some of the most revolutionary ideas in all spheres of education. As has already been pointed out, naturalists vigorously opposed all traditional thinking on child psychology, educational techniques, curriculum, administration, co-education, etc. Although all their ideas are not found acceptable today, many of the principles propounded by the naturalists are still being applied. For 143 example, such educational principles as learning through activity, going from the simple to the complex, from the concrete to the abstract, from the definite to the indefinite, from the easy to the difficult, and from the known to the unknown, are all principles which were originally propounded by the naturalists. And all these have been established as correct. Modern educationists now agree that the aim of education is not to provide education but to encourage spontaneous development. The significance and efficacy of broad based and comprehensive curricula have been almost universally accepted. Frustration and repression are held to be harmful everywhere. And the role of the teacher is now universally seen as the guide and not the administrator. Limitation of Naturalism in Education The contribution that naturalism made to education is evident from the foregoing account but there are certain elements in

it which other educationists find difficult to accept. As a consequence, all such difficulties were used to criticise naturalism on the following grounds: 1. Confused conception of the aims of education. Most educationists find it difficult to accept the aims of education propounded by naturalism. Evolutionists believe that the aim of education is biological development, while Spencer specifies it as self-preservation. Some evolutionists have ascribed more comprehensive aims to education but even these aims do not include everything. 2. Too much emphasis upon the present. In fact, the evolutionist places more emphasis upon the present than upon the future. It can be accepted that infancy is a significant period in life and that the child should be given every opportunity to enjoy it to the full. But if it is agreed that in later life this same individual will have to face the responsibility of earning his livelihood, creating a family and supporting it, it is only desirable that he should be educated and prepared for it. If he is to be a useful citizen of society, he has to be taught his responsibilities and how to fulfil them. The present has its importance, but upto a certain extent it is definitely a preparation for the future. 144 3. Many explanations of nature. The concept of nature differs from one realist to another. Some evolutionists interpret it in the sense of physical nature while others take it to mean human nature. And even among the latter there is often disagreement about what constitutes normality and abnormality in human nature. Very view, if any, evolutionists have placed any emphasis upon spiritual nature, and for that reason realism separates itself so much from idealism, although both want education to conform to human nature. 4. Defects in the theory of instincts. Evolutionists believe that the child is possessed of some instincts, and they want education to aim at the development of these. But it is difficult to get the evolutionists to agree about the number and nature of these instincts. McDougall counted 14 instincts while L.L. Bernard made a list of 300 so-called instincts. Most of the instincts are common between man and animal, but the latter does not possess the instinct for religion. Besides, in the light of modern anthropological and sociological research, it is difficult to believe that anything is innate in human nature, after one has discounted the influence of the cultural environment. Dewey has gone so far as to say, "All that is human is learned". Modern psychology does not accept the theory of instinct and specifies that it is well nigh impossible to understand human nature after abstracting it from the cultural environment. Consequently, it is not easy to interpret what is meant by an education according to instinct. 5. Isolation of man from environment. Whenever the evolutionist or naturalist talks of adjustment or maturity, his argument often implies a total isolation from the physical or natural environment, as if this has no influence upon man. Such an attitude is not acceptable to other philosophers. It is generally believed that the human personality is the outcome of an interaction between heredity and environment. Without such an interaction with the environment no development is possible. Besides, as soon as the human being reacts with the environment, the latter itself undergoes immediate change. 6. Adaptation requires man's subordination to environment. It is accepted that man can change his environment to a very great extent, but he cannot be believed to be independent of it while interacting with it. Such an interaction demands some 145 subordination from the individual. On the other hand, when adaptation is accepted as the aim of education by the evolutionists, it is often forgotten that struggle has its own significance and value in the process of growth. 7. Defects in the conception of evolution. The naturalist is an evolutionist but he often forgets that it is difficult to accept man's evolution from the animal stage because of man's language, intelligence and certain other characteristics which distinguish him from the animal. Besides, complete evidence has yet to be discovered to completely substantiate Darwin's theories. Evolutionists have also failed to explain the fact of mutation. Weisman's experiment indicated that although some change occurred in the living being of a particular species over a period of several generations, this change was not transferred to the chromosomes of that species. Besides, the biological explanation of evolution cannot be applied to social and spiritual development. This is what the evolutionists have frequently attempted. Social evolution differs from biological evolution in that it combines conflict with co-operation. 8. Limits of free development of the individual. Naturalist believes in the free development of the individual but the question is, is man really independent and can he exist when completely independent of nature and society? If nothing else, so much stress on the freedom of the individual can at least lead to uncontrolled egoism, which in itself is likely to bring many difficulties. And, in fact, in certain situations, much can be gained by becoming one's own individuality. In order to rise above the conflict between the individual and society, it is necessary to believe that man is not only individual, but also universal to a very great extent.

9. Defects of Hedonism. The application of naturalistic principles to ethics leads to the creation of Hedonism. Spencer established the school of evolutionary Hedonism, according to which the aim of life is not the maximum good of the maximum number, but the preservation of life and of social health, implying social balance. Right and wrong are measured by the extent of happiness. In Spencer's own words, "The business of moral science is to deduce from the laws of life what kinds of action necessarily tend to produce happiness, and what kinds tend to produce unhappiness. Its deductions 146 are to be recognised as laws of conduct, and are to be conformed to, irrespective of a direct estimation of happiness or misery." Many arguments have been given to refute this hedonistic principle. Since the biological and the moral worlds differ from each other, the rules of conduct cannot be derived from the history of social conduct. Happiness does not always promote health, neither does misery invariably destroy it. Happiness is not the sole motive of action, just as the longevity of life is not the moral aim of life. In ethics a concept is defined not by its origin but by its objective. Synthesis is not based on ideals. Morality, too, is not an adventitious element of moral consciousness. The concept of a perfect society denies the fundamental tenets of evolutionary theory. The objective of a secular policy is not moral. Many evolutionists have themselves refuted Hedonism as an ethical philosophy. As Rusk puts it, "According to this doctrine there is no moral law, no place for duty for duty's sake: self-sacrifice would be utter foolishness, one's own selfish satisfaction is the greatest good". 10. Defects in education through natural consequences. Naturalism wants to leave the child to the natural consequences of education, on the presumption that he will naturally learn the consequences of his own actions. For example, if he does not wear adequate clothes, he will learn to do so when he feels cold. This is accepted on the presumption that every violation of natural law will bring him pain and thus compel him to change his pattern of behaviour. It is neither proper nor very humane to accept this principle of natural consequences. As T.H. Huxley has commented, "Nature's discipline is not even a word and a blow, and the blow first; but the blow without the word. It is left to you to find out why your ears are boxed." Hence, it cannot be presumed that the child will realise the source of his discomfort when one of his actions leads to some painful consequence. And, besides, in human society such rigid conditions do not prevail. Many people commit mistakes without ever being punished for them. Hence, the child cannot be educated merely by natural results. He also cannot be allowed to completely take the initiative. In many cases it is necessary to warn him, in many cases to prevent him. It is desirable to explain certain casual relationships in order to prevent mistakes. 147 11. Negative principle. In fact, the evolutionist or naturalist theory is negative because it admits the propriety of an action as long as one can evade the consequences of that action. Can such a principle be applied to social activity? If it is, then it will negative the possibility of achieving any ideal. 12. Negation of all human characteristics. Influenced by the concept of evolution, naturalists believe that man is nothing better than the next step after the animals, but man actually possesses many qualities which animals do not possess even in the rudimentary form. For example, man is not merely conscious but also self-conscious. Spearman put this truth in this way, "Psychology is no mere flower of biology but one of its greatest roots". Recall is a quality found in human beings. Many characteristics of the human mind differ from the nervous system of animals. Man is a rational animal, the only living being capable of thinking. 13. Many interpretations of naturalism. To begin with, the very term naturalism has been-open to several interpretations. It is often accepted to be a reaction against dogmatism and artificiality, but it is also transformed into positivism, which has faith in science, and later on into Hedonism. Naturalists like Herbert Spencer, T.H. Huxley, T.P. Nunn, Glen Johnson, etc., differ from each other in their ideas to a very great extent. Many of Rousseau's concepts are also not palatable to the naturalists. One cannot justifiably deny the contribution of naturalism to education, for it has influenced all spheres of it, the aims of education, methods, curricula, school administration, discipline, its significance, etc. It achieved the complete refutation of traditional and dogmatic concepts of education by basing child education on the principles of child psychology and developmental psychology. Although the emphasis laid on experimental teaching was justified, it soon gave way to evolutionary influences. Naturalism limited its interpretations of nature to a very narrow field by considering human nature to be nothing more than biological. Had it chosen to integrate with this the spiritual nature of man, the idealistic school would have had no quarrel with the naturalists. In more recent years, one finds that the gap between naturalism and idealism is rapidly filling up. Modern naturalism is more comprehensive, in that 148 it has abandoned the purely biological explanation and has come nearer the idealistic conception.

References
1. Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile, Barbara Foxley, Translator, New York, E.P. Dutton&Co. Inc. Every Man's Library, 1911. 2. Quoted by Ross, J.S., Ground Work of Educational Theory, George G. Harrap&Co., London (1949), pp. 94-95.

Questions for Exercise

1. Trace the history of Naturalism in education. Point out its philosophical presuppositions and philosophical forms. 2. Write short note on Naturalist Educational Methods. 3. What is the role of a teacher according to Naturalism? Discuss its concept of discipline and school organization. 4. Analyze the contribution of Naturalism to education. What criticisms have been levelled against it? 149

8 Pragmatism
One of the most important schools of philosophy of education is pragmatism. It is also as old as idealism, naturalism and realism since it is more an attitude, than a philosophy. In the fifth century B.C. Heraclitus said, "One cannot step twice into the same river". Thus Reality is a flux, things are ever changing. Modern pragmatists agree with the Greek sophists. According to Protagores, "Man is the measure of all things". This maxim is the basis of modern humanism. Another famous sophist Gorgias used to say, "Nothing exists and if anything exists we can never know it". This agnosticism has led to relativism in pragmatic epistemology. In modern times Francis Bacon and Auguste Comte were pragmatists. John Dewey regards Bacon, as the prophet of a pragmatic conception of knowledge.1 Auguste Comte created positive philosophy which formed the basis of pragmatic social philosophy. Pragmatists agree with Comte that the universe is composed of laws and relations and not substance. John Locke said, "Our business is not to know all things but those which concern our conduct".2 Immanual Kant used the word pragmatic in a different sense.

MEANING OF PRAGMATISM
According to Robert R. Rusk, the Oxford Dictionary first referred to the term 'pragmatic' in 1643 and the term 'pragmatism' in 1663.3 According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary the term 'pragmatic' means dealing with matters according to their practical significance or immediate importance. The term, pragmatism', according to the same source, means, "Doctrine 150 that evaluates any assertion solely by its practical consequences and its bearing on human interests".4 The term pragmatism has been derived from the Greek term pragma which means use. Thus pragmatism is an ism according to which use is the criteria of reality. In 1870 in Boston and Cambridge a study circle informally but frequently met for discussion. It was called The Metaphysical Club. As Charles Pierce points out, "It was there that the name and doctrine of pragmatism saw the light".5 Thus historically speaking the doctrine of pragmatism in contemporary time was first referred by Charles Sanders Pierce in his famous essay of 1878 in the Popular Science monthly on "How to Make Out Ideas Clear". Pierce gave it its-first clearcut formulation and later decided to use the label "Pragmaticism as one ugly enough to protect his views from unwanted associations going with pragmatism." In point of fact pragmatism is a name which has referred to many varieties of doctrines since Pierce took over from Kant the adjective 'pragmatic' to stress the relation of thought and knowledge to definite human purpose.

PRAGMATISM AND NATURALISM

1. Universality of scientific theories. According to naturalism the scientific conclusions are universal and objective. Pragmatism, however, does not admit any scientific principle to be universal and objective. According to William James, all the laws are determined by space and time, no law is independent of circumstances.

2. Explanation of the world. Pragmatists do not accept the mechanical and impersonal picture of the world drawn by the naturalist which has no place for human values. On the other hand, the pragmatists admit with the idealists that there is a spiritual order behind this mechanical physical world. In the pragmatic world-view, human efforts have been given a respectable place. 3. Opposed to monism. Both the idealists and naturalists are monists, while the pragmatists are pluralists. In the words of Robert R. Rusk, "Pragmatism joins issue with Naturalism and Idealism insofar as both the latter are monistic, seeking to explain 151 nature, man and God by reduction to a single principle Naturalism to life, Idealism to mind or spirit. Pragmatism regards this way of conceiving the universe as singularly unimaginative and lacking in verity." Thus, in the explanation of the world the pragmatists do not mention one but many elements. In comparison to the naturalists the pragmatists find idealistic standpoint more satisfactory in human life, but while idealists place the source of this satisfaction within man, the pragmatists attribute it to external success. 4. Opposed to abstraction. The naturalists establish a single element in the world through abstraction. The pragmatists, on the other hand, are against all abstractions. They give more importance to concrete things and facts. As William James has explained the pragmatist viewpoint, "He demands a universe with real possibilities, real indeterminations, real beginnings, real ends, real evils, real crises, catastrophes and escapes, a real God, and a real moral life". 5. Opposed to static reality. Explaining the distinction between naturalism and pragmatism concerning the nature of reality, William James has said, "For Naturalism reality is ready made and complete from all eternity, while for Pragmatism it is still in the making, and awaits part of its complexion from the future". Thus, the Pragmatists believe that our aim is not so much to know the world as to make it. The life should not be rigid or static but dynamic and flexible. It is clear that the pragmatist explanation of reality is nearer to modern human consciousness. 6. Valve of moral ideals. The moral values have no place in the naturalist world-view. The pragmatist, on the other hand, considers moral values to be very important in human life. While the naturalist makes moral and aesthetic aims secondary, the pragmatist considers them primary.

PRAGMATISM AND IDEALISM

As has been already pointed out, in comparison to naturalism Pragmatism is nearer to idealism. However, the two differ in the following respects: 1. Explanation of the world. The idealists explain nature, man and God in terms of one spiritual element. This has led to 152 pragmatists' reaction in metaphysics. According to the pragmatists the world is neutral, neither spiritual nor physical. The presence of an eternal unchanging spiritual substance at the basis of the world is not admissible by logic or experience. 2. Number of reality. As regards the number of reality the idealists are monists while the pragmatists are pluralists. This pluralism is characteristic of pragmatists' explanation not only in philosophy but also in ethics, religion and other fields of life. 3. Change and status. The values, ideals and truths; according to idealists, are eternal and unchanging. According to Pragmatists, on the other hand, there is nothing eternal or unchanging. The world is a constant flux. The truths, values, ideals and postulates change according to space and time. 4. Value of reason. The idealist philosophers consider reason to be most valuable and interest as the source of moral dictates and cultural expressions. According to the pragmatists, on the other hand, reason is and ought to be the slave of passions. It has no other business but to follow will. Man's future depends on his will and his intellect and the will is based upon natural tendencies and not reasoning. Thus, reasoning has got the secondary place in pragmatist psychology. 5. Ends end means. While the idealists emphasise ends, the pragmatists give importance to means in education. This difference makes for the distinction in their contribution to education. While the idealists present aims and ideals, the pragmatists explain important means. However, even in the field of aims and ideals, while the idealists emphasise spiritual values, the pragmatists hold human values in highest regard. 6. Role of concept and action. The idealists are conceptualists. Idea is most important in their philosophy. To the

pragmatists, on the other hand, action is more important than idea. This difference makes so much distinction among the two types of thinking concerning teaching methods and curriculum. 7. Value of the world. Most of the idealist philosophies consider the objective world to be less real than the world of ideas. This has sometimes led to world negating attitude. On the other hand, according to the pragmatists, the physical world and mundane life are the ultimate valuable. 8. Static versus dynamic approach. Thus the idealist thinking is static while the pragmatist thinking is dynamic. The pragmatists present a progressive and evolutionary approach in education. 153 In spite of the above distinction between the idealism and the pragmatism, the two are nearer than pragmatism and naturalism.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PRAGMATISM

The following are the fundamental principles of pragmatism in the field of education: 1. Pluralism. Philosophically, the pragmatists are pluralists. According to them there are as many worlds as human beings. The ultimate reality is not one but many. Everyone searches truth and aim of life according to his experiences. The truth changes according to different spatio-temporal circumstances. 2. Emphasis on change. The pragmatists emphasise change The word is a process, a constant flux. Truth is always in the making. The word is ever progressing and evolving. Therefore, everything here is changing. 3. Utilitarianism. Pragmatists are utilitarians. Utility is the test of all truth and reality. A useful principle is true. Utility means fulfillment of human purposes. The results decide the good and evil of anything, idea, beliefs and acts. If the results are good, these are good, if bad these are evil. Beliefs and theories are determined by circumstances. Utility means satisfaction of human needs. 4. Changing aims and values. The aims and values of life change in different times and climes. The old aims and values, therefore, cannot be accepted as they are. Human life and the world is a laboratory in which the aims and values are developed. Everyone should seek aims and values according to his tendencies and abilities. 5. Individualism. Pragmatists are individualists. They put maximum premium upon freedom in human life. Liberty goes with equality and fraternity. Everyone should adjust to his environment. 6. Emphasis on social aspects. Since man is a social animal, therefore, he develops in social circumstances. His success is success in society. The aim of education is make him successful by developing his social personality. 154 7. Experimentalism. Pragmatists are experimentalists. They give more importance to action than ideas. Activity is the means to attain the end of knowledge. Therefore, one should learn by doing constant experimentation which is required in every field of life. According to William James, "Pragmatism is a temper of mind, an attitude, it is also a theory of the nature of ideas and truth, and finally it is a theory about reality".

FORMS OF PRAGMATISM
According to H.H. Home, "The main principle of pragmatism is that the theories that work are true". As E.S. Brightman maintains, "Primarily, pragmatism is a criterion of truth." According to them everyone should discover his truth according to his experience and commonsense. The following four types of pragmatism are distinguished according to emphasis: 1. Humanistic pragmatism. This type of pragmatism is particularly found in social sciences. According to it the satisfaction of human nature is the criterion of utility. All truths are human truths. As the British humanist philosopher F.C.S. Schiller pointed out, "Some London squires are circular". Contradiction in this statement disappears when we know that the term squire here means the meeting of roads and not the geometrical figure known by this name. Similar instances may be multiplied in different social sciences. In philosophy, in religion and even in science man is the aim of all thinking and everything else is a means to achieve human satisfaction. 2. Experimental pragmatism. Modern science is based upon experimental method. The fact which can be ascertained by experiment is true. In other words, whatever works in the real world is the truth. The truth of a theory in science can be

ascertained by its workability. No truth is final, truth is known only to the extent it is useful in practice. The pragmatists use this criterion of truth in every field of life. The field of experiment, however, is widest in the field of science In science, experiment is the only basis for arriving at conclusion in a controversial matter. The human problems can be solved only through experiment. This is true even in the field of religion. In his famous 155 book Varieties of Religious Experience William James has advised that everyone should discover his God, mode of worship and man-God relationship by experiments in his own life. No other proof is required for a belief. By experiment in a field of life, one may know what to believe and what not to believe, what to do and what not to do. Whatever is proved by experience is true. 3. Nominalistic pragmatism. When we make any experiment we attend to the result. Our aim is examination of the material. Some hypothesis about the results invariably precedes every experiment. According to nominalistic pragmatism, the results of an experiment are always particular and concrete, never general and abstract. According to medieval European nominalistic philosophy, a universal is only a name. While only particulars are existing, the universals have no concrete existence. For example, while we find existing human individuals, we do not find humanity outside these individuals. In the words of E.S. Brightman, "This kind of pragmatism is closely affiliated with sense experience as criterion for the particulars that we meet are mostly sense data, including their relations". In the field of education emphasis is laid on concrete particular things and their experiences in comparison to verbal knowledge. 4. Biological pragmatism. According to John Dewey, "The pragmatic test is found in the function of thought in adapting the human organism to its environment". Experimentalism of John Dewey is based upon this biological pragmatism according to which the ultimate aim of all knowledge is harmony of the man with the environment. Education develops social skill which facilitates one's life. The school is a miniature society which prepares the child for future life. From the biological point of view, man is a psycho-somatic being. Everyday we begin our work by means of set habits. Suppose some day we receive a letter which raises a problem requiring immediate decision the success of thinking in this function depends upon the best answer to the problem.

PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION
Pragmatism emerged as the twentieth century revolution against the nineteenth century rationalism, dogmatism, universalism 156 and monism, etc. On the basis of their philosophy, pragmatists refuted the doctrines of other thinkers in the sphere of education and presented their own novel propositions. Some of the more important pragmatic concepts are the following: 1. Importance of human effort- Pragmatists believe that education depends upon the active participation of the child. The entire form of the universe is based on human effort and man is the architect of his own destiny. 2. Faith in the future. The pragmatic thinker is convinced of the brilliant and prosperous future of the human race. He believes that by making continuous and dedicated effort in the sphere of education, man can create a better adjusted and more powerful generation. 3. Empiricism. It is suggested that, at every stage of education, the educator and the educand should refer every fact to his own experience and interpret it in that light. Only then can the new piece of information become a part of his life. Hence, only vocal or verbal education is not enough. It cannot be sufficient until it is based on and related experience. For this reason, pragmatists believe that the child should be given oral instruction, but this instruction should be supplemented by experience in the fields related to each particular subject. 4. Experimentation. Pragmatic philosophy believes in continuous experimentation in every aspect of the educator-educand relationship and in every sphere of education. These experiments will reveal many new facts which can be useful in modifying the curricula, educational methods, aims of education, etc. Seen from this viewpoint, the school itself is a laboratory in which the educator is continuously experimenting. This approach of the pragmatic thinkers has given immense encouragement to educational psychology and child psychology, both of which have experienced remarkable progress. 5. Dualism. Concerning the aims, methods, curricula, etc., of education, pragmatism adopts a dualistic approach. It demands that every educator is to base his education on his own experience and philosophy, while every educand is required to acquire an education in keeping with his own specific inclinations, interests and abilities.

157 6. Stress on practical success. The only criterion of the propriety of teaching methods, aims and curricula is the individual's success in later life. Only those principles of education are connect which take the educand to success. Our only aim is to satisfy our natural desires and to develop life. All that assists in this process is true and good, and knowledge of this truth can be obtained only through experience and experimentation. 7. Humanitarianism. Pragmatism aims to create humanitarian values in every sphere of education, the methods of teaching, aims, curricula, etc. Education of all kinds should aim at evolving human values. 8. Democracy. Pragmatists are fundamentally democratic because democratic society is the best means of achieving humanitarian ideals. They want to utilise education to create democratic values and ideals in educands, so that they can be trained to occupy a responsible place in a democratic society. 9. Emphasis on human personality. Pragmatists attach the greatest importance to the human personality, because they consider it the most significant element in the process of education. Education must be paidocentric, based on the natural activities and inclinations of the child. Besides, it must aim to make the child capable of adapting to the social environment. 10. Social function of education. Brubacher points out that the pragmatic conception of education is based on two basic principles, the first that education has a social function and the second that it must provide experience to the child. Knowledge for its own sake is a principle which the pragmatist does not accept. For him, knowledge must have some purpose, the purpose of adaptation which must take place in the social context. In the school the educand must be trained to become used to a democratic pattern of life. Pragmatists stress the importance of social values. Society is composed of man's social experience. One important mode of education is for the educand to participate in social experience. The school itself is only a miniature society, which should be organised on democratic principles of society. If this is done, then the child can acquire many democratic qualities in the process of his education, and these qualities will facilitate his social life later on. In such a society, these social qualities can be easily acquired because 158 a democratic society stresses the importance of equality, liberty and fraternity. Prejudices relating to caste, language, religion, region, etc., can and should be eliminated by creating a we-feeling in the school. The organisation of the school, the administrative system, the curriculum, in fact, everything pertaining to the school should be so evolved as to prepare the educand for a democratic social life. 11. Comprehensive education. Pragmatists believe that the aim of education is a comprehensive practical education, a concept of education which is based on the philosophy of liberal education. The aim of education is to achieve the educand's intellectual, moral, aesthetic, physical and spiritual, in fact, every kind of development. Neither knowledge nor ideals, in themselves are the ends. They are only means to satisfy certain human needs, just as education is intended to facilitate human life. Not only the ideals of goodness, beauty and truth, even spirituality and religion are means of developing life. Hence, education must be comprehensive and it must aim at developing the educand's personality in order to help him achieve a better social adjustment.

THE AIMS OF EDUCATION

The various characteristics of the pragmatic concept of education clearly indicate the aims of education as conceived of by pragmatists. Pragmatic thinking is opposed to all kinds of dogmatism, blind faith, narrow mindedness, etc. It objects to imposing some particular ideal on the child against his wish. Besides, it is not prepared to accept an ideal as correct or good merely because it has been so accepted in the past and because some famous educationists have propounded it. Pragmatism favours frequent experimentation in the field of education in order to determine more modern ideals which accord with present-day social life. In the words of Brubacher, "The progressive education has no fixed aims or values in advance. Educational aims, no matter how well authenticated by the past, are not to be projected indefinitely into the future. In a world rendered precarious and contingent by a compound of the novel and the customary, educational aims must be held subject to revision as one advances into the future. If education 159 has any general aim in the light of which their successive revisions can take place, it is only that of pupil's growth. But growth itself has no end beyond further growth. In other words, education is its own end." It is apparent, thus, that pragmatists accept growth or development as the aim of education. The various ramifications of this aim are not discussed in detail, for they are to be discovered in the future. The pragmatist refuses to lay down any aim or ideal which can be

permanently valid, its validity unchallenged by changes in time and space. All the aims of education must be concerned with the present and the future, and must be subject to modification. As John Dewey puts it, "Education, as such has no aims; education is an abstract idea. Only persons have aims. And the aims of persons are indefinitely varied, differing with different children, changing as children and their teachers grow. Stated aims, such as we are about to make, will do more harm than good unless they are taken only as suggestions as to how to look ahead for consequences, to observe conditions and to choose means in the liberating and directing of children's energies." Obviously, then, the aims of education are mere suggestions, not to be taken literally. They are to be taken as guides by the educator so that he is assisted in this task of educating the child. He is primarily concerned with training the educand in facing those situations which are likely to arise in his future life. In providing such a training, the educator is to take advantage of any aim that helps his effort. John Dewey believes that in fact these aims are to be determined by the educator himself. Despite this, he points out, that the educational aim must possess the following three elements in order to be a good or proper aim: 1. Such aims are based on the educand's actions and needs. 2. They elicit the educand's co-operation. 3. They are specific and temporary, not permanent and general. Keeping in mind the above directive principles, it is easy to arrive at the aims of education. But this does not imply that the pragmatic thinkers have not adduced any aim of education themselves. If one glances at the criterion of good educational objectives one can see that by thinking along the lines suggested by it, the pragmatist does arrive at some 160 conclusions. Dewey points out, "Education is all one with growing even as growing is all one with living". Thus, the aim of life is growing, and hence education aims at growing. Put differently, it implies, that education aims at the comprehensive development of the educand. Despite this, such imprecision and lack of definneness has led to confusion in educational circles in America. Commenting on this, Bode points out, "The chief defect in American education today is the lack of a programme, a sense of direction. It has no adequate mission or social gospel." Although this is one criticism of the pragmatic conception of education, it does apply in its totality because the pragmatic aims of eduction imply that education must aim at realizing democratic values in life. The United States of America is the representative of democratic societies in the world, and it is vigorously engaged in protecting democratic values against the constant onslaught of communist thinking. Hence, pragmatic thinking in America indicates that education aims at creating a democratic environment in society which can instill in the educand a respect for democratic institutions. Kilpatrick, the finest exponent of Dewey's philosophy of education in America, is correct in saying, "Our school rooms must become living democracies, that in a democracy it is self-directing personalities that we try to build, the kind that can carry forward life even more successfully in a developing world, and that the progressive development of a better life for all men is the basis out of which morality and moral conduct arise". It is evident that pragmatism favours the democratic ideals of education.

CURRICULUM
As has already been pointed out, pragmatists favour an educational curricula which permits the educand to develop all his qualities and obtain all knowledge that he can use fruitfully in future life. They have suggested the perusal of the following guidelines in determining a curriculum: 1. Principle of utility. Pragmatists are utilitarians who believe that utility lies in facilitating human adjustment and adaptation. The greater the satisfaction of human needs, the greater is the utility of the object achieving such satisfaction. The more it 161 helps the child to adapt in his later life, the greater is the utility of his education. Hence the curriculum must make it easy for the child to later on take up some profession. For this reason, technical and scientific education forms an important part of the pragmatic curriculum. Pragmatists suggest that girls should be taught home science and boys trained in agriculture and the sciences. Apart from this, great stress is laid on physical training because it is essential for physical development. Putting it briefly, pragmatists favour the inclusion of all those subjects which will help the educand in adapting to his circumstances in later life. That is why it is suggested that the curriculum should include history, geography, mathematics, hygiene, etc. No useless subject which cannot assist in the child's adaptation, should be included in the curriculum. The aim of education is human progress which can be achieved through various kinds of knowledge. Only those subjects the knowledge of which can assist in this progress should be taught.

2. Principle of child's interest. The child's own interest plays a significant part in the process of learning. Generally, children evince four kinds of interests-talking, searching or discovering, creative activity and artistic manifestation. In order to shape the curriculum according to these interests, it must be made to include reading, counting, handicraft, painting, etc. As the child develops, his interests also undergo change and modification, and therefore it is desirable that the curriculum at different stages of education should accord with the interests manifested by the educand at that stage. 3. Principle of child's experience. Being empiricists, the pragmatic thinkers insist on teaching through providing the child with actual experience rather than rote leaning. Thus, teaching through books should be supplemented by programmes which provide practical experience of various kinds. In this connection, Dewey has pointed out, "Abandon the notion of subject matter as something fixed and ready made in itself, outside the child's experience; create thinking of the child's experiences as something hard and fast; see it is something fluent, embryonic, vital; and we realise that the child and the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single process.... The studies represent the possibilities of development in the child's immediate crude experience." Thus, the pragmatic conception of a curriculum is 162 dynamic. It is desirable to create such a community and environment in the school which will enable the child to learn the technique of self-discipline and evolve qualities of citizenship in it. 4. Principle of integration. Pragmatists believe that knowledge and intelligence are same all over the world, and that is why integration is of special importance in education. In the school, the different subjects should not be completely segregated from each other, because the subjects themselves are not important. What is more important is the human activity they encourage. The educand should be encouraged to acquire knowledge of many subjects and therefore the teaching of various subjects should not be separated, but integrated into a single unit.

THE EDUCATOR
The pragmatic methodology of education is based on psychological facts, and in direct contrast to the naturalist method, it grants far greater importance to the educator. Like the idealists, the pragmatist believes the educator to be a guide and a counsellor who educates the child in self-discipline and active participation. In fact, the educator is the most important element in the school's social environment. By coming into contact with the educator, the educand can develop a set of very desirable and useful social habits, attitudes and interests. The educator can help this process by constantly observing the educand and devising new ways and means of solving the various problems that afflict the child. In this, he should also concentrate on motivating the educand himself use his intelligence to solve such problems. It is essential for the educator to present a good model in his own behaviour to create an atmosphere of co-operation and brotherhood. On the one hand, he must examine the child's habits and the characteristics of its personality, while on the other he must try to discover the conditions under which the child can be usefully influenced. The intelligent and devoted educator is forever studying the methods by which various subjects can be successfully taught to the educand. He realizes that many things unconsciously influence the educand in the school. Since this influence comes from the child's natural action and reaction to the environment 163 in the school, the educator must aim at creating a desirable social environment and at evolving proper educational techniques.

EDUCATIONAL METHODS
The pragmatic methods of education are based on psychology and sociology, subject to the conditions that they give adequate scope for active participation by the educand and also that the method adopted must be dynamic and changeable. Both these conditions are laid down by the pragmatists because they believe in teaching through actual experience. One of the methods evolved by them is the Project method. Pragmatic thinkers point out that the success of any educational philosophy lies in its ability to raise the standard of teaching. They are critical of the traditional methods of teaching, because they believe in constant experimentation. They revolt against the traditional belief that the educand should sit at the educator's feet and learn anything that is thrown at him by the education. For the pragmatist, education lies not in learning what the educator teaches, but in developing the ability of independent cogitation. And this is possible only when the method of teaching is purposeful and is fashioned by the child's interests, desires and inclinations. Pragmatism refuses to distinguish between theory and practice. True education lies not in knowing but in doing, and the child learns by active work, either in group activity or individual activity. This is known as the method of learning by doing. The educand has to learn not from the educator's experience but by his own experience, and this experience cannot be replaced by books, schools or any other institution. The first element in any educational method is the educand's own

effort. Once he motivates himself to learn something, he needs no encouragement to gain knowledge. This does not imply that verbal teaching is meaningless. All that is implied is that the teacher must create a set of circumstances in which the child is inspired to face the situation. The educator must also provide the child with the means of facing the situation and solving any problems inherent in it. The principle of integration is of major importance in pragmatic theory. It is believed that knowledge should not be 164 fragmented. The process of learning should be an integrated one, because it is natural for human beings to create a unity in their experience. Man forever tries to create a unity in the myriad impressions which impinge upon him. The educator must take care that the child achieves a synthesis of all the information that he gathers in the process of education. One of the methods of achieving this is purposeful teaching. All these qualities can be seen in the Project method invented by Kilpatrick, Dewey's follower. In Kilpatrick's own words, "A project is a wholehearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment". In the project method the educand is presented with a problem in the form of a project. He makes his best effort to try to put this project into practice. And, because it is posed in the form of a problem, the child is inspired to solve the problem. Most of the problems of day-to-day life, and the solution of such problems requires more than mere mental activity. The educand is compelled to bring into play all his other faculties, in order to solve the problem. During the task the environment is entirely natural. As far as possible the educand is made aware of the importance of the project. As the problem changes, the form of the project also changes. In the early stages of growth the child is faced with simpler problems, which grow more complex as he grows older and improves his ability to face it. Some of these educational projects relate to handicrafts, linguistic difficulties, problems concerning scientific subjects, problems of history and geography, trade and industry, etc. The first step in the project method is to determine the objective, and then to consider the various ways in which it can be achieved. The next step is to formulate a project for achieving it. Following this the project is put into actual practice and finally the success or failure of the project is evaluated. All that remains is to prepare a complete detailed report of the project. The merits of this method lie in the fact that it involves active participation and hence it takes the educand along the path of self-development and self-discipline. Being psychological in nature, it helps to evolve social and civic qualities in the individual and thus leads to success in adult life. The project method has been particularly successful in the case of curricular programmes. On the whole, this method of education is natural, purposeful and highly motivating. 165

DISCIPLINE
Even in general, discipline is an important factor in school life and administration, but under the pragmatic pattern of education it assumes special importance. Pragmatists believe that the child must benefit from his social environment, and this he obviously cannot do, in the absence of discipline. According to the pragmatist theory, discipline is primarily social, and it emerges through active participation in group activity and purposeful activity. In the words of Dewey, "Out of doing things that are to produce results and out of doing in a social and co-operative way, there is born a discipline of its own kind and type". This is self-discipline, the foundation of the educand's character. In the school, the educand must be permitted to perform those activities which help him to develop such qualities as self-reliance, independence, sociability, co-operation, sympathy, etc. Freedom is an important element in the pragmatist conception of discipline, for it is assumed that the aim of education is to generate democratic qualities in the educand. Of these democratic qualities, the first and most important is liberty. Consequently, it is only desirable that the educand be given as much freedom as is possible. In democratic countries, educators try to protect this freedom as much as they can. They realise that if this freedom is taken away from them, schools and colleges will never be used as the means of social progress. This freedom is the root of all true discipline, because this discipline is never imposed from outside. It is self-discipline. That is why the pragmatist believes in an intimate relationship between freedom and discipline. The aim of discipline is to create in the educand a social consciousness which will prevent him from indulging in anti-social activity. He is also inspired by this selfdiscipline to engage in those activities which lead to the fulfilment of his social obligations. The school's only responsibility is to equip the educand with all those qualities, such as responsibility, inspiration, insight, etc., by the use of which he can assume the role of a responsible democratic citizen. Discipline certainly does not mean a simple obedience of rules or commands imposed from outside. When such commands issue from the individual's own mind, the obedience of them amounts to self-discipline. Blind obedience is, in fact, 166 a negation of democracy. All that the educator has to do to create discipline is to evoke a sense of social responsibility in the child, not to compel the child to submit to external pressure. Social responsibility helps the educand to become disciplined and this discipline helps him in successfully performing all personal and social tasks. This is the psychological justification of discipline. The pragmatic educationist constantly experiments in order to discover new ways to creating

real discipline in the school. As a result of such untiring effort, many new methods have been evolved.

LIMITATIONS OF PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION

Though the contribution of pragmatism in the field of education is undeniable, the following criticisms have been levelled against it: 1. Biological bias. The pragmatist philosophy of education suffers from biological bias. As reason has been subordinated to passions, there is a likelihood of uncontrolled expression of passions. 2. Limitation of the theory of truth. According to the pragmatist expression, that idea is true which explains our problem. The truth of any idea does not depend on the fact of its conformity with reality. The true ideas, according to the pragmatist, are workable. According to the realist, on the other hand, the true is that which correctly represents the facts. For example, the proposition that the sun shines is true as it is a fact. Thus the criterion of a concept is its factuality. It should correspond to facts. What the pragmatists call truth is the impact of truth according to the realists. Now, if the criterion of truth supported by pragmatists is applied to their philosophy, it will be held true only if its followers succeed. However, success may also be found in the case of idealist and realist. Again, the pragmatist's theory of truth is not accepted everywhere and this failure is an argument against its truth. Now, if some one points out that it may be true in future, this criterion will not be pragmatist since it will have to be submitted that the present success is not a necessary attribute of truth. John Dewey has admitted the influence of circumstances. Then, the pragmatist theory will also change. Such a view will fail to provide any theory of truth. As H.H. Home has pointed out, "The truth that does not 167 change is so because it correctly represents a situation". Thus pragmatist theory of truth is self-contradictory. It will lead to conflicting theories and criteria everywhere. So many example confirming this truth may be cited in different fields of knowledge. While pragmatist approach may encourage original thinking about so many problems in a brilliant student, it will confuse the average and below average student since he wants to definite answer to his question. Again, sometimes even wrong theories succeed at least for the time being. In such cases, they may be taken as right and correct. 3. Eternity and permanence. Pragmatist denies any eternity and permanence to anything. He rejects the idealist worldview and everything eternal along with it. At least in the field of aims and ideals of education some sort of permanence is necessary. 4. Lack of purpose. Basing everything upon individual experimentation will result in lack of purpose everywhere. Most of the persons cannot derive any principle as they do not succeed much in any field of life. The pragmatic ideal may be more conducive to the creative persons but not to the average students. 5. Neglect of cultural ideals. The pragmatist's emphasis upon the physical and mundane world may sometimes lead to neglect of cultural ideals which is not acceptable in the field of education. The above criticisms show that in order to arrive at an integral philosophy of education, the pragmatist philosophy should be synthesised with idealism, naturalism and realism.

References
1. John Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, p. 38. London, University of London Press Ltd., 1921. 2. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1960, Introduction. 3. Robert R. Rusk, Philosophical Bases of Education, p. 68, footnote, London, University of London Press, 1956. 4. The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Sixth Edition, IIIrd Impression, 1976, p. 868. 5. Pierce, Chance, Love and Logic (M.R. Cohen, Editor), Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1923, p. 19. 168

Questions for Exercise

1. Explain the fundamental principles and forms of Pragmatism. 2. Evaluate the contribution of Pragmatism to education.

3. Explain the aim of education and principle of curriculum according to Pragmatism. 4. What is the role of education according to Pragmatism? Explain pragmatic educational methods and discipline. 5. Write a short note on Limitation of Pragmatism in Education. 169

9 Existentialism
Ever since the inception of reflective thought, the problem of Being and Existence has loomed large in the minds of philosophers, saints and seers. In ancient Upanishads we find direct reference to this question in the form of an inquiry into the quintessence or the element in man which survives death and destruction, that is, which is unaffected by becoming or change. The philosophers of East as well as West, of the ancient as well as modern times have all been seriously preoccupied by the problem of Existence. In short, no philosopher can avoid considering the ontological problems and thus all philosophies are at bottom existentialists. Then, how is the modern existentialist different and why do we not call other philosophies existentialism? The reason is that modern existentialism is concerned, unlike other philosophies, more with the problem of becoming than the problem of being; more with particulars than universals; more with existence than essence. As the father of modern existentialism, S. Kierkegaard puts it, the chief concern of an existentialist Christian is not the knowledge of rules and principles of Christianity but "how am I to become a Christian". The non-Christian or atheist existentialists substitute the word "Authentic Being" for the term Christian. Thus the extentialists have emphasized "Action" and "Choice" instead of usual emphasis on knowledge and explanation, and replaced the question of what by how. Attempts have been made to trace the beginning of existentialism in the Greek philosophy, in particular, the philosophy of Socrates. According to Dr. Radhakrishnan, "Existentialism is a new name for an ancient method". And, 170 according to J. Blackham, Existentialism "appears to be reaffirming in modern idiom the protestant or the stoic form of individualism, which stands over against the empirical individualism of the Renaissance or of the modern or of Epicurus as well as over against the universal system of Rome, or of Moscow or of Plato. ... It is a contemporary renewal of one of the necessary phases of human experience in a conflict in ideals which history has not yet resolved."

THE CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF EXISTENTIALISM

It is clear from the above account that in existentialism, human person and his freedom are given great importance. In it the ancient personal value stressed by Stoics and Epicureans and exemplified in Socrates' hemlock drinking have been reinterpreted. According to existentialism personal growth and development can take place through individual's own efforts and none can help him in this regard. Thus the practical problems of living are attached great value and importance. Briefly, the chief characteristics of existentialism are the following: 1. Criticism of Idealism. Existentialism has emerged and developed as a reaction against idealism. Existentialist philosophers are highly critical of idealism and conceptualism. According to idealism human person is essentially an expression of some underlying spiritual or psychic element which is of universal character: that is all men are fundamentally same and share with each other the universal character. It is this common character which truly defines the man. Therefore, the human freedom is subject to the good of humanity in general. There is no arbitrariness or individual will accounting for human freedom. But the existentialists criticize idealist's contention about universal element and man's good being subject to general good. They regard the search for essence a mistaken pursuit and according to them it is not the essence but existence which is real. 2. Criticism of naturalism.The existentialist philosophers are also critical of the philosophy of Naturalism. According to naturalists, life is subject to physico-biochemical laws, which, in turn, are subject to the universal law of causation. According to the law of causation whatever happens is due to antecedent 171 causes and there is no event which can appear suddenly without some or the other cause. Thus, if the law of causation is universally operative there can be no human freedom of action. Human acts are as mechanical as the actions of an animal. This, however, is anathema to the existentialists and they stoutly defend the freedom of man. As a matter of fact, man is so free, according to J.P. Sartre, that he is fearful of his freedom.

3. Criticism of the scientific philosophy. Besides being critical of idealism and naturalism, the existentialist philosophers are also critical of scientific conceptualism. Science abstracts from the immediate data and brings them under some universal law or general rule, whereas, according to existentialists, all abstraction is false, reality is in the immediate data only. Furthermore, with the tremendous progress in science and technology, rapid industrialization and urbanization have taken place. This has given rise to crowded towns in which an individual is lost. Everything is done or happens on a largescale and all personal values, individual likes and dislikes are altogether lost sight of. Today it is not the individual who chooses his end; rather all decisions are made by computers or statistical laws and data. Thus, science has made the value of man negligible. This is why the existentialists are opposed to scientific philosophy and culture. Indeed, the appeal of existentialist philosophy for artists and litteratures is due mainly to the stout opposition to science by existentialism. It is the basic belief of existentialism that any true philosophy must be grounded in axiology or theory of values and not in epistemology or theory of knowledge. 4. Born of despair. As has been indicated above, on account of an unparalleled progress of science and technology, huge, industrial complexes and townships have sprung. Everywhere man is losing touch of nature. In big towns the problems and inner conflicts of man have multiplied phenomenally. The two world wars have completely shaken man's faith in world's future and philosophy. With the growing application of technology and consequent increase in the mechanisation of life, there is a growing despair in the minds and hearts of men. The worth of human efforts is decreasing and the life is becoming like a raft on the open sea which is carried hither and thither without any definite direction. Under these circumstances a sensitive mind finds himself lost and forlorn. The existentialists try to analyze and describe 172 these human predicaments and find a way out of these. The existentialist is attacked on this count as indulging in gross exaggeration and raising false alarms. While it is very true that modern life is infested with hydra-headed problems and that intricacies of life overwhelm the spirit of man, giving up struggle in despair and cry in stiflement is no sensible solution of the current human predicament. Rather, any intensification of the feeling of despair and hopelessness would further complicate the matters. What is needed is an intelligent and sensible compromise with the hard and harsh facts of life. If man allows himself to be overwhelmed by misery, pain and apparent hopelessness of the situation, he would sink into apathy and cynicism. Thus he would not be able to improve his situation, on the contrary, every hope of any possible way out will recede. Psychologically, such an attitude is symptomatic of hypersensitiveness and hypochondria. Moreover, by advising man to feel fully unremittingly responsible for his life-situation, the sense of responsibility becomes abnormal and pathological. Such a man feels so intensely that he is led to commit suicide for small acts of omission and commission. As it is true elsewhere, it is true in this context that too much of anything is bad. The sense of responsibility and duty and the respect for human person are good things; but an exaggerated version of these can produce abnormal and pathological personality. 5. Value of human personality. From the observations made above about existentialism, it is obvious that existentialism recognizes the paramountcy of the human personality. As a matter of fact, for an existentialist "man" is the centre of the universe and nothing else is equal to it. Even Brahman, God, universe, etc., are subsidiary to "man". The basic feature of human person is his freedomunfettered and unrestrained. Society and social institutions are for the sake of man and not vice versa, as is believed by idealists and others. There is no "general will" to which the "individual will" is subject. If any social law or principle is restrictive of human freedom it is invalid and unjust. Anything which obstructs the growth and development of the individual must be discarded. With this aim in view, existentialist writers, artists and thinkers have expressed their views uncompromisingly and waged great battles for securing these freedoms for man. 173 6. Importance of subjectivity. The Danish philosopher S. Kierkegaard has said that truth is subjective, truth is subjectivity: objectivity and abstraction are hallucinations. While scientists lay so exclusive a stress on the objectivity and consider any intrusions by subjective elements as wholly unwarranted and vicious, the existentialists are extremists who believe that only the immediate feeling or apprehension reveals the truth and that abstraction in any form or manners vitiates the truth and reality. The immediate experience or feeling about which existentialists talk is the direct experience by individuals of things like conflict, divisiveness, pain, anguish, anxiety, suffocation, etc. It is these conflicts and pains that tell a person the quality of his life and the business of philosophy is to analyze and describe these conflicts and trace their causes. Usually these conflicts are moral in nature and are indicative of inauthentic existence. The various existentialists have tried to describe in minute details the experiences like spiritual crisis, sexual crisis, marital crisis, etc. The existentialist thinking is beyond thinking and reasoning and is rooted in direct experiences and their ungarbled descriptions. A biographical account, if honest, sincere and frank, usually helps in appreciating and understanding the truth of one's own situation. For example, a marital discord may be due to lack of respect for the other spouse and too much expectation of him or her. An honest account of such an experience may help relieve tensions in many perusers of this account by providing them insight into their own problems. Everyone by probing into the depths of one's subjectivity can discover the

truth of one's being and discover his authentic role in life. This is a creative process which gives rise to fresh insights. The man, when he encounters his existence first hand, stands alone. It is only when one is alone that one comes to grips with his true self. This ability to be alone, to stand by oneself, is the true freedom and this again is the basis of all morality. According to existentialists the origin of values is hot in the social situation but in the personal insight. 7. No construction of philosophical system. From the ancient times philosophers have cogitated and pondered over problems of God, Soul, Space, Time, physical world, its origin and evolution, etc. They have tried to present philosophies which embraced 174 all these problems and developed a theoretical system. However, the existentialists distrust system making and theorization. According to them, the true aim of philosophy is action and not theory. Therefore they do not cogitate over traditional problems. 8. Emphasis on the problem of the relation of individual and world. Lastly, a problem which is thought to be crucial by the existentialists is the relation between individual and world. The traditional explanations to this problem are not satisfactory according to existentialists. If we, after Hegel, believe in the one universal element called Absolute whose manifestation everything is, the individual has no value per se and is not free. According to Hegel the acceptance of necessity is the true freedom. This robs individual of all freedom and. his unique quality. Such a view is repugnant to the existentialists; they, therefore, are consistently and consensusly anti-Hegelian. According to existentialists man cannot be considered subject to any law, rule or principle, be it a universal natural, social or political law. They are uncompromising free-willists and are extremely wary of any external encroachment upon human freedom. The rule does not verify and authenticate the case; on the contrary, the case does verify the rule. The validity of art is in the artistic impulse and expression and not in any aesthetic theory. The worth of man is underivable from any universal element. The existentialist's account of man is neither mystical nor philosophical. Man and world both are unbound and free. Briefly, the existentialists consider man to be the centre of all value and activity. That is why their view is also called anthropocentrism. 9. Emphasis on the problem of inner conflict. The central problem of the modern highly complex world is not ideological but practical. It is neither relevant nor important today to win followers for a particular ideology or theory but to inspire in men a sense of responsibility and freedom. If there is this sense, the process of communication is facilitated. The world peace cannot be accomplished by raising slogans. We require for this purpose individuals who are free, who communicate freely and, above all, who respect theirs as well as other's personalities. A fortiori the peace is possible if and only if there is peace in each heart; if each man is free from inner conflicts, if each can be 175 free from the desire to subject others to his will. That is why existentialists attach so great importance to the problem of inner conflict. The traditional philosophies do not consider these problems philosophically worthwhile; but for existentialists these are extremely crucial and fundamental. The source of modern philosophical issues is the feeling of alienation from world, society as well as self. If we regard the existence and thought disparate, the problems arising out of this severance between reason and existence cannot be rationally solved. These can be resolved in practice only. A true harmony is not a harmony of ideas or thoughts but a harmony of desires. A true philosophy is not a philosophy of substance but rather a philosophy of existents, a philosophy of immediate experiences. The true nature of this philosophy is not thinking about the being but participating in its movement, that is, commitment. The existentialist philosophy does not have any definite aim because, life being movement and flow which is not mere mechanical change but a creative advance, it is not possible to tie down life to any particular aim. Life cannot be aimless or having an aim but only inauthentic and authentic. An authentic existence is the only aim that life has but this is not some future state but a present quality of life. An authentic life can be personal only. The existentialism condemns both historicism and the scientific philosophy. With the exception of Karl Jaspers no other existentialist philosopher attaches much importance to history or science. The existentialist philosophy is not a creation of any single philosopher. We find the existentialist writings scattered in the works of many philosophers, the important ones of which are Friedrich Nietzsche, Soren Kierkegaard, Gabriel Marcel, Martin Heidegger, Jean Paul Sartre, Karl Jaspers, Abbagnamo, Bardyaev and Albert Camus, etc. These philosophers have elaborated various themes and cardinal features of existentialist philosophy. There is of course no consensus among existentialists as to what is the essential nature of existentialism. J.P. Sartre calls his philosophy existentialist in a peculiar sense, while G. Marcel and K. Jaspers do not at all consider Sartre an existentialist philosopher. Kierkegaard and Marcel are both religious and subjectivist whereas the philosophy of Heidegger is objectivist. Some existentialist thinkers are theist while others are atheist.

176 Whereas Kierkegaard, Jaspers and Marcel are theist, Heidegger, Sartre and Nietzsche are atheist. Nietzsche is severely critical of Christianity and considers the morality of Christianity to be the morality of slaves.

IMPACT ON EDUCATION
The Aim of Education The aim of education, according to existentialism, is the realisation of inner truth. Contemporary mechanical and industrial life has alienated modern man. He is full of anxieties, frustrations, fears and guilts. He is lonely though in the crowd. His individuality is being corrupt. The education should make him realise his subjective consciousness. The existential aim of education is humanitarian and humanist. It aims at self-realisation. It provides knowledge of selfexistence. Child-Centred Education Existential education is child-centred. It gives full freedom to the child. The teacher should help the child to know himself and recognise his being. Freedom is required for natural development. Education should convert imperfection into perfection. Education should be according to the individual's needs and abilities of the child. The relation of the child to himself should be strengthened by education. Curriculum Existentialist's approach to education is almost an inversion of the realist approach. In the field of curriculum while the realists exclusively emphasise science, the existentialists find out that science and objective education severes our relation with ourselves. Science cannot help in inner realisation and achievement of peace. This, however, does not mean that science education should be ignored. It only means that besides science the curriculum must include humanities, ethics and religion. In keeping with this viewpoint contemporary engineering colleges have included some philosophy, ethics and social studies, 177 in their curriculum. Without this synthetic approach to curriculum the aim of character formation and personality development will be defeated. The Teacher According to the existentialists the teacher creates an educational situation in which the student may establish contact with himself, become conscious of it and achieve self-realisation. This requires existential approach in the teacher himself. He should also have an experience of self-realisation so that he may be capable of guiding the students in this process. Religious and Moral Education The existentialists particularly lay emphasis upon religious and moral education. Religion allows a person to develop himself. Religious education gives him an understanding of his existence in the cosmos. It shows the religious path of self-realisation. It also makes him capable of utilising faith in self-development. Moral education is closely related to religious education. Both develop the inner self and help in the realisation of the infinite within the finite.

CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION
Existentialism developed as a reaction against the contemporary social, economic and political situation in which man has lost his self. This philosophy has widely influenced art and literature. In politics it has stood against war. Its followers are active pacifists. In the field of education the contribution of existentialism is as follows: 1. Total development. The existentialists have aimed at total development of personality through education. Education should aim at the whole man. It should aim at character formation and self-realisation.

2. Subjective knowledge. The present age of science has made too much of objective knowledge, so much so that the term subjective has come to mean unreal, non-sense, ignorant and irrelevant. The existentialists rightly point out that subjective 178 knowledge is even more important than objective knowledge. They rightly hold that truth is subjectivity. It is a human value and values are not facts. Reduction of values to facts has led to widespread loss of faith in values. Therefore, along with the teaching of science and mathematics, the humanities, art and literature should also be given suitable place in curriculum at every stage of education. Most of the ills of the modern man are due to over-objective attitude. This requires a subjectivist correction in the light of existentialist ideas. 3. Importance of environment. The present industrial, economic, political and social environment is valueless. Therefore, it helps confusion and corruption, tensions and conflicts. The existentialists seek to provide an environment proper to selfdevelopment and self-consciousness. This environment in the school requires contribution from humanities, arts and literature. These will help in the development of individuality in the educand so that he may cease to become a cog in the social wheel. Rather he should develop to be a self-conscious and sensitive individual. In spite of the above mentioned contribution of existentialism its disadvantages are obvious since, as a philosophy also it has never provided a balanced thought. Some of the existentialist theories, in spite of all their genius, verge upon pathological symptoms. Such is the philosophy of Kierkegaard, the father of modern existentialism. If truth is not objective, it is not merely subjective. Existentialist revolt against intellectualism has its merits but also its serious limitations. Existential methods may be useful in moral and religious education but it cannot work in the education of science and technology. Therefore, the following limitations of existential philosophy of education may be noted: 1. Existential aim of education is as much one-sided as that of any other 'ism'. 2. Exclusive emphasis on humanities, art and literature is as much one-sided as emphasis upon science. 3. In their enthusiasm for self-realisation, the existentialists forget that a very important aim of education is earning a living. For that purpose the utilitarian aim of education has its advantages. 179 4. The existentialist method of teaching may be useful in moral and religion? education but it will not work in the teaching of science and technology. 5. From a perusal of the advantages and limitations of existential approach in the field of education, it is clear that it serves as a corrective to contemporary gaps of education. However, it is far from being satisfactory as a complete philosophy of education.

Questions for Exercise

1. What is Existentialism? What is its impact on education? 2. What is Existential Philosophy of Education? 3. What are the characteristics of Existentialism? How have these influenced the aim and process of education? 4. Write a note on contribution of Existentialism to education. 180

10 Logical Positivism
Logical Positivism is the most recent trend in philosophy. Though its parallels may be found in all times and ages in philosophy in the form of anti-speculation tendencies, it is only in the twentieth century that this philosophy has been fully elaborated and has come to dominate the philosophic scene. In the twentieth century, logical positivism came into existence with the establishment of Vienna Circle. The Vienna Circle was a group of philosophers or scientists with philosophic inkling who met off and on under the Chairmanship of Moritz Schlick, who, at that time, was holding the chair of philosophy in the University of Vienna. The common thread binding this group together was a thorough dissatisfaction with the current philosophy, which, according to them, was non-scientific, speculative and non-empirical. They wanted to cry halt to all speculation and give a new turn to the philosophy by basing it upon science and experience.

G. Weinberg in his book An Examination of Logical Positivism has said that "the official programme on which the Viennese Circle was first organized had two principal aims: to provide secure foundation for sciences and to demonstrate the meaninglessness of metaphysics". Thus the aim of the founders of Vienna Circle was to show that only a philosophy based on experience and scientific methodology has any validity and that the speculative philosophy of the past was merely will-of-the-wisp and lacked all validity and veracity. They wanted to usher in a new era in philosophy wherein all speculation would be abandoned. In the beginning, the activities of the Vienna Circle amounted to the activities of a private club and were not like an open 181 movement, that is, during the incipient stages the philosophers of Viennese Circle debated and discussed the various issues amongst them and had not as yet formulated any positive philosophic programme. In order to propagate and disseminate their views, the members of the Vienna Circle published a pamphlet "The Vienna Circle, Its Scientific Outlook" wherein they put forward their point of view and programme. Indeed, it was the manifesto of the logical positivism. In the early twenties, the logical positivism has had most impact on the philosophers of Vienna and Cambridge universities; but soon the movement of logical positivism swept the whole world. The philosopher whose views had maximum impact on the Vienna Circle philosophers in turning them away from metaphysics and formulating a philosophy sans Metaphysics was Ludwig Wittgenstein. Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico Philosophicus had paved way for antispeculation philosophy. He had asserted that the traditional philosophical problems were merely verbal tricks and that philosophy must fight this "bewitchment of intelligence." The period between 1930 and 1939 was a golden age of Vienna Circle; during this period logical positivism was riding the high crest of philosophic tidal wage. It was a young movement and had all the enthusiasm and zeal of the youth. Many top intellectuals of the world joined the movement in these years. In 1930, the eminent Polish logician Alfred Tarske was invited to deliver his discourses on mathematics. Rudolf Carnap was greatly impressed by these lectures and he propounded his logical principles on these lines. Though logical positivism has made sufficient progress since then, the Vienna Circle had begun disintegrating during Second World War. In 1934, Professor H. Hahn died of heart failure. In 1936, Professor Schlick was murdered by his student. After Schlick the mainstay of the Vienna Circle was gone. The best known members of this group were M. Schlick, R. Carnap, F. Weismann, O. Neurath, Feigl, F. Kaufmann, H. Hahn, K. Menger and Kurt Godel.

THE AIMS OF LOGICAL POSITIVISTS

If we make a close examination of logical positivism, we find in it two strains; one positivist and the other negativist. On the positivist side, the aim of these philosophers was to make 182 the foundations of the science, to rid it of the pseudo concepts of metaphysics and to lay its foundations on strictly empirical principles. On the negativist side their aim was to prove the futility and barrenness of the traditional philosophy and condemn metaphysics as meaningless, invalid and misleading. According to logical positivists, its is sheer waste of time and energy to indulge in speculation because that which transcends experience has no meaning, no sense. Only those statements, theories or principles have meaning and relevance which are about something within our experience and which can be validated or invalidated by reference to the facts of experience. And inasmuch as the theories and principles of Metaphysics are not based upon any experience, they are meaningless. Metaphysics, which literally means after-experience, is exhypothesis concerned with something that transcends experience. And as only empirical facts can be the subject matter of science and can have any validity or meaning, the subject-matter of Metaphysics, if any, is therefore, beyond the realm of sense or meaning. That is why, the logical positivists are so fond of debunking Metaphysics as "nonsense". What they mean is not that Metaphysics is a folly or foolish but that it has no relevance because it is nonsense (non experiential or not about sense experience). If philosophy cannot deal with transcendental spheres without losing sense and with regard to facts of experience it stands nowhere before science, then what can be the proper function of philosophers. Some thinkers are of the opinion that the proper business of philosophy is to harmonize or synthesize the scientific knowledge. The science deals with particular aspects of the Reality. In order to gain a general or total viewpoint, we need philosophy. Thus, philosophy is the science of sciences. However, this view is unacceptable to logical positivists. According to them, the conceptions of harmony, synthesis, totality, etc., belong to the sphere of literature and poetry. Explaining the proper function of philosophy Rudolf Carnap writes: "The proper function of philosophy is to analyze the statements asserted by scientists and study their kinds and relations". Thus the logical positivists deprived philosophy of its traditional function of being surveyor of all knowledge and determiner of what should constitute valid knowledge and to reveal to man the hidden laws of the universe. They have

183 restricted philosophy to a narrow and technical function of evaluating the scientific assertions According to logical positivists philosophy is to science what grammar is to language. As the kiiowledge of grammar does not enable us to create the language but equips us only with the rules which any linguistic expression must follow, similarly, philosophy frames the rules whereby it can be determined if a particular scientific assertion is correct or incorrect.

THE CONCEPTION OF MEANING

In his first book Tractatus Logico Philosophicus, Wittgenstein developed his conception of meaning through the logical analysis of language and experience. According to Wittgenstein philosophy is nothing but analysis and discussion of language. The language is nothing but a symbolic expression of the facts of experience. The language is comprised of two types of expressions or statements: the simple and compound. The entire fabric of language is analyzable in compound statements, which, in turn, are analyzable in simple statements. Thus, language is nothing but "the totality of propositions". A simple or atomic proposition is a mirror or reflection of the reality. According to Wittgenstein, "A proposition is a picture of reality". Since language represents the facts of experience, the relationship between facts and the linguistic expressions thereof must indeed be very close. It is the fact which makes a proposition true or false. If the proposition is correspondent to the facts it is true; otherwise false. Wittgenstein in here reviving the correspondence theory of truth, according to which a proposition is true if and only if it asserts what the facts indeed are. For example, if we say that a ripe Dusseri mango is sweet, what we are asserting is according to the nature of Dusseri, that is, our statement of Dusseri mango corresponds to the fact. On the contrary if we say "King of Nepal is a Moslem" our statement is untrue because King of Nepal happens to be a Hindu. Thus, we learn that a compound proposition can be so translated or analyzed as to give us simple proposition and that each simple proposition is a symbolic expression for a single fact. Since a simple proposition stands for some simple 184 fact, the truth of the proposition can be determined by comparing the two. A momentous and crucial fact which follows from this analysis is that each linguistic expression is, directly or indirectly, overtly or covertly, connected with some or the other fact of experience. Therefore, if there is any linguistic expression which masquerades as a proposition but on analysis fails to show any connection with any fact of experience, then that linguistic expression is not a proposition but a pseudo-proposition. A pseudo-proposition is not merely not connected with any fact but it is impossible to think that it can be so connected. This is the basic difference between pseudo-propositions and false-propositions. This difference, can be best explained by examples. Let us have two following propositions: (1) 'Aspirin causes headache' and (2) 'God exists'. Now (1) is false because aspirin is a pain remover but aspirin and headache are facts, whereas (2) is neither true nor false but meaningless because there is and cannot be a fact which will answer to or correspond with our idea of god. Thus a pseua-proposition is neither true nor false because the criterion of truth has no relevance to it. The precise and scientific explanation of Wittgenstein's conception of the meaning is in the following words: "The sense of a proposition is the method of its verification". That is, a proposition is a proposition if and only if some empirical facts are to be found which may confirm or disconfirm the proposition in question. Those propositions which can neither be confirmed nor disconfirmed by the empirical evidence are meaningless. It is a mistake to call them propositions.

ELIMINATION OF METAPHYSICS
It was the British philosopher David Hume who was the first philosopher to have maintained that Metaphysics was impossible because its principles were neither tautologies nor were based on experience. Taking the empirical foundations laid by Locke and Berkeley to their logical conclusion Hume had argued that there can be no basis for inferring something unseen from the seen. If we observed no causal necessity or regularity in nature, we could not be justified in believing it to be there. Thus, Metaphysics is unwarranted because it has no basis in experience. 185 Kant had also declared that the science of Metaphysics is impossible. However, it was left to logical positivists to lead an organized revolt against Metaphysics and to make their viewpoint heard and respected in philosophical circles. According to A. J. Ayer the futility of metaphysics becomes transparent if we remember that "The fundamental postulate of metaphysics is that there is super-phenomenal reality". And whatsoever the super-phenomenal reality may or may not be, one thing is quite clear; namely, that the statements pertaining to "this reality" cannot be analyzed into simple propositions or protocol statements. Such being these are unverifiable. Being unverifiable they make no sense. Like couplets, stanzas or cantos of poetry they may have great impact upon our feelings; they may be highly edifiable, but seen on the touchstone

of meaningful propositions they lack credibility. Thus, metaphysics has no relevance to knowledge. Though in his Philosophical Investigations Wittgenstein is not uncompromisingly critical of metaphysics, in his earlier work referred to above he is vehemently opposed to metaphysics. According to him the metaphysical language is confusing and its problems unreal. The metaphysical problems are due to conscious or unconscious abuse of the language. According to him it is the business of philosophy to remove the veil of secrecy and show that metaphysical problems are unreal. As a phobic, if one understands the irrationality of his fear, he immediately gets rid of his phobia, in the same way if we see through the subterfuges of linguistic manipulation in the creation of metaphysical problems we would instantly cease to regard them as problems, Wittgenstein believes that word is invariably linked with some or the other senseexperimental fact. Therefore, if we find that there are certain alleged linguistic expressions which have no connection with empirical facts, then these expressions must be pseudo. Therefore, Wittgenstein refuses to consider metaphysical statements to be propositions, because, these, by definition, transcend experience and hence cannot be verified. Though since ages philosophers have been making metaphysical assertions, none of them has ever tried to offer any empirical evidence in their favour. As they cannot be subjected to either logical or empirical proof, these must be rejected as meaningless expressions. 186 The metaphysicians claim that though metaphysics is not based upon any external experience, it is nonetheless based upon internal experience. Wittgenstein does recognize that there are internal experiences but these cannot be known unless we express them. When we express them they are linked with some objective reality and should, therefore, be verifiable. But the statements of metaphysicians are unverifiable, therefore, they cannot be claimed to be based upon any experience whatever. The basic contention of Wittgenstein is that all logical propositions are correspondent to facts, that is, these stand for some or the other objective fact. The metaphysical statements, on the other hand, are devoid of all objective reference and are, therefore, logically sterile. These propositions are not made up of simple propositions but are supposedly based on spiritual experiences and facts; therefore, these are unanalyzable and consequently unverifiable.

LANGUAGE
As has been earlier referred to there was some change in the viewpoint when Wittgenstein wrote his second bookThe Philosophical Investigations. Unlike Tractatus, in which he had defined meaning as the mode of verification, now he defines meaning in terms of a game or play. To imagine a language; according to him, is to imagine a form of life. Thus, language is a style of life and the activity of man is a game. The terms used in a language have some special meaning. If a word has no special meaning it is senseless. For example, the words "sky" and "flower" each has meaning and refers to something particular; but the word "sky flower" is devoid of meaning because no special meaning is inherent in it. It refers to nothing. Applying the analogy of "sky flower" to the philosophical problems, Wittgenstein asserts that though sky and flower each has meaning, yet the syntax of two "Sky flower" fails to convey any meaning. In the same manner, the words used in asserting metaphysical problem may each have meaning but the assertion taken as a whole may be syntactically defective and therefore has no meaning. A simple example would explain the point. The metaphysical assertion: "All reality is ideal" has no meaning though each word in it is meaningful. We can only talk of this 187 or that real object or fact but to say "All reality" makes no sense because there is nothing corresponding to all reality as we have objects corresponding to a red rose, a philosophy book, etc. In order to resolve metaphysical puzzles the philosophical usages should be, according to Wittgenstein, re-interpreted as commonsense usages of daily life. "What we do is to bring words back from their metaphysical to their every day use." In an ideal language, according to Wittgenstein, only the words which are symbols for some real state of affairs are used. The philosophical problems crop up when we deviate from this principle and use words having no referents. The philosophical language usually is immaturish and imperfect. This is the reason for the lack of clarity in the philosophic assertions. Wittgenstein disregards grammar. The grammar sometimes misleads and systematically misleading expressions produce in us illusion of a problem and we feel restless. Once we let reality juncture and dispel the illusion our problem vanishes into thin air. The one-sidedness of philosophy is responsible for the puzzles of philosophy. In Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein says that "philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment of intelligence by language". The role of philosophy is to protect us against falling into illusions due to grammatical similarities. For example, a noun is a name of something and it follows that to every name there must correspond an objective fact. This may lead us to believe that since God is a noun, there must be some person, place or thing which is called God. By avoiding these errors we find almost all metaphysical problems disappear. They are dissolved like a dream dissolving on waking. Though the writings of Wittgenstein had great impact on the logical positivists and linguistic philosophers, the conclusions

drawn by him through rigorous analysis are not universally acceptable. Indeed, they have been severely criticized. Undoubtedly the views of Wittgenstein brought about a revolutionary change in philosophical thinking and his theories proved very fertile inasmuch as through their criticism new insights were achieved. The verification theory of meaning propounded by Wittgenstein has been shown to be built upon the foundations of shifting sand. Among its numerous criticisms the most crucial is that the criterion by which the meaning is to be tested is itself untested. For example, "This is a table" 188 can be verified by visual, tactual and other means but there is no way to verify that to verify the meaning by these means is a meaningful proposition. To this criticism, Wittgenstein replies that "My propositions are elucidatory in this way; he who understands me finally recognizes them as senseless, when he has climbed through them, on them, over them. (He must, so to speak, throw away the ladder, after he has climbed upon it.) He must surmount these propositions, then he sees the word rightly". The principle of verification, if strictly adopted as a criterion of meaning, would render many a scientific proposition meaningless. For example, "There are atoms" is not verifiable in the ordinary sense. We know the existence of atoms inferentialiy and direct observation of these is as yet not possible. Therefore, adherence to the strict verification criterion would rule out science as senseless. The crucial errors into which Wittgenstein slipped was that he failed to make distinction between science and philosophy and treated them as similar, whereas science and philosophy are unlike both in subject matter and methodology. Wittgenstein greatly under-valued philosophy. He accorded to the physical world the status of ultimately as real, but, as a matter of fact, the world of values is as much real as the physical world. The values are not capable of analysis. Philosophy has made significant contribution towards understanding and development of values. Wittgenstein utterly ignored this aspect of philosophy. He did so on account of his over-reliance on the physical world as being ultimately real.

THE NEW ROLE OF PHILOSOPHY

The elimination of Metaphysics is not the only task before logical positivists. In fact, they are equally, if not more, interested in filling up the vacuum created by the rejection of metaphysics by a new role (the logic of science). According to Carnap, it is "to analyze the statements asserted by scientists, study the kinds and relations and analyze terms as components of those statements and theories as ordered systems of those statements". The linguistic analysis of the scientific statement has been called "logic of science" by Carnap. According to him only sciences can give us the knowledge about facts. Philosophy has no 189 technique and methodology to assess and determine the facts. Philosophy, therefore, must not try to evaluate facts but accept them on the basis of scientific knowledge. This is why Philosophy should address itself exclusively to the task of analyzing the language of science. The logic of science performs two following functions: 1. Logical syntax 2. Semantics. 1. Logical Syntax In logical syntax we study the forms of linguistic expressions Inasmuch as logical syntax is concerned with the forms and not the contents of linguistic expressions or propositions, it is also called formal logic. In the study of the logical syntax we are not concerned with the content or meaning of the propositions but with the reduction of complex forms into elementary forms and the elementary forms into their constituents. It also inquires into the logical relations of consistency and inconsistency, dependence and independence among different propositions. Logical syntax helps us to reach the basic statements of various sciences and realize the logical relations among these. In his book Logical Syntax of the Language, Carnap has split up language in two divisions: the primary and the secondary. He has separately treated the rules of the two. Primary Language or Language I Defining Language I, Carnap says, "Language I is restricted so as to admit only the definition of those concepts and the formulation of those propositions which fulfil some requirements of constructivism". Although the scope of Language I is limited it does not follow that it has definite sentences. The real reason for the limitation of Language I is that it "consists

primarily in the fact that only definite number of properties occur in it". On account of this limitation it is called definite language. Language I has been classified into two categories by Carnap: 1. Universal and 2. Existential. 190 Besides, there are five types of preliminary statements: 1. Sentential Calculus; 2. Sentential Operators; 3. Identity; 4. Arithmetic, 5. K-Operator. As there are two sentences, there are two types of operators as well viz.: 1. Universal and 2. Existential. These can be limited or unlimited. They are expressed with the help of symbols which may be defined or undefined. Besides, in Language I there is reference to the rules of inference and judgement. The logical syntax of Language I is formulated on the basis of these rules. Language II Contrary to Language I the scope of Language II is wide. According to Carnap, "Language II is very comprehensive, it makes available sufficient sentential forms for the formulation of everything that occurs in classical mathematics and in classical physics. Whereas Language I is limited in scope, the Language II is comprehensive in scope. Language I is, however, employed in Language II as a sub-class. Though the Language II is more clear and accurate than the Language I, the Language I's sentences and symbols are appropriate to the Language II. Inasmuch as it is comprehensive, the Language II "contains indefinite concepts". The General Syntax Besides linguistic syntaxes, Carnap has also referred to the rules of general syntax. Whereas the rules of linguistic syntax are applicable to a particular language, the rules of general syntax refer to all languages, oral as well as gestural. Carnap has related the general syntax with the philosophical discourse. According to him, in theory there are two types of questions: 1. Questions relating to Subject matter. 2. Questions relating to Logic. 191 The contextual questions pertain to metaphysical, ontological and physical inquiries and the logical questions pertain to Epistemology and Logic. 2. Semantics Rudolf Carnap has propounded his view on Semantics in his three books: Introduction to Semantics, Formalization of Logic and Meaning and Necessity. In semantics the concepts of meaning and truth are studied and the various theories thereof examined. Semantics considers the relation of linguistic expressions to objects designated by them. The Semantical analysis of the scientific language reveals that a word may represent a particular object (e.g., table) or a certain property (e.g., sweetness) or a relation between two things (e.g., friendship) or a physical function (e.g., breathing). It also reveals the fact of synonymity, that is, two words may stand for the same object or same property.

In language there are three distinct elements: 1. The speaker; 2. The expression uttered; and 3. The designatum. And a language system makes use of three types of rules: (i) Syntactical rules; (ii) Semantical rules; and (Hi) Pragmatic rules. The science dealing with these rules is called Semiotic. In Semantics, Carnap splits language in two parts; the object Language and the Metalanguage. The object language is that which is the subject matter of our discussion and analysis. In Metalanguage we say something about the object language. For example, if the teaching of Hindi is done through the medium of English, Hindi is the object Language and English the Metalanguage. The simple most unit of a language is sign. A series of signs is known as expression. Furthermore, signs are also of two types: sign event and sign-design. The semantics, too, is of two types: descriptive semantics and pure syntax. The descriptive semantics studies the historical changes in the 192 forms of semantical signs and expressions. The pure syntax analyzes the methods and techniques of Semantics. A concatenation of signs results in a formula. A concatenation is the serial order of the signs. The different patterns of concatenation give rise to different forms of sentential syntax. The various syntactic arrangements or systems have their peculiar logic. If we know the pattern of arrangement in any concatenation, we can formulate the rules of its syntax. The peculiar concatenation of signs determines the terms, operators, sequence and sentential calculus and the techniques thereof. The pure syntax examines the techniques of semantics and this is known as calculus. The semantic technique frames rules for determining the necessary and sufficient truth of every type of sentence. Besides formulating the semantical rules, Carnap has also developed a number of metalanguage systems. He has shown that a metalanguage has four elements (i) The Logical; (ii) The Sentential Syntax; (iii) Translation; and (iv) Semantical. These elements in a metalanguage are interdependent. The semantics is not a science, according to Carnap, because it does not help us to gather facts about the physical world. It is only an instrument for acquisition of knowledge. It determines and regulates modern logic. The modern logic and two chief constituentsthe sentential syntax and semantics. According to Carnap the apparatus of modern logic is applicable to and useful not only in philosophy but sciences as well. The views given above have been propounded in Formalization of Logic and Introduction to Semantics two of the three books mentioned above. In his third book Meaning and Necessity Carnap has analyzed in depth and detail the semantic aspects of meaning. The other feature of this work is the theory of forms. In it the concepts of necessity, chance, possibility and impossibility have been examined in detail. This part is known as Logic. In his book Logical Foundation of Probability Carnap has considered the problems of probability and induction. According to him there is a close relationship between the two. Indeed, 193 the inductive logic is the logic of probability. The probability is a type of relationship obtaining betwixt two propositions. The concept or probability plays crucial role in statistical science.

THE VALUES
According to Rudolf Carnap it is not possible to present any comprehensive theory of values. This is so because values depend upon human interests and desires. Carnap divides values in two classes

l.The Relative values; and 2. The Absolute values. The Relative values are born of experience. They are the outcome of desires, interests, likes and dislikes. A man acts according to his values because these help him achieve the desired ends or goals. The acts done in accordance with absolute values are automatically good. They are not derived from experience. According to Carnap all values are meaningless. All statements regarding values are incomplete because they have neither logical nor scientific evidence in support of these. The belief of certain philosophers that values are universal is mistaken. The values are nothing but the outcome of human desires and interests which, in the long run, assume the status of law. For example, the moral rule that telling lies is bad is an outcome of the experience of man that life is impossible in a society where lying is permissible, because in that event it will be impossible to believe anyone. Therefore, it is the interest of man which dictates the moral rule "Lying is bad." Carnap has formulated three principles of morality. His ethics can be best described as Scientific Humanism. The three principles of morality proposed by Camap are: 1. There is no transcendental being who may be regarded to be the destroyer or the preserver of man. It follows, therefore, that for the development and progress of man the self-help or personal efforts by man are indispensable. 2. Man can effect such modifications in the changing circumstances of man that he can gain freedom from 194 pain and disease. These constructive efforts can bring about definite improvement in personal and social life of man. 3. The science is the best instrument for the betterment of human life. Carnap has made definitive contribution to the realm of knowledge by his linguistic analysis and logical studies. Besides, he has also purged philosophy of many redundancies. However, like other logical positivists Carnap has been more successful in condemning philosophy than in presenting a positive philosophy. The view of Carnap that philosophy has no independent status and that it is dependent upon science is utterly false. As a matter of fact, it has an independent status and is in no way dependent upon science. Without the foundations provided by philosophy it is impossible to raise the structure of science, therefore it is science which is subject to philosophy and not vice versa. The dictum "Philosophy is science of sciences", expresses a fundamental truth. The explanation of values by Carnap is based on a misconception. As a matter of fact values are not just the expression of human desires and interests. The values are the fundamental principles underlying the facts. In order to know the bases of a fact we should know its values. Carnap has gone into very fine details of logical principles but has, in the process, rendered them extremely intricate and complex. He has made his logical and linguistic theories too complicated to be of value.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Logical positivism is a philosophical system and not a theory of education. In philosophy its contribution is particularly notable in the field of epistemology. Therefore, its implications are particularly important in teaching methods and the methods of communicating knowledge in education. The following are the important implications of logical positivism in the field of education. 1. Aims of education. Logical positivists insist upon meaningful propositions so that some meaning may be conveyed. Therefore, 195 according to them, the aim of education is to distinguish between sense and nonsense, knowledge and ignorance, meaningful and meaningless propositions. It aims at propagation of scientific knowledge. It seeks to base the entire educational process on intelligence and reasoning. It lays emphasis upon objective knowledge as against subjectivity. Thus, its aim is precisely the opposite of existentialism. Knowledge, according to it, is empirical. The educational system should be based upon reliable and verified knowledge. Verification is through the practical consequences. Thus, logical positivists advise the use of utilitarian criterion in knowledge. Education aims at creating critical and scientific attitude. This is possible by training in language.

2. Educational method. The educational method, particularly emphasised by logical positivism, is both logical and positive. The teacher should himself analyse propositions in knowledge and check their verification. His approach should be strictly scientific and objective. He should adopt educational methods verified by educationists. He should test hypotheses and assumptions in every field of knowledge. He should develop the power of reasoning. He should train the student in logical thinking. He should have a sense of purpose everywhere and reject everything which cannot be verified. 3. Curriculum. The logical positivist rejects metaphysics, religion and all such knowledge which may not be verified. Language and grammar, besides logic, find central place in logical positivist curriculum. The training in analysis of language is necessary for every student. It is only analysis which leads to clarity of thought. Religious, moral and spiritual education have no place in positivist curriculum. Sciences occupy a prestigious place in it. It rejects self criticism everywhere. All criticism must be objective. Science and scientific research, both theoretical and practical, should be encouraged by the universities. The students should develop constructive imagination. 4. School organisation. Logical positivists believe in scientific humanism. The school should be managed by the students as much as by the teachers. The school organisation should be based upon functional efficiency, utilitarianism and humanism. Humanism considers everything relative and nothing absolute. So, innovations should be encouraged in place of conformity 196 and traditions. Educational process should be confined to the realm of knowledge. Only objective knowledge should be propagated. Only logical definitions should be accepted. Only valid interpretations should find currency. In the final analysis the contribution of logical positivism is the evolution of philosophy of language and a principle of verification. Logical positivists develop a scientific theory of truth. They reject everything which may not be verified. The task of philosophy, according to logical positivist, is to work as a science of sciences. Thus, logical positivists act as catalysts. They down right reject all confused and unverified beliefs, hypotheses and propositions. Logical positivist's method is not only useful in the field of philosophy but also in the field of sciences. The scientists present a theory after prolonged observation and experimentation, gathering the data, classification, generalisation and verification. The presentation of theory, however, should be strictly according to the rules laid down by logic and grammar. Without this method scientific knowledge will not be valid and no valid implications may be deduced from it. This training is necessary for all the students. This is also necessary for all the teachers and researchers. Thus, logical positivists have sought to remove confusions and indefiniteness in every field of knowledge. They are against all verbosity and verbal tricks. The movement started as an examination of empirical principles. It condemned the traditional role of philosophy and allotted new functions to it. It made philosophy concur to science. According to it what grammar is to language that philosophy is to science.

Questions for Exercise

1. What is Logical Positivism? Explain the role of Philosophy according to Logical Positivism. 2. How do Logical Positivists explain the meaning of meaning. What are their implication for education? 197

11 Socialism, Fascism, Marxism and Communism

SOCIALISM
Characteristics of Socialism 1. Social Justice. Socialism aims at social justice. 2. Equality. Socialism aims at equality. 3. Classless Society. Socialism aims at establishing a classless society, free from exploitation, oppression and disparity. 4. Fellow Feeling. Socialism aims at establishing a society based on mutual co-operation and fellow feeling. 5. Public Ownership. Socialism pre-supposes public ownership of the means of production.

6. Abolition of Capitalism. Socialism aims at abolishing the capitalist system. 7. Abolition of Class Conflict. Socialism aims at abolishing conflicting classes in the society. 8. Active Participation. Socialism aims at the active participation of the individual in the productive process of society. 9. Developing Necessary Attitude. Socialism aims at developing necessary skills and favourable attitude towards work. 10. State Control. Socialism stands for total state control in affairs of life. 198 Impact on Education Various Committees and Commissions in India have suggested educational measures conforming to Socialist Pattern of Society. The Kothari Commission has observed, "One of the important social objectives of education is to equalise opportunity, enabling the backward or under-privileged classes and individuals to use education as a lever for the improvement of their condition. Every society that values social justice and is anxious to improve the lot of commonman and cultivate all available talent, must ensure progressive equality of opportunity to all sections population. This is the only guarantee for the building up of an egalitarian and human society in which the exploitation of the weak will be minimised." The impact of :socialism on education is as follows: 1. Teaching of socialism.lt is the responsibility of educational institutions to bring about adequate awareness regarding socialism among the teachers and students. Such knowledge will enable the young people to chart the course of nation towards the goal of socialism. A school can convey positive attitudes and values regarding socialism to students through the following: 1. Direct teaching of socialism. 2. Living the values and attitudes to be learned through the organization of various activities. 3. Teachers becoming models embodying the desired values and attitudes. 2. Common school system. The so-called public schools provide good education only to microscopic minority of rich children. It goes against the principles of socialism. The Kothari Commission advocated the abolition of this system and suggested a system of common schools throughout the country which will be open to all children, irrespective of caste, creed, community, religion, economic conditions or social status. It observed, "On grounds of social justice as well as for the furtherance of democracy it is essential to make special efforts to equalise educational opportunities between these groups". However, due to various reasons this has not been possible in India. The public school system of education still thrives in our country. In fact, it is becoming popular day-by-day. 199 3. Nationalisation of textbooks. Textbooks at the school stage have been nationalised as an impact of socialism. Their contents are oriented and regulated according to the national policy and ethos. Efforts are being made to keep price range of textbooks within the easy reach of the parents. Means of Providing Equality of Opportunity in Education 1. Tuition Free Education. School education should be completely free from tuition fee. 2. Free Textbooks at the Primary Stage. At the primary stage, a programme of providing free textbooks should be given high priority and introduced immediately. 3. Book Banks. A programme of book banks should be developed in secondary schools and in institutions of higher education. 4. Grants for Purchase of Books. The top 10 per cent of the students in educational institutions should be given small grants annually for the purchase of books which need not necessarily be textbooks. 4. Adequate scholarships. The Education Commission has suggested the following programme of scholarships at different stages:

(i) Scholarships at the Primary Stage. At the end of the lower primary stage, no :promising: child should be prevented from continuing his studies. The target should be to provide scholarships for 25 per cent of the enrolment at the higher primary stage. (ii) Scholarships at the Secondary Stage. The target should be to provide scholarships for 10 per cent of the enrolment. (iii) Scholarships at the University Stage. Scholarships should be available to at least 25 per cent of enrolment at the undergraduate stage. Scholarships should cover at least 50 per cent of the enrolment at the postgraduate stage. 5. Kinds of scholarships (i) Scholarships for those who have to stay in hostels. These should cover all direct and indirect costs of education, i.e., tuition fees, books, supplies, etc., and living costs. 200 (ii) National Scholarships. As against the present provision of one per cent, the target to be reached should be to cover 10 per cent of such students. (iii) Scholarships for Study Abroad. A national programme for award of scholarship is needed to enable some of our talented persons to go abroad for further education or training in research. (iv) Loan Scholarships. A comprehensive programme of National Loan Scholarship should be undertaken. A National Loan Scholarship Board may be set up for administering this programme. 6. Transport facilities. Adequate transport facilities may be provided in the rural areas so that students are encouraged to attend educational institutions. 7. Day-study centres and lodging houses. At the secondary and university stages a large number of day-study centres should be provided for students who do not have adequate facilities for study at home. Lodging houses may also be provided where students can stay throughout the day, and even at night, but go home for food. 8. :Earn while learn: facilities. Facilities for students to earn and pay a part of their expenses should be provided on as large-scale as possible. 9. Special Facilities for girls. Special facilities may be provided to the girls. 10. Education of the backward sections of society. Special investigations may be carried out, regarding important aspects of spread of education amongst the tribals and their effects. The Education Commission recommends, ""The education of the backward classes in general and of the tribal people in particular is major programme of equalization and of social and national integration. No expenditure is too great for the purpose." 11. Egalitarian admission policy. There is a great need to introduce an egalitarian element in admissions to institutions so that students coming from rural areas are not handicapped due to language or some other factors. 12. Special Assistance to Backward Areas or States. At the national level, it should be regarded the responsibility of the Government of India to secure equalization of educational 201 development in the different states. The necessary programmes for this, include special assistance to the less advanced states. 13. Meeting the Needs of Slow Learners. In the ordinary classes, where instruction is traditionally geared to the need of the average child, the dull children have to work under a great hardship. They need individual attention, special, remedial help and a modified curriculum to suit their rate of learning. In some educationally advanced countries, special schools have been established for this category of children. Such a feasibility may be explored in India in big cities. Special classes in ordinary schools can also be held very profitably. Such a treatment is likely to be better for their emotional and social development also. Guidance and counselling services have an important role to play in the education of such children. 14. Common school system. A common school system of public education should be evolved in place of the present system which divides the management of school between a large number of agencies whose functioning is inadequately co-ordinated. An adequate level of quality and efficiency should be maintained so that no parent would ordinarily feel any

need to send his child to the institutions outside the system. Such a step will be helpful towards eliminating the segregation that now takes place between the schools for the poor and the underprivileged classes and those for the rich and the privileged ones. 15. State schools. The state should itself open a large number of state schools for the spread of education. 16. Suitable legislation. The state should take suitable steps to exercise control on private enterprise which thrives on high fees charged from the students. The public schools run by such organizations should not be allowed to perpetuate class differences.

FASCISM
Meaning Derived from the Italian word Fascio (a bundle of wood), fascism expresses unity, discipline and strength. This term was applied to the regimes of Mussolini and Hitler which were established in 1922 and 1933 in Italy and Germany respectively. Aggressive 202 nationalist, undemocratic, communal, anti-communist regimes, movements and parties are usually called fascist. Fascism is a reactionary and counter-revolutionary theory. Its object is to safeguard the crisis-ridden capitalist socio-economic and political order. It is opposed to democracy, human rights, socialism and any kind of revolutionary change. Fascism in Europe The first Fascist state was established on the 28 October 1922, when armed members of Fascist party, dressed in black, held a :March on Rome: in Italy under the leadership of Mussolini. Fascism in Germany German Fascism evolved under the leadership of Nazi Party, led by Hitler, formed in 1920 on the basis of an attractive and radical 25-point programme. Educational Implications 1. Objectives. The primary objective of fascism is to cultivate in the young an emotional and intellectual commitment to the racial superiority. The individual:s education must develop in him an intense spirit of nationalism. My country, right or wrong, should be the dominating factor and slogan guiding all educational activities including the aims and objectives of education. 2. Curriculum. Fascism attaches great importance to the inclusion of subjects relating to physical education. Hitler held the view that as a certain racial quality is the pre-supposition of the intellectual efficiency, so all education must first of all develop physical health. The Fascists decry physical weakness as crime against the state. They believe that the genetic constitution of the body owes much from physical education. 3. Methods of teaching. Fascism discourages questioning and independent thinking on the part of the students. Students are required to listen to their teachers passively. 4. Discipline. There are rigid and strict rules and regulations to be followed by the students. They are treated like dumbdriven cattle. They are required to sacrifice their individuality for the sake of state. 203 5. Teachers. The primary duty of a teacher under fascism is to prepare children in such a manner that they would profess faith in the service of their nation.

MARXISM
Meaning

Marxism has been regarded as a body of social doctrine worked out by Karl Marx (1818-1883), a revolutionary author, thinker and philosopher of his age. He was assisted by his colleague and friend Frederick Engles. Main Characteristics of Marxism 1. Revolutionary programme. In the contemporary world, Marxism makes its claims as a scientific philosophy, revolutionary programme, progressive movement, and the socio-economic, political, cultural and moral basis of the social systems of more than a thousand million people. During the course of its history of 130 years or so, Marxism had to face many challenges from within and without, guided many revolutionary movements and aroused hopes in millions of people. It provided a scientific outlook towards the universe, society, history, man, etc. The revolutionary power of this ideology and of the revolutionary mass movements based on it, has divided the world into two blocks the capitalist or liberal block, and the socialist block. 2. Anti-capitalism. Marx did not appeal to the conscience of the capitalists to improve the conditions of the working class. He did not appeal to the reason of the capitalist class. He did not entrust the state with the welfare functions to improve the conditions of working class. On the contrary, he gave a revolutionary message of changing the society"Workers of the world unite, you have nothing to lose but your chains and you have a world to win." 3. Philosophy of socio-political change. The most important aspect of the development of Marxism is its philosophy of sociopolitical change. 204 4. Materialistic concept of history. Marx found the paradigm of actual social and human development and translated it into materialist terms. Materialistic conception of history was the Hegelian idealistic conception turned upside down or back upon its feet. Marx rejected idealism and replaced it with materialism. His method is known as dialectic materialism and it is the philosophical basis of Marxism. It is called dialectical materialism because its approach to the phenomena of Nature, its method of studying and apprehending them is dialectical, while its interpretations of the phenomena of Nature, its conceptions of these phenomena, its theory is materialistic. 5. Proletarian revolution. Marx wrote in Communist Manifesto, "All previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interest of minorities. The proletarian movement is the self-conscious independent movement of the immense majority, in the interests of the immense majority. The proletariat, the lowest stratum of our present society, cannot stir, cannot raise itself up, without the whole super-incumbent strata of official society being sprang into the air. The proletariat revolution will be social revolution, as the proletariat represent the interests of the society as a whole. Thus, Marxism is a theory of revolutionary change. Capture of political power by the working class is a beginning and, after it, the dictatorship of proletariat should be established and massive task of social and economic transformation should start, so that the way for a classless society may be paved. Criticism of Marxism 1. Revolutionary. Development and change in society can be brought through reforms rather than through revolution. 2. Destructive. Revolution is destructive and it implies violence. 3. Dictatorship. After the revolution, instead of the dictatorship of the proletariat, dictatorship over proletariat is established and it destroys the liberties available in an open society, and gives birth to a closed society. 4. Class Conflict. Classes are not abolished by revolution and even after the revolution class-struggle continues. 205 5. National Loss. During the revolution, one generation has to pay a very heavy price and it is illogical that a generation should sacrifice itself for the sake of the coming generation. 6. No withering away of state. In socialist societies there are no chances of the withering away of the state. Implications of Marxism in Education 1. Formation of character. According to Marxism, the character formation of the child should be guided by the objectives of the classless society which was the ultimate end or objective of communism.

2. Production-oriented education. According to Marx, education should be combined with productive work. He appreciated the work of a British factory owner, Robert Owen, for initiating this idea in his factory at New Lanark, Scotland in 1799. He observed, "From the factory system budded, as Robert Owen has shown us in detail, the germ of education of the future, an education that will, in the case of every child over a given age, combine productive labour with instruction and gymnastics, not only as one of the methods of adding to the efficiency of production, but as the only method of producing fully developed human beings". About "socially useful work" the views of Gandhi and Marx are quite similar. Brubacher has stated in this context, "Gandhi not only strongly opposed a purely literary education because it unfitted youth for the manual work in which most of them would be engaged during rest of their lives, but he believed education through economic work to be a great moral source as well". According to Marx, the teaching of practical life activities is essential and these activities must be social as well as useful. 3. Study of history. Marx stressed the importance of studying history scientifically. It is not to be confined to any particular region, but it must have a universal appeal. History is not a catalogue of past events but useful for the present flowing into the future. 4. Study of economics. Marx emphasized the study of social sciences including economics for understanding the social and economic conditions of life. The significance and importance of "class struggle" may be fully understood through the study of social sciences. 206 5. Stress on group work. Marxian education mitigates competition and substitutes it by group activities of different kinds. In Russian schools as well as in daily life, competition is eliminated and a co-operative spirit is promoted. Marxism insists that man will develop his full nature by participation in social life. The child is made to feel that he is a unit in society and has a duty to the society. Marx has made an important contribution in propounding a philosophy of great significance. Moreover, it is very difficult to give a concrete shape to his ideas in the field of education. As C.E.M. Joad said, "Marx:s writings, despite the great influence they have exercised over the working classes, are by no means free from difficulty, and there is considerable controversy as to the correct interpretation which should be placed upon them".

COMMUNISM
Meaning According to Websters New World Dictionary, communism means: "1. a theory or system based on the ownership of all property by the community as a whole. 2.(a) a hypothetical stage of socialism, as formulated by Marx, Engels, Lenin, etc., to be characterised by a classless and stateless society and the equal distribution of economic groups, (b) the form of government in the USSR, China, etc., professing to be working toward this state, 3.(a) a political movement for establishing a communist system, (b) the doctrines, methods, etc., of the communist parties". From this definition of communism its following characteristics may be derived. (i) Communism is a theory based on community ownership of property. Therefore, it is against the capitalist system of individual ownership of property. (ii) Communism envisages a classless and stateless society. (iii) Communism asks for an equal distribution of economic goods. 207 The Communist Manifesto In the above mentioned definition of communism it has been pointed out that it is a philosophy propounded by Karl Marx and Engels and later own developed by Lenin. Therefore, it will be only in the fitness of things to go through the

fundamentals of communism as laid down in The Manifesto of the Communist Party, published first in German language in 1872. It was written by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Its Russian Edition was published in 1882 and English Edition was published in 1888. Distinguishing the programme of the communist party from the programme of other political parties Marx and Engles wrote, "The Communists are distinguished from the other working class parties by this only: 1. In the national struggles of the proletarians of the different countries, they point out and bring to the front the common interests of the entire proletariat, independently of all nationality. 2. In the various stages of development which the struggles of the working class against the bourgeoisie has to pass through, they always and everywhere represent the interests of the movements as a whole." In the words of C.E.M. Joad, "Communism seeks to lay down principles upon which transition from capitalism to socialism is to be accomplished and its two essential doctrines are class war and the revolutionary, that is the absolute transference of power to the proletariat". According to Gettel, communism is a philosophy of history based upon the materialistic theory of human development. The following characteristics of communism were laid by Marx and Engels in The Manifesto of the Communist Party. 1. Progressive ideal. Laying down the outline of the progressive political ideal of the communist party, Marx and Engels wrote, "The Communists, therefore, are on the one hand, practically, the most advanced and resolute section of the working-class parties of every country, that section which pushes forward all others; on the other hand, theoretically, they have over the great mass of the proletariat the advantage of clearly understanding the line of march, the conditions, and the ultimate general results of the proletarian movement". 208 2. Immediate aim. According to Marx and Engels, "The immediate aim of the communists is the same as that of all the other proletarian parties: formation of the proletariat into a class, overthrow of the bourgeois supremacy, conquest of political power by the proletariat". 3. Abolition of private property. According to Karl Marx and Engels, capital is not a personal but social power. Therefore, it should be converted into common property. In the words of Karl Marx and Engels, "We Communists have been reproached with the desire of abolishing the right of personally acquiring property as the fruit of a man:s own labour, which property is alleged to be the groundwork of all personal freedom, activity and independence. . . ." When, therefore, capital is converted into common property, into the property of all members of society, personal property is not thereby transformed into social property. The social distinguishing feature of communism is not the abolition of property generally, but the abolition of bourgeois property. Modern bourgeois private property is the final and most complete expression of the system of producing and appropriating products, that is based on class antagonism, on the exploitation of the many by the few. 4. Abolition of exploitation. Therefore, communism deprives no man of the power to appropriate the products of society, all that it does is to deprive him of the power to subjugate the labour of others by means of such appropriation. This has been called expropriation of expropriators. 5. Abolition of the family. The most important charge against the communist view of human society is their concept of abolition of the family. Explaining this idea, Marx and Engels have written, "On what foundation is the present family, the bourgeois family, based on capital, on private gain?" In its completely developed form this family exists only among the bourgeois. But this state of things finds its complement in the practical absence of the family among the proletarians and in public prostitution. The bourgeois family will vanish as a matter of course when its complement vanishes, and both will vanish with the vanishing of capital. Do you charge us with wanting to stop the exploitation of children by their parents? To this crime we plead guilty. But, you will say, we destroy the most hallowed of relations, when we replace home education by social. 209 6. Role of education. The communists do not approve the present capitalist system of education. They advocate their own system of education which is free from the influence of the ruling class. Criticising the current capitalist system of education Marx and Engels wrote, "The bourgeois clap-trap about the family and education, about the hallowed corelation of parent and child, becomes all the more disgusting, the more, by the action of modern industry, all family ties among the proletarians are torn asunder, and their children transformed into simple articles of commerce and instruments of labour". 7. Ideal of human unity. Marx and Engels rejected nationalism and called for a unity of the working men of all countries which will gradually abolish the boundaries of nations and establish one human world. Explaining his ideal Karl Marx and

Frederick Engels wrote, "The working men have no country. We cannot take from them what they have not got. Since the proletariat must first of all acquire political supremacy, must rise to be the leading class of the nation, must constitute itself the nation, it is, so far, itself national, though not in the bourgeois sense of the word". National differences and antagonisms between peoples are daily more and more vanishing, owing to the development of the bourgeoisie, the freedom of commerce, to the world-market, to uniformity in the mode of production and in the conditions of life corresponding thereto. The supremacy of the proletariat will cause them to vanish still faster. United action of the leading civilised countries at least, is one of the first condition for the emancipation of the proletariat. In proportion as the expolitation of one individual by another is put to an end the exploitation of one nation by another will also be put to an end. In proportion as the antagonism between classes within the nation vanishes, the hostility of one nation to another will come to an end. 8. Revolution. For the total change and transformation of society from the capitalist society to community society Marx and Engels have suggested communist revolution. This revolution will be developed according to local circumstances in every country but Marx and Engels have also laid down some fundamental characteristics which will be common in communist 210 revolution in every country. As they put it, "Nevertheless in the most advanced countries, the following will be pretty generally applicable: 1. Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes. 2. A heavy progressive or graduated income tax. 3. Abolition of all right of inheritance. 4. Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels. 5. Centralization of credit in the hands of the state, by means of a national bank with state capital and an exclusive monopoly. 6. Centralization of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the state. 7. Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the state; the bringing into cultivation of wastelands, and the improvement of the society generally in accordance with a common plan. 8. Equal liability of all to labour. Establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture. 9. Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries, gradual abolition of the distinction between town and country by a more equable distribution of the population over the country. 10. Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children:s factory labour in its present form. Combination of education with industrial production, etc. 9. Classless society. The most significant characteristic of communist society is that it is a classless society. In the absence of classes, the state will also wither away. As Marx and Engels put it, "When, in the course of development, class distinctions have disappeared, and all production has been concentrated in the hands of a vast association of the whole nation, the public power will lose its political character. Political power, properly so-called, is merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another. If the proletariat during its contest with the bourgeoisie is compelled by the force of circumstances, to organize itself as a class, as such, sweeps away by force the old conditions of production, then it will, along with these conditions, 211 have swept away the conditions for the existence of class antagonisms and of classes generally, and will thereby have abolished its own supremacy as a class".

Questions for Exercise

1. What are the characteristics of Socialism? Give the outline of an educational programme for realizing the objectives of Socialism. 2. What is Fascism? Explain how political ideologies influence educational aims, curriculum and methods with reference to Fascist approach. 3. What is Marxism? How has it influenced educational theory and practice? 212

12 Humanism
Every philosophy holds some particular concepts in metaphysics, epistemology and axiology. As the philosophy differs so do its conceptions in these fields. According to humanism, man is the essence of reality. There is no other super human ontological reality beyond him. His is the proper object of knowledge and whatever human faculties help us in knowing anything are faculties of knowledge. All truth is human truth and there is no truth beyond man. In axiology humanism seeks to realize a world in which the human values may be achieved to their maximum limit. For this purpose we will have to, first of all, satisfy the physical needs because in their absence no mental or spiritual development is possible. But since man is more than the animal, the bread and butter, clothes and house are not sufficient for his welfare. After the satisfaction of the physical needs the humanist should plan for mental and spiritual progress. Man is an animal, but he is a cultural animal. Without the cultural evolution he cannot realize his humanity. Therefore, after the satisfaction of the basic physical needs, the humanist seeks to achieve progress in the fields of literature, art, thinking and other fields of cultural evolution.

Humanist Politics
The humanist approach in social sciences such as political science, sociology, economics, anthropology, psychology etc. has resulted in man's occupying a central position in their discussions. These sciences today are not only concerned with theoretical discussions in their fields but they are more concerned with finding out ways to realise human welfare in the field peculiar to them. For example, in the field of political science after passing through 213 various theories, political thinking today has generally admitted the importance of democratic values. Equality, liberty and fraternity of human individuals have been admitted as necessary values in the social and political fields. The most important characteristic of democracy is that in it even the humblest human being has a right to the above mentioned values. It aims at the provision of those conditions which may allow for the maximum possible and best development of human personality. In it every individual has the right to express his thoughts, enter into human associations and indulge in all such activities which may be necessary for his development and not harmful to others. The concept of democracy has given rise to the idea of a welfare-state. Thus, political thinking everywhere is mostly in agreement on the idea that modern state should be a welfare state. The welfare state, as is clear by its name, seeks the all round welfare of all the citizens in it without any distinction of caste, creed, race, religion, sex and economic or social status etc.

Humanist Sociology
In the field of sociology the humanist approach has led to the thinking that everywhere the social scientist has to find out social factors governing human behaviour aiming at the reform and welfare of the human individual. For example, in the field of criminology, an important branch of sociology, the social scientists have been busy in finding out the causes of crime and the possible ways of reforming the criminal. Thus, the humanist trend has led to the search for social reforms in the fields of different social institutions.

Humanist Psychology
In the field of psychology the humanist trend is particularly clear in the branches known as fields of applied psychology. Thus, in industrial psychology the psychologist aims at finding out the ideal conditions of all round welfare of the human beings working under industrial conditions. His aim is not only research into conditions for realising maximum production but achieving circumstances where the worker may develop as a human being. Thus, the psychologists help him in labour welfare, a branch of human welfare 214

in general. Similarly, in the fields of abnormal psychology and psychiatry the psychologists aim at the understanding of human being suffering from psychological ailments and finding out ways to cure them so that they might enjoy their normal life and behave as normal human beings. Thus, the aim here is not merely curative but seeks welfare. The application of psychology, consequently, is growing gradually in different fields of human life such as industry, law, medicine and above all in education. In the field of education the psychologist is everywhere in search of ways and means to improve educands as human beings. Thus, in the fields of education today, the humanist approach is the guiding principle.

KINDS OF HUMANISM
Ancient Humanists Humanism was born in the West with the birth of Western philosophy in the Socratic emphasis upon thoughtful life. "An unexamined life is not worth living", said Socrates to the judges when he was presented in the court. By saying so he emphasized the role of reason in man. This reason is the human element and emphasis on reason has always been a fundamental characteristic of humanism in the West. After Socrates Plato, in his dialogues, developed what is known as Socratic method of philosophical discussion. In his most remarkable book The Republic Plato defines the good of the individuals and the groups which since then has been the search of all humanist philosophers, though the idea of human good has changed according to change in circumstances. Aristotle realised that everyone has a philosophy peculiar to himself and this philosophy is his guiding principle in his life. Therefore, he maintained that every individual should consciously develop a rational philosophy and consistently live according to it. These and other philosophers of ancient Greece were searching for a world-view which may lead to a better realisation of human society as it was in those days. Contemporary Humanists But humanism in the West particularly developed in twentieth century. Contemporary thought has witnessed several types of humanisms such as renaissance humanism, academic humanism, 215 catholic humanism, religious humanism, Marxist humanism, and naturalist humanism. Of these the most important is the naturalist humanism. Before discussing this particular type of humanism most prevalent in the West today, it will be, however, relevant to give a brief introduction to other types of humanism as well. 1. Renaissance Humanism. This was a revolt against otherworldly Christian philosophy. Humanism everywhere is against other worldliness. This type of humanism was established by Rabelais and Erasmus among others. The Italian artists Leonardo de Vinci and Michelangelo, in the tradition of this humanism, eulogised the multisided personality in man. These humanists revolted against the Catholic Church and concentrated upon this-worldly welfare of man. They criticised faith in life after death. Among the notable thinkers in this movement were Pietro Pompona2zi, Erasmus, Montaigne, Francis Bacon and Thomas Moore. According to Corliss Lamont, "The features of permanent value in Renaissance Humanism that can be taken over by present-day Humanism are its insistence on getting away from religious control of knowledge; its immense intellectual virtuality; its ideal of the well rounded personality; and above all, its stress in man's enjoying to the full his life in his world."1 2. Academic Humanism. In the early 1930 Prof. Irving Babbitt of Harward University and Paul Elmer More of Princeton University established what is known as academic humanism. This type of humanism chalked out a literary and educational programme which did not have wide influence. 3. Catholic Humanism. This type of humanism was found in the thought of Catholic saints such as Thomas Aquinas and Jacques Maritain. The area of its influence was limited to catholic Christian religious circle. 4. Religious Humanism. This type of humanism is mostly found in the thoughts of clergymen such as John H. Dietrich, Charles Francis Potter, Curtie W. Reese, David Rhys Williams, etc. In 1933 these and other clergymen issued a Humanist Manifesto consisting of 15 brief propositions explaining their position. This humanist manifesto was approved by several ethical culture societies in America. 5. Marxist Humanism. This type of humanism was developed on the basis of the philosophy known as Dialectical Materialism. Though Marxists do not agree with other contemporary humanists on certain points but there is a unanimity between both in the 216

rejection of supernatural and religious authority, faith in science and seeking welfare of mankind as the goal of life. 6. Naturalistic Humanism. As has already been pointed out, this type of humanism is the most popular in the West today. It is also known as scientific humanism as it has a firm faith in science. It is called secular humanism due to its emphasis on secular values and democratic humanism due to its faith in democracy. Corliss Lamont has summarised the position of naturalistic humanism in the following ten central propositions: "First, Humanism believes in a naturalistic metaphysics or attitude towards the universe that considers all forms of supernatural as myth; and that regards nature as the totality of being and as a constantly changing system of matter and energy which exists independently of any mind or consciousness. Second, Humanism, drawing especially upon the laws and facts of science believes that man is an evolutionary product of this great nature of which he is a part; that his mind is indivisibly conjoined with the functioning of his brain; and that as an inseparable unity of body and personality he can have no conscious survival after death. Third, Humanism, having its ultimate faith in man, believes that human beings possess the power of potentiality of solving their own problems, through reliance primarily upon reason and scientific method applied with courage and vision. Fourth, Humanism believes, in opposition to all theories of universal predestination, determinism or fatalism, that human beings, while conditioned by the past, possess genuine freedom of creative choice and action, and are, within certain objective limits, the masters of their own destiny. Fifth, Humanism believes in an ethics or morality that grounds all human values in this-earthly experiences and relationships; and that holds as its highest goal the this-worldly happiness, freedom and progresseconomic, cultural and ethicalof all mankind, irrespective of nation, race or religion. Sixth, Humanism believes that the individual attains the good life by harmoniously combining personal satisfactions and continuous self-development with significant work and other activities that contribute to the welfare of the community. Seventh, Humanism believes in the widest possible development of art and the awareness of beauty, including the 217 appreciation of Nature's loveliness and splendour, so that the aesthetic experiences may become a pervasive reality in the life of man. Eighth, Humanism believes in a far-reaching social programme that stands for the establishment throughout the world of democracy, peace and a high standard of living on the foundations of a flourishing economic order, both national and international. Ninth, humanism believes in the complete social implementation of reason and scientific method; and thereby in the use of democratic procedures, including full freedom of expression and civil liberties, throughout all areas of economic, political and cultural life. Tenth, Humanism, in accordance with scientific method, believes in the unending questioning of basic assumptions and convictions including its own. Humanism is not a new dogma, but is a developing philosophy which remains ever open to experimental testing, newly discovered facts and more rigiorous reasoning."2

AIMS AND IDEALS OF EDUCATION

According to humanism education aims at man-making. It should be secular, rational and scientific. It should aim at the realisation of humanist values in the individual and society. According to it the education aims at complete development of human personality. It enables man to solve individual and social problems. Its purpose is to increase efficiency and happiness of human beings. It supports democratic philosophy of education since the values of liberty, equality and fraternity are fundamental human values. Thus, the educational institutions should be based upon democratic principles. It seeks to realise peace upon the earth. The humanist tendency is rationalist and integral. It is positivist since it supports meliorism. Science alone can provide more leisure for cultural development. The individual and society are intimately related. Therefore, the children should develop team spirit and co-operation through play-way method. Community programmes should make community living easy and spontaneous. The society should be made conductive to all-round human progress. 218

The humanist trend integrates psychological, sociological and eclectic tendencies in education. It makes human nature the basis of education. It emphasises the value of individual differences in education. It makes education child centred. While on the one hand the aim of education is the propagation of knowledge, social control, social development and preservation of social heritage, it also seeks to integrate all these. Thus, it is an integral approach to education. Its aim of education is integral. This aim of education is based upon integral psychology. Man, according to the humanists, is a self having body as well as intellect. All these should be integrated. Curriculum. The humanist curriculum is liberal and extensive. Along with science it has arts and humanities and also moral, religious and spiritual subjects. In fact, all types of knowledge are included in humanist curriculum. Method of Teaching The humanist method of teaching is based on psychology. The teacher educates according to the principles of child psychology, developmental psychology and educational psychology. Besides, the theoretical instruction methods for development of social virtues are emphasised. Education is provided through the mother-tongue since it encourages originality and creativity. National and international languages are also taught at higher stages since the humanist seeks to encourage human communications on national and international stage. School Organisation The school organisation should be democratic in which the management, the teachers and the students should together govern all the activities. The school should be organised in such a way as to encourage responsibility, liberty, equality and fraternity. The school administration should be liberal and democratic. Discipline should be self-discipline. Peaceful relations should be encouraged so that the boys and girls may help in the establishment of peace upon earth. The rules and regulations should be rational and secular. Humanism is against narrow 219 nationalism. It synthesises nationalism and internationalism. Of these it even subordinates nationalism to internationalism. Humanists believe in the principle of unity through diversity-The universities should encourage development of all the aspects of culture. Regional universities should encourage preservation of regional culture but also its synthesis in the national culture. Again, national universities should not only help in the preservation of national culture, but also encourage mixing of students from different nations and thus create an international humanist cultural atmosphere. Examples of humanist universities in India are Santiniketan of Rabindranath and Sri Aurobindo International University at Pondicherry. The above educational implications of humanism reveal that it is the best blue print for the planning of future education. It is the solid basis for development of values and culture. It is an integral approach to aims and ideals, means, curriculum and organisation of education. In fact, humanism may be called the future philosophy of education acceptable and required everywhere.

References
1. Lamont, C, The Philosophy of Humanism, Vision Press Limited, London, p. 17. 2. Ibid., pp. 10-11.

Questions for Exercise

1. Humanism is the best philosophy of education. Comment. 2. What is Naturalist Humanism? Explain its implications in education. 220

13 Secularism

The word 'secularism' was first used in the nineteenth century by George Jacob Holydake. He derived it from the Latin word 'Seculum' meaning "this present age." He used it in the context of social and ethical values or systems. Thus, secularism came to be known as a social and ethical system. The following principles were evolved by Holydake to mark this system: (i) Primary emphasis on the material and cultural improvement of human beings. (ii) Respect for and search for all truth, whatever be its source, which can be tested in experience leading to human betterment. (iii) Concern for this age or world and its improvement. (iv) An independent rational morality, which does not base itself on faith in divine commandment. Bradlaugh observed that secularism was hostile to religion and maintained that either secularism or religion should survive.

DEFINITION OF SECULARISM
1. Chambers Dictionary. According to Chambers Dictionary secularism is, "the belief that the state, moral, education, etc., should be independent of religion." 2. Oxford Dictionary. Oxford Dictionary defines secularism as, "the doctrine that the morality should be based solely in regard to the well-being of mankind in the present life, to the exclusion of all considerations drawn from belief in God." 221 3. Webster's Dictionary. Webster's Dictionary states that secularism is, "the belief that religion and ecclesiastical affairs should not enter into the functions of the state". The limited sense of the word secularism is often placed in contrast with religion. Thus Webster gives us an alternative definition of secularism: "A system of doctrines and practices that rejects any form of religious faith and worship". 4. Brubacher. Secularism has "no religious point of view while it has a theory of moral education". "If the secularist has any religion at all it is likely that scientific doctrine constitutes the presuppositions of that religion and that scientists are its high priests".

EDUCATION COMMISSION (1964-1966)

The adoption of a secularist policy means that no religious community will be favoured or discriminated against. The instruction in religious dogmas will not be provided in state schools. But the secularist policy is not an irreligious or antireligious policy. It does not belittle the importance of religions. It gives to every citizen the fullest freedom of religious belief and worship. It promotes not only religious toleration but also an active reverence for all religions. We have to make a distinction between 'religious education' and 'education about religions'. The former is largely concerned with the teaching of tenets and practices of a particular religion in a particular form, and it would not be practicable to provide this type of religious education in respect of any religion to pupils belonging to different faiths. But it is necessary for a multireligious democratic State to promote a tolerant study of all religions so that its citizens can understand each other better and live amicably together. The Education Commission (1964-66) has recommended: "We suggest that a syllabus giving well chosen information about each of the major religions should be included as a part of the course in citizenship or as a part of general education to be introduced in schools and colleges upto the first degree. It should highlight the fundamental similarities in the great religions of the world and the emphasis they place on the cultivation of certain broadly comparable moral and spiritual values." The 222 Commission further observed: "There will be natural points of correlation between the moral values sought to be inculcated and the teachings ot the great religions. All religions stress certain fundamental qualities of character, such as honesty and truthfulness, consideration for others, reverence for old age, kindness to animals, and the compassion for the needy and the suffering. In the literature of every religion, the story of parable figures prominently as a means of impressing an ethical value on the followers. The narration of such stories by the teachers at the right moment in the programme of moral education would be most effective, particularly in the lower classes. At a later stage, accounts of the

lives of great religious and spiritual leaders will find a natural place. ... Similarly, the celebration of festivals and different religions will afford opportunity for the narration of incidents from the life history of the leaders of these religions. In the last two years of the secondary school, a place should be found for the study of the essential teachings of the great religions."

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
After obtaining her independence India adopted secularism as a way of life. Our Constitution guarantees the fullest freedom of religious belief and worship. It has laid down the following provisions in connection with religious and moral education in educational institutions. Article 19(1). "Subject to public order, morality and health and to other provisions of this part, all persons are equally entitled to freedom to conscience and the right freely to profess, practice and propagate religion." Article 21. "No person may be compelled to pay any taxes, the proceeds of which are specifically appropriated in payment of expenses for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious denomination." Article 22 (1). "No religious instructions shall be provided in any educational institution wholly maintained out of State funds." Provided that nothing in this clause shall apply to an educational institution which is administered but has been established under an endowment or trust which requires that religious instructions shall be imparted in such institutions. 223 (2) "No person attending any educational institution recognised by the State or receiving aid out of State funds shall be required to take part in any religious institution or to attend any religious worship that may be conducted in such institution or in any premises attached thereto unless such person, or if such person is a minor his guardian has given his consent thereto." Article 30 (1). "All minorities whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice." (2) "The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language."

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION

The Secondary Education Commission (1949) observed that healthy trends in regard to religion or moral behaviour spring from three sources: 1. The influence of the home, 2. the influence of the school, through the conduct and behaviour of the teachers themselves and life in the school community as a whole, and 3. the influence exercised by the public of the locality. No amount of instruction can supersede or supplant these three essential factors. The following steps were suggested: 1. Morning assembly with all teachers and students present should be utilized for this purpose. A general nondenominational prayer may be offered. 2. Inspiring talks on moral instruction may be given by suitable persons selected by headmaster. Such talks should dwell on the lives of the great personages of all times and of all climes. 3. In view of the provision of the Constitution of the Secular State, religious instructions cannot be given in schools except on a voluntary basis and outside the regular school hours; such 224

instructions should be given to the children of the particular faith and with the consent of the parents and the management concerned. In making this recommendation we wish to emphasize that all unhealthy trends of disunity, rancour, religious hatred and bigotry should be discouraged in schools.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SECULAR EDUCATION

Secular education is identified because of the following characteristics: 1. Moral outlook. Secular education results in development of moral outlook. It is the foundation for development of character and moral development. It inculcates in students humanity, truthfulness, tolerance, honesty, courtesy, sympathy, spirit of service and sacrifice which form a noble character of man and develop his personality. 2. Development of wider attitude. Secular education makes a man dynamic and enlightened. It develops in him a wider attitude towards life, and he takes interest in social service by sacrificing his selfish motives. Education makes him courageous enough to face the problems of life and solve them to the best of his efforts and intelligence. 3. Pluralistic outlook. Secular education leads to the emergence of a healthy pluralistic outlook which fosters the growth of science, art, philosophy and even religion. A pluralistic outlook is the very essence of democracy. 4. Democratic value. Secular education helps man in developing democratic qualities like liberty, equality, fraternity and co-operative living. True secularism stresses the dignity of the individual and the sacredness of human personality. Secular education helps to establish and incorporate democratic process. Every person is treated as an end and never as means only. 5. Cultural development. Secular education helps in promotion of cultural development. It preserves and reinforces culture. Secularism and culture go hand in hand and influence each other. Secularism is the dynamic aspect of culture. 6. Scientific spirit. Secular education helps in fostering scientific spirit. It releases the individual from the bonds of blind faith. Scientific spirit implies a spirit of free enquiry, a spirit of looking at things objectively and rationally, freedom from an obsession 225 with the past, and a more humble attitude towards our own history and achievements. Secular education promotes scientific values of rationality, objectivity and open-mindedness. 7. Synthesis of spiritual and material. Secular education glorifies material needs and promotes reverence for earthly life, without rejecting spiritual values. Secularism is based on fundamental human values. It looks upon science not merely as a means of material progress but as a quest for truth and a search for harmony with nature. It helps to strike a healthy balance between the spiritual and the material. 8. Humanitarianism. Secular education leads to humani-tarianism. It stands for peace, goodwill and understanding. It helps in fostering the brotherhood of man and the unity of the world. Absence of secular education causes exploitation, corruption, disaster, selfishness, aggression and hatred, chaos and disorder. Betterment of society depends upon secular based education. It raises man to a high level. It encourages the policy of 'live and let live'. It provides the basis for true humanitarianism. It helps in replacing hatred by love, selfishness by self-sacrifice and violence by non-violence. Secular education leads to happiness, order and contentment in the society by cultivating faith in truth, beauty and goodness.

EDUCATION FOR SECULARISM IN INDIA

India's present educational system promotes secular attitudes and values through its broad-based aims, curricula, enlightened teachers and appropriate activities, all emphasizing open-mindedness, progressivism, rationality, freedom from bigotry and superstition, and equal respect for all religions. The following traits characterise education for secularism in India: 1. Aims. The aims and objectives of such a system are secular. They seek to develop India as a rational, democratic, progressive and modern welfare state. The philosophy of humanism guides such educational objectives. The well-being of all the citizens of the country is the goal towards which India's educational energies are directed. 2. Organization of educational institutions. The organization of most of Indian educational institutions is based on secular principles. It is necessary to observe secular, democratic, rational criteria in appointments, promotions, admissions, and all such matters.

226 3. Curricula, The educational curricula at all levels in India lay special emphasis on the promotion of secular values. Lessons in textbooks are free from religious bigotry and prejudice while the good ideas and values emphasized in different religions are presented in appropriate forms. The co-curricular activities aim at promoting harmony and co-operation among different groups and respect for each other's culture in the students. It is not permitted to condemn or unduly praise any one particular religion or cultural system or institution. It is the usual practice in all schools, colleges and universities to celebrate fairs, festivals, birth anniversaries, etc., relating to different religions. While imparting moral education equal importance is given to different faiths. 4. Science teaching. Secularism stands for scientific rationalism. It stresses logical thinking and abhors superstitions and irrational things. Therefore, Indian education today puts much emphasis upon science teaching. Science is taught in a practical manner at all levels of schooling, so that it might influence the attitudes and values of the pupils. The spirit of science with emphasis on inquiry, experimentation, proof and critical outlook, permeates the teaching of other subjects also. 5. Teachers. In the education for secularism in India the teachers today are expected to treat their pupils in an impartial manner. They eschew all caste, community and class considerations in dealing with students and colleagues. Equal respect is given to all students and to all religious groups. Every conscientious teacher behaves in a truly democratic and fair manner. Thus, the present Indian secular educational system is trying to create a social climate in the country in which secular values are sought to be promoted effectively and enthusiastically.

DIFFICULTIES IN SECULAR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

In a country like India, in which traditional institutions like religion, caste, untouchability, and dowry have been prevailing for thousands of years, the building up of a secular state is a very challenging task. Despite the best intentions of our 227 Constitution makers and great leaders, it is difficult to establish and promote a really functional climate of secularism in India. The main difficulties in secular educational system are as follow: 1. Traditional bias and narrow outlook. In our country today denominational schools are allowed to function with a lot of freedom. There are D.A.V. Schools, Jain Schools, Vaish Schools, Ahir Schools, Kayastha Pathshalas, Shia Schools, Catholic Schools, Rajput Schools, etc. In these institutions the children of the respective communities or castes are admitted on preferential basis, and also the teachers of the same communities are preferred. This creates a serious difficulty in the functioning of Indian education as an integrative and secular force in Indian society. 2. Too much emphasis on theoretical learning. Our educational system presents many things only in theory. Very little effort is made to change the values and attitudes of education. Many highly educated people do not hesitate to demand big dowries. They are too much fastidious about gotras and sub-castes in deciding marriage. They ill-treat womenfolk and do not show respect to other religions. The lack of tolerance and courtesy on the part of educated persons towards villagers, women, poor people, minority community members, old people, etc., in buses, trains and at other public places reveals that our present education has failed to change our values system in a desired manner. 3. Neglect of religious and cultural celebrations.Schools and colleges observe holidays on the days of important religious fairs, festivals and birthdays. The result is that the students do not get enough opportunities to understand or imbibe secular values. 4. Neglect of group activities. Educational institutions do not encourage group activities. Group activities and group methods of teaching and learning are neglected. This is a serious difficulty in the promotion of secular and free ideas and values.

Questions for Exercise

1. Explain Secularism. Does it go against religious ideas in schools? Justify your answer. 2. "Secularism acquaints the child with the basic principles of human values." Explain this statement. 3. Define Secularism. Identify the characteristics of secular education. Give a plan for secular education in India pointing

out the difficulties in it. 228 229

Part III INDIAN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

230 231

14 Philosophy of Education in India

ANCIENT INDIAN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Teacher Centred Education The pivot of the whole educational system of ancient India was the teacher variously called acharya, guru, upadhyaya. In Manu and other smritis there is some divergence about the greatness of the acharya. According to Manusmriti, the father (Janaka) and the teacher are called father (Pita) but the father who imparts the sacred Veda is superior to the father that gives birth, since the birth in spiritual learning is for a Brahmana, of eternal benefit, here and hereafter.1 But in another place Manu says that an acharya is ten times superior to an upadhyaya, the father is superior to a hundred Acharyas, while the mother is thousandfold superior to the father.2 According to Gautama, the Acharya is the highest among all gurus while according to some the mother is the highest.3 According to Yajnavalkyasmriti the mother is higher than the acharya.4 Conduct and Character of the Teacher The Dharmasastras define the acharya as one who performs the upanayana of the student and imparts the whole Veda to him.5 The Nirukta defines acharya as follows: he makes the student understand the proper course of conduct, or he collects wealth from the student or gathers together the meanings of words, or he increases the intelligence of the student.6 According 232 to Apastamba Dharmasutra, "The acharya is so-called since the student gathers his duties from him".7 According to Manusmriti, the teacher, after performing upanayana, teachers his pupil the rules about sauca (bodily purity), acharya (rules of conduct in everyday life), the offering (of fuel-stick) in fire and sandhya adoration.8 Though the words acharya, guru and upadhyaya are very often used as synonyms, ancient writers made a distinction between them. According to Manusmriti, an upadhyaya is one who teaches to a student a portion of the Veda or the Vedangas (subsidiary lores of the Veda) as a means of his own livelihood and a guru is one who performs the samskaras and who maintains the child.9 This latter definition shows that guru means the father here. According io Yajnavalkya-smriti, the guru is one who performs the samskaras and imparts the Veda.10 This corroborates the statement made above that originally, the father himself taught the Veda to his son. The word guru is often used in the sense of any elderly person, male or female, who is entitled to respect. According to Vishnu Dharmasastra the father, the mother and the acharya are the three highest gurus of a person." According to Manusmriti whoever confers on another the benefit of knowledge, whether great or small, is the latter's guru.12 All these praises of the guru by the Dharmasastras show that they held knowledge as the highest value and insisted upon the sense of gratitude in everyone who achieved knowledge. Faith in the teacher was a necessary qualification for the achievement of knowledge. It is undeniable that this glorification of the teacher may have led to some of them loosing their heads but in contrast to the modern Western philosophy of education, making the educand rather the educator the pivot of education it has its advantages. In fact both these extremes are unjust, the former to the educated and the latter to the educator. In a just system of education both should be given a proper place. Qualifications of the Educator The Dharmasastras have not praised the teacher without any reason. They have insisted upon very high qualifications for being a teacher. They have warned about the dangers of entrusting the job of a teacher to persons not worthy of it. According to Apastamba Dharma Sutra, he whom a teacher, devoid of learning, initiates, enters from darkness into darkness and he also (an acharya) who is himself unlearned (enters into darkness).13 It further provides that one should desire a performer of one's upanayana who is endowed with learning and whose family is hereditarily learned and who is serene in mind and that one should study Vedic lore under him upon the end (of brahmacharya) as long as the teacher

does not fall off from the path of dharma.14 Similar qualifications have been laid down by other Dharmasastras. The teacher had to be a Brahmana, learned in Vedas, knowing Dharma, pure, coming from good family and having an ideal character. In education system also the Dharmasastras have insisted upon the varna hierarchy. It has been generally maintained that Brahmana should be the teacher. According to Vayupurana, as to the acharya in upanayana must be a Brahmana, as to the study of Veda one should ordinarily learn the Veda from a Brahmana teacher; in times of difficulty (i.e., when a Brahmana is not available) one may learn the Veda from Kshatriya or Vaishya teacher; but in such circumstances the only service that a Brahmana student rendered to the guru would be following after the non-Brahmana teacher; he had not to render bodily services (such as shampooing or washing the feet etc.)15 The Mitakshara on Yajnavalkyasmriti remarks that a Kshatriya or Vaisya should teach a Brahmana only when urged by him and not at his sweet will. Manu allowed only teaching to a Kshatriya, but did not allow him to make it a means of his livelihood. In fact the Indian thinkers prescribed a social structure with definite division of labour and permitted only exceptions in certain cases. They very much insisted upon keeping the social structure in tact and not violating it. This rigidity had obviously resulted in so many disadvantages but it also facilitated continuity, regularity and order in social system.

THE EDUCAND
The method of instruction of education was generally oral. The first thing that was taught to the boy was the pranava and vyartis and the Gayatri. Then the boy was to be taught other parts of the Veda. Detailed instructions were laid down about 234 the method of teaching. According to Manusmriti, the student should sip water (achamana) when about to begin Yedic study, should face the north, should fold both hands together (and place them on his knee), should wear light (pure) clothes, should at the beginning and end of Vedic study clasp the feet of the teacher with crossed hands and should touch the right foot of the teacher with his own right hand and left foot with the left hand, should repeat om at the beginning of the Vedic study. The teacher should say to the pupil 'repeat' and should stop from teaching with the words 'let there be a pause.'16 The study of the Veda was the first duty of every twice-born person (dvijati). According to Mamusmriti, all the Vedas, together with Upanishads, where to be learnt by every dvijati?7 According to Yajnavalkyasmriti, it is Veda alone that confers the highest bliss upon dvijatis by enabling them to understand and perform sacrifices, austerities and auspicious acts (like samukaras).18 Since the literature was very wide concessions had to be made to the shortness of human life and the weakness of the human mind. Therefore, generally it was prescribed that one should study the shakha of the Veda which his ancestors' studied and should perform religious rites according to it. As the study of the Veda was a duty enjoined upon a Brahmana, so teaching Veda to another was a duty. This exclusive glorification of the Brahmins very much led to what N.K. Dutt describes as the "price of scholasticism" among the professed scholars.19 And it has been rightly pointed out by S. Cromwell Crawford, "Compounded with racial and sacerdotal pride, the pride of scholasticism elevated barriers between Brahmins and non-Brahmins."20 In this way the good effect of the strictness of Brahmacharya in specialising learning and in enforcing high moral discipline was neutralised by the increased-rigidness and hauteur of caste, which is one of the many factors making India a land of contrasts.21

TEACHER-TAUGHT RELATIONSHIP
Regards for the Teacher According to Chandogya Upanishad the student had to serve the teacher by tending his cattle, had to beg for food and 235 announce it to the teacher, and to look after his sacred fires and to learn the Veda only in the time that would be left after doing work for the guru.22 Besides these, the rules concerning his conduct towards the teacher, the teacher's wife and son, concerning the method of salutation and showing respect, the food, drinks and actions allowed or prohibited to students are too numerous to be set out in detail. Both Manusmriti and Yajnavalkyasmriti, alongwith some other notable Dharmasutras, lay down the following rules for Brahmacharin. The student should speak the truth, bathe everyday, should not look at the sun, should avoid honey, flesh, perfumes, the wearing of flowers, sleeping by day, rubbing oil on the body, putting collyrium in the eyes, going in a cart, wearing shoes and holding an umbrella, love affairs, anger, covetousness, infatuation, vain discussions, playing on musical instruments, luxurious baths with hot water, meticulous cleansing of the teeth, ecstatic states of mind, dancing, singing, calumny of others, dangerous places, gazing at woman or touching young woman, gambling, serving a low person (or doing very low work), injury to animals, obscene or harsh talk and wine. Manu prescribes that he should not sleep on a cot and should complete celibacy, but if he suffers from night emissions he should bathe, worship the sun and repeat thrice the mantras punar main.23 The Apastamba Dharmasutra contains similar rules of conduct. According to it the student should not wash his limbs with hot water (generally), but he may do so if they are smeared with dirty and impure matter provided he does it out of the sight of the teacher and that he should not

bathe in water in a sportive manner, but should bathe in it motionless like a stick.24 It also not only prohibits him sexual intercourse but ordains that he should speak with women only as much as is absolutely necessary. The student was not to laugh, but if he could not help laughing he should do so covering his face with his hands. Service of the Teacher According to Gautama and Baudhayana Dharma Sutra the student is to serve his teacher by following after him when he goes anywhere, he should help the teacher in his toilet 236 and bathe and should shampoo his body and take food left by him (ucchista),25 he should be diligent in doing work that would be pleasing and beneficial to the teacher; he was to study when the teacher called him, he was not to cover his throat with piece of cloth, or was not to sit in the presence of his teacher with his feet on his lap, was not to stretch his feet, he was not to clear loudly his throat, nor to-laugh, yawn or crack the knuckles; he was when called by the teacher to reply at once leaving his seat or had and was to approach the teacher even when he called from a distance; he should always occupy a seat lower than that of his teacher and should go to sleep after his teacher and rise before him. Similar rules have been prescribed by other Dharmasastras.26 According to Manusmriti a pupil should not mimic the gait, the manner of speech and the actions of the teachers.27 It calls upon the pupil to close his hands or fingers or to leave the place where somebody indulges in calumnies about the teacher or points out the faults in him, and states that if the pupil himself finds fault with his teacher or calumniates him, the pupil in the next life is born as an ass or a dog.28 One of the rules for the student was that he was not to pronounce the name of his teacher even when the teacher was not present without prefixing or affixing an honorific addition such as Sri, Bhatta, Acharya etc. The student should not speak of his teacher, the teacher's son or wife or of a man who has been initiated for a srauta sacrifice by their bare names.29 When it is absolutely necessary to refer to these by name the student should not pronounce the name and gotra of his teacher as they are, but by means of a synonym. According to Apastamba Dharmasutra, even after returning home a snataka should avoid touching his former teacher with his fingers to call his attention, frequent muttering of something in his ears, laughing into his face, calling out loudly, taking his name, ordering him about.30 According to Manusmriti a man who has been initiated for a srauta sacrifice should not be addressed by his name, even though he may be younger than the person addressing, but that one should use the bhoh and bhavat when addressing him or speaking about him and may refer to him by words like diksita etc.31 Very detailed rules were laid down about pretathana or rising from one's seat to receive a person, abhivadana or saluting a man, upasamgrahana or saluting by clasping the feet 237 of the teacher or another with one's hands, pratyabhivadana or returning a salutation, and namaskara or bowing with the word namah. According to Apastamba Dharmasutra, the student must clasp his teacher's feet when he meets his teacher after sunrise, and also beginning the day's lesson of Vedic study and even after finishing it. This has been corroborated by Manu.32 Reciprocal Relationship It should not be supposed that the Dharmasastras, while insisting upon educands "respect towards the educator, used less strict words while insisting educators' duty towards the educand." In fact the educational relationship was a two way relationship. It was reciprocal. According to Apastamba Dharmasutra, "Loving him like his own son, and full of attention, he shall teach him the sacred science, without hiding anything in the whole law. And he shall not use him for his own purposes to the detriment of his studies, except in times of distress. The pupil who, attending to (teacher), accuses his (principal and first) teacher of ignorance, remains no (longer) a pupil. A teacher also, who neglects the instruction (of his pupil), does no (longer) remain a teacher."33 The purport of education was the moral and intellectual growth of the students. These two elements were never separated. Indeed, the latter was contingent upon the former. According to the sacred law, only the person who is pure may be instructed in the Veda. Neither (the study of) the Vedas, nor liberality, nor sacrifices, nor any (self-imposed) restraint, nor austerities, ever procure the attainment (of rewards) to a man whose heart is contaminated (by sensuality).34 "Moral culture not only preceded intellectual culture, but was the weighter of the two; A Brahmana, who completely governs himself, though he knows the Savitri only, is better than he who knows the three Vedas, (but) does not control himself."35 Absence of Social Justice The absence of social justice in education is particularly observed in the case of partially towards the education of all the varnas other than Brahmin and also of the women. These were given

238 a secondary place. Literary education among women was in a languishing state. Therefore, there was no question of coeducation. Not much material is available about the education of Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The entire education system was entrusted to Brahmanas. Summing up the state of education in Dharmasastras, P.V. Kane has written, "The salient features of the educational system outlined in the Dharmashastra works are the high and honourable position assigned to the teacher the close personal contact of the pupil with the teacher and individual attention, the pupil's stay with the teacher as a member of his family, oral instruction and the absence of books, stern discipline and control of emotions and the will, cheapness, as no fees were stipulated for."36 Merits of Ancient Indian System The institution of education, as prescribed in ancient India can be favourably compared with any other system of education in the West, ancient or modern. Given the high character and scholarship of the teacher, it was the most ideal system of education. However, its defects are equally obvious. Summarising these defects, P.V. Kane has admitted, "The defects of the Indian system were that it was too literary, there was too much memorising, boys under it had hardly any instruction in useful manual arts and crafts, the studies were not brought in contact with practical life. The discipline was rigorous and joyless. Many of these defects were due to the exigencies of the caste system which assigned particular avocations to particular castes."37 Kane, however, rightly adds, "We cannot and should not compare the system with the systems of education prevalent in the twentieth century, when several subjects such as literature, music and fine arts, handicrafts, mathematics, science, history and geography are taught in the schools to all boys and when it has been recognised that education is a prime concern of the state."38

MEDIEVAL INDIAN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Muslim Education Medieval Indian philosophy of education was developed by Muslims. The country in the north was generally under the 239 reign of Muslim kings. In South India however, and also in some other parts of the country Hindu kings ruled who perpetuated the ancient Indian philosophy of education in their educational institutions. The scheme of Muslim education flowed in India for a period of about five hundred years. This medieval period continued till the advent of British in India who started what is known as modern Indian philosophy of education which will be discussed in sequence. Important Features The important features of Medieval Indian philosophy of education governed by Muslims were as follows: Muslim rulers took keen interest in the propagation of education since it had been appreciated by Muslim scriptures. The state provided aids to Maktabs and Madarassas. While the smaller Maktabs were regularly given financial aid, the bigger institutions were granted landed property for a permanent financial provision. The kings always gave status of eminence to scholars in their codes. Most of the Madarassas and Maktabs were connected with Mosques. Therefore, the institutions were mainly meant for Muslim students. Medium of Instruction The medium of instruction was Arabic and Persian. Only gradually Urdu developed, first in courts and then in educational institutions. In those parts of the country where Muslim kings ruled, the Hindu also used to learn Arabic and Persian languages since it was essential for securing employment in government offices. Impact of Religion As explicit in the ancient Indian philosophy of education, the medieval Indian philosophy of education was also influenced by religion. It may be said that the modern secular education had its beginning in British period. Before that since ancient to modern times Indians always followed education as dictated by their religion. While the Hindus, particularly those living 240

under Hindu Kingdoms, followed the philosophy of education advanced by Hindu scriptures, the Muslims followed the instructions of Koran in this connection. In Maktabs the first aim of education was to instil the basic tenets of Islam among the students. The students were required to memorise Koran. The Maktabs and Madarassas were instrumental for the propagation of Islamic ideas. Objectives and Curriculum The medieval philosophy of education had two aims, one the propagation of the fundamental tenets and teachings of religion and the other to make the students practically successful in different vocations. The educational institutions therefore used to teach various arts and skills, such as sculptures, agriculture, medicine, painting, house-building, and various types of crafts. This was necessary for a regular supply of skilled and educated artisans and craftsmen. Military science formed an important part of curriculum everywhere since wars were usual phenomena. Therefore weaponry was a specialised profession mostly taught by training apprentices by individual experts. Thus education prepared for earning livelihood. Followers of different religion were instructed in the teachings of their own religion. While some examples of communal trends may be observed everywhere, examples of treating all religions with equal respect were also not rare. While some Muslim Kings did try to propagate only Islamic teachings through education, other Muslim kings gave generous aids to Hindu pathashalas also. This shows the humanist trend in education however limited it may be. In line with ancient Indian philosophy of education, medieval Indian philosophy of education exhibited trends of humanism, pragmatism, utilitarianism, materialism, pluralism and democratic values. Muslim Institutions In medieval times thousands of Madarassas provided education in literature, mathematics, philosophy and medicine, etc. The bigger institutions had huge libraries attached to them. Such an institution was established bv Mahmood Gawan at Bidar. 241 During the reign of Feroz Jaunpur was a prominent centre of Muslim education. Delhi had the famous Nasaris Madarassa. Different Syllabi and Medium The syllabi of medieval institutions included literature, grammar, logic, philosophy, mathematics, law, astrology, history, geography, agriculture, medicine etc. The medium of instruction in Hindu institutions was Sanskrit or regional languages and in Muslim institutions Arabic and Parsi. Religious scriptures formed an important part of syllabi in the institutions of Muslims and Hindus. Methods of Teaching The methods of teaching placed special emphasis on memorisation in addition to reading, writing and arithmetic. The student-teacher relationship was not informal but pure and sincere. The educands respected their educators and had absolute faith in them. The parents had total confidence in the educators and willingly entrusted their wards to the care of the teachers. The teachers had a paternal attitude towards their wards. This was particularly important since most of the educational institutions were residential. The salary of the teachers was not very high but the lacuna was amply filled up by gifts and respect. There was a system of reward and punishment to maintain order and discipline in educational institutions. Scholars had a place of respect in society as they used to have in ancient Indian period. Composite Philosophy The above brief description shows that medieval Indian philosophy of education was built up by Hindus and Muslims together. As Sarojini Naidu had aptly remarked, "The impact of the Muslims and the Hindus has evolved the present Indian culture. We cannot, even if we are foolish enough to try, untwist this closely, intertwisted and intertwined unity of culture that makes modern India."39 242

MODERN INDIAN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

The British System of Education

Modern Indian philosophy of education started under the British rule. After firmly establishing themselves as rulers of India the British recruited educated Indians to carry on administrative and official work. As the Indians educated in Hindu or Muslim institutions were not useful for working of the British Government, therefore, Lord Macaulay drew up a plan of Western-oriented education in India. On February 8, 1935 Macaulay presented his historical 'minits' making a bitter attack upon Indian literature and culture. He laid stress on what he called religious objectivity which meant the duty of England to teach Indians what was good for their health. The policy developed on the basis of Macaulay's educational views gave primacy to the propagation of European literature and science, suspension of scholarships for students, neglect of publication of Eastern literature and encouragement to propagation of English literature. This policy was accepted by Lord Bentick. Demand for English Education When Lord Auckland succeeded Lord Macaulay as India's Governor-General, some critics of Macaulay's policy presented a memorandum to him. Lord Auckland increased the educational grant for the orientalists, gave primacy to oriental studies, increased the number of scholarships and made arrangements for printing and publication of oriental works. However, East India Company only employed those who have received English education. Therefore, the demand for English education increased. A significant change in the field of education was its intimate link with livelihood. Domestic crafts were neglected and many artisans and craftsmen sought employment in British factories. Professional and vocational institutions started to provide education in medicine, engineering, law and other specialised areas. In 1853 the British Parliament reviewed company's charter and the Select Committee declared that English education in India was useful. Charles Wood published his declaration regarding education on 19 July 1853. This declaration considered 243 providing education as the foremost duty of the government. However, the aim of education did not change. Its purpose was mainly creation of cogs for the British machinery in India. However, alongwith the study of Western language and literature, the study of oriental literature was also given a place in the curriculum. Both English and Indian languages were accepted as the medium of instruction. It is clear that Wood's Despatch cannot be referred as the Magna Carta of Indian Education. Education During 1857-1947 After war of independence in 1857 the reins of India's administration passed into the hands of British Parliament. Wood's Despatch had already finished the monopoly of Christian missionaries over education in India. General Council Education of India in England asked Lord Rippon, the Viceroy, to carry out a survey of education in India. Rippon appointed what was known as Hunter Commission to survey education in India. The Commission surveyed primary, secondary, higher, Religious and women education in India, and made important recommendations of which the most important were as follows: 1. Provision in education must be made for Muslims, Harijans, Tribals, Hill People and members of royal families. 2. Indian institutions should be provided aid. 3. Scholarships must be provided to local institutions. 4. The responsibility for higher education should be entrusted to local people with government aid. 5. Education Department should run institutions of higher learning in the country. 6. Students should be given complete freedom of religious education. Besides Hunter Commission, another landmark in modern Indian history of education was Indian University's Commission 1902. The Commission made the following important recommendations: 1. New universities should not be established. 2. The constitutions of universities should be changed to make provisions for teaching in the universities. 244 3. Undergraduate and postgraduate colleges should be introduced.

4. Conditions for recognising colleges shoud be stern. 5. The syndicates should have from 9 to 15 members. 6. The standard of the matric examination should be improved. The University Education The Indian Universities Act (1904) was formulated on the basis of these recommendations. Lord Curzon made significant efforts for the progress of higher education in India. However, the demand for a nationalist policy of education in India was raised at the Calcutta Session of Indian National Congress in 1906. The demand asked for Indian control of the educational system. It denounced imitation of the West though appreciated Western knowledge and science. It asked for more vocational education. Though the Government did not give much hearing to this demand, it inspired a nationalist wave for education throughout the country. This led to the emergence of such institutions as Santiniketan, Gurukul Kangri, Jamia Millia Islamia, Gujarat Vidyapeeth, Kashi Vidyapeeth, the Women's University (SNDT) etc. These institutions had a distinctly national character. In 1912 the Government announced its educational policy with the proposal of making primary education village-oriented. It provided replacement of Government aided institutions by institutions managed by local bodies. The school education was separated from higher education. After the First World War, the Government appointed Calcutta University Commission also known as Sadler Commission. The report of Sadler Commission was formulated on the basis of Halden's report on London University. It laid down the structures of Mysore, Patna, Banaras, Aligarh, Dacca, Lucknow, Hyderabad besides Calcutta University. Reviews and Recommendations In 1929, Hertog Committee reviewed education in India. It pointed out stagnation and extravagance in primary education. It analysed the problem of failing candidates in secondary 245 education. It made recommendation for the betterment of female education in India. In 1934 Sapru Committee reviewed the problem of unemployment in U.P. and suggested introducing vocational subjects at the secondary level. In 1936-37 Abbot-Wood presented their recommendations for polytechnic institutions in the country. On October 2, 1937 M.K. Gandhi presented his 7 years scheme of basic primary education. It was formulated by Wardha Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain. On the recommendation of the committee basic education was organised by Hindustani Talimi Sangh. Sargent Commission 1944 recommended for distinction between academic and technical iiistitutions though both should aim at integral education. Education Since Independence The British control over education ended with the freedom of India on 15 August 1947 and with it ended the period of modern Indian education as distinguished from contemporary period. The British Education system initiated Western influence of education in India. It created social and political awareness in the country. It introduced modern Western science which resulted in the rise of famous Indian scientists including J.C. Bose, Ramanujam, C.V. Raman. It inspired literary and cultural consciousness and developed nationalistic feelings. However, it was definitely British-oriented. Its avowed aim was to serve British interest. It was colonial in aim and practice. The medium of instruction was a hindrance in the development of creativity. Sometimes it encouraged communal passions. The Christian missionaries and the British administrators encouraged Christian teachings in educational institutions. Thus the British philosophy of education in modern period did not change appreciably from its beginning in Macaulay's thought. In spite of all the enquiries of the commissions and their recommendations, this educational philosophy was not conducive to national welfare.

CONTEMPORARY INDIAN PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Due to the above mentioned defects of the British philosophy of education as practiced in India in modern period, Indian 246 thinkers and educationists have bitterly criticised it. One finds criticism of this philosophy of education by almost all the contemporary Indian philosophers of education including Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Swami Dayananda, M.K. Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, J.L. Nehru and M.N. Roy. Both the traditionalists and the Western-oriented thinkers were equally critical of the British philosophy of education in India. They could clearly see that its aims and means were against national interest. Therefore long before India achieved freedom, these illustrious thinkers

particularly Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo and Rabindranath Tagore criticised the prevalent philosophy of education and presented alternative philosophies. The reformists including Raja Rammohun Roy, Mrs. Annie Besant, M.G. Ranade and others asked for reforms in education. The philosophers of education suggested plans for national education. The Traditional and West-Oriented Thinkers Though nationalists in orientation and reformists in purpose, contemporary Indian philosophers of education differed in their sources of inspiration. While Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Dayananda, M.K. Gandhi, Rabindranath and Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan drew inspiration from ancient Indian philosophy of education, J.L. Nehru and M.N. Roy were inspired by the Western philosophy of education. Characteristics of Neo-Vedanta Philosophy of Education Thus Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Dayananda, M.K. Gandhi, Rabindranath and Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan may be said to belong to the traditional group of contemporary Indian philosophers of education. This traditional group could be identified by the following characteristics: 1. Neo-Vedanta Philosophical basis. Traditionalist Indian philosophy of education, like ancient Indian philosophy of education, drew inspiration from Vedanta philosophy. It only reinterpreted the ancient Vedanta philosophy in the light of new knowledge. Therefore it has been rightly called Neo-Vedanta philosophy. It is new since it synthesises religion and science, 247 ancient Indian wisdom and modern Western thought. It considered the Vedas, the Upamshads and the Bhagavadgita as the representatives of Indian wisdom. It accept the educational philosophy presented in these scriptures, suggesting modifications according to contemporary conditions. Thus it is not revivalist but reformist in approach. It shows a return to self analysis and self evaluation by India's foremost thinkers. This was the result of the contrast which they witnessed in the condition of their own countrymen vis-a-vis the men and women of Western countries. They compared the ancient Indian educational philosophy with the ideas of modern Western thinkers and found that they were no less valuable in contemporary Indian situations then they in ancient time. These thinkers were inspired by nationalism and the ideal of Swadeshi and Swadharma on the one hand and world brotherhood and internationalism on the other. Therefore, their thinking was nowhere conservative, narrow or reactionary. They presented a philosophy of education founded upon man's status in the cosmos and the human nature. All of them visualised a religion of humanity to form the basis of national scheme of education. 2. Integral approach. Besides Vedanta philosophy, another characteristic of the philosophical foundations of the traditional type of contemporary Indian philosophy of education is an integral approach. This integral approach may be found in almost every field of education, the aims, the means, the curriculum, the educator-educand relationship, teaching methods, school, administration etc. Integral approach is against one-sided solutions. It insists upon including every element within the whole, serving welfare of every constituent of the group. Everywhere ancient prescriptions have been supported though they were balanced according to contemporary conditions. 3. Integral psychology. Ancient Indian approach to human psychology was integral. Man has been always defined by Indian thinkers as a finite-infinite being. Human nature has been always explained in terms of the higher and not in terms of the lower urges as it has been in West. Indian psychology has been idealistic in nature. It has close links with religion and metaphysics. All these characteristics may be found in the interpretation of human nature advanced by traditional 248 contemporary Indian philosophers of education. They however, never neglected the needs of the physical world. Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo particularly emphasised the need of physical development in the achievement of educational ideal. All these thinkers equally laid emphasis upon all types of education. 4. Synthesis of idealism and pragmatism. Though contemporary Indian philosophy of education is rooted in Vedanta idealism, these philosophers presented very pragmatic and practical scheme of education. They suggested diversification of curriculum, education of senses, education of the mind, vocational education, education for livelihood and education for elimination of poverty. Each of them was conscious of the appalling poverty of the country and therefore they understood the importance of pragmatic value of education. All of them insisted upon using the mother tongue as the medium of primary education. All of them accepted the need of developing Hindi as the lingua franca. All of them, however, agreed to retain English as an important part of higher education. All of them advocated nationalist system of education.

The above characteristics of the philosophy of education of the traditional school do not prove that the philosophies of education presented by these thinkers were identical in details. All of them have presented original ideas in different fields of education. The above characteristics only show areas of agreement in philosophical foundation and basic postulates. Besides the group of contemporary Indian philosophers of education drawing inspiration from ancient Indian philosophy, another group of contemporary Indian philosophers of education drew inspiration from Western philosophy of education. This group is particularly represented by J.L. Nehru and M.N. Roy. These two thinkers almost nowhere borrowed their philosophical ideas from ancient Indian scriptures. Well-versed in Western thought as they were, they founded their educational theories on naturalistic humanism. Radical humanism of M.N. Roy was a brand of Western naturalistic humanism. Different from the religious humanism of the traditionalist contemporary Indian philosophers of education, the educational ideas of these thinkers form a part of their general, social and political theory. 249

References
1. Manusmriti (M.S.), II, 146. 2. Ibid., 145. 3. Gautama, II, 56. 4. Yajnavalkyasmriti (Y.S.), I, 35. 5. Gautama, I, 10, 11; Vasistha Dharma Sutra (V.D.S.), III, 21; M.S., II, 140. 6. Nirukta, I, 4. 7. Apastamba Dharma Sutra (A.D.S.), I, 1.1.14. 8. M.S., II, 69. 9. Ibid., II, 141. 10. Y.S., I, 34. 11. Vishnu Dharma Sutra (Vis. D.S.), 32.1.2. 12. M.S., II, 149. 13. A.D.S., I, 1.1.11. 14. Ibid., I, 1.1.12-13. 15. Vayu Purana (V.P.), Vol. I, 59.29. 16. M.S., II, 70-74. 17. Ibid., II, 165. 18. Y.S., I, 40. 19. Dutt, N.K., Origin and Growth of Caste in India (Calcutta: The Book Co., 1931), p. 182. 20. Crawford, S. Cromwell, Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals, p. 96. 21. Dutt, N.K., op. cit., p. 182. 22. Chandogya, IV, 4.5; 3.5; VII, 15.1. 23. M.S., II, 198, 180-181. 24. A.D.S., I, 1.3.11-23; I, 1.2.28-30; I, 2.5.26. 25. Baudhayana Dharma Sutra (B.D.S.), 37; Gautama, I, 1.2.34.

26. M.S., II, 194-198; A.D.S., I, 2.5.26; Gautama, II, 20-21. 27. Ibid., 200-201. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid. 30. A.D.S., I, 2.8.15. 31. M.S., II, 128. 32. A.D.S., I, 2.5.19; I, 3.10.17. 33. A.D.S., I, 2.8.25-28. 34. M.S., II, 92. 35. Ibid., II, 118. 36. Kane, P.V., History of Dharmasastras (Pune: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1941), Vol. II, Part I, p. 369. 37. Ibid., p. 370. 38. Ibid. 250 39. Dr. Sarojini Naidu, "The Bombay Chronicle" quoted from K.S. Vakil and S. Natarajan's, Education in India, (1966).

Questions for Exercise

1. Write short note on Vedic philosophy of education. 2. Explain the role and influence of teacher in Vedic philosophy of education. 3. How has Buddhism continued Brahmanical tradition in education? How does Buddhist philosophy of Education differ from it? Summarise Buddhist contribution to education. 4. Discuss the condition of education under Muslim Rulers. 5. Categorise contemporary Indian philosophers of education according to Western and ancient Indian orientation. 6. Point out the common characteristics of traditionalist and contemporary Indian philosophers of education. 251

15 Swami Dayananda
Among the contemporary Indian philosophers Swami Dayananda may be called to be the greatest rationalist. While on the one hand he was a great supporter of Vedas and other holy texts, his approach everywhere was that of a rationalist. He never accepted anything without meditating upon its advantages and disadvantages. His magnum opus Satyartha Prakash is an eloquent testimony to his rationalism. Pointing out the object of this great work Dayananda wrote, "... there is not the remotest idea to hurt the feelings of any person either directly or indirectly, but on the contrary, the book proposes that men should distinguish truth from falsehood. Thus alone can the human race steadily advance on the path of happiness, since none but the practising of truth is the cause of the improvement of the human family."1 These words express both his rationalism and humanism. It should be remembered that modern humanism is rationalism. Its sole aim is human welfare and that too on this earth here and now. As is clear by the above object of the chief work of Dayananda, like a true humanist, he aimed at the progress of humanity on the path of happiness. Thus it was in keeping with this aim that Dayananda presented his philosophy.

EPISTEMOLOGY

Dayananda is a realist, therefore, his epistemology is also markedly realistic. His epistemology includes the following queries: 1. Knowledge is impossible without a knower, hence there is some knower. 2. The known exists independently of the knower otherwise what is known? 252 3. Sense organs are means of knowledge in the relationship between the knovver and the known. 4. Analysis of the sources of knowledge. 5. Whether everything we know is true knowledge and if not, what is false knowledge? 6. What is the nature of true knowledge? Five Tests of Knowledge To ascertain that whatever knowledge we have received is true or not or how much truth is there in it, Dayananda gives us five kinds of tests: 1. Whatever is in consonance with the attributes, actions and nature of God and the Vedas. ... 2. Whatever is in accordance with the order and progress of creation. . . . 3. (Apta) all that which agrees with the preachings of virtuous, learned, truthful and veracious person, . . . 4. that which is in consonance with the voice of one's inner soul which is pure and one's knowledge, and 5. that which can be testified by the eight valid sources of knowledge (Asta-pramanas) i.e. perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana), comparison (upmana), verbal knowledge (sabda), tradition (Aitihya), presumption (arthapatti), subsumption (sambhava) and non-existence (abhava), should be taken to be true."2 Eight Pramanas or Sources of Knowledge In addition to other means of knowledge, eight sources of knowledge or pramanas are very important in the cognitive process. The eight pramanas are the following: 1. Perception (pratyaksha), 2. Inference (anumana), 3. Comparison (upmana), 4. Verbal knowledge (sabda), 5. Tradition (Aitihya), 6. Presumption (arthapatti), 7. Subsumption (sambhava) and 8. Non-Existence (abhava). 253 The first four i.e. perception, inference, comparison and verbal knowledge, are in accord with the four pramanas pointed out in the Nyaya Sutra of Gautama while the latter four, tradition, presumption, subsumption and non-existence are taken from Vatsyayana's commentary on Nyaya philosophy. In his work Vyavhar Bhanu, Dayananda has pointed out that education is that by which man attains happiness and the good virtues of knowledge etc. and leaves evils like ignorance: knowledge is that by which a thing is known as it is and through which one attains virtues. It is through knowledge that we can make others happy and ourselves attain happiness.

On the contrary that by which things are confused and which leaves evil effects for ourselves and others is ignorance. In his magnum opus Satyartha Prakash Dayananda has distinguished between knowledge and ignorance. To quote his words, "He who realizes the nature of Vidyatrue knowledgeand of Avidyagood moral life and Divine contemplation simultaneously conquers death by virtue of Avidya and obtains Immortality by virtue of Vidya."3 Characteristics of Ignorance Before defining right knowledge or Vidya Dayananda has described the following characteristics of Avidya or ignorance: 1. The false nation that the transcient world and worldly things (such as bodies) are eternal or in other words that the world of effects, that we see and feel, has always been existing and will continue to exist for ever, and that by virtue of the power of yoga the physical bodies of godly men become imperishable, is the first kind of (Avidya) ignorance. 2. To regard impure things, such as lustfulness and untruthfulness, as pure is the second kind of (Avidya) ignorance. 3. To believe that excessive sexual indulgence is a source of happiness, whilst it really causes pain and suffering, constitutes the third variety of (Avidya) ignorance. 4. To consider dead material things as possessed of soul is the fourth kind of (Avidya) ignorance."4 254 Characteristics of Knowledge Explaining Vidya or right knowledge in the tradition of Vedas, Dayananda has written, "This fourfold incorrect knowledge is called Avidya or Ignorance. The reverse of it viz., to look upon what is temporal as temporal what is eternal as eternal, what is pure as pure, what is impure as impure, pain as pain, pleasure as pleasure, what is soul-less as soul-less, what is soul-possessing and soul-possessing, is called Vidya or knowledge."5 Distinguishing between knowledge and ignorance Dayananda wrote, "That by which the true nature of things is known is called knowledge whilst that by which the true nature of things is not revealed, and instead, a false conception of things is formed, is called Ignorance."6 Thus, in pointing out the aims of knowledge, Dayananda has maintained a pragmatic and practical outlook. Though in the Vedic Tradition he considers salvation to be the aim of knowledge but this salvation is not an extra terrestrial goal. It includes the realisation of human perfection as an individual as well as a collectivity here on this earth. It is hence that Dayananda has laid so much emphasis on right knowledge and right conduct. In the second chapter of his famous book Satyartha Prakash he has written, "Fathers, mothers and tutors should always give their children and students good counsel and they should also advise them to imbibe their virtue but avoid their vices."7 Humanism Dayananda's philosophy of knowledge has been elaborated in the second, third, fourth and ninth chapters of Satyartha Prakash. Explaining the aim of the author in writing the book Dayananda said, "Though the human should possess the capacity for ascertaining truth, yet through self-interest, obstinacy, wrong-heartedness, ignorance and the like, it is led to renounce truth and incline towards untruth. We have freed ourselves from these influences while writing this book. It is not our object to hurt any one's susceptibilities or to injure anyone. On the other hand, our aim is to further the advancement and advance the well-being of mankind, to help (all) men in the ascertainment 255 of what is right and to enable them to accept truth and reject falsehood. In our opinion there is no other way of elevating the human race."8 Dayananda tries to fulfill this humanistic ideal both positively and negatively. While on the one hand he says, "Of course, any suggestions made by persons actuated with the spirit of furthering the welfare of humanity, on being found good, will be most acceptable," on the other hand he ruthlessly criticises those who supported untruth and rejected whatever is thought to be harmful for human welfare. Taking sides due to prejudices, according to Dayananda was not only foolish and wrong but below the dignity of man. This emphasis on human dignity exhibits the humanism of Dayananda.

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
The function of education, is to provide this Vidya. Prior to defining right knowledge or Vidya Dayananda pointed out the following characteristics of Avidya or ignorance. These have to be removed through education:

1. "The false notion that the transcient world and worldly things (such as bodies) are eternal or in other words that the world of effects, that we see and feel, has always been existing and will continue to exist for ever, and that by virtue of the power of yoga the physical bodies of godly men become imperishable, is the first kind of Avidya (Ignorance). 2. To regard impure things, such as lustfulness and untruthfulness, as pure is the second kind of Avidya (Ignorance). 3. To believe that excessive sexual indulgence is a source of happiness, whilst it really causes pain and suffering, constitutes the third variety of Avidya (Ignorance). 4. To consider dead material things as possessed of soul is the fourth kind of Avidya (Ignorance).9

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

Education aims at removing the above mentioned fourfold ignorance or incorrect knowledge. Besides this negative aspect of the aim of education, it has a positive aspect in the provision 256 of right knowledge. Elucidating this right knowledge in the tradition of Vedas, Dayananda wrote, "This fourfold incorrect knowledge is called Avidya or Ignorance. The reverse of it, viz., to look upon what is temporal as temporal, what is eternal as eternal, what is pure as pure, what is impure as impure, pain as pain, pleasure as pleasure, what is soul-less as soulless, what is soul-possessing as soul-possessing, is called Vidya or knowledge."10 Distinguishing between knowledge and ignorance Dayananda wrote, "That by which the true nature of things is known is called knowledge whilst that by which the true nature of things is not revealed and, instead, a false conception of things is formed, is called Ignorance."11 Thus while pointing out the aims of Education, Dayananda maintained a pragmatic and practical outlook. In the Vedic tradition he considered salvation to be the aim of education but this salvation is not an extra-terrestrial goal. It includes the realisation of human perfection as an individual as well as a collectivity here on this earth. It is hence that Dayananda laid so much emphasis on right knowledge and right conduct. In the second chapter of his famous work Satyartha Prakash he wrote, "Fathers, mothers and tutors should always give their children and students good counsel and they should also advice them to imbibe their virtues but avoid their vices."12

CHILD EDUCATION
Education in the Family Dayananda devoted the second chapter of his work Satyartha Prakash to the upbringing of the children. In this context he elaborated his educational theory about child's education, and showed sufficient insight in the educational and psychological principles. He held that no one can achieve knowledge without the guidance of three great teachersthe father, the mother and the preceptor. Child's education starts in the family. Emphasising the importance of family in education, Dayananda wrote, "Blessed is the family, most fortunate is the child whose parents are godly and learned."13 Education of the child presupposes education of the parents. The mother educates the child through her immense love. The parents should present good examples before the children as the children tend to copy 257 the parents. As soon as the child is able to understand, the mother should instruct him in refined manners. The initial teaching of language is carried on in the family through the parents. The mother should see that the child uses his tongue properly. Besides proper speech the child should also develop proper conduct. He should again be trained in manners while addressing his superiors and inferiors. And finally what is most important is that, "Parents should endeavour to inculcate in the minds of their children an intense desire for the love of knowledge, elevating company, and control of the senses."14 Education in the School The child's education, according to Dayananda should be both positive and negative. While on the one hand efforts should be made to develop in him such qualities as truthfulness, heroism, patience and cheerfulness, the parents should also see that the children avoid useless playing, crying, laughing and wrangling and may not develop evil qualities such as jealousy and malice etc. They should be taught not to have superstitions. They should develop a scientific outlook towards the world. Depicting the humanistic element in his philosophy of education Dayananda wanted to develop rationalism and scientific outlook in males and females right from the childhood. He was a most vehement critic of all superstitions,

beliefs in ghosts and witches etc. He even condemned astrology and accepted only that part of it which is known as astronomy. Celibacy In the Vedic tradition, Dayananda accorded a very high place to the observation of celibacy. The parents and teachers have special responsibility in this direction. They should impart sex education to the children and impress upon their minds the need of the preservation of the reproductive elements. Reward and Punishment Reward and punishment occupy a very important place in the child's education. Admitting the psychological importance of 258 reward and punishment Dayananda considered them to be an important part of early education. Punishment, according to him should be oral as far as possible and not corporal. Parents who do not shirk punishment grow scholarly, cultured and educated children. Dayananda supported Mahabharata where it has been laid down that parents and teachers who punish their wards give them nectar while those who bestow excessive love and affection give them poison. The children should be able to understand clearly as to what is to be right and what is wrong according to their parents. The child learns through the system of rewards and punishments. He repeats those acts which lead to rewards and does not commit those acts again which result in punishment. Punishment however, should never be given with an attitude of jealousy and malice towards the child. Summarising his theory of reward and punishment as means of education Dayananda wrote, "Children should also feel pleased when reprimanded, and feel uneasy when fondled. But parents and teachers should never reprimand them out of malice or spite. Outwardly, they should keep them in awe; whilst inwardly they should be tender hearted and kind to them. Likewise they should advise them to abstain from steeling, sexual abuse, contracting habits of indolence, arrogance, drunkenness, untruthfulness, malevolence, wickedness, malice, jealousy, blind passion; and to cultivate good qualities, such as, truthfulness and virtues."15 Moral Education Thus Dayananda clearly laid down the means for the moral education of the children. Moral education involves the encouragement of virtues on the one hand and the discouragement of vices on the other. The parents and the teachers should themselves present high ideals. Unless they do so they will not be able to create respect for their advices in the children. The children should be taught to speak the truth and observe their words. They should never be vain. They should avoid deceitfulness, hypocracy and ingratitude. The child should not loose his temper nor use rough language. He should avoid useless talking and speak only as much is necessary and that too in a sweet tone. He should be taught 259 to respect his elders, stand and salute them. He should learn to behave in society, to occupy a seat according to his rank and status. He should never have malice towards anyone. He should always speak the truth. The children should obey their parents and tutors. In the matter of dress and diet they should conduct in such a way as to gain in health, strength and knowledge. Thus in brief the child, "should try to acquire virtues and shun vices; associate with the good and avoid the wicked."16

CURRICULUM OF EDUCATION
Criteria for Curriculum In his scheme of education Dayananda prescribed almost similar types of education for males and females. He vehemently opposed the medieval idea that the women are not worthy of studying the Vedas. He pointed out that if the ladies are not allowed to go through the Vedas then how can they be able to participate in the Yajna and pronounce the mantras. Besides a general curriculum for educands from the four Varnas, Dayananda also prescribed some special studies for each Varna. He was not in favour of prescribing any work for special duty. He pointed out that only those books should be recommended for deep study which pass all scrutiny. In this own words, "Teachers should examine everything they teach to their students with the help of the above criteria; so should the students. Otherwise they can never be profound scholars. They will only be mere crammers. Teachers before teaching a book should thoroughly study it themselves and test the truth of its contents by the application of the aforesaid test. On finding it true they should teach it to their scholars,

otherwise not."17 Thus laying down the criteria for prescribing the curriculum, Dayananda has presented the following types of education: 1. Phonetics. First of all comes Phonetics (shiksha) by Panini, parents and teachers should teach their children and pupils how to pronounce different letters in their right places, with the right amount of effort and the right agent. For example, take the letter P. The right organ to pronounce it is the lips, the proper amount of effort is what is called full and the right agent is the tongue. 260 2. Grammar. Then comes Grammar. It includes Ashtadhyayi: Dhatupath (Book of roots), Ganapath (Book of groups), Unadikosh (Book of prefixes and suffixes, and c). Last of all comes Mahabhashya (Exposition of the above four books of Panini by Patanjali)."18 3. Philosophy and Literature. After a grounding in the science of language the educands had to study books on Vedic vocabulary and philology. The Nighantu and Nirukta by Yaska had to be taught in six to eight months. Then they should study prosody i.e. Chhadograntha by Pingala. This study will enable them to master the vules of Vedic and Sanskrit verses. This should be done in four months. 4. Sciences. After the study of literature starts the study of sciences. In this study the educands should start from Manusmriti and proceed to Valmiki Ramayana, the Vidurniti and other selections like this from the Mahabharata. There after they should study the six Shastras commonly known as six schools of philosophy. These should be finished in two years. 5. Four Vedas with Brahmanas. The most important part of the curriculum, according to Dayananda is covered by the four Vedas with their four Brahmanas with proper accent and meanings. The Vedas should be taught both by example and precept. 6. Upavedas. After the study of Vedas the students should learn the Upavedas. These Upavedas are four in numbers: (i) Ayurveda. It is Medical Science which includes works like that of Charak, Sushrut and other sages. (ii) Dhanur Veda. It is Science of Government which consists of two partscivil and military. While the civil part is the part of governing people, the military part comprises organisation of army etc. Both these branches should be mastered in two years, while the Ayurveda has to be mastered in four years. (iii) Gandharva Veda. It is Science of Music which includes books like Narad Samhita. etc. (iv) Atharva Veda. It is science and practice of mechanical art which is also called Shilp Vidya. 7. Jyotish Shastra. After the study of Upavedas the educands should study Jyotisha Shastra for two years. This includes 261 arithmetic, algebra, geometry, geography, geology and astronomy. About the span of study to master all the above mentioned arts and sciences, Dayananda provided 20 to 21 years. In prescribing the work for study only those books have been recommended which are either divine in origin or made by Rishis. Of the above mentioned curriculum Vedas come in the former class and others in the latter. Dayananda prohibited the books of all other types which do not fall in the above mentioned classes as they may lead to a lot of confusion and wrong knowledge.

MEDIUM OF EDUCATION
In the ancient Indian tradition Dayananda favoured mother tongue and the Sanskrit language. He strongly pleaded the cause of Sanskrit as medium of all higher education. He wrote in details about the curriculum and teaching methods for learning and mastering Sanskrit. He was vehemently critical of using foreign language such as English as medium of education not only in primary but also at the highest stage. This seriously hampers any original and creative thinking. This tradition of regard for mother tongue and Sanskrit was supported by all the Indian educational philosophers after Dayananda.

TEACHING METHODS
Dayananda not only prescribed a detailed curriculum but also pointed out the impediments which should be avoided both by the teachers and the taught in order to achieve the aims of education. Describing these impediments in details he wrote,

"Both the teachers and their scholars should avoid all those things that act as hindrances in way of the acquisition of knowledge, such as the company of the wicked and lascivious people, contraction of bad habits (such as the use of intoxications), fornication, child-marriage, want of perfect Brahmacharya, want of love on the part of the rulers, parents and learned men for the dissemination of knowledge of the Veda and other Shastras, over-eating, keeping late hours, sloth in learning, cheating, examining or being examined, or performing these duties with dishonesty, not regarding 262 knowledge as the highest thing in the world, want of faith in Brahmacharya as the source of health, strength, intellect, courage, political power and wealth, leaving off the worship of one true God, and wasting time in going about from place to place for the purpose of seeing and worshipping images made of stone, and other inanimate objects, absence of the worship of the five true living godsfather, mother, teacher, altruistic teachers of humanity (atithis) and others great men, neglect in the performance of the duties of their Class and Order, and instead, wearing different marks of sectarian distinction of the forehead and other parts of the body, chaplets and rosaries, etc. observance of fasting days as the 11th and 13th of each month, having faith in the forgiveness of sins by pilgrimage to such sacred places, as Banaras, and by constant recitation of the names of gods and goddesses such as Rama, Krishna, Narayana, Shiva, Bhagwati and Ganesha, indifference towards the acquisition of knowledge through the wicked advice of hypocrites, belief in the possibilities of obtaining salvation simply through hearing such books as Puranas and (Bhagvat and the like) and thus neglecting the study of the true philosophies and sciences, the living of good and righteous lives, the practice of Yoga, and communion with Godwhich alone can lead to eternal blisswant of love for knowledge through greed of gold, and loafing about, etc."19 This long list of dont's for teachers and scholars, incidentally summarises the evils of the present system of education. Some of them have been very much in practice in our colleges and universities and have even achieved a respectable status. Dayananda was ruthless in calling a spade. He severely condemned those who were misguiding innocent people in the name of education. He almost waged a war for the cause of the education of the backward classes including women. Thus he demanded compulsory education in India. The Educator and the Educand No system of education can benefit mankind unless the educator and the educand are prepared to follow certain ideals in the process of education. Keeping this principle in view Dayananda discussed in details the ideals required to be practiced from the teacher and the taught. 263 Qualification of the Teacher Elaborating the qualifications of teachers, whether male or female, Dayananda referred to sayings of Mahabharata. He supported the idea that, "He alone is a wise man who is never idle nor lazy, nor effected by pleasure or pain, profit or loss, honour or dishonour, public applause or censure, has always a firm faith in Dharma, and cannot be tempted by sensual objects."20 Thus the wise teacher should practice virtue and avoid sin. He should abstain from abusing Gods, the Vedas or the Virtuous people. He should have unbounded faith in God. He should be able to grasp the most difficult subject in a very short time. He should devote years after years in the pursuit of knowledge and use it for the good of mankind. He should not give opinion unasked for nor should be interrupt another in his speech. He should not brood over his loses. He should be well versed in all kinds of knowledge. He should be a clever debator, able to speak on any subject. He should have a good memory and a sound logic. He should be able to give a true exposition of scriptures. His intellectual unbuilding should be in confirmity with truth. When the teachers possess the above mentioned qualities then alone they will be able to fulfill the aims of education. Dayananda not only elaborated the qualities of a good teacher but also pointed out characteristics of undesirable teachers so that one may be able to compare between the two and gain by distinction. Qualification of Students Dayananda accepted the view mentioned by Mahabharata where it has been said, "Physical mental inertia, use of intoxicants, infatuation, idle gossip, neglect of studies, vanity, and want of Brahmacharya, these seven vices are not to be found among students.21 Such students can never acquire knowledge. About the qualifications of good students again, Dayananda accepted the viewpoint expressed in Vidurniti of Mahabharata. "They alone who practice virtue, subjugate their passions and never lose their reproductive element, are true Brahmacharis and become learned men."22 Thus, according to Dayananda, both the teachers and the students should possess high qualities. 264

Teacher-Taught Interaction These high qualities can be developed through mutual inspiration. The teachers inculcate truthfulness, self-control, gentleness and physical and mental development on the educands. They should also try to eradicate evil habits of the students. The students, on the other hand, themselves try to develop self-control, mental tranquility, thoughtfulness, diligence and love for their teachers. They should try to attain physical and mental perfections. Emphasising the aim of education as perfection of man, Dayananda wrote, "They should so exert themselves as to acquire perfect knowledge, perfect dharma, perfect development of body and learn to labour."23 The above mentioned discussion upon the qualifications of good teachers and good scholars supply criteria for the selection of suitable teachers and suitable students in educational institutions.

VALUE OF BRAHMACHARYA
In his philosophy of education, Dayananda everywhere laid emphasis upon the value of Brahmacharya both for the teachers and the students, male and female. He supports the idea of Manu where it has been said, "A student should observe Brahmacharya and study the Vedas with their subsidiary subjects for 9, 18, 36 years of until they are completely mastered."24 He classifies Brahmacharya into the following three grades: 1. The Lowest. The shortest period for observance of Brahmacharya for a student is 24 years. 2. The Intermediate. The highest Brahmachari is he who remains a celibate for 48 years and by virtue of this acquires "perfect knowledge, perfect physical strength, perfect wisdom, perfect development of good qualities, nature and characteristics, shines like the sun, enlightening all, and is enabled to master all kinds of knowledge."25 Thus the aim of Brahmacharya, according to Dayananda, is the attainment of all-round perfection of man. In India, since Vedas, it has been held by thoughtful persons that Brahmacharya is the surest way to attain perfection in human life. This view was later on supported by almost all contemporary Indian philosophers of education, including Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Rabindranath, and Gandhi. 265

EDUCATION FOR DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF SOCIETY

While defining education as the means of individual's salvation, Dayananda also laid emphasis on its social aspect. Education aims not only on development of the personality of the educand but also on creating such man and woman in society. Dayananda did not restrict education to a certain class. He pleaded for universal education. He elaborately discussed the education of the backward classes and women. It is significant to note that according to some Vedic scholars the Shudras and then women have no right to same type of education which is given to the higher classes of males. As a true humanist Dayananda contradicted this interpretation of Vedic education and strongly emphasised that education must be given to every one without distinction of class or sex. He argued in details in favour of the female education and emphasised its need right from the beginning. According to Dayananda the women should be educated not only in home science but also in grammar, religion, medicine, mathematics and even in technology. Like the boys the girls also should be sent to residential educational institutions at the early age of eight.

CONTRIBUTION OF DAYANANDA
1. Education for perfection. The discussion of the philosophy of education presented by Dayananda leads one to the conclusion that his aim was education for perfection. He sought this aim most vigorously even sometimes presenting schemes which were far from practicable and demanding standards and virtues which could not be attained even by the selected person. His ideas about educational institutions, segregation of male and female schools and colleges, gurukul system of education, long years of Brahmacharya and high qualities of teachers and scholars may appear impractical to some and too rigorous to others. Undoubtedly some of his ideas, like the condemnation of coeducation and absolute segregation of male and female institutions may not be acceptable to modern educational psychologists. Some of his other ideas like the extension of the period of study to 21 years and including almost every subject on earth in his ideal curriculum may also not be acceptable to 266 modern educationists. But these shortcomings in Dayananda's system of education should be seen in the context that he was supporting Vedic philosophy of education with all its advantages and disadvantages. He supported this system not because of its popular prestige or traditional nature but because, according to him it alone could lead to the creation of perfect men and women. Thus everywhere he sought an education for perfection. He supported democratic type of

organisation in educational institutions. In the different spheres of education he was a vehement critic of all evils, sloth and degradation. He demanded very high standard of character and conduct. He wanted to realise all-round perfection. 2. Multisided Curriculum. A perusal of the curriculum given in Satyarha Prakash amply clarifies the fact that Dayananda aimed at perfection of man through education. It is due to his anxiety about achieving an all-round and most comprehensive perfection of man that he prescribed such a detailed curriculum which may appear too wide in the modern age of specialisation and yet if one remembers the fact that specialised knowledge always creates a one-sided personality and never a total perfection, one may be able to appreciate Dayananda's standpoint. This however, does not mean that such a wide curriculum may be practically taught to every person. It is undeniable that the scheme of education presented by Dayananda is too rigorous and beyond the capacity of most of the males and females in the present time. He has divided the life of human body in four stages: the period of adolescence from sixteen to the twenty-fifth years, period of Manhood from twenty-fifth to fortieth years, then period of maturity after fortieth years and the period of loss after forty eight year. Of these the first two are the stages for education. Thus a person may continue his study upto fortieth year and according to Dayananda, "The best time for marriage, therefore is the fortieth, or rather forty-eight year."26 It is undeniable that at present no educationist will be prepared to accept this scheme and it is not practicable by any criteria. However, what is more important for us is the assessment of Dayananda's scheme for education, is his humanist philosophy and not its actual practicability. In devicing such a long curriculum and such long years of study he was only anxious for the creation of 267 a perfect man. This aim of education is certainly laudable though Dayananda definitely over-hit the mark. 3. Humanism and Rationalism. Besides the ideal of perfection as a humanist ideal, Dayananda showed his humanistic tendency in his strong condemnation of all superstitions, unscientific beliefs, immortalities and deceptions. In his support of science and the scientific outlook, he was more positive than many contemporary positivists. He was among the foremost rationalists to emphasis upon the use of reason in every field of human life. While on the one hand, he had absolute respect for the Vedas whom he considered to be divine, on the other hand he advised everyone to distinguish truth and untruth, use rational criteria and accept only that which is supported by sound logic. Thus if something appears to be out of date in his scheme of education that hardly detracts its value, since what is important is not the detailed scheme but the insight behind it. References 1. Satyarth Prakash, Eng. Trans, by Chiranjiva Bharadwaj, Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha, New Delhi, p. i. 2. Ibid., Introduction, pp. ii-iii. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid., p. 275. 5. Ibid., p. 280. 6. Ibid., pp. 288-89. 7. Ibid., pp. 289-90. 8. Ibid., p. 273. 9. Ibid. 10. Ibid., p. 274. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid., p. 29. 13. Ibid., Chapter II, p. 20. 14. Ibid., p. 29. 15. Ibid., p. 28.

16. Ibid., p. 29. 17. Ibid., Chapter III, p. 69. 18. Ibid., pp. 69-70. 19. Ibid., pp. 76-77. 20. Mahabharata, Vidurprajagar, XXXII. 21. Ibid., XXXIX. 22. Mahabharata, Chapter on Vidurniti. 268 23. Dayananda S., Satyartha Prakash, translated by Dr. Bharadwaj, Chapter IV, p. 126. 24. Manu, Dharma Shastra, iii, I. 25. Dayananda, S., Satyartha Prakash, English translation, Chapter III, pp. 42-43. 26. Ibid., Chapter II, p. 43. Questions for Exercise 1. Describe epistemology of Dayananda and point out its implications in education. 2. Discuss the child education according to Dayananda in the family and the school. 3. Explain the ideals, qualifications and interaction of teacher and taught according to Dayananda. 4. What is the value of Brahmacharya according to Dayananda. Describe his scheme of education for different classes of society. 5. Assess the contribution of Dayananda to Indian education. 269

16 Annie Besant
Among the representative movements of Renaissance period Theosophical Society occupied an important place. It is so since it re-oriented ancient Indian philosophy of the Upanishads and the Bhagavadgita in modern language. Theosophical Society was established by Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott. Annie Besant became the President of this society in 1907. Under her Presidentship Theosophical Society became a real force not only in the field of philosophy and religion but also in the fields of social and political reforms in India. Annie Besant was so much influenced by Hinduism that she believed that she was a Hindu in past life. She came to India in 1893 at the age of forty-six and devoted herself to social, religious, educational and sometimes to political activities. Her political views were not very mature but she did make a mark in the field of religion and social thought. Her philosophical views were almost the same as found in Hinduism. She considered Advaita Vedanta as the intellectual bridge between Hinduism and Islam. Her views in the field of religion were similar to those of Ramakrishna, Vivekananda and Dayananda. She believed in all the dictums of Hinduism. She was very much impressed by the Bhagavadgita and wrote a famous commentary on it. Annie Besant believed that so far five main races and their subdivisions have evolved in the world. She thought that in future two more root races will evolve thus bringing the total to seven. She considered Aryan race as the best and thought Central Asia as its place of origin. The following are the important sociopolitical ideas of Annie Besant: 1. Liberty. Like Rammohun Roy and Keshab Chandra Sen Annie Besant demanded home-rule for India. She wrote, "I demand for everyman, whatever be his opinions, that he shall be able to speak out with honest frankness the result of honest thought, without 270 forfeiting his rights as citizen, without destroying his social position, and without troubling his domestic peace... . Liberty

is immortal and eternal, and her triumph is sure, however it may be delayed . . . and hers is also the triumph of tomorrow if only we who adore her, if only we can (be) true to ourselves and each other. But they who love her must work for her, as well as worship her, for labour is the only prayer to Liberty, and devotion the only praise."1 Explaining her idea of liberty and the free men and women in a free nation she said, "You can only have a free nation when you have free men to build it out of free men and women both, but no man is free and no woman is free who is under the dominance of appetite, or vice, or drunkenness, or any form of evil which he is unable to control. Self control is the foundation on which alone freedom can be built. Without that you have anarchy, not freedom, and every increase of the present anarchy is paid for by the price of happiness, which is given in exchange."2 2. Aristocratic Socialism. Annie Besant was against representative democracy. Like Plato she wanted to entrust the function of Government to a selected class of people. Criticising representative democracy as Majoritarianism she said,"... our ideal of Brotherhood applied to Government claims power for the wise and not for the ignorant; places law-making in the hands of those who only know the needs of the household, or perhaps the needs of the town. The people have a right to happiness, but they can never get it for themselves by physical force, by legal violence, and by competition; they must be guided to it by knowledge, by those who understand."3 She wanted a socialism based on common agreement leading to the realization of mutually beneficial and enjoyable adjustment of capacities and functions. Condemning mass socialism she said, "A democratic socialism, controlled by votes, guided by numbers, can never succeed; a truly aristocratic socialism, controlled by duty, guided by wisdom, is the next step upwards in civilisation."4 3. Spiritual Nationalism. Annie Besant started the Gospel of spiritual nationalism which was later on expressed in the writings of Sri Aurobindo, Rabindranath Tagore and M.K. Gandhi. In her Presidential speech at the Calcutta session of Indian National Congress she said, "For, what is a Nation? It is a spark of the Divine Fire, a fragment of the Divine Life, out breathed into the world, and gathering round itself a mass of individuals, men, women and children, whom it binds together into one. Its qualities, its powers, 271 in a word, its type, depend on the fragment of the Divine Life embodied in it. ... The foreigners laid waste her cities, and discrowned her kings. They came to conquer, but they remained to be absorbed. At last, out of those mingled peoples, the Divine Artificer has welded a Nation, compact not only of her own virtue, but also of those her foes had brought to her, and gradually eliminating the vices which they had also brought."5 The essence of spiritual nationalism, according to Annie Besant, is religion. Religion is a revivifying force. It teaches solidarity. Pleading for the religious basis of spiritual nationalism Annie Besant said, "I feel strongly ... that only on the basis of religion can a true Nationality be built up. Religion itself which gives the sense of human dignity joined to the sense of human duty, and the self-respect of India could never have arisen as it has arisen today, had not the philosophies and the religions of past re-won their empire over the Indian heart; and the virtues that the great religions typify, all of which we find in this sacred land, are virtues that we need for the building of our Nation."6

COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS
Annie Besant, like Mazzini, Gandhi and Aurobindo had a vision of a Commonwealth of Nations substituting the world empire. After the solidarity of each nation she considered it necessary to integrate all the nations in a world federation so that the ideal of world peace may be achieved. In her concept of universalism the individual, the society, the nation and finally the humanity form ever widening circles, each including the smaller one and each giving place to a wider circle. Explaining her idea of the next stage in human evolution after the realization of spiritual nationalism, Annie Besant pointed out, "The next stage of the plan is the building up of a free Commonwealth of Nations in which India plays her equal part. This is why the English came here and others had to go away; and the one Nation that is free in her institutions in her own island, if not free in her practice outside her own island, is the English Nation, chosen to come here and blend with the Indian Nation in the building up now of the World Empire, to be really a World Commonwealth, not a World Empire which was to rule by force but a World Federation which was to govern by love and in peace."7 272

IDEAS ON EDUCATION
Annie Besant's educational philosophy is based on the Theosophical Ideal of Education according to which each child should receive an education suited to develop his particular and individual faculties. He should be imparted education which will make him useful as a citizen in his community and his country.

AIMS OF EDUCATION

According to Annie Besant education should draw out the child's capacities, and develop and train them so that he becomes a healthy and useful member of a civilized society. The object of theosophical education are as follows: (i) To train the body in health, vigour and grace, so that it may express the emotions with beauty, and the mind with accuracy and strength. (ii) To train the emotions to love all that is beautiful. (iii) To sympathise with joys and sorrows of others and to inspire to serve others until we love our elders as our parents, our equals as our brothers and sisters, and youngsters as our children. (iv) To find joy in sacrificing for great causes for the helpless and compassion for those who suffer. (v) To train and discipline the mind in right thinking, right judgment and memory. (vi) To subdue body, emotion and mind to spirit. (vii) Education should make man a good citizen of free and spiritual commonwealth of humanity.

EDUCATION IN DIFFERENT PERIODS OF LIFE

Annie Besant divided the entire period of education in life, into three parts. These are as follows: A. First Period: 1-7 Years 1. The physical height and development of the child's body 273 should be the chief concern of parents and the teacher. The child's entire future depends on the care bestowed on the child during the first seven years of his life. In later years nothing can fully make up for insufficient food or insufficient light, exercise and sleep, during this period. 2. This is also the period for cultivating observation, for training the senses into alertness, accuracy and grasp, for training hand and finger, skills of memory especially the word-memory which is very quick and retentive in childhood. Nursery rhymes remain in the memory for life. Rhymes and poems employing succession of events, names or dates learnt in childhood, are never forgotten. 3. No abstract reasoning processes should be forced upon the child during this period. His attention should be directed to observation of sequences of facts but not the logical processes. The brain cells are not sufficiently interrelated to make any train of reasoning intelligible. There is no benefit in memorizing logical sequences which are not understood by the child. B. Second Period: 7-14 Years During this period education should be chiefly directed to the development and training of the emotions, and thus to the building of character. Histories consisting largely of biographical stories of great men of varied types, saints, heroes, martyrs, political, artistic, literary leaders in every department of human life. These should inspire enthusiasm and shape the ideals of developing boys and girls. In this way character will be built and the channels of right emotions will be prepared. Thus the great emotional rush which follows the attainment of puberty will find channels ready to receive it, to render it uplifting and beneficent, instead of degrading and mischievous. C. Third Period: 14-21 Years This period should be the time of intellectual development of hard and strenuous mental labour. The reasoning faculty should be thoroughly trained by logic and mathematics. Specialization in some areas should prepare the youth for his future career. Curriculum. Annie Besant prescribed the following curriculum for different periods: 274 (i) First Period: 1-7 Years. Tales of noble deeds and heroism emphasis on health, physical dexterity and skills; nursery

rhymes, cultivation of word-memory, observation of sequences of facts, love of beauty, arousing of sympathy for the poor and helpless. (ii) Second Period: 7-14 Years. History and Biography, Geography, Physiology, Physics, Chemistry and Geology should be taught. Practical and laboratory work in the sciences should be included. Algebra, Geometry and Arithmetic should occupy an important place in the curriculum. (iii) Third Period: 14-21 Years. This is the period of the rapid intellectual development. Therefore, Logic and Mathematics should be taught intensively. The sense of duty to one's fellowmen should be taught through Civics and Social studies. Sciences such as Biology, Philosophy and Psychology should be mastered. Literature, Philosophy, Economics should occupy an important place. Various aspects of the Arts should also be included in the curriculum. Specialization in some chosen field should prepare the student for his future career in life. Religious Teaching should begin with easy stories in the child's early stages of education and pass on to metaphysics in the later years in all of the three stages, being adapted to the intelligence and understanding of the student. Physical Training should be all-pervading. It should be adapted in theory and practice to the physical development and needs of the growing pupil in all the abovementioned three stages. Ail-Round Education Explaining her scheme of all-round education Anne Besant writes, "I look forward to a time when every child shall receive, in the national schools, the elements of a literary, scientific, artistic and technical education. No boy or girl should leave the school ignorant of our literature, or of the wonders of science. He should delight in beauty. He should also learn some definite 275 means of bread-winning, let it be tailoring, cookery or carpentry or any trade or profession. Every pair of hands should be able to do at least some one thing well by which an honest living may be earned."

ANNIE BESANT'S CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION

1. Patriotism. Dr. Besant loved India. Her respect and understanding of India's religions and philosophies was profound. She wrote many books and pamphlets on Hinduism, as well as textbooks for students in Physics, Chemistry, Biology and stories from the Mahabharata as well as narratives of heroic deeds for children to read. 2. Nationalism. Dr. Besant's support of India's national aspirations led her to encourage and support many innovative educational efforts. She founded many schools and colleges. The Central Hindu School and College was founded by her in 1898 at Benaras. It later became the Benaras Hindu University. She also founded the Theosophical Institute at Adyar, Madras. 3. Multisided efforts. Not only did Dr. Besant start the Central Hindu School and College at Benaras, she organized its debating clubs and many sports organizations. She was an excellent teacher and educational administrator. She set high standards for other teachers and organizers around her. She was admired and loved by her students and colleagues for his dedication and efficiency in educational endeavours. 4. Against Child-Marriage. Annie Besant took a firm stand against Child-Marriage which was widely prevalent in India at that time. Students were discouraged from marrying while they were still studying. They and their parents were made to realize that the students were not mature enough to assume adult responsibilities. 5. Social Reform. She gave speeches on nationalism, freedom and social reforms in schools and colleges as well as in public. This made the students realize their responsibilities to live and work for a free India. 6. Women's education. Annie Besant was an ardent promotor of women's education in India. She organized many groups to strive for the furtherance of girls' schools and colleges in many parts of India where facilities did not exist, and girls and women were neglected. She worked to raise the status of girls and women through education. 276 7. Growth of educational institutions. Due to Annie Besant's pioneering work in education, many communities, Parsi, Muslim, Arya Samaj, Dev Samaj, Brahmo Samaj and other started schools for their youth on modern lines. She inspired a great deal of enthusiasm for education in India at a time when the British neglected educational betterment and expansion

to fit the needs of the country, in their schemes. 8. Vocational Education. Dr. Besant was a strong advocate of vocational education in schools. By the end of schooling, every pupil should have learnt some trade or craft: carpentry, cooking, tailoring, or any useful skill or vocation, to enable him to earn a living, at any stage in his educational career. 9. Anti Racism. Annie Besant strongly believed and preached that there is no such thing as racial superiority. She maintained that the white races and the so-called higher castes of people are not in any way superior to other people. Therefore, domination by races and castes of people over other is totally unjustified. All people in the world are endowed with intelligence and ability, regardless of race or caste. All have a right to educational opportunity and the amenities of life. There should be free schools established for universal, free and compulsory education in India. No one should be denied the right to education and the right to upward mobility. References 1. Annie Besant, Civil and Religious Liberty, 1883. 2. Annie Besant, The Changing World, 1903. 3. Ibid. 4. Annie Besant, The New India, July 30, 1931. 5. Annie Besant, The Future of Indian Politics, pp. 314-15. 6. Annie Besant, The New India, Sept. 27, 1917. 7. Annie Besant, The Great Plan, 1920. Questions for Exercise 1. Describe Annie Besant's contribution to Indian education. 2. Explain Annie Besant's philosophy of education. 277

17 Swami Vivekananda
In the Neo-Vedanta humanistic tradition of contemporary Indian thought, Vivekananda presented a philosophy of education for man-making. Among the contemporary Indian philosophers of education he is one of those who revolted against the imposition of British system of education in India. He was severely critical of the pattern of education introduced by the British in India. He felt that the current system of education did not confirm to India's culture. He pointed out that such an education only brings about an external change without any profound inner force.

CRITICISM OF PREVALENT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Against the contemporary educational system the chief objection raised by Vivekananda was that it turned men into slaves, capable of slavery and nothing else. About the prevailing university education, he remarked that it was not better than an efficient machine for rapidly turning out clerks. It deprived people of their faith and belief. The English educated people believed that Gita was false and the Vedas were no more significant than rural folk lore. Criticising this system of education Vivekananda compared it to the person who wanted to turn his ass into a horse, was advised to thrash the ass in order to achieve this transformation and killed his ass in this process. Vivekananda also criticised the contemporary system of education from the humanistic viewpoint. He was a humanist and pleaded for education for man-making. Such was not the education propounded by the British. Therefore, Vivekananda condemned 278 it. He remarked, "It is not a man-making education, it is merely and entirely a negative education. A negative education or any training that is based on negation, is worse than death. The child is taken to school, and the first thing he learns is that his father is a fool, the second thing that his grandfather is lunatic, the third thing that all his teachers are hypocrites, the fourth, that all the sacred books are lies. By the time he is sixteen he is a mass of negation, lifeless and boneless. And the

result is that fifty years of such education has not produced one original man in the three presidencies. Every man of originality that has been produced has been educated elsewhere, and not in this country, or they have gone to the old universities once more to cleanse themselves of superstitions."1

AIMS OF EDUCATION
1. Self-development. In contrast to the contemporary system of education Vivekananda advocated education for selfdevelopment. He said, "By education I do not mean the present system, but something in the line of positive teaching. Mere book learning won't do. We want that education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the intellect is expanded and by which one can stand on one's own feet. What we want are Western science coupled with Vedanta, Brahmacharya as the guiding motto, and also Shraddha, and faith in one's own self."2 These words by Vivekananda represent the characteristic Indian definition of education. Education according to most of the Western educationists aims at man's adjustment with the environment. According to the Indian philosophical tradition, on the other hand, education is the realization of the knowledge inherent in man. True knowledge does not come from outside, it is discovered with the individual, in the self which is the source of all knowledge. To quote Vivekananda again, "All knowledge that the world has ever received comes from the mind; the infinite library of the universe is in your mind. The external world is only the suggestion, the occasion, which sets you to study your mind. The falling of the apple gave suggestion to Newton, and he studied his own mind. He rearranged all the precious links of thought in his mind and discovered a new link among them which we call the Law of 279 Gravitation."3 Thus, according to Vivekananda, the function of education is the uncovering of the knowledge hidden in our mind. Education is the process of self-development. In the words of Vivekananda, "You cannot teach a child any more than you can grow a plant. The plant develops its own nature."4 A person's education is not judged by the number of books he has read but by the thickness of the cover of ignorance on his mind. The thicker is this cover, the greater is the ignorance. As the light of knowledge dawns this cover of ignorance gradually shatters. The teacher's job is to uncover knowledge by his guidance. His guidance makes the mind active and the educand himself unveils the knowledge lying within him. 2. Fulfilment of Swadharma. Vivekananda supported the idea of Swadharma in education. Every one has to grow like himself. No one has to copy others. It is hence that he condemned the imposition of foreign education. He asked, "Getting by heart the thoughts of others in a foreign language and stuffing your brain with them and taking some university degree, you can pride yourself as educated. Is this education?" True improvement is self-inspired. There should be no external pressure of any type on the child. External pressure only creates destructive reactions leading to obstinacy and indiscipline. In an atmosphere of freedom, love and sympathy alone, the child will develop courage and self-reliance. He should not be unnecessarily checked in his activities. The educator should not constantly tell him to do this or that. Such negative directions tend to blunt his intelligence and mental development. He should be talked to stand on his own, to be himself. This is so since as Vivekananda suggests, "If you do not allow once to become a lion, he will become a fox".6 Therefore, education should be modified to suit the individual child. Each child should be given opportunities to develop according to his own inner nature. 3. Freedom of Growth.Thus Vivekananda is against any type of external pressure upon the child. He is a staunch champion of freedom in education. Freedom is the first requirement for self-development. The child should be given freedom to grow, according to his own nature. In the words of Vivekananda, "You cannot teach a child any more than you can grow a plant. All you can do is on the negative sideyou can only help. You can take away the obstacles, but knowledge comes out of its 280 own nature. Loosen the soil a little, so that it may come out easily. Put a hedge around it, see that it is not killed by anything, and there your work stops. You cannot do anything else. The rest is a manifestation from within its own nature."7The teacher should not exert any type of pressure on the child. The child should be helped in solving his problems himself. The teachers should have an attitude of service and worship. Education ultimately aims at realization. It is a means to the establishment of a fraternity of mankind. 4. Character Formation. Character is the solid foundation for self-development. The aim of education as self-development, therefore, leads to the aim of education for character. Defining character, Vivekananda said, "The character of any man is but the aggregate of his tendencies, the sum total of the bent of his mind. As pleasure and pain pass before his soul, they leave upon it different pictures and the result of these combined impressions is what is called a man's character".8 The aim of education is character building. This depends upon the ideals cherished by the individual. The educator should present high ideals before the educands. The best way to develop a character is the personal example of high character set

by the teacher. Laying emphasis upon this point Vivekananda said, "Without the personal life of the teacher there would be no education. One would live from his very boyhood with one whose character is like a blazing fire, and should have before him a living example of the highest teaching. . . . The charge of imparting knowledge should again fall upon the shoulders of tyagis.119 In ancient Indian system of education the teachers used to present high ideals, before the pupils, who in their turn imitated these ideals according to their capacities. Following things are required for character formation: (i) Hard Work. Character formation, according to Vivekananda, requires hard work. This is not possible by those who have a wish for all types of enjoyments. Struggle is the best teacher in character building. Activity and purushartha are the signs of life. Inactivity shows absence of vitality. While living in all types of comforts and escaping from all types of labour, no one can build up high character. (ii) Moral and Spiritual Values. Besides hard work, character 281 formation requires traits such as purity, thirst for knowledge, perseverance, faith, humility, submission and veneration, etc. These qualities may be developed by the teacher's example and the pupil's efforts. According to Vivekananda, "Without faith, humility, submission and veneration in our hearts towards the teacher, there cannot be any growth in us. In those countries which have neglected to keep up this kind of relation, the teacher has become a mere lecturer, the teacher expecting his five dollars and the person taught expecting his brain to be filled with the teacher's words and each going his own way after this much is done. The true teacher is he who can immediately come down to the level of the student, and transfer his soul to the student's soul and see through and understand through his mind."10 (iii) Gurukula System. Such a relationship between the teacher and the taught is possible only in a Gurukula system of education. Therefore, Vivekananda favoured the ancient Indian Gurukula system of education. In these Gurukulas the pupils served the teacher, who in his turn, helped the pupils everywhere to achieve knowledge. There was hardly any economic relationship between the teacher and the taught, which is the curse of the present system of education. (iv) Formation of Goad Habits. Character is intimately connected with habits. Habits express character. Good habits make for good character. While the contemporary psychologists admit that value of habits in one's life, Vivekananda has pointed out the value of habits not only in this life but in lives to come. A bad habit may be broken by developing the opposite good habit. If a man constantly thinks that he will be courageous and progressive, he may develop confidence for breaking bad habits. It is not the teacher nor the guardian who may reform the habit of a person but only he himself. Man is caught in the net of his own karmas from which he alone can get out, no one else can directly help him. Our own self in us is our best guide in the struggle that is life. (v) Learning Through Mistakes. The child should be allowed 282 to commit mistakes in the process of character formation. He will learn much by his mistakes. Errors are the stepping stones to our progress in character. This progress requires courage and strong will. Strong will is the sign of great character. Will makes men great. Therefore, there is no occasion to be discouraged or to weep, one should exercise his will and he will see that things which he considered to be impossible become easy and possible. Vivekananda himself was an ideal teacher. His words worked like magic upon men and women. This is possible only in the case of a teacher who has himself risen high. Presenting his own example, Vivekananda asked the people to build up their character and manifest their real nature which is the Effulgent, the Resplendent, the Ever Pure.

MEANS OF EDUCATION
1. Love. The best means of education, according to Vivekananda is love. Education should be based upon love. Love is best inspiration in character building. The child should be taught through love. This is love for men, for human beings. The only motive in imparting education should be love for the educand, for the man in him. That is why Vivekananda's philosophy of education is known as education for man-making. The teacher's aim should be neither money making nor attainment of fame but only bestowing human love. The spiritual force work through love. This love within the educator is the real source of his influence upon the educand. This may be amply clear by the example of the relationship of Vivekananda with his Guru Ramakrishna. It was the force of spiritual love in Ramakrishna which helped Vivekananda in God realization. It is this which makes the educator to take the educand from untruth to truth, darkness to light, death to immortality. 2. Help. The task of the educator is to help the educand in manifesting and expressing his abilities and capacities. Educator should help the individual to recognize his cultural heritage and to use it in his struggle of life. The educator can

guide the educand because he himself has the experience of treading on 283 this path and knows how to face its difficulties. Vivekananda has not only presented high ideals of education but also developed a sound system by which these ideals may be achieved. 3. Guidance. Education is not a bed of roses. Every educand has to face problems peculiarly his own. He solves them by his own efforts and with the guidance of the teacher. The skilled teacher guides the pupil through these difficulties and takes him forward. This requires a sufficient knowledge of human psychology because most of our problems are psychological in nature. The teacher should teach the educand to concentrate his attention, only then can the problems be solved. The greater the attention, the more is the effort effective. 4. Concentration. Concentration, according to ancient Indian thought, is the key to true knowledge. Therefore, Vivekananda has placed much emphasis upon focusing of attention. It is only after years of concentration that a man becomes a scholar and a great scientist. The educands should be distinguished according to their abilities, every one of them has to develop concentration. Again, while teaching concentration the educator should keep in mind the varying abilities of concentration is spontaneous and easy, for others it is difficult and requires long training. Hence, the educator must organize his teaching in such a way that he may be helpful to each educand separately. He should attend to every one's difficulties and try to solve them as much as possible. Thus, Vivekananda supported the ancient Indian means of achieving concentration. 5. Brahmacharya. Again, according to ancient Indian thinkers, Brahmacharya or abstinence is the first means of achieving concentration. It gives mental and spiritual powers of the highest kind. It transforms sex drive into a spiritual force. Brahmacharya implies purity of thought, deed and action. It helps to improve and sharpen various psychological processes such as learning, remembering, thinking, etc. It helps in achieving power of memory and improve the powers of the mind. Vivekananda therefore strongly emphasized the need for the students to observe Brahmacharya. This leads to both mental and physical advantages, Firstly, it takes effective care of all distractions. Secondly, it improves the body and the mind so that they may become effective means of knowledge. 6. Discussion and Contemplation. In addition to concentration the 284 other means of education are discussion and contemplation. It is only through these that the educand may remove his difficulties. Discussion should be carried out in an informal atmosphere. Contemplation should be practised in a clam and quiet atmosphere with the mind fully alive. In the end the educational process requires faith and reverence of the educand in the teacher and his teachings. Without faith and reverence no true knowledge can be achieved. It is faith and reverence which are sound foundation for all character development and self-education. The faith and reverence, however, depend not only upon the educand by also upon the high examples presented by the teacher. In the educational process, therefore, the teacher also occupies a very high place.

MEDIUM OF EDUCATION
1. Mother tongue. In teaching language Vivekananda laid particular stress upon teaching though the mother tongue. Here he is supported by all other contemporary Indian philosophers of education. 2. Common language. Besides mother tongue, there should be a common language which is necessary to keep the country united. This may be taught in addition to the regional languages. 3. Sanskrit. The teaching of Sanskrit forms an important part of the curriculum envisaged by Vivekananda. Sanskrit is the source of all Indian languages and a repository of all inherited knowledge. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary that every Indian should know Sanskrit. Vivekananda appreciated the greatness of Sanskrit in eloquent words when he said that this language granted power, ability and prestige to the nation and that our awareness of our cultural heritage and past greatness depends very much upon our knowledge of this language. He felt that in the absence of this knowledge, it will be impossible to understand Indian culture. If the society has to develop and progress it is necessary that men and women should know this language which is the store house of ancient heritage, besides the knowledge of the mother tongue.

TYPES OF EDUCATION
Vivekananda elaborately discussed the teaching methods in physical, moral and religious education. This discussion gives an idea, of types of education as well as methods of teaching.

285 1. Physical Education. Vivekananda laid particular stress on the value of physical education in curriculum. He said, "You will be nearer to Heaven through football than through the study of Gita. You will understand Gita better by your biceps, your muscles a little stronger. You will understand the Upanishads better and the glory of the Atman, when your body stands firm on your feet and you feel yourself as man".11 Self-realization or character building is impossible in the absence of physical education. One must know the secret of making the body strong through physical education, for a complete education it is necessary to develop both mind and the body. Vivekananda himself took physical exercise every day. He glorified power and opposed weakness in any form. Power was happiness and weakness a never ending burden. It is hence that he so such emphasized the importance of physical education particularly for young men and women. 2. Moral and religious education. Laying emphasis upon religious education Vivekananda said, "Religion is the innermost core of education. I do not mean my own or any one else's opinion about religion. Religion is as the rice and everything else, like the curries. Taking only curries causes indigestion, and so is the case with taking rice alone."12 Therefore, religious education is a vital part of a sound curriculum. This religious education is necessary in order to counter effect the evil influence of modern materialism. It is only by synthesis of religion and science that men may reap the advantages of both. As has been already pointed out, religious education in itself is never sufficient. It should not be the whole of curriculum but only at part of it. This religion, again, is not any particular dogma or sectarian philosophy, in fact, it is what Tailor called religion of man. It is hence that Vivekananda did not distinguish between secular and religious education. He thought that the former may be given by the latter. He said, "We have to give them secular education. We have to follow the plan laid down by our ancestors, that is, to bring all the ideals slowly down among the masses. Raise them slowly up, raise them to equality. Impart ... .secular knowledge through religion."13 (i) High Ideals. The best way of imparting religious education 286 is to present the high ideals of saints and religious men before the students. They should be taught to worship saints to follow their ideals. Among the great souls, Vivekananda pointed out to Ram Chandra, Krishna, Mahavir and Ramakrishna. In the ideal of Sri Krishna he laid more emphasis on his personality as the author of Gita. He said, "Keep aside for the present the Vrindavan aspect of Sri Krishna, and spread far and wide the worship of Sri Krishna roaring out the Gita with the voice of a lion; and bring into daily use the worship of Shakti the Divine Mother, the source of all power. We now mostly need the ideal of the hero with the tremendous spirit of rajas thrilling through his veins from head to foot, the hero who will dare and die to know the truth, the hero whose armour is renunciation, whose sword is wisdom; we want the spirit of the brave warrior in the battlefield".14 (ii) Courage. Thus, Vivekananda wanted men and women to develop qualities according to their particular sex and their role in society. He asked young men to develop manly qualities. Even in religious practices he considered courage to be a higher quality. Religion is not mere ritualism. It is a progress towards high ideals in the face of extreme difficulties. (iii) Service and Devotion. Besides courage, Vivekananda prescribed service and devotion in religious education. For this purpose he eulogised the ideal of Hanuman who was a living example of service, devotion and courage. He deplores the dramatic imitation of Ras Lila because it is against the interest of the country at present. Purity is the real basis of the country at present. Even in music Vivekananda advised young men to adopt manly music so that it may infuse bravery and courage. This, however, does not mean that Vivekananda rejected any particular type of religious practice. He only wanted to adopt religious practices according to the needs of the times. India, according to him, today needs a religion which should be harmonious with science and teach patriotism, service and sacrifice. Then alone religious education may be useful to the nation. Religion influences 287 total man. It encourages all types of qualities, soft as well as virile. Vivekananda emphasized the inculcation of the latter type of virtues. He exhorted young men by saying, "Never allow weakness to overtake your mind. Remember Mahavir, remember the Divine Mother, and you will see that all weakness, all cowardice will vanish at once".15 (iv) Self-confidence. It goes without saying that such a moral and religious education will develop self-confidence among young men and women. Self-confidence, according to Vivekananda, is the real religion. It includes world brotherhood and love of humanity, because a person having self-confidence means having confidence in humanity. Thus, Vivekananda's religion was humanistic. Religion is the source of all powers. It is again, the source of all good. Thus, for Vivekananda, ethics and religion are one and the same. God is always on the side of goodness. To fight for goodness is therefore service to God. Weakness is the source of all evils. It is at the root of all violence, hatred and enmity. If a man sees his own self everywhere he need not fear any one. Fearlessness and power are eternal truths, the real nature of the self.

(v) Realisation of Truth. Thus, Vivekananda pleaded for realization of truth through religious practices. Long before Gandhiji identified truth with God, Vivekananda called truth God. The seeker after truth should search for it in every aspect of life. Truth is power, untruth is weakness. Knowledge is truth, ignorance is untruth. Thus, truth increases power, courage and energy. It is light giving. It is, therefore, necessary for the individual as well as collective welfare. (vi) Achievement of Power. Thus Vivekananda worshipped power. This power, however, was not physical or biological as that of Nietzsche. It was spirituals power. Rising high in the tradition of Vedanta, Vivekananda never allowed his feet to leave the solid ground. His teachings influenced the West where materialism was rampant. This was due to the reason that his teachings were based upon universal truths. Modern man is not prepared to leave the world. He wants to enjoy it. 288 Vivekananda, therefore, gave a practical garb to his religion. India in his time was groaning under slavery. Vivekananda, therefore, asked Indian men and women to shed all types of weakness and to march forward courageously. According to him we have to speak less and work more, achieve power first than anything else. To quote Vivekananda, "First of all our young men and must be strong. Religion will come afterwards".16 (vii) Study of Scriptures. In the curriculum for religious education, Vivekananda considered Gita, Upanishads and the Vedas as the most important. The study of these scriptures will fill young men and women with courage. These are the eternal sources of the life force of Indian culture. These are the bases of our spiritual education. Vivekananda, however, was not in favour of preaching any particular religious dogmas. Religion for him was self-realization. Temples, mosques, churches and synagogues do not make religion. Religion is divinization. It is not intellectual development but transformation of total man. It is nothing if it does not teach us service and sacrifice. It is the basis for character formation. It should lead to man-making. In tune with his Guru Ramakrishna, Vivekananda pleaded for unity of world religions. He considered all religions to be equal. A true religion cannot be limited to a particular place or time. The religious books, teachers and institutions are eternal. Their ancient forms are worshipped and their modern forms are respected. Thus, in his moral and religious education Vivekananda pleaded for the education of unity of world religions. 3. Education for weaker section of society. Vivekananda respected human individuality, everywhere and pleaded for freedom for everyone. "Each soul", according to him, "is potentially divine. The goal is to manifest external and internal. Do this, either by work, or worship, or psychic centre or philosophy by one or more or all of theseand before. This is the whole of religion. Doctrines or dogmas, rituals or books, temples or forms are secondary details."17 It was due to his devotion for the poor and backward people that Vivekananda wanted to make 289 education an instrument for the uplift of the masses. Like Gandhiji after him, Vivekananda, throughout his life, worked for the uplift of backward classes. He pleaded for universal education so that these backward people may fall in line with others. He said, "A nation is advanced in proportion as education and intelligence is spread among the masses. The chief causes of India's ruin have been the monopolizing of the whole education and intelligence of the land among the handful of men. If we are to rise again, we shall have to do it by spreading education among masses."18 Thus, education should spread to every household in the country, to factories, playing grounds and agricultural fields. If the children do not come to the school the teacher should reach them. Two or three educated men should team up, collect all the paraphernalia of education and should go to the village to impart education to the children. Thus, Vivekananda favoured education for different sections of society, rich and poor, young and old, male and female. 4. Education for women. In the education for women Vivekananda laid particular stress on chastity and fearlessness. He conceived an ideal institution for women known as Math where literature and religion may be taught. Pointing out to the curricula in this institution he said, "Other matters such as sewing, culinary art, rules of domestic work and upbringing of children will also be taught while Japa worship and meditation, etc., shall form an indispensable part of the teaching. The duty of the teaching in school ought to devolve in every respect on educated widows and Brahmacharinis. It is good to avoid in this country any association of men with women's schools."19 Thus, he presented a comprehensive curricula for women so that they may develop high character, courage and confidence. He presented the ideal of Sita and lamented that modern Indian women are imitating Western ideals which had led to all-round degeneration. Like males he advised females also to observe Brahmacharya which is a solid foundation for any type of education. He was extremely sorry for the lowly condition of Indian women. He considered women to be the incarnation of power and asked men to respect them in every way. He pointed out that unless Indian women secure a respectable place in this country, the nation can never march forward. The regeneration of Indian women, according to him, depends upon proper 290 education. Women's education should be in the hands of women. Clarifying his scheme in this connection he said, "After

five or six years' training in this 'Math', the guardians of the girls may marry them. If deemed fit for 'Yoga' and religious life, with the permission of their guardians they will be allowed to stay in this Math, taking the vow of celibacy. These celibate nuns will be in time be the teachers and preachers of the Math. In villages and towns they will open centres and strive for the spread of female education. Through such devout preachers of character there will be the real spread of female education in this country. . . . Spirituality, sacrifice and self-control will be the motto of the pupils of this Math, and service or 'Seva Dharma' the vow of their life. ... If the life of the women of this country be moulded in such fashion, then only will there be the reappearance of such ideal characters of Sita, Savitri and Gargi."20

CONTRIBUTION OF VIVEKANANDA
Our discussion about Vivekananda's concept of the aims and ideals of education, its process and curriculum has made it amply clear that he was a humanist in the true sense of the term. He said, "Look upon every man, woman and every one as God. Blessed you are that this privilege was given to you when other had it not. Do it only as a worship. The only God to worship is the human soul in the human body. Of course, all animals are temples to, but man is the highest, the Taj Mahal of temples. If I cannot worship in that, no other temple will be of any advantage."21 Vivekananda's humanism, however, was different from naturalistic humanism. It is in this background that his education for man-making should be understood. Man, according to him, is the highest of all living being so much so that according to Vivekananda even the angels will have to come down again and again for salvation through a human body. The educational ideals advocated by Vivekananda have been supported by most of the modern Western educationists. Education today is defined as the process of all-round development of the child. Such a development can take place only from within while the external environment provides occasion for such development. The teacher has to provide the 291 environment so that the child may become aware of the treasure of knowledge lying buried in his mind. Modern psychologists point out that in every individual there are certain dormant powers which have to be developed through education. The teacher's real job is to see that there should be no impediments in the child's path to self-development. He is like a gardener who prepares grounds for the growth of his plants, protects them and nourishes them so that the plant may grow properly. Similarly, the teacher takes care of the child, provides him a suitable environment and looks after his proper growth. Thus, though education comes from within the teacher is an indispensable part of it. While the motivation comes from within the teacher activates it. He encourages the child to use his mind, body and sense organs. Thus, Vivekananda presented a positive system of education. He wrote, "Education is the manifestation of the perfection already in man. I look upon religion as the innermost core of education."22 In his philosophy of education Vivekananda synthesized spiritual and material values. He felt that India needed a system of education based on the ancient Vedanta but at the same time worthy of making individual earn his livelihood so that the country may progress. He maintained that no profession is bad provided it is done with a sense of service and self-sacrifice. It is the absence of this dignity of labour which is responsible for the degraded condition of this country. Long before M.K. Gandhi, Vivekananda pleaded for the worship of God in poor. He said, "So long as the millions lie in hunger and ignorance, I hold every man a traitor who having been educated at their expense pays not the least heed to them."23 He asked young men to change the situation. He pleaded for universal, compulsory and free education. He asked the educator to reach every village and every hutment so that the country may awake from ignorance. References 1. Swami Vivekananda on India and Her Problems,p. 48. 2. Ibid., p. 51. 3. Vivekananda, Complete Works (1984), Vol. I, p. 28. 4. Ibid., Vol. II, p. 324. 5. Ibid., Vol. III, p. 146. 292 6. Ibid., p. 20. 7. Centenary Volume, p. 474. 8. Vivekananda, Complete Works, Vol. I, p. 25.

9. Swami Vivekananda on India and Her Problems,p. 57. 10. Ibid., p. 58. 11. Vivekananda, Complete Works, Vol. III, p. 242. 12. Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 358. 13. Swami Vivekananda on India and Her Problems,p. 71. 14. Vivekananda, Complete Works, Vol I, p. 303. 15. Ibid., p. 232. 16. Ibid., Vol. III, p. 242. 17. Ibid., Vol. I, p. 129. 18. Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 415. 19. Swami Vivekananda on India and Her Problems, p. 100. 20. Ibid., p. 101. 21. Vivekananda, Complete Works, Vol. I, p. 321. 22. Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 358. 23. Ibid., Vol. V, p. 45. Questions for Exercise 1. How has Vivekananda criticised prevalent system of education? Discuss aims of education according to him. 2. Discuss the means, types and medium of education according to Vivekananda. 3. Discuss teaching methods in various types of education according to Vivekananda. 293

18 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

On the occasion of the Second Round Table Conference, when Gandhi went to Europe and was staying with Pierre Ceresole, the originator of the International Voluntary Service for Peace in Switzerland, he was asked by Pierre, "Tell us what qualities you think a leader for this age would need". Gandhi replied, "Realisation of God every minute of the twenty-four hours". Man's ultimate end, according to Gandhi, is God realisation. His assumptions with regard to God are based upon the philosophy of the Upanisads and Gita. God is bliss, God is truth, light, love and fearlessness. He, too, obeys his own laws. God is not an individual. He is the soul of the beings and the universe. Man is free only to choose his actions, their results are independent of him. Gandhi's thoughts about the freedom of man are grounded in the Gita. Soul, though not God, is inseparable from it. Gandhi was a staunch supporter of world brotherhood as a consequence of his belief in one God present in all living beings. Going a step further, by believing in the existence of God in every living being, Gandhi's theory of nonviolence has become extremely comprehensive. His theories of public service and nonviolence are based on religious philosophy. In his words, "My duty is service of God and therefore service of humanity."

Impressions of Bhagwad Gita

Towards the end of his second year in England Gandhi came across two Theosophist-brothers. They talked to him about Bhagwad Gita. They were reading Sir Edwin Arnold's translation 294 The Song Celestialand they invited him to read the original with them. Gandhi was constrained to tell them that he had not read the Gita, but he read the Gita with them. The verses in the second chapter:

If one Ponders on objects of the sense, there springs Attraction; from attraction grows desire, Desire flames to fierce passion, passion breeds Recklessness; then the memoryall betrayed Lets noble purpose go, and saps the mind, Till purpose, mind, and man are all undone. made a deep impression on his mind. To quote his own words, "The book struck me as one of priceless worth. The impression has ever since been growing on me with the result that I regard it today as the book par excellence for the knowledge of Truth. It has afforded me invaluable help in my moments of gloom."

Other Religious Influences

The brothers also recommended The Light of Asia by Sir Edwin Arnold, and he read it with even greater zeal than he did the Bhagvadgita. They also took him on one occasion to the Blavatsky Lodge and introduced him to Madam Blavatsky and Mrs. Annie Besant. At the brothers' instance Gandhi read Madame Blavatsky's Key to Theosophy. This book stimulated in him the desire to read books on Hinduism. About the same time he met a good Christian from Manchester in a vegetarian boarding house. He talked to him about Christianity. Gandhi began reading Bible, but he could not possibly read through the Old Testament. He read Book of Genesis. But the New Testament produced a deep impression upon him especially the Sermon on the Mount which went straight to his heart. He compared it with the Gita. The verses, "But I say unto you, that ye resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also. And if any man take away thy coat let him have thy cloak too," delighted him beyond measure and put him in mind of Shamal Bhatt's 'For a bowl of water, give a goodly meal' etc. His young mind 295 tried to unify the teaching of the Gita, The Light of Asia and the Sermon on the Mount. That renunciation was the highest form of religion appealed to him greatly. This reading whetted his appetite for studying the lives of other religious teachers. A friend recommended Carlyle's Heroes and Hero-Worship. He read the chapter on the Hero as a prophet and learnt of the Prophet's greatness and bravery and austere living. In his Autobiography Gandhi has narrated how God saved him on several occasions. He realised that, "A knowledge of religion, as distinguished from experience, seems but chaff in such moment of trial." About the period of his stay in England Gandhi writes, "I did not then know the essence of religion or of God, and how He works in us. Only vaguely I understood that God had saved me on that occasion. On all occasions of trial He has saved me. I know that the phrase 'God saved me' has a deeper meaning for me today, and still I feel that I have not yet grasped its entire meaning. Only richer experience can help me to a fuller understanding. But in all my trials-of a spiritual nature, as a lawyer, in conducting institutions, and in politicsI can say that God saved me." Underlining the value of faith in God Gandhi writes "When every hope is gone, when helpers fail and comforts Wee, I find that help arrives somehow, from I know not where. Supplication, worship, prayer are no superstitions; they are acts more real than the acts of eating, drinking, sitting or walking. It is no exaggeration' to say that they alone are real, all else is unreal." About the value of prayer and worship he writes, "Such worship or prayer is no flight of eloquence; it is no liphomage. It springs from the heart. If, therefore, we achieve that purity of the heart when it is 'emptied of all but love', if we keep all the chords in proper tune, they 'trembling pass in music out of sight' Prayer needs no speech. It is in itself independent of any sensuous effort. I have not the slightest doubt that prayer is an unfailing means of cleansing the heart of passions. But it must be combined with the utmost humility."

AIMS AND IDEALS OF EDUCATION

1. Drawing Out the Basic. Elaborating his views about the aims of education, Gandhiji has said, "By education I mean an

296 all-round drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind and spirit. Literacy is not the end of education, not even the beginning. It is one of the means whereby man and woman can be educated. Literacy in itself is no education."1 2. Livelihood. Gandhiji was highly critical of the educational policy implemented by British government. In his opinion the aim of education is self dependence, and education must enable every girl and boy to develop the ability to depend upon himself or herself. The ability to earn one's livelihood is part of this independence or self-reliance. As he himself puts it. "This education ought to be for them a kind of insurance against unemployment".2 That is why Gandhiji placed so much emphasis upon industrial training in his own plan for basic education which was intended to acquaint the child with real life. He wanted the educator to become the means of producing ideal citizens. Seeing the endemic poverty of the nation, he suggested that education in India should be based on industrial training and the development of manual skill and handicrafts. 3. Character Formation. Like Rousseau Gandhiji also believes in paidocentric education, that is, education which centres around the child. He impressed upon people that the cultural aspect of education was far more important than its literary aspect, because it is through the cultural aspect that the child learns conduct and ideas and develops this character and ideals. As he puts it, "True education is that which draws out and stimulates the spiritual, intellectual and physical faculties of the children". Hence, the aim of education is the complete development of the child, its physical, mental and spiritual aspects. For him character formation was more important than literacy. He was once asked what his education would aim at after the country won its independence. He answered without hesitation that it would be designed to develop the character of the people. And, in character, Gandhiji addressed the importance of thought, word and deed, non-violence and truth. He, like many before him, felt that abstinence was an essential weapon for the educand. He was a supporter of the ancient Indian ideals of education. He in fact felt that the words educand and Brahmachari should be treated as synonymous. And for him, abstinence meant a persistent effort to reach God in the least possible time. 297 4. Complete Development. It is clear from the foregoing account that Gandhiji viewed education from a comprehensive or broad-minded standpoint. Any education that develops only one aspect of a child's personality can be dubbed narrow and one-sided. And it is just such an education which has been the bane of our culture. Education must aim at developing the child's personality instead of limiting itself to providing the child with bits and pieces of information. Not only must education guide the individual towards self-knowledge, it must instil in him all those qualities which go to the making up of a good and responsible citizen. Gandhiji has made a distinction between the immediate and long-term aims of education, suggesting that such aims as getting certificates of merits or degrees or obtaining education for livelihood should be considered the immediate aims. But the final aim of education can only be self-knowledge. Thus, Gandhiji states that education must make the individual to live and earn his daily bread, to be the means of his sustenance. As he himself puts it, "I value individual freedom, but you must not forget that man is essentially a social being. He has risen to his present status by learning to adjust his individuality to the requirements of social progress". His faith in religion is at the base of his liberal attitude to education. Realization of good is, in fact, the end or the goal of all human activity and service to humanity its finest means. It is only natural that such a faith should lead him to stress the social objectives of education more than the personal or individual ones. 5. Synthesis of individual and social aims. In this way Gandhiji synthesized the individual and social aims of education. He did not restrict education to the achievement of any one single aim. He looked to the process of education from various perspectives. Therefore, he assigned different aims to education at different times, so much so that sometimes they looked mutually contradictory and even self-defeating. A closer examination of all these statements of Gandhiji, however, shows that these aims of education are complementary to each other. 6. All-round growth. In the history of education different educationists have defined the ideals of education in different ways. Most educationists have, however, felt that the aim of education is integral development of human personality. Such 298 was also the ideal of education formulated by Gandhiji. Like Vivekananda, Gandhiji maintained that character formation and manual skill were equally important. On the one hand, he wanted the child to earn while he learns. On the other hand, he also wanted the child to develop his character. According to him the criterion of an individual's cultural development is not the width of his knowledge but his inner growth. Culture according to him is not an adjunct of the mind but a characteristic of the soul. The aim of education is the development of such a culture. Gandhiji's plan of education laid stress upon all types of educationphysical, mental, moral, aesthetic and religious. 7. Self-Reliance. As has been already pointed out, Gandhiji aimed at self-reliance through education. Therefore, he

visualised a craft-centred education. Explaining his scheme of Basic Education as an insurance against unemployment in India, Gandhiji said, "The child at the age of 14, that is, after finishing a seven-year course should be discharged as an earning unit. Even now the poor people's children automatically lend a helping hand to their parentsthe feeling at the back of their minds being what shall they give men to eat, if I do not work with them? That is an education in itself. Even so the State takes charge of the child at seven and returns it to the family as an earning unit. You impart education and simultaneously cut at the root of unemployment".5 Recommending this scheme of education in the report on national education the Kothari Commission declared, "We recommend that work-experience should be introduced as an integral part of all education general or vocational. We define work-experience as participation in productive work in school, in the home, in a workshop, on a farm, in a factory or in any other productive situation."6 8. Democratic Ideals. Like his contemporary Indian educationists, Gandhiji aimed at the evolution of democratic ideals through education. His basic plan of education amply demonstrates this fact. He aimed at an education for ideal citizenship. Education, according to him, should make children ideal members of a democratic society. The school, according to Gandhiji, is itself a small democratic society in which such democratic values are imparted to the children as wide outlook, tolerance and good neighbourhood. In the miniature society of the school the child learns the virtues of sympathy, service, 299 love, brotherhood, equality and liberty, etc These qualities are transferred from one generation to another through education. The welfare of the individual and the Nation are complementary to each other. Therefore, if the country has to progress, the future generation should develop the virtues of democratic citizenship. As Gandhiji said, "A nation cannot advance without the units of which it is composed advancing, and conversely, no individual can advance without the nation of which it is a part also advancing".7 9. Moral and Spiritual. All knowledge is useless without a good character in his speeches to the students at various institutions. Gandhiji laid emphasis upon the moral and spiritual aims of education. Emphasising the moral aim of education, Gandhiji said, "The end of all knowledge must be the building up of character".8 Character building is the moral ideal of education. According to Gandhiji that is most important in a man's life. His ideals in this connection were as much in agreement with the ancient Indian thinkers as with contemporary Western thinkers like Emerson, Ruskin, etc., Gandhiji very much admired the Indian Gurukula system of education and the ideal of Brahmacharya. According to ancient Indian ideal, education aims at liberation. This was also the aim of Gujarat Vidyapeeth established by Gandhiji in 1929. Gandhiji, however, defined liberation in a very wide sense, including political, social and economic liberation of all the members of society. Real freedom is spiritual freedom. To attain this freedom is the task of education. Again, education equally aim at intellectual, economic and political uplift, though its chief aim is moral and spiritual. Condemning the widespread indiscipline among the students Gandhiji asked them to follow the ideal of Brahmacharya. 10. God-Realization. According to Indian philosophy the ultimate end of all knowledge is God-realization. This Godrealization again, is the meaning of self-realization which has been considered to be the ideal of education by most of the educational philosophers in East and West. Agreeing with this line of thinking Gandhiji maintained that a student should live a life of Sanyasi. God-realization and self-realization are mutually complementary, the one leads to the other. This spiritual ideal of education does not negate mundane or immediate ideals but fulfils them. In the words of Gandhiji, 300 "Self-realization is in itself an all comprehensive ideal".9 This ideal includes other ideals of education. With Sri Aurobindo, Gandhiji believed that the ultimate aim of education is spiritual. He also agreed that spiritual growth includes physical and mental, individual and social development. Thus, he synthesized different ideals of education. In this scheme of Basic Education, he planned for an education suitable to present-day Indian society. He pondered over the difficulties of the present-day Indian society and tried to find out their solution through education. His educational philosophy is based upon ancient Indian idealism. While he did not restrict the scope of physical education his attention was mainly directed towards spiritual growth.

EDUCATION FOR SARVODAYA

Gandhiji was very much aware of the needs of the country and considered Basic Education as the only type of education which may lead to success. His chief aim in planning for education in India was to fulfill the needs of the country. India is a country of villages. Most of the villagers in India cannot afford to pay for their children's education. In addition to it they require their children's assistance in their occupations. Therefore, Gandhiji planned for Basic Education which may not be a burden upon the parents and through which the children may be able to earn to meet the expenses of education themselves, laid stress upon the importance of dignity of labour and manual skill. He was convinced that an education which prepares the young men for white-collar jobs can hardly be suitable for an agriculture community. It is hence that

he so much emphasized the learning of craft in his plan of Basic Education. In spite of all this idealism Gandhiji's approach everywhere was pragmatic. He was an experimenter in every field of life. Before devising his plan of Basic Education he experimented upon its different aspects. For him all human truths were relative. God was the only absolute. Therefore he tested everything before suggesting it for the education of the child. He postulated that the child should himself gather knowledge from the environment and put it in actual use in life. Like the pragmatists and instrumentalists Gandhiji stressed 301 the importance of interest and activity and the need for variety in the subjects taught to the educand. Sarvodaya Society The social philosophy of M.K. Gandhi may be termed as 'Sarvodaya'. This was the foundation of his philosophy of education. Sarvodaya aims at all-round development of all, without distinction of caste, creed, sex and nationality. Gandhiji wanted to establish a welfare state in India which he called 'Ram Rajya'. The ideal of Sarvodaya does not aim at the maximum number but maximum good of all without exceptions. While Marx aimed at the welfare of the proletariat, Gandhiji aimed even at the welfare of the capitalist. According to Vinoba Bhave the important characteristics of the Sarvodaya Society are the abolition of all monopoly, emphasis on social welfare and equal, moral, social and economic importance and honest work. There is no place for any type of exploitation in Sarvodaya Society. No one may be forced to do a certain type of work, so much so that even the wealth of the capitalist cannot be forcibly snatched away. Centralization, according to Gandhiji, is the chief source of social evils. Sarvodaya requires decentralization. Gandhiji aimed at political, economic, social and all other types of decentralization. In the political field decentralization requires establishment of village panchayats. In the economic field it requires that wealth and money should not be allowed to be concentrated in few hands but should be distributed among all the people. Social decentralization means the abolition of all types of untouchability and social distinctions. Nai Talim In order to achieve the abovementioned aims of Sarvodaya in India, Gandhiji presented his plan of Basic Education. He called it Nai Talim (New education) because it sought to build up a new society in the country. He realized that what the country needs today is not so much higher education as the education of the masses. Therefore, he did not lay so much emphasis upon higher education. The Basic Education sought to fulfil the needs of the educands in a Sarvodaya Society. It is hence that Gandhiji planned for 302 craft centred education with mother tongue as the medium. Literacy, according to him, is not an end but only a mean of education. Education ultimately aims at the development of both mind and body and the capacity of earning one's livelihood. The syllabi for the new education were framed in such a way so as to eliminate narrow nationalism and emphasize the ideal of Sarvodaya. World history was taught along with Indian history. Similarly, the syllabus included the study of fundamental universal ethics. The cost of education was brought down by compulsory manual labour and education was tried to be made self-sufficient as far as possible. Social Revolution Pointing out the value of basic education for bringing about a silent social revolution in the country, Gandhiji said, "It will provide a healthy and moral basis of relationship between the city and the village and thus go a long way towards eradicating some of the worst evils of the present social insecurity and poisoned relationship between the classes. It will check the progressive decay of our villages and lay the foundation of a just social order in which there is no unnatural division between the 'haves' and the 'have-nots' and everybody is assured of a living wage and the right of freedom. And all this would be accomplished without the horrors of a bloody class war or a social capital expenditure such as would be involved in the mechanisation of a vast continent like India. Nor would it entail a helpless dependence on foreign imported machinery or technical skill. Lastly, by obviating the necessity for highly specialized talent, it would place the destiny of the masses, as it were in their own hands.10 Non-violent Education As has been already pointed out, Gandhiji emphasized the principle of non-violence in every field of life. He considered

non-violence as the characteristic human quality. He said, "Nonviolence is the law of our species as violence is the law of brutes".11 Even truth was subordinate to non-violence. Gandhiji said, "One had better not speak it (truth) if one cannot do so 303 in a gentle way".12 To those who doubted the value of nonviolence to be the principle of human social organization, Gandhiji pointed out, "The fact that there are so many men still alive in the world shows that it is based not on force of arms but on the force of truth and love".13 This principle of non-violence, Gandhiji used in every aspect of education, so much so that his theory of education may be called non-violent education. Explaining his idea he wrote, "If India has resolved to eschew violence, this system of education becomes an integral part of the discipline she has to go through. We are told that English spend millions on education. America also does so. But we forget that all wealth is obtained through exploitation. They have reduced the art of exploitation to a science, and might well give their boys the costly education they do. We cannot, will not think in terms of exploitation, and we have no alternative but this plan of education which is based on non-violence."14 Thus, according to Gandhiji, India can play her role in the community of nations only by adopting the gospel of nonviolence. To quote Gandhiji again, "Good brought about through force destroyed individuality. Only when the change was effected through the persuasive power of non-violent non-co-operation (i.e., love), could the foundation of individuality be preserved and real, abiding progress be assured for the world."15

WARDHA SCHEME
This principle of non-violence was the basis of Gandhiji's scheme of Basic Education. Through this scheme he wanted to develop those qualities in future citizens of India which he considered necessary for building a non-violent society. His system of education wanted to root out exploitation and centralization in society and create a non-violent social order. In 1937, Gandhiji evolved a scheme popularly known as the Wardha Scheme of Basic National Education. This Wardha scheme was based on same principles of education which were listed by Gandhiji in a paper in 1932 in Yervada Jail. These postulates were as follows: 1. Boys and girls should be taught together. 2. Their time should be mostly spent on manual work under the supervision of the teacher. Manual work should be considered as part of education. 304 3. Work should be entrusted to each boy and girl after ascertaining his or her inclinations. 4. The child should know the why and the wherefore of every process. 5. General knowledge should be imparted to the child as soon as it is able to understand things. This knowledge should precede literary education. 6. The hand of the child be trained to draw geometrical figures before he learns to write, that is good handwriting should be taught from the beginning. 7. The child should learn to read before he is able to write, i.e., he should learn to recognize letters as if they were pictures and then draw their figures. 8. By this method and by word of mouth, the child should acquire much knowledge before he is eight years old. 9. Children should not be compelled to learn anything. 10. The child should be interested in whatever he learns. 11. The process of teaching should be conducted in a play-way, for play is an essential part of education. 12. All education should be imparted through the mother-tongue of the child. 13. Every Indian child should learn Hindi-Urdu, i.e., Hindustani as a national language before his literary training commences. 14. The second stage of the child's education begins when he is eleven and lasts upto sixteen. 15. Manual labour has a place in education during this period also. The time for literary training should be increased

according to need. 16. The child should learn some vocation as preparation for his future life. 17. He should acquire a general knowledge of World History, Geography, Botany, Astronomy, Arithmetic, Geometry and Algebra. 18. A boy or a girl of sixteen years should know sewing and cooking. 19. In the third stage which begins at sixteen and ends at twenty-five, a young man or woman should receive education according to his or her desires and circumstances. 305 20. The education commencing at the age of nine should be self-supporting. The student, while he is learning, should be engaged in such a vocation that its produce may meet the expense of the school. 21. Production should, no doubt, begin right from the start. But it may not be enough to meet the expenses during the initial years. 22. Teachers cannot possibly have big salaries, but they must get enough to maintain themselves. They should be animated by a spirit of service. They must have a good character. 23. Huge and costly buildings are not necessary for education. 24. English can and should have a place in the syllabus only as a language. Just as Hindi is our lingua franca English is a language of international intercourse and commerce.16 On 23rd October, 1937, a conference was organized at Wardha to finalise the basic system of education. This conference resolved that the children should be provided free education for seven years. Mother tongue should be the medium of education. Every educand must be taught some basic craft. The expenses of education should be met by the sale of the production in the school. In order to implement these recommendations a committee was formed under the Chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain. This committee highlighted the basic principles, aims and organization of Basic Education in its first report on 2nd December, 1937. In its second report in 1940 this committee reviewed the curriculum of Basic Education. Its recommendations were accepted by Indian National Congress in its Session at Haripura. After Zakir Hussain Committee, another committee was formed under the Chairmanship of B.G. Kher to review basic education. This committee connected it to Sergeant scheme. In the final form, the basic principles of Gandhiji's scheme of primary education were: compulsory free education, education through craft, education' through mother tongue, self-reliance, education connected with the life of the educand and finally inculcation of the ideals of democratic citizenship. A booklet was published 306 by Government of India to popularise Gandhian system of education entitled Understanding of Basic Education. This booklet thus summarised the scheme of basic education, "Activities involving personal and community cleanliness are the foremost in a basic school. Education for the young is not stuffing impractical idea into the minds of children. It is essentially training them in good habits, the daily experiences that every child has to undergo as regular morning evacuation, cleaning the teeth, nose and eyes, bathing, physical exercise, washing clothes and other daily activities can be exploited for teaching as well as the inculcation of good habits."

MEANS OF EDUCATION
The scheme of Basic Education clarifies the means of education according to M.K. Gandhi. The most important means of education in basic scheme was craft. About this means of education Gandhiji said, "The principal idea is to impart the whole education of body and the mind and the soul through the handicraft that is taught to the children. You have to draw out all that is in the child through teaching all the processes of the handicraft, and all your lessons in History, Geography, Arithmetic will be related to the craft." Thus some handicraft was necessary to be the centre of the child's education. Besides, other crafts recommended were: weaving, carpentary, agriculture, gardening and other handicrafts and rural crafts. It was pointed out that the following criteria should be followed in deciding about the basic craft: 1. Craft fulfilling individual and social means. 2. Craft based upon local requirements.

3. Craft in tune with the local conditions. 4. Craft favourable to the interest, aptitude and ability of the child. 5. Less expensive and simple craft. 6. Craft leading to all-round development of personality. At the back of craft as the means of education were the psychological principles of education through activity as is visible in the Western playway of education, project methods, etc. Besides, this means of education was economically useful 307 as the basic craft could be utilized by the educand to earn his livelihood. It was also supposed to create a tendency for physical labour in the educands. According to Gandhiji, "Labour is the source of all wealth. All higher castes live on the exploitation of the lower castes. Wealth is inevitably reduced and large scale poverty occasioned." Thus, craft was means to inculcate the lesson of physical labour. Another important element in the means of education in basic scheme was synthesis between the actual problems of life and education, between different subjects of the curriculum and finally between theoretical education and practical ability. In order to implement the principle of synthesis in basic education it was insisted that the teachers and educands should together formulate yearly projects divided into quarterly, monthly, weekly and daily projects. After this planning, the means such as raw-material and necessary tools should be gathered. Efforts should be made to fulfil the schedule of the projects. Each project must be evaluated monthly or quarterly as the case may be. In the end the teachers should note their experiences in order to profit by them in future.

TYPES OF EDUCATION
Our discussion of the Gandhian scheme of education so far shows his emphasis upon primary education and the education of the child. He, however, equally devoted his thought to the adult education also known as social education. He realized that in order to bring about a Sarvodaya Society in India, the views of the adults should be changed. Therefore, he made adult education programme a vital element of his political movement. Thousands of volunteers were trained in adult education at Sabarmati and Sevagram Ashrams. They spread in thousands of villages and hundreds of urban centres to educate the adult males and females in night schools. The help of thousands of regular teachers in so many educational institutions was also utilized for this purpose. An important characteristic of Gandhian philosophy is the aim of Sarvodaya. Therefore, he planned different types of education for the country. Besides basic education and social 308 education he thought seriously over rural education and education for women.

MEDIUM OF EDUCATION
A staunch votary of mother tongue as the medium of education, Gandhiji said, "I must cling to my mother tongue as to my mother's breast, in spite of its shortcomings. It alone can give me the life giving milk." He was vehemently against English as the medium of education in this country. He said, "To inflict English on children is to stunt their natural growth and perhaps to kill originality in them". He pointed out to many modern Western countries including U.S.S.R. who have made tremendous scientific progress without any help of English language. He maintained that our insistence on English is a remnant of our long slavery to the British. He was never prepared to accept this submission to foreign yoke. He maintained that the national language alone can be the vehicle of creating a common culture and rich literature. He was very much conversant with the language problem in India. He wanted to keep the country united particularly from the point of view of language. Therefore, he devised a common national language Hindustani which may be written in both Devanagari and Persian script. According to him there is no difference in Hindi and Urdu.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GANDHIAN EDUCATIONAL PLAN

M.K. Gandhi viewed the process of education from many different angles and saw that it must achieve something more than one objective. That is why he ascribed to it many different aims. At times a superficial study of these aims may give the impression that they are mutually contradictory or self-defeating, but a deeper examination will show that they complement each other. Even a cursory glancing through the history of education will show abundantly that different

educationists have ascribed different aims to education. For some it is training for livelihood and sustenance, for others it is self-realization, for yet others the individual aims take precedence over the social objectives of education while some educationists favour the social aspects. Most educationists, however, have felt that education must strive 309 for human perfection. Cultural development is another aim that has been ascribed to education. Idealists emphasize the idealistic aspect more than the realistic while naturalists and realists stress the realistic forms of education. Gandhiji's philosophy of education aims at harmonizing all these contradictory viewpoints. His Wardha plan of education laid great stress upon training in self-reliance, because he felt that the highest criterion of an educational system was its ability in putting an end to unemployment. For him both character formation and manual skill were important. Education should also be accompanied by earning money, and that is why he felt that the educator's salary should be paid out of goods produced by the educands. He believed that character building was as important as, if not more than, collecting information. The criterion of an individual's cultural development is not the extent of his knowledge but the qualities he manifests. In the cultural aspect of education, he placed emphasis upon the behaviour and thinking of educands. Culture, according to him, is not an adjunct of the mind but a quality of the soul, and cultural development an important objective of education. Education is the means to the child's physical, mental and spiritual development. His plan of education gave importance to physical, moral, aesthetic and religious education along with the teaching of mathematics and literary skills. In addition to this he stressed that handwriting should be neat and clean. Gandhiji's educational plan exhibits all the major qualities found in the Western educational patterns. For this reason, the following points must be kept in mind in attempting an evaluation of his plan: 1. Naturalism. Gandhiji's educational philosophy gives due recognition to biological naturalism because it lays stress on man's complete development. Like Rousseau, Gandhiji revolted against the existing pattern of education and suggested the establishment of a new system of education. He laid more stress on the child's environment than on books. He wanted to give an indigenous touch to education, and make it capable of achieving independence and naturalness. But, at the same time, he did not neglect discipline. His education is centred around the child, not around textbooks. 2. Idealism. On the one hand one finds a strong element of 310 realism in Gandhiji's philosophy of education, but on the other it also exhibits some signs of idealism. There is no denying that he was always an idealist because he always was a religious individual. He felt that the aim of man's life was realization of God, and that is why he stressed the importance of moral and religious education. He preached that one must indulge in service, sacrifice and contemplation in order to achieve self-realization. Gandhiji's educational philosophy shows all the finest elements of idealism, and while he does not restrict the scope of physical education, his attention is mainly given to spiritual training. He wanted to use education as a means of developing a harmonized personality in the child. Like Pestalozzi, he wanted to make the child the centre of educational progress and like Herbart he felt that the aim of education was building up a moral character. He attached the greatest importance to the child's interests and inclinations. He agreed with Froebel that the child, at birth, is full of many undeveloped abilities and it is for education to develop these. 3. Pragmatism. Despite his inclination towards idealism, Gandhiji always attended to the practical and pragmatic aspect of education. That is why he entitled his autobiography My Experiments with Truth. He was an experimenter in every sphere of his life. Before arriving at a settled opinion about education he preferred to experiment in all its spheres. He accepted no truth as absolute. For him God was the only absolute entity. In keeping with the pragmatic tradition, he also believed that the child should gather for himself all the knowledge from the environment and select from it that which he could put to use in later life. The pattern of education suggested by him compares in many respects with that suggested by the pragmatists. Both stress the importance of interests and activity, and the need for variety in the subjects taught to the educand. Like Dewey, Gandhiji also felt that the child should learn through actual work. Besides, he also agreed with Dewey that education should seek to establish the democratic values in life. In short, he wanted to relate education to life as far as possible. 4. Educational system is based on psychological facts. Although Gandhiji was not a professional psychologist, he had gained remarkable insight into human psychology through his acute observation of life around him. By virtue of this qualification, 311 he could attempt to make his educational system completely psychological. He, too, objected to the attempts at stuffing the child's mind with too many facts. He felt that education should aim at arousing curiosity and providing motivation to the child so that he should himself achieve his own physical, mental and spiritual development. He insisted on the

importance of acquiring manual skills, but he felt that this training should be supplemented by knowledge of other objects so as to achieve physical, mental, moral, psychological and spiritual development also. He was very much in favour of the educands' indulging in games and sports and gymnastic activity, because he felt that physical development is an essential prerequisite of mental development. In his own Ashram children were given opportunities of physical development by participating in the work done there. He also felt that education should not be allowed to become mechanical but should be acquired through play. 5. Importance of impressions and actions. Gandhiji's opinion that impressions of early childhood have a tremendous impact on later development is in agreement with the modern psychologists. He was aware that the impressions once imprinted on the child's flexible mind are difficult to wipe out later on. In his infancy and childhood, the child learns a very great deal by imitating his parents, and for this reason it is desirable that the impressions made on his mind should be beneficial. Psychologists also agree with Gandhiji's theory that there should be learning through doing. Most educationists agree that learning through doing helps in the complete development of the child and that this also enables him to earn his livelihood later on in life. 6. Sociological importance of Gandhiji's plan. Gandhiji's plan of education is not only psychologically valid but it has sociological significance also. While thinking of his plan of education, Gandhiji was not concerned with one or two individuals, but with the vast multitude of illiterate men and women who make up the country's population. He wanted to use education as the medium of establishing in the country a non-violent social system from which exploitation of all kinds would be absent. He was a vigorous opponent of exploitation and he realized that it could not be eradicated without 312 education. He advocated discipline as an essential part of freedom and liberty. He wanted that education should help the individual to become an ideal democratic citizen. He opposed the teaching of all those subjects in schools which had no real link with life. He stressed the importance of social service, labour, agriculture, handicrafts, hygiene, collective living, etc., and pointed out that they were more important than any curriculum. Sarvodaya was as much his guiding principle in education as it was in the field of politics. This concept of a Sarvodaya Society was based on traditional Indian and modern democratic values. From the economic standpoint also, Gandhiji's educational plan appears to be appropriate for India's economy. Gandhiji felt that the principles of truth and non-violence could be as effective in the field of economic activity as they were elsewhere. He opposed exploitation in all its various forms and pointed out that exploitation had its origin in the individual's desire to get his work done by someone else instead of doing it himself and the desire to take charge of fruits of another's labour and effort. Gandhiji advised that the only way of putting an end to exploitation is for every individual to do his own work. He suggested that the educand should himself do his own work and all work connected with the school. He should learn to respect labour and should not feel that manual labour is in any way worse than or inferior to mental labour. India being an agricultural country in which the villagers have small pieces of land to cultivate, it would be better if these people developed various kinds of cottage industries. Only then can the villagers become self-sufficient. 7. Education conforming to the country's needs. Whatever the arguments one may advance against Gandhiji's plan of education, one cannot question his sincerity, because it is only too obvious that in presenting it, he was perfectly aware of the needs of his countrymen. He considered this the only kind of education which can be successful in this country. Most villagers cannot afford to pay for their children's education and in addition most of them require their children's assistance in their own occupations. Hence, their children should receive an education which can enable them to share their parent's burden. And this is possible only when the system of education 313 lays stress on the importance of labour and manual skills. There can be no arguing the fact that the existing pattern of education in the country only prepares the young men for white-collar jobs. But this type of education can hardly suit the needs of an agricultural community. In the second place, Gandhiji wanted the educand to be engaged in gainful work the product of which could be sold to pay for his education. This may appear to impractical on the face of it, but it is inspired by the idea that the child's education should not add to the parents' burden. The only other alternative is free education, and this is hindered by the psychological fact that anything gained free has little value for the recipient. Besides, free education does harm to the educand's character. Gandhiji favoured the idea that education as well as the educand should be independent of everyone else. There are definitely many difficulties in translating this plan into action. But on the theoretical level, one cannot question the justice of his thesis that education should be independent and self-reliant. There is no doubt that it is difficult to turn manual skill and physical labour into a game, and that it almost necessarily becomes monotonous and mechanical, but this does not prove that the idea itself is wrong. Gandhiji considered not only what the child studied but also what he would do later on. The existing problem of educated unemployed has been created only because the present system of education has no aim and purpose. Besides, Gandhiji wanted that the individual should

become independent during his education, or at least that he should learn some skill which would enable him to find employment immediately after completing his education. 8. Teaching Methods. The teaching methods in the Gandhian scheme of education can be deduced from his Basic Education. As has been pointed out, Gandhiji pleaded that the child should be educated through a basic craft. He should first be tought a basic craft from among the different types of it and other subjects such as Arithmetic, Language, Geography, History and Civics should be taught in association with the basic craft. In his educational institutions children were busy in craft activities for hours. There was no provision of rigid time-table or ringing of the bell after every hour. There was no compulsion to work in the classroom. The child was left free to select a craft according 314 to his natural interests, abilities and according to his learning. This method of teaching has been justified by Western educationists Rousseau insisted upon the value of total freedom in teaching methods. Herbart admitted the value of synthesis in education. As has already been pointed out, an important characteristic of the teaching method in Gandhian scheme was synthesis. Projects were drawn for the year, quarter, month, week and the day. They were carried on according to schedule and reviewed periodically. The teacher profited by this review. He gathered experiences to make better projects and implement them more successfully. This method was natural, saved time, was interesting, synthesized knowledge and action, helped in transfer of learning and led to the development of high moral character. It was based upon the educational principle of proceeding from gross to subtle. It required experienced and able teachers who could synthesize the educand and his environment and the different parts of the curriculum. They should be trained for this purpose. This teaching method of Gandhiji's scheme of education has its advantages as well as disadvantages. It was pointed out that it converted schools into mini-factories and prolonged hours of engagement in crafts hardly left any leisure to the children for recreation and extra-curricular activities. Gandhi thought that the sale proceeds of the products of basic crafts in an educational institution will be sufficient to meet the salaries of the teachers. This, however, could never be realized. It was based on false expectations. However, nobody can doubt Gandhiji's intensive insight into the teaching methods of the children and adults so much clear in his plans of basic education and adult education.

EDUCATION FOR DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF SOCIETY

We have already pointed out Gandhian scheme for education of different sections of society according to age. He planned equally well for the education of children, as well as the adults. On the basis of sex, society is divided into two broad sections, male and female. Gandhiji planned for the education of both these sections. Regeneration of Indian women was a part of 315 the political movement of M.K. Gandhi. Therefore, he had to speak and write about the education of women of India. In the basic scheme of education and in his plan of adult education Gandhiji did not make any distinction on the basis of sex. He recommended same primary and adult education both for the male and female. He was, however, not very much in favour of co-education. He allowed co-education upto the age of 8 years and then after 16 years of age. He, however, pleaded for separate educational institutions for boys and girls in adolescent age. The selection of co-educational or otherwise institutions was finally left to the discretion of the parents. Gandhiji maintained that family alone can create suitable tendencies for the success of co-education in educational institutions. He strongly supported all types of education both for male and female. Society is again divided into progressive and backward sections both socially as well economically. As a champion of the uplift of backward classes in the country Gandhiji devised elaborate plans for the education of scheduled tribes and scheduled castes in India. These plans were mainly based upon local circumstances. They aimed at the unity of the nation without distinction of caste, language, religion, region or community, etc. Thus, Gandhiji planned for education suitable for all the sections of society. This was a necessary corrollary to his social ideal of Sarvodaya. His scheme of education not only aimed at character building but also social, political and economic uplift of all the sections of the society. References 1. Gandhi, M.K., Harijan, 31 July 1937. 2. Ibid.

3. Ibid. 4. Ibid., 27 May 1939. 5. Ibid., 18 September 1937. 6. Reporting the Kothari Commission, 1964-66. 7. Gandhi, M.K., Harijan, 26 March 1931. 8. Gandhi, M.K., To the Students, Ahmedabad, Navjivan Publishing House, 1949, p. 107. 9. Gandhi, M.K., The Evolution of Educational Theory, p. 146. 10. Gandhi, M.K., Harijan, 9 October 1937, p. 293. 316 11. Candhi, M.K., Young India, 22 August 1928. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid., 22 October 1928. 14. Gandhi, M.K., Harijan, 9 March 1947. 15. Gandhi, M.K., Educational Reconstruction, p. 66. 16. Patel, M.S., The Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, Ahmedabad, NPH (1952), pp. 98-99. Questions for Exercise 1. Critically discuss the Aims and Ideals of Gandhi's philosophy of education. 2. Write an essay on M.K. Gandhi's Education for Sarvodaya. 3. Discuss the characteristics of Gandhiji's educational plan. Give a critical evaluation. 317

19 Rabindranath Tagore
EDUCATION AS SELF-REALIZATION
Rabindranath Tagore believed that the aim of education is self-realization. He was a poet and a saint, who had, through his imagination and insight, realized the universal soul in himself and in nature. He believed that this realization was the goal of education. Because the universal soul is the root of our own soul, man's aim in life is to reach that universal soul of which all human beings are parts. The evolution of nature is consciously or unconsciously driving us towards this universal soul, a process which can be assisted by education. Even if it is not assisted the progress towards the universal soul will continue, but then individuals will be deprived of self-realization. It is thus evident that Rabindranath's educational philosophy is an adjunct of his general philosophy of life. In fact, he did not find any dichotomy between thought, life and philosophy. Besides, he believed that every human being is one who has potentialities of progressing towards the Super human being, the universal soul. His conception of the universal soul bore clear imprint of the Gita and Upanishadic philosophies. Although Rabindranath was clearly aware of the ideas of Western thinkers on education, he based his own ideas on the ancient Indian thought. Indian tradition believes that man's soul and the universal soul are one, and that self-realization amounts to realization of integration with God. Principles of Self-Education Self-education is based on self-realization, and the process of self-realization is as permanent as that of education. What is 318

most important in this is that the educand must have faith in himself and in the universal self, underlying his own individual soul. All those actions which provide a natural sense of satisfaction and contentment will promote the educative process. The contentment is the reaction of the soul, and hence not the same as mere satisfaction and pleasure. In following Rabindranath's concept of self-education, the educand had to follow the three following principles: 1. Independence. Rabindranath believed in complete freedom of every kind for the educandthe freedfom of intellect, decision, heart, knowledge, action and worship. But in order to attain this freedom the educand had to practise equanimity, harmony and balance. Through this practice the educand can learn to distinguish between the true and the false, the natural and the artifical, the relevant and the irrelevant, permanent and temporary, universal and individual, liberal and narrow, etc. Consequently, after making this distinction the educand can bring about a harmony and synthesis in the true, natural, relevant, permanent and real elements that he has acquired. Once the educand has acquired this ability he can turn to selfguidance, for which he is now competent. He can himself distinguish between the elements likely to impede his progress and those which may help him. Rabindranath interprets independence as normalcy or the fact of being natural. In other words, when intelligence, feeling and determination are naturally distributed, it can be said to be a state of freedom. This independence is not to be confused with the absence of control, because it is self-control, it implies acting according to one's own rational impulse. Once this level of freedom has been achieved, there is no danger of the individual straying from his path, because his senses, intelligence, emotional feelings and all other powers are directed by his ego. 2. Perfection. The second active principle underlying self-education is that of perfection. Perfection here implies that the educand must try to develop every aspect of his personality and all the abilities and powers with which he has been endowed by Nature. Hence, the aim of education is not merely passing examinations, acquiring degrees and certificates of merit and ultimately achieving economic self-sufficiency through pursuing some profession. The sole aim of education is 319 development of the child's personality which is possible only when every aspect of the personality is given equal importance, when no part of the personality is neglected and no part is exclusively stressed. 3. Universality. Development of the individual remains imperfect and incomplete until he acquires an abiding faith in the universal soul, a part of which exists inside himself. And for this, it is necessary to identify one's own soul with the universal soul. Thus, education exists not in simple development but it inheres in literally a rebirth in which the individual rises above the limitations of his individual personality and loses this individuality in the universality of the universal soul. One can search for this universal soul not only within oneself, but in every element of Nature and of one's environment. This search is assisted by knowledge, worship and action. Once this realization of the universal soul is achieved, it becomes easier to progress further. It is evident from the foregoing account that the aim of Rabindranath's pattern of education is independence, perfection and universality. In the process of education, the educator creates an environment in which the child's personality undergoes a free, perfect and unrestricted development.

AIMS OF EDUCATIONS
According to Rabindranath, the aim of education is self-realization. He is a poet and a saint who through his imagination and insight, realized the universal soul within himself and in Nature. According to him this realization by every one is the goal of education. Self-realization, according to Rabindranath, means the realization of the universal soul in one's self. Man's aim of life is to achieve this status. It is a process which cannot be realized without education. In the absence of education the individual will be deprived of self-realization. Rabindranath does not find any dichotomy between thought and life, philosophy and education. He believes that every one is potentially divine and every one can realize his potentiality. His philosophy is very much influenced by the 'Gita' and the 'Upanishads'. He is, however, well aware of the educational ideas prevalent in the West. Therefore, like 320 Vivekananda, he synthesizes the ancient Vedantic traditions with the modern Western scientific attitude in formulating the goal of education. 1. Integral Development. Defining the aim of education, Rabindranath says, "The fundamental purpose of education is not merely to enrich ourselves through the fullness of knowledge, but also to establish the bond of love and friendship between man and man".1 This is the humanistic aim of education in Tagore's philosophy. His approach to ultimate reality is integral. He believes in an inner harmony between man and Nature and God. In man, again, the physical, the mental and the spiritual aspects are equally important and internally related. Therefore, like Sri Aurobindo, Rabindranath believes

in a multisided education with physical, intellectual, moral and religious aims. 2. Physical Development. Like Vivekananda, Rabindranath condemned the prevalent system of education which partially exercised the intellect only to the entire neglect of the body. According to Rabindranath, "Education of the body in the real sense, does not exist in play and exercise but in applying the body systematically to some useful work".2 Thus, one of the aims of education according to Rabindranath, is physical development. It is hence that he so much emphasizes games in school education. Pointing out the value of physical activities in the child's education he says, "Even if they learnt nothing, they would have had ample time for play, climbing trees, diving into ponds, plucking and tearing flowers, perpetrating thousand and one mischiefs on Mother Nature, they would have obtained the nourishment of the body, happiness of mind and the satisfaction of the natural impulses of childhood".3 Thus physical fitness is the first cardinal principle in the child's development. This is realized through his intimate contact with Nature. As a poet Tagore very well realizes the life giving values of Nature's contact with man. About the child's contact with the Nature he says, "I speak in very moderate terms: Seven yearstill then let child has nothing to do with clothes and shame. Till then let Nature alone conduct the indispensable education of the savage."4 This is particularly important for the educational institutions in our society. Almost all contemporary Indian philosophers of education, including Gandhiji, Vivekananda, 321 Dayananda and Sri Aurobindo, besides Tagore, lay emphasis upon the importance of setting educational institutions in natural environment so that the educand may learn by their touch with Nature. 3. Mental Development. Besides the physical aim of education, Tagore equally lays emphasis upon the mental aim of education. Like Vivekananda, he is critical of the prevalent system of education which laid sole emphasis upon bookish learning. Presenting this attitude he says, "We touch the world not with our mind, but with our books. This is deplorable. Intellectualism takes us away from Nature and creates a gulf between man and man."5 To quote Rabindranath, "We know the people of books, not those of the world, the former are interesting to us, but the latter tiresome".6 In fact, the intellectual aim of education, according to Rabindranath, is the development of the intellectual faculties which should be developed through education. These are: the power of thinking and the power of imagination. Both these are necessary for real manhood. Rabindranath criticizes the prevalent system of education which puts too much stress on memory and two little on imagination and thinking. He suggests, "Ever since childhood, instead of putting all the burden on the memory, the power of thinking and the power of imagination should also be given opportunities for free exercise".7 4. Harmony with Environment. In the end, the aim of education according to Rabindranath, is the harmony of the educand with the environment. The educand should know his environment and create harmony with it. To quote Rabindranath, "True education consists in knowing the use of any useful material that has been collected, to know its real nature and to build along with life a real shelter for life".8 This is particularly true about the rural education. Education should facilitate the educand's assimilation of his national culture. Through education, the educand should imbibe his cultural heritage and should be able to use it in his inter-action with the environment. Explaining this aim of education, Rabindranath says, "If we believe that the chief aim of education in India is to be initiated into this unique pursuit of India, then we must constantly remember that neither the education of the senses, nor the education of the intellect, but the education of 322 the feeling receive the place of honour in our schools. . . . Our true education is possible only in the forest, through intimate contact with Nature and purifying austere pursuits."9 5. Earning Livelihood. Thus, about the aim of education, Tagore's approach is realistic. He, however, does not favour the utilitarian aim of education. This is his objection against the imposition of British system of education upon India. He says, "Knowledge has two departments: one pure knowledge, the other utilitarian knowledge. Whatever is worth knowing is knowledge. It should be known equally by men and women, not for practical utility, but for the sake of knowing. . . . The desire to know is the law of human nature".10 But Rabindranath does not ignore the earning of livelihood aim of education. He appreciates the practical bias in Western system of education. Though he does not want to make education an instrument for earning bread alone but he admits that bread earning is a necessary part of any sound goal of education. Therefore, he says, "From the very beginning, such education should be imparted to them (village folks) that they may know well what mass welfare means and may become practically efficient in all respects for earning their livelihood"." While he is critical of the British system of education which wanted to create clerks out of the Indian educated people, he emphasized that the real aim of education is to develop men and women who may be able to fulfil the needs of the country. In his own words, "One of the main aims of education is to prepare the individual for the service of the country".12 6. Multisided Aim. The above discussion concerning the means of education according to Rabindranath, make it clear that his is a multisided attack on this problem. He is against any one sided aim of education. He is humanist. A humanistic aim

of education requires a multisided approach.

CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION
1. Education for Human Re-generation. Thus Rabindranath's philosophy of education aims at developing a system of education for human re-generation. Man is in the centre of all his thinking, his philosophy, religion, literature, poetry, social activities and educational programmes. He is a humanist 323 in the real sense of the term, not a naturalistic humanist but an integral humanist in the Indian tradition. He is not rationalist but believes in something higher than reasons in man. He does not think science alone to be capable of delivering the human goods but wants to synthesize it with Vedanta. He is a nationalist and at the same time an internationalist. To him the ultimate God is the universal man and only aim of all the man's activities was the realization of this God. Human regeneration is the sole aim and only ideal. His educational system is a means to achieve this aim. He, therefore, bases his educational system on essential human virtues such as freedom, purity, sympathy, perfection and world brotherhood. 2. Corrective to Prevalent Defects. Like other contemporary Indian thinkers of his time Tagore objected to the prevalent system of education due to its origination in a foreign country. He protested against emphasis on foreign language resulting in the alienation of the educated people from the general society. He tried to build up educational centres where these defects may be removed. He deliberated on different problems of Indian society particularly that of the rural people and tried to remove them through education. His educational system was a synthesis of East and West, Ancient and Modern, Science and Vedanta. It is hence that man like Jawaharlal Nehru considered Vishva-Bharati as the true representative of India.

References
1. Bhartiya Vishva Vidyalaya Adarsa, Siksha (1342) B.S. Ed., p. 270. 2. Tagore, R.N. Alochana, July 1925. 3. Shiksha (1342), p. 2. 4. Ibid., p. 84. 5. Ibid., p. 90. 6. Ibid., p. 91. 7. Siksar Herpher, p. 8. 8. Ibid. 9. Shiksha (1342), p. 145. 10. Shiksha (1351), Vol. I, p. 151. 11. Swadhin Shiksha, p. 522. 12. Rabindra Rachanavali, Vol. XII, p. 517. 324

Questions for Exercise

1. Examine Rabindranath Tagore's philosophy of education and its influence on Indian education. 2. Explain the philosophical thinking behind Tagore's scheme of education in Shanti Niketan. How has its character changed now? Why? 3. Discuss the aims of education according to Rabindranath Tagore.

325

20 Sri Aurobindo
After the war of independence in 1857, the seventh decade saw the birth of three great men in India: Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo and M.K. Gandhi. Thus the birth of Sri Aurobindo marked an era of upheaval in national consciousness and its effort to reassert itself. A significant point about his date of birth was that in future India achieved freedom on the same date. Sri Aurobindo was born on 15 August 1872 at Kon Nagar village of the Hoogli District of West Bengal. His father Krishna Dhan Ghosh was a well-known civil surgeon who studied medical science in England and returned to India as a totally Western-oriented gentleman. His mother Mrs. Swarnlata Devi was a religious Hindu lady. Dr. Ghosh was convinced of the value of Western system of eduction. Therefore, he sent his sons to an Irish Missionary School at Darjeeling. He went to England in 1879 and took his sons along with him. They were kept under the supervision of Mr. and Mrs. Drevet in London their early education. In 1885, the Drevet's left England for Australia and Sri Aurobindo was admitted to St. Paul School of London.

At St. Paul London

The headmaster of St. Paul School, F.W. Walker gave specialised training in Greek language to Sri Aurobindo who progressed fast to higher classes. During the years 1884 to 1889 Sri Aurobindo achieved specialised knowledge in Greek and Latin languages and won several awards. Besides, he also studied English and French literature. He also learnt Italian, German 326 and Spanish languages. Thus he mastered half a dozen European Languages and through them acquired knowledge of European culture in original.

At Kings College, Cambridge

In 1890, Sri Aurobindo passed the last examination of St. Paul with merit and now joined King's College of Cambridge. Here he qualified in written examination of I.C.S. and stood XIth in merit achieving highest marks in ancient languages. He, however, got himself disqualified in horse riding since he never aimed at the career of a bureaucrat. It was only due to the wish of his father that he appeared in I.C.S. examination. In Cambridge, he passed tripos in two years in first division and won awards in English literature.

Political Influence
Dr. Krishan Dhan Ghosh not only educated his three sons in Europe but he kept them scrupulously free from Indian influence. However, when he returned from England to India and passed some years here, his attitude towards British changed. Now he used to send cuttings of the British atrocities on Indians published in English paper Bengalee in India. He also criticised British government in his letters. Thus, it was the father of Sri Aurobindo who for the first time attracted his attention to the Indian politics though he could not imagine that his son, brought up in Europe, will some day lead this country.

Patriotic Influence
In 1891, Indian Majlis was established in Cambridge. Sri Aurobindo was attached to this organization and also acted as its Secretary. He participated in its discussions and used to deliver revolutionary lectures against the British government. Some more enthusiastic young Indians founded a secret organisation in Cambridge named "The Lotus and Dagger". Sri Aurobindo and his two brothers all three joined this organization. Each member of this organisation had to take a vow to fight for India's freedom and act to achieve this aim. 327 Though this organisation could not achieve much, it played a significant role in achieving Sri Aurobindo's contact with the secret organisations in India. In his ideal of freedom Sri Aurobindo was also inspired by several European freedom movements and their leaders. He was particularly impressed by the national movement in Ireland and the biography of Mazzini. In 1891, when the Irish national leader Parlane died Sri Aurobindo wrote a poem in his memory. His poems during this period reflect an intense sentiment of patriotism. In 1896, three years after his return to India, he wrote a poem on Ireland, which showed deep impression of Irish national movement on his mind.

Return to India
In 1893, the occasion of Sri Aurobindo's return to his motherland arrived. At this time the late Maharaja of Baroda, Gaikvad Sayajirao was on tour of England. James Cotton told him that a brilliant Indian youth wanted a job in India. The Maharaja was always very careful in selection of his personnel. He called Sri Aurobindo for an interview and appointed him in the service of Baroda State. Thus in February 1893 Sri Aurobindo returned to his motherland after full 14 years of exile as the great Ramachandra returned to Ayodhya after 14 years of exile. While returning to his motherland Sri Aurobindo vowed for working for India's freedom. He served Baroda State till 1907 for thirteen years. In Baroda he first worked in Settlement department and then in Stamp and Revenue departments. He also served in Baroda Secretariat. On the request of the Principal of Baroda College Sri Aurobindo was allowed to teach French there. Later on he was appointed Professor of English at Baroda College. Thus he joined Baroda College in 1900. He also served as Vice Principal of this college. Gradually his contact with Maharaja of Baroda decreased and his political activities increased. During the movement of partition of Bengal in 1905 he actively joined politics.

Indological Studies
After his return to India Sri Aurobindo devoted himself whole-heartedly 328 to the study of Indian languages, history, culture and religion. He was already conversant with the Western contributions to these fields. Now he was in a position to conduct a comparative study of East and West. This was the background of the meeting of extremes in his thoughts. He was a master of English language and his poetry was acknowledged as being of a very high standard. He studied Bengali language and literature, and was very much impressed by the writings of Bankimchandra Chatterji and Madhusudan Datta.

Spiritual Advancement
Besides his advance in the fields of literature and politics, Sri Aurobindo was also progressing in another very important direction, the field of spiritualism. He had his first spiritual experience in 1893 when he alighted in Bombay from the ship Carthage. This experience was the feeling of infinite peace on putting his foot on the soil of the motherland after 14 years of exile in foreign land. In 1901 Sri Aurobindo had another spiritual experience in which he felt that some divine image came out of his own body to save him from a car accident. In 1903 he felt amidst Infinite while walking on Shankaracharya Hill at Srinagar in Kashmir. In his letter to his wife, written on 30 August 1905, he pointed out that he was fast progressing on the path to spirituality. He wrote that he wanted to have direct experience of God by any means. He said that if there is God, there must be some path to establish spiritual contact with Him. This was the aspiration which led Sri Aurobindo to formulate the path of Integral Yoga later on. However, so far Sri Aurobindo did not receive any guidance from any one. In 1907 he met a Yogi Vishnu Bhaskar Lele during the Congress session at Surat. Before this he had a notable meeting with Swami Brahmanand in 1903.

Political Activities
Besides writing in Indu Prakash, Sri Aurobindo sent a young Bengali soldier of Baroda Army, Jateen Bannerjee to Bengal to carry his revolutionary message and to establish secret organisation. Jateen organised the first secret organisation in 329 Calcutta and established contact with other revolutionaries in Bengal. Later on Sri Aurobindo's younger brother Barindra Ghosh joined his organisation. Now they established youth organizations and associations in far and distant villages of Bengal. During this period youth organisations were being established in South India under the supervision of B.G. Tilak to achieve freedom of the country. The number of these organizations multiplied very fast. Sri Aurobindo was introduced to the revolutionaries of Bombay as a member of West Bengal secret group of revolutionaries. Though this revolutionary organization did not achieve much political success, Sri Aurobindo's political ideas were accepted everywhere. His political committee of five members included sister Nivedita, P. Mitra, Jateen Banerjee, C.R. Das and Surendra Nath Thakur, all illustrious persons. In 1905 Sri Aurobindo arrived in Bengal. At this time, this political committee was organising the activities of revolutionaries. Along with the youth movements, Sri Aurobindo included Swadeshi and village industries in his political programme. On the occasion of partition of Bengal in 1905 Sri Aurobindo openly started political activities. Bengal was divided on 29 September 1905. On 12 March 1906 Barindra Ghosh, Sri Aurobindo's brother, published an English weekly

named Yugantara which published Sri Aurobindo's writings. Sri Aurobindo participated in a political gathering at Barisal on 14 April 1906 where the police baton charged the public. On 6 August 1906 Bipin Chandra Pal started an English weekly Bande Mataram which was joined by Sri Aurobindo. During the middle of year 1909 Sri Aurobindo started his own famous English weekly Karma Yogin. Both Bande Mataram and Karma Yogin used to publish Sri Aurobindo's writings. These writings inspired the young and intellectual elite of not only Bengal but of the whole country and soon Sri Aurobindo was counted among the top national leaders. Thus, during the short span of five years between the years 1905 to 1910 Sri Aurobindo achieved the status of an all India political leader. The victory of the aggressive section of politicians at the Congress session in Surat in 1906 was particularly the acknowledgement of Sri Aurobindo's thoughts. After this session he made a tour of almost all the important cities of the country including Baroda, 330 Bombay, Pune, Nasik and Amravati, delivering political lectures. In 1907 he met the Maratha Yogi Vishnu Bhaskar Lele. This yogi helped Sri Aurobindo in the path of Spiritualism. He asked Sri Aurobindo to postpone his political programme for the time being in order to have some spiritual experiences. Sri Aurobindo postponed his political programme for three days and took to spiritual practices under the guidance of this yogi. He attained some very important experiences which he described in his lectures later on. On 19 January 1908, while delivering a lecture to a vast public under the auspices of Bombay National Union, Sri Aurobindo felt that some overmental source inspired his speech. Gradually, his national thought was more and more inspired by religious, and spiritual thinking. This influence was also explicit in his lectures in Calcutta in the year 1908.

Alipur Bomb Case

During this period terrorist activities were increasing in Bengal. The revolutionaries including B.B. Upadhyaya and Bhupendra Nath were imprisoned on the charge of his treason. The death of B.B. Upadhyaya in Campbell hospital triggered the bomb attack on the carriage of Muzzafarpur District judge Kingsford on 10 April 1908 which killed the wife and daughter of Pringle Kennedy since Kingsford was not in the vehicle. During the enquiry of this case several persons were arrested including Barindra Kumar Ghosh, the younger brother of Sri Aurobindo. Sri Aurobindo was arrested on 4 May 1908. All these prisoners were kept in Alipur Jail, and charged under Alipur Conspiracy Case. Sri Aurobindo refused to be left on bail. After some months his case was transferred to session court on 19 August 1908. The British Government was determined to implicate Sri Aurobindo but the able pleading of C.R. Das led to his acquittal on 13 April 1909. During his stay in Alipur Jail Sri Aurobindo experienced the supramental force. He had some other important spiritual experiences as well. These experiences inspired him to progress on the path of spiritualism. After he was acquitted from the prison he never returned to politics. Now he published the fresh issue of Karma Yogin on 30 June 1909. Its last issue was published on 5 February 1910 after which Sri Aurobindo 331 left for Chandra Nagar on the instruction of his inner voice after closing down Karma Yogin. On 4 April 1910 he reached Pondicherry out of the reach of the British Government. It was here that he solely devoted himself to the spiritual persuit.

Life in Pondicherry
In Pondicherry Sri Aurobindo stayed at the residence of Shankar Chetty. Later on he shifted to his residence in White Town. His open letter to his countrymen published in Karma Yogin impelled the British Government to start a case against him but nothing could be done due to his political asylum at Pondicherry sanctioned by the French Government. During his stay at Pondicherry, Sri Aurobindo was offered the Presidentship of Indian National Congress at least twice which he declined. Illustrious leaders including Lala Lajpat Rai, Devdas Gandhi and C.R. Das tried to persuade him to return to politics but he did not agree to their repeated requests, since now he was convinced that his mission is the search of that infinite force which may transform not only his country but the whole world.

Spiritual Writings
For the next four years Sri Aurobindo did not write any public essays. In 1914, he started a philosophico-spiritual monthly magazine named Arya. This magazine now published his spiritual essays which were later on compiled in his famous works entitled, The Life Divine, The Synthesis of Yoga, Essays on Gita, and Isopanishad, etc. His poems composed during his stay in England and Baroda were also published in this magazine. The publication of Arya was however stopped in 1921.

Life in Sri Aurobindo Ashram

Gradually, spiritual aspirants from all over the world assembled around Sri Aurobindo and in 1926 was founded Sri Aurobindo Ashram with the explicit ideal of the descent of Infinite consciousness upon the earth. In this Ashram Sri Aurobindo ceaselessly advanced in his spiritual pursuits for the next 24 years. The Ashram soon became a laboratory for integral 332 development of individual and society and the descent of supramental in the matter. For forty years till his death Sri Aurobindo made unprecedented contribution to the spiritual world and established as a great karmayogi and spiritual leader. He was in close contact with the happenings all around the world through his correspondence with friends and spiritual aspirants everywhere. Everyday he devoted as many as seven hours to reply the letters received from all over the world. These letters were later on published in four volumes. They are treasure houses of Sri Aurobindo's views on politics, religion, ethics, philosophy, literature, art, in short every aspect of human life.

Works of Sri Aurobindo

In the tradition of ancient Indian philosophers Sri Aurobindo wrote commentaries on the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. His magnum opus, The Life Divine-was published in two volumes. His work entitled, The Ideal of Human Unity includes his analysis of international political issues. Another work, The Human Cycle discloses his Philosophy of History, Social Philosophy and the Philosophy of Culture. His great epic Savitri has occupied a very important place in English Literature. Sri Aurobindo wrote most of his essays in English Language. Most of them were published as series in the magazine Arya and later on compiled in the book form. A complete list of his works has been given at the end of this book. On 5 December 1950 at 1.26 p.m. Sri Aurobindo entered Mahasamadhi. On 7 December, The Mother, Sri Aurobindo's life long companion in the spiritual path, declared that Sri Aurobindo will not leave the earth till his aim is achieved. His body did not show any sign of disintegration for full 111 hours after his death and the divine light continued to stay in the dead body during that period. The Siddhi day of November 1950 was the last public appearance of Sri Aurobindo. On 24 December, The Mother gave the message that Sri Aurobindo was constantly guiding the Ashram activities after his death. On 24 April 1951, a vast congregation assembled to pay tributes to the Mahayogin on the sea shore of Pondicherry under the presidentiship of Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee. It 333 was on this occasion that an International University was founded to commemorate the memory of Sri Aurobindo. This International University was proposed to be the media of providing new light, new power and new life to humanity and transforming it into a new race.

OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION
Defining the objectives of education Sri Aurobindo said, "It must be an education that for the individual will make its one central object the growth of the soul and its powers and possibilities, for the nation will keep first in view the preservation, strengthening and enrichment of the nation-soul and its dharma and raise both into powers of the life and ascending mind and soul of humanity. And at no time will it lose sight of man's highest object, the awakening and development of this spiritual being".1 Sri Aurobindo was not only one of the greatest philosopher and yogi of his time but also one of the greatest political leader, social reformer and educationist of his era. He was a great patriot whose first concern was always the good of motherland. Therefore, he presented a national system of education which may be adopted for the educational reconstruction in India and at the same time develop the Indians as world citizens and the fore-runners of the advent of the supramental race upon earth. Sri Aurobindo's philosophy not only gives an important place to individual and nation but also to humanity. In these three principles, the higher determines the lower. Therefore, the national scheme of education will be not only from the point of view of the needs of the country but also from the standpoint of the needs of humanity. It is so since the highest principle governing the life of individual and nation is the humanity itself. It is as a human being first and last that the individual has to grow. It is as a member of a community of nations that a nation has to grow and develop. It is the forgetting of this central truth in the life of the individual and nation that has been the source of all evil and error. Again, Sri Aurobindo everywhere considers fulfilment of Swadharma as the law of life. Each individual in a nation has to fulfil his Swadharma. The purpose of education in a 334 nation is to prepare the individual to serve their roles according to their status in society. Individual differences are the

basis of modern system of education. Nature has bestowed different human beings with different capacities and powers. Therefore, the educationist has to develop in the child whatever has been already endowed to him by God. The child is, "A soul with a lean, a nature and capacities of his own, who must be helped to find them, to find himself, to grow into their maturity, into a fullness of physical and vital energy and utmost breadth, depth and height of his emotional, his intellectual and his spiritual being".2 Thus, each human being is a self developing soul.3 Parents and teachers have to help him in this development. In the words of N.C. Dowsett, the concept of education in Sri Aurobindo's philosophy is summarised thus, "The meaning of the word education is to reduce the inner, hidden, latent, dormant, potential secret within every human being, secret because it is not of the senses but of the inner truth of being and because it is that most unknown part of the being which has yet to evolve to its full stature".4

THE TRUE EDUCATION

Defining true education, Sri Aurobindo wrote, "There are three things which have to be taken into account in true and living education, the man, the individual in his commonness and in his uniqueness, the nation or people and universal humanity. It follows that that alone will be true and living education which helps to bring out to full advantage, makes ready for the full purpose and scope of human life all that is in the individual man, and which at the same time helps him to enter into his right relation with the life, mind and soul of the people to which he belongs and with that great total life, mind and soul of humanity of which he himself is a unit and his people or nation a living, a separate and yet inseparable member."5 Thus, the true education should take into account not only the individual but also the nation and the humanity. It has to prepare the mind and soul of the individual and also of the nation to serve humanity. It has to unfold the individual potentialities, uniqueness and commonness. At the same time it has to develop a right relation of the individual 335 with the life, mind and soul of the community and humanity. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, the true national education is that, "which helps to bring out to full advantage, makes ready for the full purpose and scope of human life all that is in the individual man and which at the same time, helps him to enter into right relation with the life, mind and soul of humanity of which he himself is a unit and his people or nation a living, a separate and yet inseparable member".6 Besides Swadharma, the role of a nation is determined by Swabhava. Swadeshi was the avowed principle in Sri Aurobindo's political philosophy. Each nation, according to him, has to grow and develop in tune with its peculiar Swabhav and Swadharma. This principle has been advocated by Indian thinkers since ancient times. Indian philosophy always considered everything as an instrument of spiritual growth. It may be called spiritual instrumentalism in contrast to the biological instrumentalism of John Dewey. Thus, the nation has to develop its mental, ethical and aesthetic being to make it a fit instrument for the growth of the soul. This is the highest purushartha. India, according to Sri Aurobindo, is a nation which has to fulfil a spiritual role in the community of nations. Its ideal for the humanity also is spiritual. Therefore, Sri Aurobindo has everywhere called for the spiritual growth of humanity. Rational Education This, however, does not mean that Sri Aurobindo finds no place for reason in education. In his philosophy everywhere Sri Aurobindo has supported reason like any staunch rationalist and lauded its role as the law giver to the irrational elements, the passions, the sensibilities and the sense organs. A true and living education also a rational education though it goes beyond reason for the spiritual growth of man. A rational education, according to Sri Aurobindo, includes the following three things: 1. To teach men how to observe and know rightly the facts on which they have to form a judgment. 2. To train them to think fruitfully and soundly. 3. To fit them to use their knowledge and their thought 336 effectively for their own and the common good.7 Meeting of East and West Brought up in the West Sri Aurobindo had the first hand knowledge of the Western system of education. Like Vivekananda and Tagore he was also conversant with the advantages of European system of education. Though one of the greatest admirers of ancient Indian thoughts, Sri Aurobindo was a votary of the synthesis of whatever is good in East and

West. This synthesis is visible everywhere in his thought. Therefore, while presenting a scheme for Indian education, he advocated synthesis of ancient Indian educational ideals along with the Western methods and techniques. As he said, "The first problem in a national system of education is to give an education as comprehensive as the European and more thorough, without the evils of strain and cramming. This can only be done by studying the instruments of knowledge and finding a system of teaching which shall be natural, easy and effective. It is only by strengthening and sharpening these instruments of their utmost capacity that they can be made effective for the increased work which modern conditions require. The muscles of the mind must be thoroughly trained by simple and easy means, then, and not till then, great feasts of intellectual strength can be required of them."8 Integral Education True education, according to Sri Aurobindo, is not only spiritual but also rational, vital and physical. In other words, it is an integral education. This integral education has been explained by Sri Aurobindo's closest collaborator the Mother, in these words, "Education to be complete must have five principal aspects relating to the five principal activities of the human being: the physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic and the spiritual. Usually these phases of education succeed each other in a chronological order following the growth of the individual. This, however, does not mean that one should replace another but that all must continue, completing each other, till the end of life".9 Sri Aurobindo's scheme of education is integral in 337 two senses. Firstly, it is integral in the sense of including all the aspects of the individual being, physical, vital, mental, psychic and spiritual. Secondly, it is integral in the sense of being an education not only for the evolution of the individual alone but also of the nation and finally of the humanity. In his Essays On Gita Sri Aurobindo initially presented the concept of integral education as outbringing all the facets of an individual personality. The ultimate aim of education is the evolution of total humanity which includes the evolution of the nation which in its turn depends upon the evolution of the individual. In this scheme of evolution the principle of growth is unity in diversity. This unity again, maintains and helps the evolution of diversity. Thus each individual in nation and each nation in humanity has to develop a system of education according to its own Swabhav and fulfilling its Swadharma. Supramental Education The education again, is ultimately supramental education, that which leads to our evolution towards the supramental. This supramental evolution, however, will necessarily pass through and only after the evolution of the physical, the vital, the mental and the psychic. Physical eduction is the education of the body. It includes the order, discipline, plasticity and receptivity of the body. Its principal aspects are: 1. Control and discipline of functions, 2. A total, methodical and harmonious development of all the parts and movements of the body, and 3. Rectification of defects and deformities, if there are any.10 The vital education is indispensable, though difficult. It is so since the nature of vital has been often misunderstood. In the words of the Mother, the vital education involves two principal aspects, "The first is to develop and utilise the sense organs, the second is to become conscious and gradually master of one's character and in the end to achieve its transformation".11 Thus vital education includes sense training and the development of character. This character again will be developed according to individual differences. It requires redirection and 338 transformation of the instincts and emotions, drives and propensities. Describing the mental education the mother has laid down the following five phases: 1. Development of the power of concentration, the capacity of attention. 2. Development of the capacities of expansion, wideness, complexity and richness. 3. Organisation of ideas around a central idea or a higher ideal or a supremely luminous idea that will serve as a guide in life. 4. Thought control, rejection of undesirable thoughts so that one may, in the end, think only what one wants and when one

wants. 5. Development of mental silence, perfect claim and a more and more total receptivity to inspirations coming from the higher regions of the being. While the physical, vital and mental education are the means to develop the personality, the psychic education alone leads to the future evolution of man. Sri Aurobindo's system of education does not aim only at the adjustment and normal development of the human personality but its total growth and transformation. The idea of psychic education has not been developed in any existing philosophy of education. It is so since psychic element was never considered and understood by the Western educationists. In India also in spite of the importance of psychic element found in Yoga, its nature has been seldom understood. The core of the psychic education is the achievement of our identification with the psychic principles in us. This may be reached by psychological, religious or mechanical methods. Every one will have to find out the method best suitable to him and his aspiration. The psychic education requires sincere and steady aspiration, a persistent and dynamic will, concentration, revelation and experience. In the words of The Mother "Only one thing is absolutely indispensable: the will to discover and realise".12 This is in fact the field of occult and yoga. Thus the supramental education requires the above steps as a prelude to its realisation. It is only after one gets through 339 the physical, vital, mental and psychic education and realises a certain transformation that one can enter into supramental education. To quote The Mother again, "Then will being also a new education which can be called the supramental education; it will, by its all-powerful action, work not only upon the consciousness of individual being, but upon the very substance of which they are built and upon the environment in which they live".13 The idea of supramental education like that of the psychic education is Aurobindo's significant contribution to the field of education. This is more important at the present juncture when most of the educationists are realising the need for an educational system aiming at manmaking. According to Sri Aurobindo, humanity today has already reached what has been called by him a subjective stage. The future evolution has to be above the mental level. This will require a great insight and persistent efforts. The different types of education already discussed should not be given successively but simultaneously. The focus should be all the time on the inner growth. As the educand advances he should be taught to identify his real self and to find out the law of his being. The principles of this new type of education have been explained by Sri Aurobindo and the Mother in their different works.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
The aims of education in the educational philosophy of Sri Aurobindo are as follows: 1. Perfection. Sri Aurobindo was a perfectionist. He was never satisfied with partial remedies. It is hence that he left the political arena to pursue a more perfect method of realisation of perfection of human race. It is hence that he presents his integral yoga as a solution not only of the individual needs but also of the social and political problems facing nations and humanity. This perfectionism is the strength and this again is the weakness of Sri Aurobindo's philosophy of education. In tune with the Indian concept of human nature Sri Aurobindo considered the individual as, "A growing soul with a being, a nature and capacities of his own".14 The aim of education therefore was to realise these capacities and grow, "into a 340 fullness of physical and vital energy and utmost breadth, depth and height of his emotional, his intellectual and his spiritual being".15 2. Harmony. Harmony is the key to understand Sri Aurobindo's thought everywhere. Those who complain about the difficulty in understanding his writings lack this inherent urge to harmony. On the other hand, those who seek harmony easily understand Sri Aurobindo's works. In his philosophy of education, as in his metaphysics, epistemology, political philosophy and social philosophy, Sri Aurobindo searches after the principle of harmony in the individual, community and humanity and aims at its realisation. He seeks to achieve harmony of the individual by the growth and evolution of his different aspects such as physical, vital, mental and psychic, etc. For this he proposes a scheme of physical, vital, mental, moral, religious and spiritual education. He also seeks harmony of different individuals in a community. Compatibility and not uniformity is the law of collective harmony. The roles of the male and female, the different types of individuals in a community are not identical but diverse and therefore complementary. Thus Sri Aurobindo proposes an educational system in which details must be planned according to individual differences. This is particularly true about the women's education, education of backward classes and the education of below normal, abnormal and supernormal children. 3. Evolution. The edifice of Sri Aurobindo's philosophy is based upon his theory of evolution. It stands and falls with the

truth of evolution. Evolution, however, has been felt and realised by almost all the thinkers of our age. Therefore, Sri Aurobindo aims at the evolution of the individual, nation and humanity through education. This evolution will be continued as spiral. It is hence that Sri Aurobindo aims at nothing less than supramental education. Evolution involves not only growth but also transformation, not only adjustment but a more intimate harmony. In the words of N.C. Dowsett, Sri Aurobindo's education aims, "To educate the true individual potential within each student, to help him to manifest that within him which is uniquely his, so he may find that as a perfection to be offered to life as his individual contribution to a collective perfection which is the evolving spirit of man and the true 341 heritage to which he aspires".16 This evolution can be achieved by man's opening and uniting with the universal divine. In other words this requires divine perfection. 4. Humanisation. Education, according to Sri Aurobindo, as according to Vivekananda, aims at man-making. The individual and the nation have to grow as members of one humanity. Sri Aurobindo's system of national education ultimately aims at evolution of humanity. Describing the aim of Sri Aurobindo's international university at Pondicherry The Mother declared, "It is in answer to this pressing need that Sri Aurobindo conceived the scheme of his international university, so that the elite of humanity may be made ready who would be able to work for the progressive unification of the race and who at the same time would be prepared to embody the new force descending upon earth to transform it".17 5. Harmony of the individual and collectivity. While most of the thinkers in social-political field have either laid emphasis upon the individual or the collectivity, Sri Aurobindo aims at realisation of harmony between individuals and also between nations. His scheme of education therefore is truly international. It is not only for India but also for the world. Explaining this ideal of Sri Aurobindo's scheme, The Mother said, "For all world organisation, to be real and to be able to live, must be based upon mutual respect and understanding between nation and nation as well as between individual and individual. It is only in the collective order and organisation, in a collaboration based upon mutual goodwill that lies the possibility of man being lifted out of the painful chaos where he is now. It is with this aim and in this spirit that all human problems will be studied at the university centre; and their solution will be given in the light of the supramental knowledge which Sri Aurobindo has revealed in his writings."18 6. Building the innate powers. The central aim of education according to Sri Aurobindo is, "The building of the powers of the human mind and spiritthe evoking of knowledge and will and of the power to use knowledge, character, culture that at least if not more".19 The child is born with certain innate powers of the body, the vital, the mind and the spirit. The aim of the school and the teacher is to develop these 342 powers to their perfection. For this a programme of sense training, body building, character formation, development of logical and other mental faculties, religious education and finally a training in integral yoga is necessary. Moral development and aesthetic development should go side by side. 7. Cultivation of values. The present crisis of man is due to the chaos of values. Old values have been challenged while new values have not firmly taken their place. In his social philosophy Sri Aurobindo has particularly discussed this problem.20 The values to be cultivated should be physical, mental as well as spiritual. Character formation very much depends on value. The supreme value in Sri Aurobindo's thought is harmony. Other values are: spirituality, divinity, evolution, ascent, transformation, etc. All these must be cherished and developed. But the most important value required for all growth is sincerity. Once that is developed, the rest follows. Right emotions and Sanskars, Swabhav and nature are the foundation of Sri Aurobindo's scheme of education. Sri Aurobindo not only aims at moral status but also going beyond it, rising above virtue and vice. This is the supramental status aimed at both by the individual and collectivity in Sri Aurobindo's thought. The Educational Model While Sri Aurobindo outlined a national system of education, a model to realise his scheme was developed by The Mother in the form of Sri Aurobindo international university at Pondicherry.21 It was developed as a new centre of education to experiment for the realisation of the aims outlined by Sri Aurobindo. The curriculum, the teaching methods, the system of education and all the other details were formed with this central aim. The fundamental principle underlying the model was freedom since freedom is the only essential spiritual principle working anywhere. As has been already pointed out, this ideal control of education not only aimed at revelation of Sri Aurobindo's aim in India but also in humanity. All the aims of education outlined earlier were practised here. Children were admitted from a very early age. They gathered from all the parts of the country as well as from different countries in the world to make it a true representative of world cultures.

343 The natural scenery, dress, games, sports, industries, food, art, etc., were developed on the principle of unity and diversity. An effort was made to realise a cultural synthesis. Students of different nations were placed at different places with their own groups so that while they may develop international culture, no rigid time-table, classes, curriculum, teaching method or system of evaluation and examination was insisted. This was left upon individual choice of the educand himself. The idea was to give full freedom to the individual growth of the educand. The experiment fared very well but did not grow elsewhere due to obvious difficulties in such experiments. However, it is undoubtedly a model for a new system of education which may be hoped to develop in India and also in parts of the world.

THE SCHOOL
The ultimate ideal of the school is man-making. It prepares the educand to work first as a human being and then as a member of a nation and finally as an individual. The circles of moral responsibility and loyalties proceed from wider to narrower and not vice versa. The man has to develop first as a human being then as a citizen and finally as an individual. Most of the present confusion of values is due to an inversion of this order. Sri Aurobindo believes in three ultimate principles, individuality, commonality and essentiality. These, in other words, are the educand, the society and the humanity. Integral evolution, according to him, must include evolution of all these three elements. Thus the individuality and commonality should develop together. This is the purpose of the school. The school should treat all children as equal and provide sufficient scope for the development of their individual variations without insisting upon similarities. In his lecture at Baroda College Sri Aurobindo observed that the colleges and universities should educate through their academic as well as social activities.22 Thus the college should have its bearing upon the community around it.23 The school cannot be isolated from society. It cannot give total education in isolation. Its teachings have to be practised in the society outside it. The university 344 merely gives some materials to the educand which he may use. In the integral school four types of rooms are required to carry on various activities: 1. Rooms of silence, 2. Rooms of collaboration, 3. Rooms of consultation, 4. Lecture rooms.24 Thus the school will develop different types of activities such as silence, collaboration, consultation and lectures. It will provide play, activity, discovery, innovation and finally development of the powers of the body, mind and spirit of the educand. In brief, the integral school will provide opportunities for integral development.

THE TEACHER
Like the ancient Indian system of education, Sri Aurobindo has assigned a very important place to the teacher. He has however not made him central as in the ancient Indian scheme. The central place, as in the Western systems of education, has been occupied by the educand. His philosophy of education, therefore, is paidocentric. However, the teacher remains the philosopher and the guide. The Guru does not have absolute authority. He aims at turning the disciple's eye towards the beacon light of his own Godhead. In fact, the real teacher is within the educand. He is the God. He is the ultimate guide and yet the teacher plays an important role in arousing the educand towards God within. He has not to impose his opinions or demand passive surrender from the educand. He has to create an atmosphere so that the educand may grow freely. Sri Aurobindo accepts the role of a gardener in the teacher as maintained by many Western educational philosophers. The teacher acts as an aid, a means and a channel. His relationship with the educand is very close. In the ancient Indian tradition, Sri Aurobindo emphasises an inner relationship between the educator and the educand. For this the teacher should develop certain innate qualities. Describing as to who is a teacher, The Mother has laid down the following qualifications, "Teachers who do not possess 345

a perfect calm, an unfailing endurance, an unshakeable quietness who are full of self-conceit will reach nowhere. One must be a saint and a hero to become a good teacher. One must be a great yogi to become a good teacher. One must have the perfect attitude in order to be able to exact from one's pupils a perfect attitude. You cannot ask of a person what you do not do yourself. It is a rule. You must then look within you at the difference between what is and what should be, and this difference will give you the measure of your failure in the class.25 In brief, the teacher should be an integral yogi. He should be able to eliminate his ego, master his mind, develop an insight into human nature and to progress in impersonalisation. He should be absolutely disciplined and having an integrated personality. The most important thing in a teacher is not the knowledge but the attitude. An intellectual excellence is not sufficient without a development of other aspects of personality. The teacher should have the capacity to project himself to the educand so that he may have an understanding of the needs of the educand. The schools aim not only on the progress of the educand but also of the educator. In the words of the Mother, "The school must be an occasion of progress for the teacher as well as for the student. Each must have the freedom to develop himself freely. One never applies a method well unless one has discovered it oneself."26 In practice the central trait of the teacher is the inner calm. He should exercise influence not by scolding but by moral control. In the words of the Mother, "I must tell you that if a professor wants to be respected, he must be respectable".27 Personality Traits of the Teacher In order to fulfil his role, the teacher should take it seriously and honestly. He should develop his personality more than the ordinary man so that he may be able to influence others. He should be a representative of divine on earth. He should be in close touch with the divine consciousness. He should be a representative of the supreme knowledge, the supreme truth and the supreme law. Then alone his influence will work. The 346 Mother has prescribed the following personality traits for a true teacher: 1. Complete self-control not only to the extent of not showing any anger, but remaining absolutely quiet and undisturbed under all circumstances. 2. In the matter of self-confidence, he must also have the sense of the relativity of his importance. Above all, he must have the knowledge that the teacher himself must always progress if he wants his students to progress, must not remain satisfied either with what he is or with what he knows. 3. Must not have any sense of essential superiority over his student nor preference of attachment whatever for one or another. 4. Must know that all are equal spiritually and instead of mere tolerance must have a global comprehension or understanding. 5. "The business of both parent and teacher is to enable and to help the child to educate himself, to develop his own intellectual, moral, aesthetic and practical capacities and to grow freely as an organic being, not to be kneaded and pressured into form like an inert plastic material."28

THE CURRICULUM
As has been already pointed out, the essential principle of Sri Aurobindo's philosophy of education is freedom. Unity is never demanded at the cost of diversity. On the other hand, diversity creates a rich unity. Therefore, no rigid scheme of curriculum has been prescribed. However, hints are scattered in Sri Aurobindo's works about different criteria of curriculum. The earliest permissible age for starting regular study according to Sri Aurobindo is seven or eight years. At this age the child is sufficiently grown up to take up regular study. The proper medium for early education of the child is the mother tongue. It is only after the mother tongue that the child can learn other languages. As has been already pointed out, the following

347 criteria for planning curriculum are found in Sri Aurobindo's writings: 1. Human nature. The curriculum should aim at developing whatever is already given in seed form in the child. Education can only lead to the perfection of the instruments which are already present in the educand. Nothing can be taught or imposed from outside. In the words of The Mother, "Fundamentally the only thing you must do assiduously is to teach them to know themselves, and to choose their own destiny, the way they want to follow".29 2. Individual differences. The curriculum should be planned according to individual differences. The mind has to be consulted in its own growth. The aim of the teacher is to help the growing soul in drawing out his best and to make it perfect for a noble use.30 3. From near to the far. Another principle governing the planning of curriculum is to proceed from near to the far, from that which is to that which shall be.31 4. Modern and up-to-date. Sri Aurobindo was not a reactionary or a conservative. He was a modern thinker with a love for modernity and up-to-date knowledge. Therefore, he prescribed that the education must be up-to-date in form and substance and modern in life and spirit.32 5. Universal knowledge. The curriculum should include whatever is universally true. That is the basis of all scientific knowledge and philosophy. Truth and knowledge are one and not confined to any country. Therefore, according to Sri Aurobindo, education should be universal without any nationality or borders.33 6. Successive teaching. Sri Aurobindo disagrees with some educationists who wish to introduce every subject simultaneously to the child. He prescribes that the subjects should be taught successively. New subjects should be introduced after the earlier are mastered. Thus few subjects should be taught at a time. 7. Co-curricular activities. The school should provide not only academic but also co-curricular activities. 8. Five-fold curriculum. As has been already pointed out, integral education is fivefold. It includes the physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic and the spiritual education. Therefore, the curriculum must be fivefold according to these five types of education. Of these the education of the mind involves the most detailed curriculum. It requires different curriculum for 348 the development of the different powers of the mind such as observation, memory, judgment, comparison, contrast, analogy, reasoning and imagination, etc. Sense training requires curriculum involving all the five senses. 9. Multisidedness. Integral education is multisided. It aims at all-round growth. Therefore its curriculum involves music, poetry, art, painting and sculpture, besides the academic subjects. These are necessary for the aesthetic development of the child. These aim at contemplation and understanding of beauty and just arrangement of the tastes, habits and character of the educand. According to Sri Aurobindo, in contrast to many other educationists music, art and poetry purify, control, deepen and harmonise the movements of the soul.34 In his work entitled The National Value of Art, Sri Aurobindo points out three uses of art. Firstly, it is purely aesthetic, secondly, it is intellectual and educative and thirdly, it is spiritual. The aesthetic development purifies conduct and disciplines the animal instincts and lower feelings of the heart. The artistic sense helps in the formation of morals and purification of the emotion.33 Thus art has both intellectual and spiritual value. It is subtle and delicate and makes the mind subtle and delicate.36 10. Provision for the genius. The curriculum must provide for the genius. According to Sri Aurobindo, "What we call genius is part of the development of the human range of being and its achievements especially in things of the mind and their will can carry us half way to the divine".37 The curriculum should cater for the perfection of the different powers of the genius. 11. Moral and religious education. Curriculum for moral education should aim at refining the emotions and forming the proper habits and associations. Religious teaching like moral teaching does not involve so much of curriculum as teaching by example and provision of right atmosphere. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, "Whether distinct teaching in any form of religion is imparted or not the essence of religion, to live for God, for humanity, for country, for others and for oneself must be made the ideal in every school".38 Thus the aim of the curriculum according to Sri Aurobindo, is the actualisation of the potentialities of the educand. The 349

material is the basis and spiritual is the summit of education. The curriculum gradually becomes more and more abstract leading to the realisation of higher experiences. Same curriculum may be followed by male and female. The schools may be coeducational. Sufficient emphasis should be laid upon aesthetic, moral and religious teaching. The curriculum should not be fixed but flexible and evolutionary. A variety of choice and opportunities must be prescribed for maintaining the freedom of growth. The integral curriculum should find a due place for every subject and every discipline.

A TENTATIVE EDUCATIONAL PLAN

Norman C. Dowsett has presented the following tentative educational plan developed by International Centre of Education, Pondicherry, based upon educational philosophy of Sri Aurobindo.3" 1. The Play school (1-3 years) Provision of love, security, wonder, discovery and adventure. 2. Pre-School discipline of the physical mind (3-5 years) (a) order (b) activities, physical exercises and games. 3. Prime-School of fulfilment of the vital mind (5-71/2 yrs) (a) body awarenessdiscipline of the physical mind to continue. (b) fulfilment of vital energiesThe vital should be fulfilled through art, drawing, painting, sculpture, dance, drama, music, etc. 4. High school of the freedom of the mental mind I phase (71/2-101/2 years) use of the instruments of knowledge. 5. High school of the freedom of the mental mind II phase (101/2-141/2 years) integration of the progressive series of creative energies. 6. Graduation school of psychic education (14-17): years appreciation of individuality, progressive understanding of his inner potential and his contribution to the group, society, nation and the world. 350 7. College of spiritual education (17-21 years) spiritual realisation, integration of all that has been achieved.

THE IDEAL CHILD

Sri Aurobindo's system of education is paidocentric. It aims at the creation of ideal children. The ideal children are absolutely sincere and constantly progressive. They are forbidden fighting anywhere. They are always truthful. The Mother has given the following description of an ideal child.40 1. Good-Tempered. He does not become angry when things seem to go against him or decisions are not in his favour. 2. Game. Whatever he does it to the best of his capacity and keeps on doing in the face of almost certain failure. He always thinks straight and acts straight. 3. Truthful. He never fears to say the truth whatever may be the consequences. 4. Patient. He does not get disheartened if he has to wait a long time to see the results of his effort. 5. Enduring. He never slackens his effort however long it has to last. 6. Poised. He keeps equanimity in success as well as in failure. 7. Courageous. He always goes on fighting for the final victory though he may meet with many defeats. 8. Cheerful. He knows how to smile and keep a happy heart in all circumstances.

9. Modest. He does not become conceited over his success, neither does he feel himself superior to his comrades. 10. Generous. He appreciates the merits of others and is always ready to help another to succeed. 11. Courteous. On the field he does not jeer at errors, he does not cheer at the opponent's defeat; he treats them as guests, not enemies. In school he is considerate to the authorities, the fellow students, and the teachers. In life he is respectful to others; he treats them as he would be treated. 12. Obedient. On the field he observes the regulations. In life he respects the rules which help to promote harmony. 13. Fair. On the field he competes in a clean, hardfought but friendly way; he helps an injured opponent. In school he 351 does not waste his time nor that of the teachers. He is always honest. In life he sees impartially both sides of a question. Thus Sri Aurobindo's integral education gives highest place to the children. They are considered as divine force, the leaders of the future gnostic race on the earth. All the hopes for man's future lie upon the proper development of the younger generation. There is no gap between the teacher, the Guru and the children. Integral education considers the inner relationship and rapport as the first condition of all education. It is in this spirit that The Mother said to the children of the Ashram, "My children, we are united towards the same goal and the same accomplishment for a work unique and new, that the divine Grace has given us to accomplish. I hope that more and more you will understand the exceptional importance of this work and that you will sense in yourself the sublime joy that the accomplishment will give you. The divine force is with you, feel its presence more and more and be very careful never to betray it. Feel, wish, act, that you may be new beings for the realisation of a new world and for this my blessings shall be always with you."41 Thus the children are highly respected. The job of the teacher is not utilitarian or for earning his bread but for manmaking. It is in the spirit of offering of one's action to God that the teachers can create the spirit of sacrifice in the children. Sri Aurobindo's integral education is based upon faith in human nature. As against the explanation of human nature offered by most of the Western thinkers including Hobbes, Sri Aurobindo, like many other religious savants, considers man as divine. It was in this spirit that the Mother said to the children of the Ashram, "Be courageous, enduring, vigilant; above all be sincere, with perfect honesty. Then you will be able to face all difficulties. And victory will be yours."42

TEACHING METHODS
Thus the teaching methods in integral education of Sri Aurobindo are based on the one hand on faith in the inner goodness and evolutionary nature of the educand and on the other hand on the psychological principles involved in teaching. Sri Aurobindo's explanations and suggestions are everywhere psychological. 352 Without going into the details he has always kept his eye focussed on the tendencies working within him. Therefore his suggestions are very valuable.43 Teaching Children Sri Aurobindo and The Mother gave particular attention to the methods of teaching children. In this connection the following suggestions are offered: 1. The teachers should have sufficient documentation of what they know. They should be able to answer all questions. 2. They should have at least the knowledge if not the experience of true intellectual and intuitive attitude. This knowledge can be attained through mental silence. 3. He is the best teacher who has the capacity and not only knowledge of the different field of evolution. 4. Thus the professors must be sincere in discipline and experience. They should not be propagandists. 5. To start with, "The children, as soon as they have the capacity to think (it begins at 7 years but towards 14 years it is very clear) should be given small indications at 7 and a complete explanation at 14, of how to do it, and that it is the unique method to enter into relation with the profounds, that all the rest is a mental approximation, more or less inapt of something that can be known directly".44

Teaching Very Small Children About the teaching of very small children, The Mother has laid down the following principles for the teachers:45 Never to deceive oneself. Never to be angry. Always to be understanding. Never try to impose on them. Never scold but always try to understand. With Rousseau Sri Aurobindo believes that the child is naturally good but gradually corrupted by bad environment. In an adverse 353 environment the child looses all contact with the self in him. Therefore, The Mother has insisted that the most necessary thing to be taught to the child is to follow the inner psychic consciousness. As she said, "That is why I insist on that and I say that from the very earliest age children must be taught that there is a reality within themselves, within the earth, within the universe and that he himself, the earth and the universe, exist only as a function of this truth and if it did not exist, he would not last, even the short time he lasts and that everything would dissolve as soon as it is created.46 This, however, does not require philosophical explanations. The child is not prepared for mental understanding of the self. He should be made to realise the inner consciousness. His education, therefore, should be by projects and playway methods. The child responds to the psychic vibrations. He is most impressed by affection and feelings. Therefore, integral education rules out all harsh treatment, scolding or being angry towards the children. One must have sufficient patience with them. The habits for cleanliness and hygiene should start very early. This, however, does not require creating fear of illness in the child. The Mother has warned, "Fear is the worst incentive to education and the surest way of attracting what is feared".47 This warning is timely not only for early education but for secondary and university education in our country. How to Teach Sri Aurobindo, in his exposition of teaching methods, keeps his eye focussed on the truth alone. He is neither prejudiced in favour nor against the ancient Indian teaching methods or the Western ways of teaching. As he said, "The past hangs about our necks with all its prejudices and errors and will not leave us; it enters into our most radical attempts to return to the guidance of the all-wise Mother. We must have the courage to take up clearer knowledge and apply it fearlessly in the interests of posterity."48 Successive Teaching Accepting that every child has multiple tendencies and abilities requiring teaching of various subjects, Sri Aurobindo favours successive teaching as against simultaneous introduction of so 354 many subjects in early education. Among the different subjects to be taught to the child, the basic subjects should be introduced first so that a sound foundation for education is made. As Sri Aurobindo points out, "The old system was to teach one or two subjects well and thoroughly and then proceed to others and certainly it was a more rational system than the modern. If it did not impart so much varied information, it built up a deeper, nobler and more real culture".49 Thus different subjects should be studied one by one. The same principle is applicable to the teaching of textbooks. Each chapter should be studied thoroughly and in succession. In the words of the Mother, "One should leave a chapter when it has been fully grasped then only take up the next one and so on. If a chapter is finished, it is finished: and if it is not finished it is not finished".50 The child's education should start at the age of 7 or 8 for, according to Sri Aurobindo, "That is the earliest permissible age for the commencement of any regular kind of study".51 At this age the child is capable of concentration and interest. Therefore, the first thing to be created in the child is interest in the subject. Education Through Practical Experience Thus, like all other modern educators, Sri Aurobindo pleads for introduction of different subjects to the child through

practical experience. First of all he should acquire mastery of the mother tongue as the medium of the education, because that is the required sound basis for regular instruction. Elaborating the needs of practical foundation of child's education, Sri Aurobindo gives valuable suggestions for the teaching of different subjects appealing to the imagination, the dramatic faculty, love for the narrative, hero worship, urge to enquiry and other natural characteristics of the child. To quote his advise, "Almost every child has an imagination, an instinct for words, a dramatic faculty, a wealth of idea and fancy. These should be interested in the literature and history of the nation. Instead of stupid and dry spelling and reading books, looked on as a dreary and ungrateful task, he should be introduced by rapidly progressive stages to the most interesting parts of his own literature and the life around him and behind him, and they should be put before him in such a way as to attract and 355 appeal to the qualities of which I have spoken. All other study at this period should be devoted to the perfection of the mental functions and the moral character. A foundation should be laid at this time for the study of history, science, philosophy, but not in an obtrusive and formal manner. Every child is a lover of interesting narrative, a hero-worshipper and a patriot. Appeal to these qualities in him and through them let him master without knowing it the living and human parts of his nations's history. Every child is an inquirer, an investigator, analyser, a merciless anatomist. Appeal to those qualities in him and let him acquire without knowing it, the necessary fundamental knowledge of the scientist. Every child has an insatiable intellectual curiosity and turn for metaphysical inquiry. Use it to draw him on slowly to an understanding of the world and himself. Every child has the gift of imitation and a touch of imaginative power. Use it to give him the ground work of the faculty of the artist."52 Three Principles of Teaching Now, before trying to understand methods of teaching of different instruments of the educand one should remember the following three principles of teaching laid down by Sri Aurobindo: 1. The first principle is that nothing can be taught. 2. The second principle is that the mind should be constantly consulted in its growth. 3. The third principle is to work from the near to the far, from that which is to that which shall be.53 Integral Teaching Integral teaching involves training of all the aspects of the educand's mind and personality. Starting with sense training it develops the memory and judgement, the observation and comparison, analogy, reasoning, imagination, language, grammar and meaning of the logical faculty, etc. All these characteristics are present in every child. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, "Every child is an inquirer, an investigator, analyser, a merciless anatomist".54 The first thing to do is to arouse the curiosity, imagination and natural interest of the child so that he may 356 spontaneously enquire, understand and learn. As Sri Aurobindo advises the teachers, "The first work is to interest the child in life, work and knowledge, to develop his instruments of knowledge with the utmost thoroughness, to give him mastery of the medium he must use. Afterwards the rapidity with which he will learn will make up for any delay in taking up regular studies and it will be found that ... he will learn many things thoroughly well."55 Observation Sense training starts with observation. The child has a natural urge to observe the nature around. It is hence that most of the educationists have advised that early education should start with child's observation of nature under the guidance of the teacher. Explaining this method of teaching Sri Aurobindo said, "We may take the instance of a flower. Instead of looking casually at it and getting a casual impression of scent, form and colour, he should be encouraged to know the flower to fix in his mind the exact shade, the precise intensity of he scent, the beauty of curve and design in the form. His touch should assure itself of the texture and its peculiarities. Next, the flower should be taken to pieces and its structure examined with the same carefulness of observation. All this should be done not as a task, but as an object by skilfully arranged questions suited to the learner which will draw him on to observe and investigate one thing after the other until he has almost unconsciously mastered the whole."56 The observation is not confined to the flowers and leaves. The child will also learn by the observation of stars, earth,

stones, insects, animals and things made by human beings. The example of observation given above is particularly useful in the teaching of botany. To quote Sri Aurobindo, "The observation and comparison of flowers, leaves, plants, trees will lay the foundations of botanical knowledge without loading the mind with names and that dry set acquisition of information which is the beginning of cramming and detested by the healthy human mind when it is fresh from nature and unspoiled by unnatural habits."57 Elaborating further use of observation method of teaching other subjects, Sri Aurobindo said, "In the same 357 way by the observation of the stars, astronomy, by the observation of earth, stones, etc. geology, by the observation of insects and animals, entomology and zoology may be founded. A little later chemistry may be started by interesting observation of experiments without any formal teaching or heaping on the mind of formulas and book knowledge."58 Training of Memory and Judgement As in the case of sense training so also in the case of training of the mind Sri Aurobindo wants to make them spontaneous and unconscious. He is against all mechanical, burdensome and unintelligent way of memory training. He is against any use of rote memory. Memory training should involve nothing of similarities and differences in things observed. According to Sri Aurobindo, "A similar but different flower should be put in the hands and he should be encouraged to note it with the same care, but with the avowed object of noting the similarities and differences. By this practice daily repeated the memory will naturally be trained."59 This in its turn will train the faculty of judgement. To quote Sri Aurobindo again, "At every step the boy will have to decide what is the right idea, measurement, appreciation of colour, sound, scent, etc., and what is the wrong. Often the judgements and distinctions made will have to be exceedingly subtle and delicate. At first many errors will be made, but the learner should be taught to trust his judgement without being attached to its results. It will be found that the judgement will soon begin to respond to the calls made on it, clear itself of all errors and begin to judge correctly and minutely. The best way is to accustom the boy to compare his judgements with those of others. When he is wrong, it should at first be pointed out to him how far he was right and why he went wrong; afterwards he should be encouraged to note these things for himself. Every time he is right, his attention should be prominently and encouragingly called to it so that he may get confidence."60 The training of memory and judgement is the basis of every scientific teaching. In the opinion of Sri Aurobindo, "There is no scientific subject the perfect and natural mastery of which cannot be prepared in early childhood by this training of the faculties to observe, compare, remember and judge various 358 classes".61 Judgement gives the ability to choose between right and wrong. It is therefore a prelude to every decision about values. Training of Logical Faculty Training of judgement very much depends upon the training of logical faculty. According to Sri Aurobindo, training of logical reasoning requires the following three elements:62 1. the correctness of the facts, 2. the completeness as well the accuracy of the data, 3. the elimination of other possible or impossible conclusions from the same facts. The young child should be trained to take interest in drawing inferences from the facts. For this purpose he should proceed, "From the example to the rule and from the accumulating harmony of rules to the formal science of the subject".63 The reasoning should proceed from concrete to abstract, since this is the law of training of mental faculties, the sound should be acknowledged before the sense. Explaining his principle in this connection Sri Aurobindo has remarked, "The true knowledge takes its base on things, arthas, and only when it has mastered the thing, proceeds to formalise its information."64 Training of Imagination Several subjects including literature, particularly, require a training of imagination. This is the first requirement of any excellence in any creative art. As Sri Aurobindo has given an important place to art and literature in his plan of education, he insists upon the child's training in imagination. According to him, "This is a most important and indispensable

instrument".65 For the training of imagination Sri Aurobindo recommends, "It may be divided into three functions, the forming of mental images, the power of creating thoughts, images and imitations or new combinations of existing thoughts and images, the appreciation of the soul in things, beauty, charm, greatness, hidden suggestiveness, the emotion and spiritual life that pervades the world".66 359 Training of Language Explaining his principle for training of language, Sri Aurobindo finds out that first the child should know the things and then the ideas. He laments that most of the dealings with language show an absence of fine sense of words. He suggests, "The mind should be accustomed first to notice the word thoroughly, its form, sound and sense; then to compare the form with other similar forms in the points of similarity and difference, thus forming the foundation of the grammatical sense; then to distinguish between the fine shades of sense of similar words and the formation and rhythm of different sentences, thus forming the foundation of the literary and the syntactical faculties".67 All this should be done informally. One should avoid set rules of teaching and memorising. Sri Aurobindo is everywhere against mechanical processes. The teaching should first arouse the interest of the child and then depend upon spontaneous use of his abilities. The child should be allowed absolute freedom in his progress. Free Progress System The followers of Sri Aurobindo have developed a free progress system of education, whose salient features are as follows:68 1. The structure is oriented towards individual needs, interests and abilities. 2. The aspiration, experience of freedom, self-education and experimentation relating inner needs with the curricular provisions, discovering the higher lines of life and the art to encompass. 3. Each student is free to study any subject he chooses at any given time under a sympathetic guidance. 4. Promotion of individual endeavour. 5. Weekly announcement of time-table and lectures to be delivered. 6. Promotion of discussion between teachers and taught and between taught and taught. 7. Projects are announced in each subject and the students select according to their choice. 360 No Set Distinction In his system of education, Sri Aurobindo does not make any distinction on the basis of sex. The education for man and woman should be similar in all respect. Clarifying this rejection of sex distinctions in education, The Mother said, "What we claim is this, that in similar conditions, with the same education and the same possibilities, there is no reason to make a categorical distinction, final and imperative between what we call men and women. For us human beings are the expression of a single soul."69 In his interpretation of his Indian social system Sri Aurobindo laid emphasis upon equality of sexes. He lamented that later on the women were subjugated to men leading to degeneration of society. He proposes that the women should be everywhere treated as equals to men. He is against Indian psychological dictum that male and female should avoid each other's company. He, on the other hand, maintains, "There is no impossibility of friendship between man and woman pure of this element (sex), such friendships can exist and have always existed. All that is needed is that the lower vital should not look in it through the back door or be permitted to enter."70 Therefore, no distinctions are made between boys and girls in Mother's International School or Sri Aurobindo International University at Pondicherry. The most unique feature of the education at these two institutions is the prescription of physical exercises both for boys and girls. Clarifying this policy The Mother said, "In all cases, as well as for boys as for girls, the exercises must be graded according to the strength and capacity of each one. If a weak student tries at once to do hard and heavy exercises, he may suffer for his foolishness. But with a wise and progressive training girls as well as boys can participate in all kinds of sports, increase their strength and health."71 According to Sri Aurobindo both men and women are equally capable to evolve toward perfection to reach gnostic age.

DISCIPLINE AND FREEDOM

The Mother has rightly said, "No big creation is possible without discipline".72 Defining discipline in terms of the highest principle 361 Sri Aurobindo maintained that it is "to act according to a standard of truth or a rule or law of action or in obedience to a superior authority or the highest principle discovered by the reason or intelligent will".73 Thus discipline is a controlled life. The physical, the vital and the mental sources are guided by spirituality. It is against unbridled indulgence in fancies, impulses and desires. It is obedience of the inner sense. Partly, it is also obedience of authority. Kinds of Discipline Discipline, according to Sri Aurobindo, is: Individual discipline, Group discipline and finally Discipline towards the Divine. These distinctions have been made on the basis of the authority functioning in imposition of discipline. Individual discipline is imposed by the individual himself. Group discipline is imposed by the group or the majority or the leader in it. Discipline towards the Divine means, rigorous perusal of the dictates of the Divine. However, these three types of discipline are essentially the same since underlying the individual, group and the universe there is only one Divine principle. Sri Aurobindo maintains that the three aspects of reality, viz., individuality, commonality and essentiality are in fact one. Disciplinary Measures The best way to impose discipline, according to Sri Aurobindo is the atmosphere and the example by the teacher. The following measures have been recommended by Sri Aurobindo and The Mother to inculcate discipline among the students: 1. Generally speaking, the discipline should start at the age of twelve. 2. The most important measure is the example of the teacher. The teacher should be punctual, properly dressed, calm, methodical, orderly, sympathetic and courteous. He should himself present high examples of sincerity, honesty, straightforwardness, courage, distinterestedness, unselfishness, patience, endurance, perseverance, peace and self-control. He should first of all train his own emotions and morals. He should 362 have a respect of the child. Nothing should be imposed from outside but suggested by examples. Examples are the best for the personal guidance and to exercise influence upon the educands. In the words of The Mother, "It is through example that education becomes effective. To say good words, give wise advice to a child has very little effect, if one does not show by one's living example the truth of what one teaches".74 The vibrations between the teacher and the taught should be favourable, there should be no use of force in discipline. According to The Mother, before the age of seven years the child is not conscious of himself and does not know why and how to do things. During this period he should be trained to acquire traits of a human being. From the age of seven years to fourteen years of age, the child should be taught to choose what he wishes to be. At 14, he should be clear at what he wants to do. After 14 years of age he should be left independent to pursue his course. He may be only advised now and then. There can be no definite rules for the guidance of the students in the process of discipline. Sri Aurobindo recommends emphasis upon individual difference without any hammering of the child. He believes that, "Every one has in him something divine, something his own, a chance of perfection and strength in however small a sphere which God offers him to take or refuse. The task is to find it, develop it and use it."75 Finally, discipline is ultimately spiritual. This requires psychic realisation. Sri Aurobindo suggests the following two ways for converting mental seeking into living spiritual experience".76 1. The concentration of the consciousness within especially in the main centresin the heart (the cardiac centre in the middle of the chest) and the head. 2. To accord the naturephysical, vital and mental with the inner realisation so that one may not be divided into two discordant parts.

Among the several ways to accord the nature with the inner realisation, the following two have been particularly emphasised by Sri Aurobindo: 1. To offer all the activities to the divine and call for the inner guidancethe inward soul is being opened, the 363 psychic being comes for help, gradually the imperfections are being removed and the physical consciousness is being reshaped. 2. To stand back detached from the movements of the physical, vital and mental beingbecoming aware of the inner opening of body, life and mind in the psychic entity. Discipline and Freedom From the above discussion, it is clear that according to Sri Aurobindo, freedom is the real discipline. This, however, is only spiritual freedom. In the realm of Spirit there is no chasm between discipline and freedom. Each one has to grow and expand according to his own principle. The inner voice in every educand is in fact the divine principle in him. Thus realisation of freedom is God realisation. As order is the prelude to liberty, similarly discipline is a precondition for realisation of freedom. Code of Conduct This, however, does not mean that there is no code of conduct at The Mother's International School or at Sri Aurobindo's International University. As the principal guide of both these institutions The Mother has laid down code of conduct for the educands. She is against any outward limitation of the child's liberty but she insists that once the choice for joining the above mentioned institutions has been made, there is no turning aside. She is against any use of compulsion or obligation. She however insists upon taking judgement and following them. She advises the educands to arrive at rational decisions and to follow them. She maintains that the class discipline must be followed. In her own words, "But if a student has decided to follow a class, it is an absolutely elementary discipline for him to follow it, he must go to the class regularly and behave decently there: otherwise he is quite unfit to go to school".77 She was against any illusions about the abilities of the educands. She warned, "Do not mistake liberty for licence and freedom for bad manners. The thought must be pure and the aspiration ardent."76 She laid down the following code of behaviour for the students: 364 1. The good manners should be always observed. 2. Everyone should always speak the truth. 3. Truth in speech demands truth in acts too. 4. It is forbidden for children to fight at school, in the street, in the playground and at home. "Always and everywhere it is forbidden for children to fight among themselves, for each time one gives a blow to someone, it is to one's own soul that one gives it."79 5. The child should always remember: The necessity of an absolute sincerity. The certitude of Truth's final victory. The possibility of constant progress with the will to achieve.80

EVALUATION AND EXAMINATION

Rejecting the so-called mental tests, the Mother said, "I find tests an obsolete and ineffective way of knowing if the students are intelligent, willing and attentive. A silly, mechanical mind can very well answer a test if the memory is good and these are certainly not the qualities required for a man of the future."81 She not only rejects the mental test but also suggests alternatives. "To know if a student is good, needs, if the tests are abolished, a little more inner contact and psychological knowledge for the teacher. But our teachers are expected to do yoga, so this ought not to be difficult for them."82

Spontaneous Evaluation In two words, the method of evaluation in Sri Aurobindo's system of education, may be called spontaneous evaluation. This depends upon the inner contact, keen observation and impartial outlook of the evaluator. The tests of progress are not the essay type examinations. In the words of Sri Aurobindo, "We must direct our school and university examinations to the testing of these active faculties and not of the memory".83 Criticising the prevalent system of education conducted by the British in India, Sri Aurobindo pointed out that in it the students do not achieve the real purpose of education. He was against education only for earning livelihood. According to him the students are, "To learn in order to know, to 365 study in order to have the knowledge of the secrets of nature and of life, to educate oneself in order to increase one's consciousness, to discipline oneself in order to be master of oneself, to overcome one's weakness, one's incapacity and ignorance, to prepare oneself in order to progress in life towards a goal that is nobler and vaster, more generous and more true. . . ."84 To meet the above purpose, Sri Aurobindo's International Centre of Education, Pondicherry, has evolved "Free Progress System," based upon subjective evaluation by the teachers. Progress records ware to be filled by the students while the teacher has to note their comments. Clarifying this system of evaluation, The Mother told the teachers, "At the end of the year you will give notes to the students, not based on written test-papers, but on their behaviour, their concentration, their regularity, their promptness to understand and their openness of intelligence."85 Our discussion of the philosophy of education, as given by Sri Aurobindo, clearly points out that this is a new experiment in education. Its philosophical foundations and psychological credibility is sound. Its success, however, requires a large band of devoted, sincere and spiritual teachers, prepared to carry on the burden of education against all odds. So long as such a band is not available it is just an experiment.

References
1. Sri Aurobindo, Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part I, p. 3. 2. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1971, Volume 15, p. 605. 3. Ibid., pp. 27-28. 4. Dowsett, N.C., Psychology for Future Education, Aurobindo Ashram Pondicherry (1977), p. 9. 5. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part I, p. 1. 6. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.I., 1972, Volume 17, p. 198. 7. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1971, Vol. 15, p. 186. 8. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part I, p. 7. 9. Ibid., p. 8. 10. Ibid., p. 10. 366 11. Ibid., p. 11. 12. Ibid., p. 14. 13. Ibid., p. 16. 14. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1970, Volume 13, pp. 499-500. 15. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1971, Volume 13, pp. 605. 16. Dowsett, N.C., The Psychology for Future Educntion, Aurobindo Ashram Pondicherry (1977), p. 13.

17. Ibid., pp. 25-26. 18. Ibid., p. 28. 19. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.I., 1972, Volume, 17, p. 194. 20. Sharma, R.N., Social Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo, 1981, Vineet Publications, Meerut, Chapter I. 21. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1972, Volume, 17. 22. Ibid., Volume III, p. 131. 23. Ibid., p. 132. 24. Joshi, Kirit, Nav Chetana, Mothers International School (1977), pp. 5-7. 25. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part II, pp. 4-5. 26. Ibid., p. 7. 27. Ibid., pp. 8-9. 28. Ibid., p. 8. 29. Ibid., p. 1. 30. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1972, Volume 17, p. 205. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid., p. 194. 33. Ibid., p. 193. 34. Ibid., pp. 244-46. 35. Ibid., pp. 24-42. 36. Ibid., p. 245. 37. Ibid., pp. 207-8. 38. Ibid., p. 212. 39. Dowsett, N.C., Psychology for Future Education, Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry (1977), pp. 218-29. 40. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part II, pp. 28-29. 41. Ibid., part III, p. 22. 42. Ibid., p. 23. 43. Ibid., pp. 19-21. 44. Ibid., p. 20. 45. Ibid., p. 21. 46. Ibid., p. 23. 367 47. Ibid., p. 26. 48. Ibid., p. 11. 49. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1972, Volume 17, p. 213.

50. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part II, p. 17. 51. Ibid. 52. Ibid., pp. 11-12. 53. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1972, Volume, 17, p. 204. 54. Ibid., p. 215. 55. Ibid. 56. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part II, p. 13. 57. Ibid., p. 14. 58. Ibid. 59. Ibid., p. 14. 60. Ibid., p. 15. 61. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1972, Volume XVII, p. 223. 62. Ibid., p. 226. 63. Ibid., pp. 226-27. 64. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part II, p. 17. 65. Ibid. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid. 68. Joshi Kirit, Nev Chetna, Mothers International School, New Delhi (1977), pp. 5-7. 69. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Women, 1978, p. 17. 70. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1970, Volume 23, p. 817. 71. On Women, 1978, p. 58. 72. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part II, p. 26. 73. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1970, Volume 23, p. 862. 74. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part II, p. 27. 75. Sri Aurobindo, B.C.L., 1972, Volume, 17, p. 204. 76. Ibid., Volume 23, pp. 517-19. 77. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part III, p. 20. 78. Ibid., p. 72. 79. Ibid. 80. Sri Aurobindo and The Mother on Education, Part III, p. 22. 81. Ibid., Part II, p. 30. 82. Ibid., p. 31.

83. Ibid. 84. Ibid. 85. Ibid. 368

Questions for Exercise

1. Discuss the nature of education envisaged by Sri Aurobindo. 2. Write a short note on Principles of Sri Aurobindo's New Education. 3. Explain Sri Aurobindo's concept of the School and the Teacher. 4. Discuss Sri Aurobindo's criteria for planning curricula. Give a tentative educational plan. 5. Describe Sri Aurobindo's methods and principles of teaching. 6. Elaborate the various elements of Integral Teaching according to Sri Aurobindo. 369

21 Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru was born in a respectable and wealthy family during the period of national awakening. Consequently, his mind received the deepest impact of the evil consequences of First World War, the Home Rule League movement inspired by Lokmanya Tilak and Mrs. Annie Besant, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and widespread public movements. This made him give up a life of leisure and jump wholeheartedly into the national movement for independence. It is from here that Nehru's political life was completely dominated by M.K. Gandhi, whom Nehru met for the first time during the Lucknow convention of the Congress in 1916. Nehru initially considered Gandhiji a non-political individual. However, gradually, Gandhi's influence on Nehru began to increase. It reached the high water mark of faith at the time when, in 1919, the Punjab Enquiry Commission was constituted.

INFLUENCES ON EDUCATIONAL THOUGHT

Jawaharlal Nehru's educational thought is influenced on the one side by such a Western thinker as Karl Marx, and on the other by the ideas of Gandhi, though he never became a blind devotee of Gandhi. Their mutual relationship can be exemplified through the relationship between Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle, Plato's disciple, gave full respect to Plato and accepted his teacher's ideas, but he also differed from him on many essential points. In the same way, Nehru often criticised Gandhi very vehemently. In 1922, when Gandhi suspended the non-cooperation movement after the ChauraChauri incident, Nehru 370 was deeply chagrined. In the same way, Nehru did not owe the same allegiance to, or have faith in, the principle of nonviolence as Gandhiji. He considered violence as a necessary tool both for maintaining peace in the country and ensuring its security.

IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION
Jawaharlal Nehru has accepted education as the most important means to social change. His attitude towards education was scientific and worldly. Political thinkers and educational philosophers the world over admit that it is not possible to establish a democratic society successfully without an adequate and suitable system of education. Jawaharlal Nehru was of the same opinion. In consequence, he stressed the fact that, "Only through right education can be better order of society be built up."1 Being a socialist, Nehru attaches particular significance to the social objectives of education. According to him, "Education is the most important requisite to open up the individual."2 "Freedom from ignorance is as essential as freedom from hunger."3 Education is the means to socialisation, it is the tool which trains citizens in the art of thinking. According to Nehru, the problems of a country cannot be solved merely through economic and political reform, since they require improved human relations also. Social development is inconceivable without mental development and a

broadening of the mental horizon. As a result, the major purpose of education is the victory of the mind and soul over lifeless matter. Nehru said, "Unless this conflict of the spirit is solved there is going to be no peace in any country."4

AIMS OF EDUCATION
Nehru's views on the aims of education bear resemblance to Rabindranath's ideas because both of them were firm internationalists and humanists. In his address to the students of Allahabad University, Jawaharlal Nehru said, "A university stands for humanism, for tolerance, for reason, for the adventure of ideas and for the search for truth."5 More or less the same words were repeated by Rabindranath when Visva-Bharati was 371 established. Like other contemporary thinkers, Nehru too has stressed the spiritual aspect of social development. He said, "Without that spiritual element, probably the disintegration of society will proceed in spite of all material advance."6 Clarifying Nehru's humanistic conception of education, K.G. Saiyedain remarks, "His interest in education stems basically from his interest in people, for, what is a good social order but the means for nurturing a good human personality?"7 Because of his socialistic bias, Nehru explained the social objectives of education in human development thus, "When we consider the whole subject of education we have to think in terms of the State and the society we are aiming at; we have to train our people to that end; we have to decide what our citizens should be like and what their occupations should be ... we have to produce harmony and equilibrium in their private and social and public life."8 He expressed his admiration for the Russian system of education in the following terms. "The object aimed at is to produce a desire to serve the community as a whole and to apply the knowledge gained not only for personal but for public welfare."9

MEANS OF EDUCATION
Nehru tried to establish a system of education in India comparable to the West. The objective of his education was to do away with such narrow viewpoints as linguism, communalism, religiosity, etc., and to generate in people a viewpoint which was scientific, humanistic, materialistic and ethical. An education of this kind alone can bring about the desired social change in the country. Welcoming English or British education into India, Nehru had remarked, "English education brought a widening of the Indian horizons ... a revolt against some customs and aspects of Indian life, and a growing demand for political reform."10 This system of education represented exactly the system that Nehru wanted for India. He said, "I am all for opening our minds to every kind of knowledge and information that can be obtained. I am all for free intercourse with the rest of the world."11 Education is a safeguard against narrow mindedness of all kinds. The economic objectives of education are as important 372 as its social purposes because while on the one side it must aim at man's cultural improvement, on the other it must enable him to generate wealth in society. As Jawaharlal Nehru put it, "What is important is that each person should produce something of value to society. Each one of you consumes what society produce by way of food, clothing and so on unless you produce the amount you consume you are a burden to society."12 For this, as Nehru realised, the country had dire need of practical, scientific and technical education. It is because of this that Nehru laid so much stress on formulating an educational strategy for the independent India of the future. He declared, "In particular we want a system which can train the right type of personnel for the speedy exemption of development plans."13

TYPES OF EDUCATION
Basic Education Being Gandhi's associate in the political field, Jawaharlal Nehru welcomed Gandhi's concept of basic education because he believed that, "Real education . . . must be based on the actual environment and experiences of the child, and it must fit him for the work he will have to do in after life."14 Accepting the importance of manual skill in education, Nehru said, "The mind is stimulated thereby and there is a coordination between the activities of the mind and the hands."15 Consequently, accepting the importance of basic education for India, Nehru said, "It is the most modern concept meant to make a person fit intellectually and otherwise."16 Basic education was considered important both because it was revolutionary and also relatively inexpensive. In Nehru's words, "For a poor country like India with scores of millions of children to educate, the question of cost is important."17 Elaborating the virtues of the Gandhian concept of basic education, Nehru eulogised thus, "It gives the child some cultural

attainments, character and the capacity to work with his hands and to co-ordinate manual labour with mental and intellectual ability."18 In this way, basic education was seen as a way out of the pervasive unemployment existing in the country. 373 Scientific and Technical Education Nehru believed that industrialization was necessary for national progress in the economic field because he was convinced that without the development of science and industry, the country could never be rid of poverty and unemployment. Consequently, he laid great emphasis upon the rapid growth of scientific and technical education in India. Being a humanist, the explained the scientific purpose of education by pointing out that by scientific developments, the minds of the rising generation may imbibe the spirit of science and be prepared to accept the new truth, even though it has to discard something of the old."19 Consequently, Nehru stated explicitly, that there is no future for us without science and technology. He regarded scientific and technical education as essential for the success of the nation's Five Year Plans. In this context, he said, "It would not be possible for us to go ahead with these plans unless there was a high standard of technical and scientific education."20 In the same way, this education was equally important for the nation's defence, because, as Nehru pointed out with great practical wisdom and foresight, "Strictly from the point of view of defence we have to go ahead rapidly with the production of trained people . . . engineers and the like . . . education will raise the level of our industrial effort and agricultural effort."21 Thus, education is necessary for both peace and war. But this does not imply that Nehru wanted to thrust the values of the Western industrialised world on India through scientific and technical education. In fact, he warned the nation against the pitfalls of industrialization when he said, "We should accept technology without leaving basic values which are of the essence of civilized man."22 Elaborating further he said, "Scientific and technical education will serve its purpose if it develops that humanistic spirit which is essentially one of tolerance, one of humanity, one of realisation that somebody else may also have a bit of the truth."23 Cultural Education In addition to scientific and technical education, Nehru regarded cultural education as equally important for the integral 374 development of the human personality. From this viewpoint, he regarded education in literature, art and the humanities as of great significance. As he explained, "If that creative imagination is lacking, our growth becomes more and more stunted, which is a sign of decay."24 In order to ensure that education in art and culture should grow rapidly in the country, Nehru advised that special institutions devoted to their propagation should be established in the country. He was himself the President of the Sahitya Academy. It was his considered opinion that the state should have as little interference as possible in artistic, literary and educational activities. He said, "It is only when they manifestly become a social menance or a social danger that government must move, and move with a firm determination".25

EDUCATION FOR WOMEN

Nehru's viewpoint on the means and ends of education was comprehensive, integral, scientific and humanistic. Apart from cogitating upon the various aspects of education, he pointed out the importance of making provisions for the education of the backward classes. His social ideas give a central place to the amelioration of the lot of the backward classes, and consequently, in education, he has given great importance to their education. Having seen the backwardness of Indian women he realised the need for their education. It is this which led him to elaborate that, "Women should be given the best of education in every department of human activity and be trained to play an effective part in all ... spheres."26 Pointing to the role of mothers in the creations of an educated future generation, he said, "If you educate the women, probably men will also be effected since every educationist knows that the formative years of a person's life are the first seven or eight years."27

So in his opinion, women should be provided education and training, if not for their own sake, then for the sake of their children. He also pointed out that education would put women on the path to economic independence. He explained, "Everybody should be a producer as well as a good citizen and not a sponge on another person even though the other person may be one's own husband or wife."20 375 He felt that the provisions for education of women in the country must be extended to villages so that the rural sector should be made amenable to rapid social change. Nehru felt that the education of women was very important for the success of family planning and family welfare schemes. So, he pointed out that it is these girls who are likely to change the living habits of our people and will probably succeed in carrying this message of family planning further than some of the official plans. As has been already made clear, Nehru stressed the importance of regional languages along with English as the media of education. The preceding analysis makes it amply clear that Nehru's thinking on education, like his thoughts on the other fields of thought, evinces a scientific, rational, progressive, liberal and humanistic attitude.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GANDHI AND NEHRU

Before examining Nehru's educational philosophy in details, it is desirable to understand clearly the difference between his ideas and that of Gandhi. The following is a brief account of their fundamental variance: 1. Concept of Religion and faith in it. Gandhi was, by nature, a very religious individual whereas Nehru subscribed to the ideal of secularity. Gandhi openly praised Hindu religion, while Nehru has rarely indulged in such encomiums. Gandhi has repeatedly stressed the virtues of religion but practically overlooked its vices, while Nehru did the exact opposite. Despite this, the two thinkers appear to have quite common views regarding the fundamental elements of religion. 2. Conception of Non-Violence. Gandhi believed that nonviolence is the highest religion but Nehru did not have such abiding faith in it. He favoured non-violence because he saw it as the most appropriate means available to India in the existing circumstances. He was also attracted towards non-violence by the spectacularly successful use made of it by Gandhi. He also came to realise that non-violence is an active force. He agreed with Gandhi's arguments favouring nonviolence, but on the other hand, he also believed that violence or the use of force was necessary both for maintaining internal peace within the 376 country and also for securing it against external invasion. He consistently refuted the Gandhian thesis that non-violence is truth because he saw the non-violent state as contrary to both logic (or rational thought) and science. In this way, Nehru visualises the use of force as unavoidable in the life of society and the state. 3. Difference in the basis of Humanism. Both Gandhi and Nehru were humanists but their views were rooted in different substrata. Gandhi's humanism had its root in his religious sentiment and faith in God while Nehru's conception was based on his implicit faith in man's innate power and potential. He had the deepest sentimental faith in mankind and believe in the ideal of a single, united world. He had profound faith in man's innate greatness. Thus, while Gandhi's humanism is essentially religious, Nehru's humanism may be considered scientific and ethical. 4. Concept of the Welfare State. The Gandhian concept of the welfare state differs considerably from Nehru's, since Nehru did not conceive of it as a non-violent state, which Gandhiji did. Besides, he wanted to base it on secularism, not on any specific religion. His viewpoint was more realistic. 5. Industrial Policy. Gandhi was a staunch opponent of big industry, because of which he wished to establish small and cottage industries in the country. In contrast, Nehru favoured modern science, and believed that the importance of large scale industry in eliminating poverty could not be denied. In his famous work, Discovery of India, he wrote, "What I object is the craze for machinery and not machinery as such. If we could have electricity in every village home, I shall not mind villagers playing their implements and tools with electricity."29 6. Relationship between Means and Ends. Although both Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru subscribed to the view that both means and ends must possess identical moral probity. Nehru admitted that exceptions to the role were also important, Gandhi in contrast, could not countenance any such violation of the principle. His thoughts having been influenced by Gandhi on the one side and Karl Marx on the other, Nehru has spoken in favour of revolution at certain places. 7. Concept of the Ideal State. Gandhi entitled his ideal state "Ram Rajya", but Nehru objected to the view because it carried

377 clear overtones of a profound faith in Hindu religion, though he did not lay any great stress on this objection. Apart from this, their respective conceptions of the ideal state can be seen differing in respect of the importance of non-violence, the use of force, small and large industries and many other elements. 8. Effect of the East and the West. Gandhi was devoted to Eastern thought whereas Nehru's mind was more profoundly coloured by Western ideas because of his education at Cambridge University which had understandably formed and shaped his mind. Because of this, Nehru wanted the nation to move ahead according to the ideas of progress imbibed from the West. On the other hand, Gandhi gave his allegiance to traditional Indian values, and wanted to prevent the nation from going the Western way. 9. Difference in Social Ideals. Elaborating on the differences between the social ideas of Nehru and Gandhi, Abid Hussain has explained that on comparing the social ideals of Nehru and Gandhi we find that in spite of many common elements, that are notable differences in structure and force, and as a result, all the conceptions appear to be completely different. Both have profound faith in freedom and equality, but Gandhi lays greater emphasis on freedom while Nehru stresses equality. In the final analysis, these difference stem from the basic difference between the religious and the secular viewpoints. 10. Other Differences. Gandhi's thinking started from the individual whereas Nehru gave primacy to the welfare state. In his concept of trusteeship, Gandhi has visualised a change of heart among capitalists but Nehru rejected any possibility of this, and so his economic views could not accommodate the theory of trusteeship. Despite the wide range of differences between the ideas of Gandhi and Nehru explained above, a close similarity between their thoughts on non-violence, democracy, welfare state, opposition to communalism, eradication of untouchability, nationalism and internationalism can be seen.

References
1. Nehru, J.L., Soviet Russia, p. 85. 2. Nehru, J.L., Speeches, Vol. IV, p. 183. 378 3. Ibid. 4. Nehru, J.L., Independence and After, p. 113. 5. Ibid. 6. Nehru, J.L., Speeches, Vol. IV, p. 169. 7. Zakaria, R. (Ed.), A Study of Nehru, p. 395. 8. Nehru, J.L., Eighteen Months in India, p. 284. 9. Nehru, J.L., Soviet Russia, p. 94. 10. Nehru, J.L., The Discovery of India, p. 337. 11. Nehru, J.L., Speeches, Vol. II, p. 72. 12. Ibid., Vol. III, p. 405. 13. Ibid. 14. Nehru, J.L., Soviet Russia, pp. 86-87. 15. Nehru, J.L., Discovery of India, p. 43. 16. Nehru, J.L., Speeches, Vol. IV., p. 163. 17. Nehru, J.L., An Autobiography, p. 604.

18. Nehru, J.L., Speeches, Vol. III, p. 406. 19. Nehru, J.L., India Today and Tomorrow, p. 4. 20. Nehru, J.L., Speeches, Vol. III, p. 422. 21. Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 149. 22. Ibid., p. 170. 23. Ibid., Vol. III, p. 433. 24. Ibid., Vol. II, p. 383. 25. Ibid., Vol. III, p. 409. 26. Nehru, J.L., Recent Essays and Writings, p. 146. 27. Nehru, J.L., Speeches, Vol. III, p. 398. 28. Nehru, J.L., Discovery of India, p. 356. 29. Ibid.

Questions for Exercise

1. Explain the philosophical foundations of J.L. Nehru's Philosophy of Education. 2. Discuss the aims, means and importance of education according to J.L. Nehru. 379

22 Radical Humanism
The foundation of the educational philosophy of M.N. Roy are rooted in Radical Humanism. Radical humanism is neither materialism nor idealism but a scientific philosophy insisting upon the freedom of the individual. The function of philosophy, according to M.N. Roy, "is to explain existence as a whole."1 Distinguishing between the function of philosophy and science Roy said, "The function of science is to describe; that of philosophy is to explain. Therefore philosophy is called the science of sciences."2 Thus philosophy, according to Roy, should be based upon scientific foundation. According to him, "Modern scientific philosophy is decidedly opposed to any idealist doctrine."3 Again, it is against mysticism. "Mysticism results from ignorance,"4 said M.N. Roy. It implies an admission of defeat. Roy is against all brands of mysticism, metaphysical, logical or spiritual. According to him, "General laws of science have philosophical validity."5 Science gradually explains philosophical problems. Scientific knowledge is the result of scientific method. These methods utilise experience and reason. Scientific investigation, according to Roy, "must place ontology before epistemology."6 In the world view of M.N. Roy being and becoming both are important. "Becoming is the essence of being."7 The world, according to Roy is dynamic. Therefore it is becoming, change and evolution. Criticising absolute idealism, Roy said, "Absolute idealism is a double-edged sword. It throws matter out of the front-door only to let it in by the back-door."8 Noumenon as well as phenomenon are projections of our consciousness. Consciousness is the soul of reality. Roy has condemned subjective approach to reality. 380

MATERIALISTIC MONISM
The metaphysical theory of the educational philosophy of M.N. Roy may be called materialistic monism or monistic naturalism. While according to the former, matter is the only ultimate reality, according to later the ultimate reality is Nature. Thus the philosophy of M.N. Roy is monistic. As has been already pointed out, Roy considered dualism to be the greatest difficulty faced by the philosophers. On his part he presents a philosophical view which involves the latest findings of physical and social sciences. The values, according to Roy, cannot be derived from the facts. They are selfevident and no less objective than facts. The ultimate reality is Nature or Matter. From matter has gradually evolved life and from animal life has evolved man. Therefore, man according to Roy, is biological. The humanist ethics is

evolutionary.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
To Establish Humanist System The aim of life is to live. Struggle for existence is the basic drive in organism. Thus Roy believes in Darwinian theory of evolution. The highest value in the human world is liberty. Our aim is to establish a social system which finds maximum freedom for the individual. Value cannot exist apart from man. Knowledge, truth, liberty are meaningful only in human context. Quest for Freedom and Search for Truth Thus the world view of M.N. Roy is man-centred. Man has the central position in cosmos. According to the rule 1 of Radical humanism, "Man is the archetype of society, co-operative social relationships contribute to develop individual potentialities. But the development of the individual is the measure of social progress."9 Explaining social progress Roy laid down the second principle "Quest for freedom and search for truth constitute the basic urge of human progress."10 Making liberty of man the basic search in progress Roy said, "The purpose of all rational human endeavour, individual as well as collective, is attainment of freedom, in ever increasing measure."11 381 The peculiar trait of man is his rationality. Man can make the world better with the help of science. Thought and environment interact. Real revolution requires full freedom of the individual. Therefore, Roy rejects the economic interpretation of history advanced by Karl Marx. Man according to him, is not an economic being but a moral being. Intellectual and spiritual life are conditioned by instinct of reason. According to Roy, "The residue of humanness, therefore, is the biological heritage of reason. To put the same thing differently, human nature is not to believe, but to struggle for freedom and search for truth, the latter aspect manifesting itself in homo sapiens".12 Morality is not directly derived from religion. Even the savage has a strong sense of good and bad. The quest for freedom distinguishes man from animals. Truth is a matter of human experience. Man's struggle for freedom is guided by his knowledge of nature. According to Roy, "The search for truth, therefore, is intimately associated with the quest of freedom as the essence of human nature."13 This is the fundamental principle in the educational philosophy of M.N. Roy. Manifestation of Unmanifested Capacities According to Roy there can be no other purpose of life than living. Thus human life aims at expression of human processess. Since human society is constituted by human being therefore its purpose is to serve the purposes of individuals. Thus human life itself is the aim of human collectivity. Since man has evolved out of the animal therefore the purpose of human life may be initially interpreted in biological terms. Struggle for existence is the first purpose of human beings. The human society makes the individual well versed in this study. The human reason contributes for the efficiency in this struggle for existence. The aim of education is to manifest the unmanifested capacities of human individuals inherited as a biological organism. The reason has developed in the struggle for survival and the powers of judgement have evolved. This evolution has further led man to the moral level. The capacity of judgement is the basis of ethics and all moral values. Thus the struggle for survival together with conscious and rational efforts become the urge for liberty. The struggle for survival is waged in an 382 environment. Efficiency in it requires all the instruments of struggle. The society is the outcome of man's urge to liberty since without it the individual alone could not face natural calamities. He needed the co-operation of others for hunting, agriculture and many other pursuits. It is hence that individuals combined to form society. Thus the only aim of society is to help the individual. Any social organisation which is an impediment to the free growth of the individual frustrates the very purpose for which it has been created. Therefore there is hardly any contradiction in social organisation and liberty of the individual. In fact there is hardly any problem in the relationship of the individual and collectivity. This problem is the result of the false notion that the collectivity is above the individual or that it has any purpose different from the purpose of its constituents. If it is understood that the collectivity has no purpose apart from the purpose of the individual the controversy never arises. Individual Welfare

The above mentioned principle may be used for the interpretation of the aim of education. The first and foremost need of man is to maintain physical existence. But, gradually as the society became more and more complex, the intellectual, moral and spiritual needs manifested. Man is the representative of society and requires social relationships for the development of individual capacities. The individual development is the criterion of social development since the individual is prior to collectivity. The moral traits like liberty, progress, welfare etc., are first achieved by the individuals. In the end any welfare is ultimately individual welfare. There is no separate welfare of the collectivity. In the words of Roy, "Collective well-being is a function of the well-being of individuals."14 Meaning of Liberty Explaining liberty as the aim of education Roy said, "The purpose of all rational human endeavour, individual as well as collective, is attainment of freedom in ever increasing measure. Freedom is progressive disappearance of all restrictions on the unfolding of 383 the potentialities of individuals, as human beings, and not as cogs in the wheels of a mechanised social organism "15 According to the third principle of democracy the freedom of the individual is the only aim of the collectivity of the state. As has been already pointed out, reason is the fundamental characteristic of human nature. Along with reason man has been endowed with emotions. The human will is the most potent element in human society. It is the determinant of human history. Marxist economic interpretation of history' is born out of dualism. It is true that history is a determined process but the factors determining it are not one but many, of which human will is an important factor. Therefore, according to the third principle of radical humanism the only purpose of the collectivity and the state is the liberty of the individual. It is clear that man's freedom is the highest moral standard according to radical humanist ethics. In the words of M.N. Roy, "The axiology of Radical Humanism deduces all values from the supreme value of life, because the urge for freedom is the essence of human existence."16 In the process of evolution, according to Roy, moral values have evolved out of the animal traits. Radical humanist ethics does not require any religious or trans-mundane basis. In the words of Roy, "To be moral, one needs only to be human; it is not necessary to go in search of divine or mystic-metaphysical sanction. Humanist morality is evolutionary."17 Need Based Values Humanist educational values have evolved out of human needs. Besides liberty Roy refers to other values. To quote his own words, "The hierarchy of humanist axiology, thus, is freedom, knowledge, truth. They are not autonomous; they are interrelated, logically as well as ontologically."18 Thus liberty and goodness are intimately related. So are related knowledge and virtue. Reminding the ancient Greek Socratic ethics Roy said, "Therefore, freedom cannot be attained by immoral means, nor can an enlightened man be a liar".19 Value of Reason Reason, according to Roy is the basic trait of human being. This reason is the determinant of history as well as economics. 384 Revolution according to Roy requires economic reorganisation for the provision of maximum liberty to everyone. To quote his words, "For creating a new world of freedom, revolution must go beyond an economic reorganisation of society. Freedom does not necessarily follow from the capture of political power in the name of the oppressed and exploited classes and abolition of private property in the means of production."20 Again, a moral order will result from a rationally organised society, because, viewed in the context of his rise out of the background of a harmonious physical Universe, man is essentially rational and therefore moral. Education fulfils the rational desire for harmonious and mutually beneficial social relations.

MEANS OF EDUCATION
Encouragement to Reason In his work, Politics, Power and Parties, M.N. Roy has elaborated his educational thought. Like Plato he insists that no ideal republic can be established in the absence of educated persons. According to him so long as the individuals are

unable to distinguish between right and wrong no good society can be established. In other words, an ideal society is constituted by rational men and women. This rationality is a characteristic found everywhere. According to Roy it is scientific knowledge that every human being possesses reason and rational thought, a characteristic of intelligence, a trait of human nature.21 Therefore what is required is to encourage reason in man. This is possible only through education. According to Roy those who want to put democracy in practice should feel that democracy is impossible without education.22 Freedom from Compulsions Here education does not mean literacy nor compulsory primary education. Roy is against any compulsion in education because compulsion is against liberty. Criticising the prevalent system of education, Roy pointed out that what is required is a different type of education. An education which seeks to maintain the status quo is not suitable for making the community conscious 385 of its inherent powers. Education should help men and women to think rationally and to decide themselves, about the problems to be solved. Roy lamented that no government provides such an education. Almost all the government in the world aim at creating mental slavery through education. The state governed education, teaches the masses to sing songs of patriotism to salute the national flag, to study the history edited by government, and to work collectively to achieve success of the state. Therefore, the demand of the state governed education is suicidal in backward and underdeveloped countries. No national education provided by government in any country is the true democratic education.

TYPES OF EDUCATION
Education of Citizenship In his radical social thought Roy has considered education the foundation for democracy since it is only through it that rational individual may be created. Clarifying the aim of his new system of education Roy pointed out that believing in the modern scientific knowledge that man is basically rational; we will attempt to arouse rationality of all the citizens. This is the aim of education.23 Once this process of education is started, other steps may be taken for the establishment of democracy because every such step requires rational judgement. According to M.N. Roy education of the citizens is necessary for the establishment of scientific politics in place of party politics. He maintained that the education of the citizens and the gradual building up of a political organisation from below is the only guarantee against the dangers of party system.24 Further clarifying this guarantee Roy pointed out that scientific education will make people selfdependent, rational and distinctive and therefore they will not be further hypnotised for any evil purpose. It will give birth to a new institutional organisation which will be a guarantee against exploitation by an individual or a group of individuals.25 Political Education Thus the expansion of education will make the citizen oppose 386 all sorts of exploitation by an individual or a group. In the present situation victory in elections is not the proof of a party of being democratic since most of the voters are uneducated and cannot oppose the political party in power. It is only through education that the public will rise to oppose any immoral or inadequate political party and may not allow it to come in power again. Thus humanist politics is ultimately base upon education. Education of Freedom Explaining his democratic new educational system Roy pointed out that as a precondition of democracy education is not primary education nor is it traditional higher or scientific education. It is the process of raising the intellectual and cultural level of the mass.26 Therefore, so long as the moral and cultural level of the people does not rise, the aim of education is not realised. The education provided in so-called parliamentary democracies is not the education of freedom but an education of slavery. These states provide compulsory free primary education to create citizens supporting the state and not free individuals. According to M.N. Roy, new humanism expresses a new viewpoint toward the problems of education which suggests that given opportunity every human being has the capacity to develop his abilities to an ultimated extent.27 According to new humanism it is not in the interest of the government or the state to curb the citizen's freedom

to grow their capacities because ultimately a welfare state aims at making its citizens more and more free. The aim of education is not merely to provide three R's but to create among the people a consciousness towards humanity, consciousness towards its right to be human beings and consciousness of its excellence and dignity. The purpose of education is to help them in utilising their reason in this thinking.28 It is only such an education which may create true democracy not only in a nation but in the whole world. This educational system however, as has been already pointed out, will be run not by the government but by the public itself. 387

EDUCATION FOR DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF SOCIETY

According to M.N. Roy the basic difficulty with the present society is the suppression of individual freedom. Social justice requires that all individuals must be free and equal. Roy is not satisfied by merely establishing political democracy. He pleads for economic social democracy. The essential conditions of success of democracy according to him is the creation of free individuals. This can be done by means of education. This education must be equally available to all the sections of society. Roy condemns the ancient Indian distinction between male and female, Brahmin and Shudra regarding the facility of education. His spiritualism is anti-traditionalism. Therefore he strongly condemns any distinction between different sections of society based upon political, economic or social considerations. The aims and ideals of education can be achieved only by realisation of human values and the establishment of a humanist society. The sole aim of the state is to help in the achievement of this aim. Therefore, the state must arrange for the education of different sections of society. This requires additional help to backward sections since they are lagging behind other sections of society. During Roy's time sufficient facility of education was not available to females and backward classes in India. Along with most of his contemporary Indian philosophers of education Roy raised his voice against this inequality. The credit of the vast expansion of education among these sections of Indian society goes as much to Roy as to other contemporary Indian philosophers of education.

References
1. Roy, M.N., Science and Philosophy (Calcutta: Renaissance Publishers, 1947), p. 31. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid., p. 34. 5. Ibid., p. 37. 6. Ibid., p. 45. 7. Ibid., p. 47. 8. Roy, M.N., New Humanism (Calcutta: Renaissance Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1961), p. 51. 9. Ibid. 388 10. Ibid., pp. 51-52. 11. Roy, M.N., Reason, Romanticism and Revolution, Vol. I, p. 23. 12. Ibid., p. 32. 13. Ibid., pp. 51-52. 14. Roy, M.N., Radical Humanism, p. 17. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 17. Ibid. 18. Roy, M.N., New Humanism (Calcutta: Renaissance Publishers, 1961), p. 53.

19. Roy, M.N., Politics, Power and Parties, p. 72. 20. Ibid., p. 58. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid., p. 59. 23. Ibid., p. 85. 24. Ibid., p. 101. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid., p. 118. 27. Ibid., p. 119. 28. Ibid., p. 121.

Questions for Exercise

1. Explain Radical Humanism and Materialistic Monism as philosophical background of M.N. Roy's theme of education. 2. Describe the aim and means of education according to M.N. Roy. 3. Assess M.N. Roy's contribution to Indian philosophy of education. 389

23 Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan
Radhakrishnan has acclaimed ancient Vedanta philosophy as the basis of his philosophical ideas. He is a neo-Vedantic and the Vedanta philosophy is characteristically monistic, idealistic and integral. The integral spirit is characteristic of not only the philosophical thinking of S. Radhakrishnan but also of his multisided life involving not only religious and philosophical activity but also intense activity in social, educational and political fields.

Metaphysics
Radhakrishnan was an idealist philosopher. He was an advocate of ancient Indian Vedanta philosophy. This is very much clear from his works The Hindu View of Life, Brahmasutra, An Idealist View of Life etc. He defined philosophy as a combination of reflection and intuition.1 According to him the aim of philosophy is to search that synthesis which may include all the aspects of creation. Philosophy, according to him, "is an attempt of human being to know the problems of creation and the nature of ultimate reality."2 In epistemology Radhakrishnan admitted the value of both reason and faith, logic and experience. He admitted the value of perceptual, conceptual and intuitive knowledge in education. According to him intuitive knowledge is the highest knowledge.3 It is an integral experience. He admitted mystic experience as a part of intuitive experience.4 Total experience is gained by total self and it is much higher than any other experience gained by any part of man's being.5 Creative insight has an important place in total knowledge. 390 Radhakrishnan however, is nowhere an anti-intellectualist like Bergson or Bradley. He was not a mystic in the final analysis. His philosophy has been rightly interpreted as Integral experience. Integral experience finds place for every other type of experience in it.

The Human Personality

Human personality, according to Radhakrishnan, is not determined by physical environment, economic or otherwise. So far as physical changes are concerned they may be generally determined by the environment but the human will be free to decide to win or loose. The real human freedom is the freedom of will. This has been granted to man. In the tradition of ancient Indian thinkers Radhakrishnan had admitted the principle of Karma. According to this principle our present is determined by our past and the future depends upon the present. In the words of S. Radhakrishnan, "Karma or relationship

with the past does not mean that man cannot do anything freely but free action is involved in it."7 The law of Karma is not fatalism. According to it, "An individual will gain according to the use of his energy. The world will respond to the individual Jivatma's demand. The nature will reply the insistent call of the man."8 Thus, like Karl Marx, Radhakrishnan believed that man can change the world. On the basis of his will he can make his future. The principles of Nature are the principles of justice. In Nature and in human world, everywhere one universal divine law functions. Therefore, the law of Karma is not an external but an internal determinant of human life. In the line of evolution, man is distinguished by self-consciousness which is not found either in plants or in animals. Therefore, the mental processes cannot be interpreted in terms of physical changes. The physical movements do not explain total behaviour. Modern psychology takes a one-sided view of man while presenting behaviouristic interpretation. Behaviourism has only historical value. Man's behaviour cannot be explained by stimulus-response formula. An organism is not merely a sum total of parts. Its parts are internally related. Consciousness does not come out of matter, it is a new creation. Again, self-consciousness is not a biological phenomena. It should not be 391 explained in physiological or biological terms. With the evolution of self-consciousness Nature evolves to a new level of existence. The self-conscious man is rational. Self-realisation is the aim of life. This self is the Spirit. In the words of S. Radhakrishnan, "Spirit is life, not thing, power not status, real in itself and through itself and cannot be compared to any substance subjective or objective"." The spirit expresses as itself, God and the world. Thus human nature is essentially spiritual. Spiritual also means natural because nature is as much an expression of Spirit as the self. Human life is not only natural but also divine since its essential nature is spirit. The world is a gradual evolution towards spirit. In this evolution man is at the apex. This evolution is both emergent as well as continuous. What is not cannot happen, whatever is, it develops. This metaphysical hypothesis is very important in the philosophy of education. The child will develop only that which is potential in it. What is not implicit cannot be explicit. However, every level of evolution expresses new elements. The characteristics of spirit are seen in creativity, change, system and progress. These are the characteristic of every field of life and so of education. Education aims at complete expressions of the inherent spirit in man.

Mysticism
It appears that Radhakrishnan's philosophy is mysticism so far as the concept of spirit is concerned. In his book An Idealist View of Life, Radhakrishnan has called spirit total Brahman. Brahman precedes creation. Identifying God and creator Radhakrishnan said, "They are the different forms of seeing the same ultimate reality."10 Thus like Sri Aurobindo Radhakrishnan believes the world to be the expression of God. This metaphysical proposition lays down the spiritual goal of education and certifies its possibility. In fact, Radhakrishnan has synthesised idealism and realism, mysticism and pragmatism in his philosophy. He welcomes all sorts of experience to arrive at some general principles. As he said, "We should weave different parts of experience in a total pattern. We should keep our general ideas connected so that different experiences may be explained."11 In spite of being a votary of science Radhakrishnan is not a determinist of environmentalist. This fact is of capital importance 392 in his explanations of human nature. Science proves that every effect has a cause but it does not definitely prove the cause of every effect. As David Hume has rightly pointed out, the principle of causation in the field of science is a mere probability. So far as physical incidents are concerned, they are determined by natural laws but man has been provided freedom of choice in life. He is not free to choose his cards but he is free to play, win or loose as he likes. This freedom of winning or loosing is given to man.

Spirit: The Ultimate Reality

Radhakrishnan interprets the world as the play and evolution of spirit. Matter, life, mind are the manifestations of the spirit in the world. Spirit is not a substance but life itself. In the words of Radhakrishnan "It is the basis and background of our being, the universality that cannot be reduced to this or that formula."12 The self, God and Absolute are all names of the one universal spirit in different aspects. Thus the most characteristic feature of the spirit is its integrality. It leaves nothing out of its ken, it integrates all, it permeates everything. In order to know it we must look to life from all sides, gross as well as refined, higher as well as lower, primitive as well as civilised. It is so since, "Spirit is life not thing, power not status, real in itself and through itself and cannot be compared to any substance subjective or objective".13 The dominant theme in the metaphysics of Radhakrishnan is the presence of one universal spirit as the inner essence of all being and becoming. Spirit has been acclaimed as the Reality in the ancient Upanishads and the works of all the idealist

thinking in the world. Therefore, it is not an original idea of Radhakrishnan. However, he has made original contribution by connecting the idea of spirit with the findings of modern science. The greatest merit of his philosophy is that it is an interpretation of the real world and real life. He does not confine philosophy to realisation of truth like the ancient Indian seers, but applies it to actual problems of his time. Therefore all his ideas revolve around science, intuition and religion. He does not accept dialectical materialism or any materialism for that matter. He is mystic so far as the reply to the ultimate why is 393 concerned. He admits that spirit is the basis and background of all reality, a universal substance which cannot be explained by this or that formula.14 The three elements of metaphysics the self, the God and the worldare the different expressions of one universal spirit. This universal Spirit has been variously called God and Absolute, Ishvar and Brahman. In man Spirit expresses in a limited field. In God it expresses in a universal form. In Absolute it involves not only the present manifestations but also the immense future possibilities.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION

Terms of Reference As the Chairman of University Education Commission Radhakrishnan had an occasion to examine different aspects of Indian education in details. The terms of reference of this commission of enquiry were as follows: 1. The aims and objects of university education and research in India. 2. The changes considered necessary and desirable in the constitution, control, functions and jurisdiction of universities in India and their relations with Government, Central and Provincial. 3. The Finance of universities. 4. The maintenance of the highest standards of teaching and examination in the universities and colleges under their control. 5. The course of study in the universities with special reference to the maintenance of a sound balance between the Humanities and Sciences and between Pure Science and Technological Training and the duration of such courses. 6. The standards of admission to university courses of study with reference to the desirability of an independent university entrance examination and the avoidance of unfair discrimination which militates against Fundamental Right 23(2). 7. The medium of instruction in the universities. 8. The provision for advanced study in Indian culture, history, literatures, languages, philosophy and fine arts. 394 9. The need for more universities on a regional or other basis. 10. The organisation of advanced research in all branches of knowledge in the universities and institutes of higher research in a well co-ordinated fashion avoiding waste of effort and resources. 11. Religious instruction in the universities. 12. The special problems of the Banaras Hindu University, the Aligarh Muslim University, the Delhi University and other institutions of an all-India character. 13. The qualifications, conditions of service, salaries, privileges and functions of teachers and the encouragement of original research by teachers. 14. The discipline of students, hostels and the organisation of tutorial work and any other matter which is germane to a complete and comprehensive enquiry into all aspects of university education and advanced research in India. Defects of Present System of Education The commission pointed to the following grave defects in the present system of education:

1. In comparison to the universities in West the standard of people in Indian Universities is very low. This is particularly due to the lower standard of education on intermediate stage. 2. The condition of teachers in Indian universities is far from being satisfactory. Their salary is inadequate and the working conditions are far from satisfactory. Therefore able persons are not coming forward to take up the career of teaching. 3. The curriculum is not sufficiently diversified and integrated. 4. There are not sufficient vocational, engineering and technological institutions in the country. 5. National and regional languages have not been given sufficient opportunities to develop. 6. The examination system is far from being objective. It is full of grave defects. 395 7. The administration system does not find place for all the sections of society concerned with education. 8. The government is not providing sufficient economic support to the institutions of higher education. 9. As the universities are functioning properly they arc-not fulfilling the important purpose of creating new generation of leaders in democracy. 10. Women education has not been extended sufficiently. 11. Rural education, necessary in a country like India, has been neglected. 12. Religious education has been generally sectarian which is not consistent in a secular state.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

Dr. Radhakrishnan recommended the following aims of education for higher education in India: 1. To teach that life has a meaning. 2. To awaken the innate ability to live the life of soul by developing wisdom. 3. To acquaint with the social philosophy which should govern all our institutionseducational as well as economic and political. 4. To train for democracy. 5. To train for self-development. 6. To develop certain values like fearlessness of mind, strength of conscience and integrity of purpose. 7. To acquaint with cultural heritage for its regeneration. 8. To enable to know that education is a life-long process. 9. To develop understanding of the present as well as of the past. 10. To impart vocational and professional training. Self-Development Criticising the present system of education Radhakrishnan said, "Our education has not freed us from intellectual bondage. It stimulates the mind without satisfying it."15 Freedom, according to Radhakrishnan, is the goal of education. He lamented that the present system of education does not grow free thinking among 396 students. The student does not know what is higher thinking. He does not develop any creativity. Our institutions are

preparing human machines not developed human beings. The true education should aim at developing a total human personality, a free mind, a multisided growth, a creative aptitude and a spiritual evolution. The aim of life according to Radhakrishnan is to train the mind. As he said, "The real aim of education is to help man to know the inner essence".16 Physical success and material progress is not the aim of education. True education does not aim at any diploma or degree. It is self-development. In the words of Radhakrishnan, "The real aim of education is this that the character of man may become rhythmic and his soul creative."17 The primary aim of education from beginning to end is to attain knowledge. This knowledge however, cannot be achieved only through books. The books cannot transform human personality. This transformation is the real aim of education. Transformation is the real aim of education. Transformation can be achieved only by putting knowledge in practice. Transformation is necessary for the realisation of human freedom. According to Radhakrishnan, "The freedom of human soul is the most valuable".18 Therefore education should aim at realisation of this freedom. This freedom again is the basis of character formation. Man-Making According to almost all contemporary Indian philosophers of education, education is a process of man making. Manmaking means character formation. As Radhakrishnan rightly pointed out, "The fate of a nation depends upon character. A country whose people have low character can never become great. When we want to build a great nation, we should educate more and more young men and women in such a way that they may have strength of character".19 In a moral character, Radhakrishnan placed world fraternity as the highest virtue. His aim of education is humanist and internationalist. Self-Expression Education aims at teaching self-expression. This is possible only through the mastery of language. In the end no education is 397 complete without the development of institution. The ancient Indian Upanishads identify intuition with wisdom and education. Intuition however, cannot be achieved by the study of books alone. It requires guidance by the ability test. Therefore, Radhakrishnan insisted upon the appointment of able teachers particularly in the institutions of higher learning.

MEANS OF EDUCATION
Practical Training Radhakrishnan strongly favoured modern means of education. He laid down the standards of teaching at various levels of education in the report of commission headed by him. He maintained that students of different professions should be given practical training as far as possible. Elaborating this principle, the university education commission under him made the following recommendation: 1. Agriculture. The study of agriculture in primary, secondary and higher education be given high priority in national economic planning. So far as is feasible, agricultural education be given a rural setting. 2. Commerce. A commerce student should be given opportunities for practical work in three or four different kinds of firms. 3. Education. The course be remodelled and more time given to school practice and more weight to practice in assessing the student's performances. 4. Engineering and technology. The number of engineering schools of different grades be increased particularly for training of grades 4 and 5 (foremen, craftsmen, draftsmen, overseers, etc.). In establishing new engineering colleges or institutes there should be fresh, critical inquiry as to the types of engineering service needed in India. Uncritical reposition and imitation of existing institutions here and abroad should be avoided. 5. Law. A three-year degree course be offered in special legal subjects. Students pursuing degree course in law shall not be permitted to carry other degree courses simultaneously except in a few instances where advanced students have proved 398 their interest and are studying related subjects in law and some other fields

6. Medicine. The maximum number of admission to a medical college be 100, provided the staff and equipment for that number are available.

TYPES OF EDUCATION
The means of education will be further clarified by a review of Radhakrishnan's views about various types of education. These are as follows: 1. Moral education. Like Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo and M.K. Gandhi, Radhakrishnan wanted to make moral education a compulsory part of education at primary and secondary levels. Without it the educational institutions cannot fulfil their objective of educating the youth of the country. Moral character has been given the most important place in Indian culture. Moral education is the education of will. It starts in the family. In the school the educand learns moral norms in the limitation of the conduct of the teachers. The moral education clarifies the goal of life without which no meaningful life is possible. The greatness of a country cannot be measured by its progress in physical civilization but by its moral and spiritual advancement. Therefore, whatever is done for the achievement of vocational goal, education cannot be complete without moral instruction. This has become even more important in the face of the fact that morality is the only reliable instrument for saving the world from the catastrophe of a future world war. The seeds of morality will be sown in educational institutions. Therefore, Radhakrishnan advised that society ought to be based on proper foundation. Economically prosperous man is not a perfect human being. A perfect being requires bliss and beauty of the soul which should be full of love and faith and endeavours for rejuvenating humanity.20 2. Religious education. Along with other contemporary Indian Neo-Vedanta philosophers of education, Radhakrishnan supports religious education. Religious education for him, however, is not the instruction of a particular religion. It is a means for developing spiritual intuition because, "The aim of religion is spiritual and not merely a change in metaphysical ideas".21 Religious education is a means for propagation of the ideal of 399 world brotherhood. According to Radhakrishnan, the modern substitutes of religion such as communism cannot fulfil any useful purpose. Real religion is spiritual religion. Therefore religious education will provide freedom and spiritual progress to the educand. It is not contrary to the education of science but complimentary to it. India can progress in science in spite of its religious character. From this viewpoint Radhakrishnan is not prepared to accept secularism as meaning aversion to religion. According to him the only secularism worth the name means that every individual has full liberty to follow his religion. Radhakrishnan himself gives highest importance to The Bhagwadgita but does not derogate the importance of the scriptures of other religion. About The Bhagwadgita he wrote, "Bhagwadgita has everything, rational, moral and spiritual, and answer to every question of human progress and its perfection."22 Such a book may be the basis of religious education. However, religious education is in fact spiritual education. It is a means while spiritual education is the end. The University Education Commission, under the Chairmanship of Radhakrishnan, made the following recommendations about religious education: {a) All educational institutions should start work with a few minutes for silent meditation. (b) In the first year lives of the great religious leaders like Gautama the Buddha, Confucius, Zoroaster, Socrates, Jesus, Samkara, Ramanuja, Madhva, Mohammad, Kabir, Nanak, Gandhi be taught. (c) In the second year some selections of a universal character from the scriptures of the world be studied. (d) In the third year, the central problems of the philosophy of religion be considered. 3. Primary Education. Radhakrishnan praised M.K. Gandhi's scheme of basic education as a pattern for primary education in India. He said, "This education establishes contact of the student with everyday life. It explains the importance of physical education. The body is the means of the expression of human soul, therefore, physical education must be properly given."23 He recommends teaching of both humanities and science subjects along with languages on the primary level. 400 4. Secondary Education. Radhakrishnan has considered secondary education as a next step continuous with the primary education. Therefore, on secondary stage also, the student should be provided a multisided curriculum including sciences, humanities and languages. The curriculum should be modified according to the needs cf the country because the primary aim of education is to meet the needs of the nation and to create national unity. National unity may be created by teaching of history. Teaching of mathematics is necessary as it is on the primary stage as well. Agriculture and industrial arts and

crafts should be taught so that the students may be capable of earning their livelihood. In India few people go to the institutions of higher education due to poverty and other causes. Therefore, presuming that most of the students will drop out after the secondary stage, they should be taught something of everything and also some useful craft to enable them to earn their livelihood. 5. University Education. The most significant contribution made by Radhakrishnan to Indian education has been in the area of higher education. This contribution was made through the University Education Commission report. According to this report the objectives of the universities were as follows: (i) To seek and cultivate new knowledge, to engage vigorously and fearlessly in the pursuit of truth, and to interpret old knowledge and benefits in the light of new needs and discoveries. (ii) To provide the right kind of leadership in all walks of life, to identify gifted youth and help them develop their potential to the full by cultivating physical fitness, developing the powers of the mind and cultivating right interests, attitudes and moral intellectual values. (iii) To provide society with competent men and women trained in agriculture, arts, medicine, science and technology and various other professions, who will also be cultivated individuals, imbued with a sense of social purpose. (iv) To strive to promote equally and social justice and to reduce social and cultural differences through diffusion of education. (v) To foster in the teachers and students, and through them in society generally, the attitude and values needed 401 for developing the good life in individual and society. (vi) To provide part-time and correspondence courses and extension programmes of various kinds so as to provide varied educational facilities for a widening clientele. (vii) To undertake carefully worked out programmes for school improvement.

PROBLEMS OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Radhakrishnan recommended selective admissions for institutions of higher education. He particularly laid emphasis upon research as the main aim of the universities. He favoured university autonomy in the selection of students, the appointment and promotions of teachers, the determination of syllabi, the methods of teaching and areas of research. He recommended establishment of an Inter University Board and The University Grants Commission. He recommended the establishment of at least one agricultural university in every state. He pointed out the need of reform in major universities. He analysed the problems of development of Higher Education in India. According to him the most important problems of higher education are: 1. Role of the university system, 2. Improvement of standards, 3. Restructuring of courses, 4. Postgraduate education and research, 5. Diversification of courses, 6. Decentralisation, 7. Autonomous colleges, 8. Academic freedom, 9. Medium of instruction, 10. Extension services, 11. Student discipline,

12. Role of UGC. Recommendations Analysing all these problems Radhakrishnan made important recommendations. Among these recommendations, the most important, from the point of view of philosophy of education, 402 are the recommendations concerning the role of university system in a nation. These recommendations sum up the aims and ideals of education according to Radhakrishnan. Therefore it is necessary to enumerate these recommendations. They are as follows: 1. To inculcate and promote basics human values and the capacity to choose between alternative value systems; 2. To preserve and foster our great cultural traditions and blend them with essential elements from other cultures and peoples; 3. To enrich the Indian languages and promote their use as important means of communication, national development and unity; 4. To promote a rational outlook and scientific temper; 5. To promote the development of the total personality of the students and inculcate in them a commitment to society through involvement in national service programme; 6. To act as an objective critic of society and assist in the formulation of national objectives and programmes for their realisation; 7. To promote commitment to the pursuit of excellence; 8. To promote the development of science and technology and of an indigenous capability to apply it effectively with special emphasis on national problems; and above all. 9. To contribute to the improvement of the entire educational system so as to subserve the community.

MEDIUM OF EDUCATION
Value of Mother Tongue Almost all the contemporary Indian philosophers of education have recommended mother tongue as the proper medium of education. Along with Sri Aurobindo and R.N. Tagore, Radhakrishnan raised his voice against making English the medium of instruction in India. Its biggest disadvantage is the formation of a class of educated persons which is cut off from the ordinary national at least from linguistic point of view. Such educated persons do not represent Indian culture since 403 they imbibed Western culture through the medium of English literature. The most natural medium of instruction for a child is his mother tongue. In India this credit should be given to regional languages. Limitation of English Medium In spite of having an extraordinary mastery over English language, Radhakrishnan maintained, "It can never be seriously thought that English may ever become lingua franca of India."24 Pointing out the reason for it, he said that the Indians can never create great literature or original writings through English language. Psychological researches have approved that bilingualism is an impediment in the child's mental growth. It kills originality and creates confusion. Therefore, according to Radhakrishnan, a serious disadvantage of bilingualism in our education has resulted in the absence of originality. Value of Sanskrit

Along with regional languages Radhakrishnan also laid emphasis upon the study of Sanskrit since it is the repository of Indian culture. It is the language of Indian scriptures and lays down Indian philosophy of life. It is the medium through which the unity of nation may be preserved. Along with regional language and Sanskrit. Hindi a National Language Radhakrishnan has accepted Hindi as an all India language. He accepts the three language formula in which the child is taught the mother tongue, the national language Hindi and the international language English. However, Radhakrishnan was against forcibly imposing Hindi on the people of South India. According to him, every state should make efforts for the growth of regional languages along with national language. Even on the question of script he admitted the rights of regional languages. He pointed out that Devanagari script should not be forcibly imposed upon others. The function of a language is to create bridges not to create gulfs. The University Education 404 Commission, under the Chairmanship of Radhakrishnan recommended that the regional languages should be adopted as media of education at the university stage in phased programme spread over ten years. At the earlier stage of the undergraduate course, the bulk of the instruction may be given through the regional language while at the postgraduate stage, it may be in English. The teaching of important European languages other than English should be stressed, in particular the study of Russian, on a larger scale.

TEACHING METHODS
Value of Teacher Radhakrishnan finds a place in the galaxy of great Indian teachers. Therefore his views about teaching methods are not only theoretical principles but based upon actual experience of decades of teaching in Indian and Western universities. In his philosophy of education the teacher has been given a very honourable place in keeping with the ancient Indian philosophy of education. He recommends absolute freedom to the teachers in universities to follow such methods of teaching which they may deem fit for their purpose. According to Radhakrishnan, "The type of education which we may give to our youth, depends on the fact that what type of teachers we get."25 The teachers should have a devotion to teaching besides their knowledge and scholarships. In ancient India the teacher was given highest status in the field of education and also in society since his life was as high as his ability. Most of the problems of the present system of education are due to failures of some teachers. In order to develop character in the educand the educator should himself develop his own character. According to Radhakrishnan, "The teachers have a special place in the formation of the mind and heart of our youth."26 The teachers should have self control and humanist standpoint. Great teachers in India have always preserved its culture, though many of them also travelled far and wide to know about other culture.27 Thus the teacher should be inquisitive. He should take interest in expansion of knowledge. As the Chairman of The University Education Commission Dr. Radhakrishnan insisted upon recruiting suitable 405 teachers on various levels of education. The university teachers have the dual responsibility of character formation and research guidance. Therefore, while selecting them it is not only the scholarship but also their enthusiasm in character formation of the students which must be considered. Teacher-Taught Ratio Proper teaching methods require proper teacher-taught ratio. Therefore Radhakrishnan recommended that overcrowding at universities and colleges should be avoided. According to him the maximum number in the Arts and Science faculties of a teaching universities should be 3,000 and in affiliated college 1,500. He recommended a minimum of 180 working days in a year exclusive of examination days. He was in favour of selective admissions to higher institutions. Along with reform of teaching method he suggested measures for student discipline. The teachers and students should carry out their part of the responsibility through intensive efforts to improve standards and the whole academic community should strive to serve society, through sustained, dedicated work, and commitment to the pursuit of knowledge, excellence and national development. A nation-wide effort should be organised to achieve a simultaneous breakthrough on the social as well as educational fronts.

EDUCATION FOR DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF SOCIETY

It is a common knowledge that in contemporary Indian society all the sections were not given equal opportunities for education. The backward classes did not get sufficient opportunity even for acquiring primary education for their children. The women education started only during the British period and even then the first girl to aspire for the graduation of Calcutta University had to seek special permission for it. As a teacher and as a Vice-Chancellor Radhakrishnan was very much conscious of this inequality. Therefore, he made particular reference to the education of those sections of society which have not been given sufficient opportunity. As the Chairman of The University Education Commission he made particular reference to women's 406 education in the country. He pointed out that women students in general should be helped to secure their normal places in a normal society, both as citizens and as women, and to prepare for it. College programmes should be so designed that it will be possible for them to do so. The standards of courtesy and social responsibility should be emphasised in coeducational institutions. In India it is a common knowledge that so many parents cannot send their wards for higher education due to economic difficulties. Referring to these sections of society, Radhakrishnan recommended enabling talented but economically weaker students to persue their studies on a whole time basis by ensuring to them the full cost of their education, through appropriate bursaries, for which funds may be raised from public and private bodies.

CONTRIBUTION TO INDIAN EDUCATION

University Education Commission Among contemporary Indian philosophers of education Radhakrishnan had the longest and the most intimate experience of both college and university education, Indian and Western. Therefore, it is natural that his philosophy of education is most pragmatic. As the Chairman of The University Education Commission was instrumental in planning the present higher education in India. Many of his recommendations have to be still worked out such as the idea of autonomous colleges. His recommendations were thorough and multisided and based upon solid philosophical foundations. They were guided by a basic integral approach avoiding all one sidedness. Sound Foundation of Education Radhakrishnan's philosophy of education is based upon sound psychological and sociological foundations. He has rightly considered every aspect of human personality to be valuable for development. He aimed at the building up of integral spiritual human beings through education. In the tradition of ancient Indian philosophy of education he defined education as a process 407 of character formation. Among values he laid emphasis upon democratic values and therefore asked for inculcation of liberty, equality and fraternity both among teachers and students. Integral Approach Radhakrishnan's approach to aims and ideals, means, curriculum, school administration etc. show an integral approach. He gave place to every subject in syllabi of education at different stages.

References
1. Radhakrishnan, S., An Idealist View of Life (London), George Allen&Unwin (1947), pp. 15-16. 2. Radhakrishnan, S., The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore (Baroda), Good Companions (1961), p. 101. 3. Radhakrishnan, S., The Bhagwadgita, p. 67. 4. Radhakrishnan, S., An Idealist View of Life, p. 153. 5. Ibid., p. 147. 6. Arapura, J.G., Radhakrishnan and Integral Experience, Bombay: Asia Publishing House (1966), p 33.

7. Radhakrishnan, S., The Hindu View of Life (London), George Allen&Unwin (1961), p. 256. 8. Ibid. 9. Muirhead and Radhakrishnan, (Ed.) Contemporary Indian Philosophy (London), George Allen&Unwin (1956), 2nd Ed., p. 492. 10. Radhakrishnan, S., Recovery of Faith, pp. 89-99. 11. Schilpp, P.A., The Philosophy of Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, The Tudor Publishing House (1952), p. 27. 12. Radhakrishnan, S., An Idealist View of Life, p. 205. 13. Muirhead and Radhakrishnan, (Ed.) Contemporary Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen and Unwin, 1956, 2nd Ed., p. 492. 14. Radhakrishnan, S., An Idealistic View of Life, p. 205. 15. Radhakrishnan, S., Kalki (Ludhiana: Kalyani Publishers, 1974), Sixth Ed., p. 37. 16. Radhakrishnan, S., The Concept of Man (London: George Allen&Unwin, 1960), p. 246. 17. Frankena, W.K. (Ed.), Philosophy of Education, p. 54. 18. Radhakrishnan, S., Speeches and Writings, Vol. II, p. 267. 19. Ibid., p. 259. 20. Radhakrishnan, S., My Search for Truth (Shivlal Agrawal), p. 20. 408 21. Radhakrishnan, S., Recovery of Faith, p. 158. 22. Radhakrishnan, S., Speeches and Writings, Vol. II, p. 175. 23. Ibid., Vol. I, p. 249. 24. Radhakrishnan, S., The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore (Baroda: Good Companions, 1961), p. 128. 25. Radhakrishnan, S., Speeches and Writings, Vol. II, p. 259. 26. Radhakrishnan, S., op. cit., p. 202. 27. Ibid., p. 204.

Questions for Exercise

1. What are Radhakrishnan's criticism of present system of Indian education? 2. Explain Radhakrishnan's philosophy of education. 3. Describe Dr. S. Radhakrishnan's contribution to Indian education. 409

Part IV WESTERN PHILOSOPHERS OF EDUCATION

410 411

24 Socrates
Born in Athens in 469 B.C. Socrates was the son of poor parents. His father was a sculptor and mother a mid-wife.

Nothing is known about the early education of Socrates but so many stories are current concerning his love for learning right from his childhood. He grew as an adult very much unnoticed by the people around him and took up the occupation of his father. But soon, Socrates felt a divine vocation to examine himself by questioning other men. Thus he used to visit people in the streets, in the market places, in the gymnasia, and at other places and engaged them in discussion concerning war, politics, marriage, love, house-keeping, friendship, arts and trades, poetry, science, religion etc. His main topics of discussion were the moral aims and ideals and virtues. His range of knowledge and discussion covered almost the entire life, theoretical as well as practical. He was not interested in the physical world. The subjects of his enquiries were the human life itself particularly the life of reason. He gave so many examples of great physical and moral courage. This was seen in his performance in war time. He was kind and gentle and had a great sense of humour. He was however, keenly interested in exposing the quacks and humbugs of the society around him and show them how ignorant they were. This gradually increased the number of his enemies. The prediction of the oracle of Delphi that Socrates was the wisest man of Athens also caused the arousal of so many enemies around him. The people around him, gradually started talking against him. As the number of his admirers grew so also grew the number of his enemies. 412 Ultimately, a complaint was lodged with the state that Socrates was corrupting the youth and propagating atheism. He was tried in the court and so many witnesses were produced. In this trial the words of Socrates concerning death, virtue and so many other important things have become historical. However, he was condemned to death. In jail, his friends tried to persuade him to escape. He, however, refused and pointed out that everyone must obey the laws of the state even at the cost of his death. He was given hemlock which he drank cheerfully and embraced death. In the whole history of humanity there had been no greater humanist, philosopher and lover of wisdom than Socrates. This short, stocky, stout, blear-eyed and snub-nosed man, with a large mouth and thick lips, careless in his dress, clumsy and uncouth, was perhaps the most beloved teacher of his disciples. This is amply clear by the writings of his main disciple Plato.

THE SOPHIST PREDECESSORS

About the fourth or the third century before the Christian era, a new school of teaching came into being in Greece. The enlargement of the intellectual horizon resulting from the unrest that ensued demanded a class of men who could impart quickly every kind of knowledge. All sorts of conditions were pressed into the service of education and classed under the general title 'Sophist' to satisfy this demand. The teaching of the sophists was unsystematic. It was also limited to the few who could pay for it. Socrates said, 'As for myself, I am the first to confess that I have never had a teacher; although I have always from my earliest youth desired to have one. But I am too poor to give money to the sophists, who are the only professors of moral improvement. As they accepted payment for their services there was a certain prejudice against the sophists, for this enabled those who could afford their instruction to acquire a definite superiority over their fellow-citizens. The popular attitude towards them may be inferred from the violent outburst of indignation with which Anytus received the suggestion of Socrates that Meno should go to the sophists for his education. The young men', says Anytus, 'who gave their money to them (the sophists) were out of their minds, 413 and their relations and guardians who entrusted them to their care were still more out of their minds, and most of all the cities who allowed them to come in and did not drive them out, citizen or stranger alike. . . . Neither I nor any of my belongings has ever had, nor would I suffer them to have, anything to do with them.'

OBJECTIVES OF GREEK EDUCATION

The prejudice against the sophists was intensified by the fact that they degraded knowledge by making its aim direct utility. Education was with the Greeks a training for leisure, not for a livelihood. It was asked the Protagoras, 'Why may you not learn of him in the same way that you learned the arts of grammarian or musician or trainer, not with the view of making any of them a profession, but only as a part of education and because a private gentleman ought to know them?

THE SOCRATIC METHOD

Socrates recognised the unscientific nature of the methods of the sophists, his own method was essentially systematic and founded on general principles. According to Aristotle, "There are two things which we may fairly attribute to Socrates, his inductive discourses and his universal definitions. Inductive reasoning was his method of arriving at a definition. The

result attained by his method could not be regarded as satisfying the requirements of scientific exactness, but this did not disturb Socrates, for he himself continually and emphatically disclaimed the possession of any knowledge, except perhaps the knowledge of his own limitations." The intoxicated Alcibiades says of him in the Symposium, 'He knows nothing' and is ignorant of all thingsuch is the appearance which he puts on.' Although not possessing knowledge himself, Socrates claimed to have the gift of discerning its presence in others, and of having the power to assist them to bring it to light. The first task of Socrates was to arouse men from that false self-satisfaction which was by him believed to be the cause of their misery, and to lead them to self-examination and self-criticism. He says "Herein is the evil of ignorance, that he who 414 is neither good nor wise is nevertheless satisfied with himself: he has no desire for that of which he feels no want." Socratic Mission was to make men feel this want, to teach others what the utterance of the Delphic oracle had taught him his own ignorance; to imbue them with a divine discontent; to make them feel, as Alcibiades puts it the serpent's sting', 'the pang of philosophy'. In his defence, Socrates neither disowned his mission nor his method. 'I am that gadfly', he told his judges, 'which God has attached to the state, and all day long and in all places am always fastening upon you, arousing and persuading and reproaching you."

THE DIALECTICAL METHOD

About the words of Socrates, Plato said, "You will find his words first full of sense, as no others are; next, most divine and containing the finest images of virtue, and reaching farthest, in fact reaching to everything which it profits a man to study who is to become noble and good." Unlike most philosophers, Socrates did not wish to influence others by his views; he did not wish to convince them about the validity and correctness of his views. Rather he wanted that everybody should be his own philosopher; should be critical and think for himself. He was convinced that every person had in him the germ for rational thought and the aim of philosophy was to bring rational thought to full blossom in everyone. The tendency among philosophers to persuade others to believe that their views are more valid gives rise to schools and controversies in philosophy. Socrates, on the contrary, did not wish to convert others to his views nor did he wish to propagate a set of philosophical views. He only wanted to draw attention of others to the crucial significance of philosophy for the life and inculcate in them a love for philosophy, that is, love of wisdom. The approach of Socrates is known as mimetic approach, that is intellectual midwifery. As a midwife delivers a child of pregnant woman, Socrates wanted to bring to surface the germ of rational thought and critical inquiry. The whole approach of Socrates is summed up in two wordsDialectical Method. Socrates was fully conscious of the value of knowledge. According to him, "Knowledge is virtue". Knowledge is vision 415 of universal truths. To discover this knowledge Socrates used dialectical method. Though he invented and used dialectical method he has nowhere given a systematic description of this method. He did not commit his ideas to writing. His style of developing philosophical ideas was unique. He used to go down the market place and would draw philosophically inclined persons to discuss with him the real and objective meaning of such simple concepts as friendship, love, courage, virtue etc. In the course of his dialogue he would let people know that what he was interested in was not the conventional meaning but the real and objective meaning of the concepts. Thus he would direct the course of conversation. This method was dialectical because to all proposed meanings and definitions of concepts, Socrates would bring out the defects in them and thus persuade his interlocutor to modify his definition to rectify the defects pointed. This procedure of point and counterpoint would go on till a really satisfactory definition was found. Thus dialectic was a means of discovery of objective and valid definitions of concepts familiarly used in daily life. It is not the condition of dialectical argument that the domain of the argument should be confined to the concept being discussed. It is indeed considered desirable to examine the allied and other concepts if classification of the concept in question calls for such a discussion.

SALIENT FEATURES OF DIALECTICAL METHOD

Following are the salient features of this method: 1. Methodological Doubt. Socrates used to begin his conversation by pretending ignorance about the real meaning of a concept and wanted others to enlighten him on the subject. This pretence of ignorance is known as Socratic Irony in as much as Socrates exposed others to be ignorant and himself wise in spite of his earlier declaration to the contrary. Some scholars have criticized Socrates for concealing the truth that he knew the answer. This could only mean that he wished to

humiliate his opponent. But such criticism is mistaken. The negativistic approach to the problem adopted by Socrates was really meant to let his interlocutors to exercise their minds and develop interest in the inquiry. Had he given a positive answer 416 to begin with, others may have thus been defeated. As his purpose was to encourage in others to think independently, he found it a useful procedure to feign initial ignorance and let others present their views and not be carried away by the Socratic authority. The dialectical method is essentially based on methodological doubt, that is, a critical examination of the problem concerned. The critical examination and doubt about the validity of current beliefs is not scepticism for the sake of scepticism, but, on the contrary, it is a means and method to reach the truth and a safeguard against being duped easily. A man who questions and has an enquiring mind can alone be a philosopher, because people mostly have a strong will to believe and are very gullible. Only by constantly critical attitude can this natural tendency be countered. 2. Conversational. Another feature of the method which Socrates used is the use of dialogue or conversation for the development of ideas. A dialogue or conversation allows exchange of ideas; and it is only by certain tension and conflict of ideas that the thought is refined and developed. A lecture or an essay is quite suitable for passing on scientific information. But philosophy is something other other information. Therefore for the unfoldment and development of philosophical ideas, it is essential that there should be a meeting of minds and exchange of ideas. This is possible only in philosophical conversation. That is why Plato, a disciple of Socrates, follows the dramatic form to develop his ideas. This allows for expression of various aspects of a problem. This feature of Socratic method is also referred to as intellectual midwifery. The stimulation and incentive provided by an engaged conversation usually helps to bring to surface the latent ideas in the minds of men. Therefore, as a midwife delivers a child from the womb of the mother, intellectual converse delivers the latent ideas from the four walls of the unconscious mind. 3. Conceptual and Semantic Socrates used to stress the need for correct and precise of definitions of the concepts. Like modern logical positivists and linguists, Socrates realised the paramount need for giving precise connotation and meaning to the concepts used in philosophy. In order to determine the meaning of a concept we have to abstract the general and universal features 417 of things from their particular and individual aspects. Socrates tried to find precise meaning of the concepts like "justice", "courage", "companion", "knowledge", "virtue", "friendship", "love", etc. As the main emphasis of Socrates in philosophy is upon the correct and precise use of the concepts, he did not do what modern semantics tries to do today. 4. Empirical or Inductive. The subject matter of philosophic conversation of Socrates was provided by day-to-day affairs. This enquiry was always connected with some specific and concrete problem. For example, Socrates would urge others to define what is the meaning of friendship and by examining various forms of friendship try to discover something common to all of them. Therefore the enquiry of Socrates was both empirical and inductive. 5. Deductive. Lastly, the enquiry of Socrates has the feature of being deductive. Though Socrates used to begin his enquiry with common place definition and examine all the popular ideas, his aim was the attainment of objective and universal truths. Therefore, he was not satisfied till he was able to establish deductively certain truths. To sum up, the dialectical method as employed by Socrates clearly displays the characteristics of 1. Methodological doubt; 2. Intellectual dialogue; 3. Semantic precision, and 4. Deductive and inductive determination of truth.

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
The chief problem which engaged concentrated attention of Socrates was the challenge posed by the Sophists to objective truth and morality. Sophist means a wise man; and Sophists indeed were learned men who offered to teach against suitable payment the art of rhetorics and argumentation. They believed that there was no objective truth and morality and that each view was no more than one opinion of a particular person. Therefore, superiority of an opinion is not to be proved by its

inherent character but by the manner and force of an argument. Accordingly, they placed utmost emphasis on the art and science 418 of argumentation. For them, "man (an individual) was the measure of everything" (Homo Mensura) and that truth is particular, individual and contextual. The belief in objective universal truth was a belief in chimera. It is obvious that such views are subversive of both philosophy and morality and open floodgates of opportunism and chicanery in politics. Socrates acknowledged that there was diversity of human opinions and that everybody unreflectively considered his opinion to be true. But, according to him, this was a very superficial view and that the popular fallacy about the nature of truth sprang from an utter misconception about the nature and meaning of truth. The problem of knowledge was the key to everything. The sceptics have no faith in human reason's capacity to go beyond the particular. Socrates was convinced that human reason ultimately prevails and that man is capable of discovering the object and the universal. In order to reach the truth, man must indeed be sceptical about all sorts of opinions entering his head. He should be able to cut through the false layers of prejudice and arbitrary assertion in order to pierce the truth. The foremost condition of reaching the truth is, according to Socrates, to make our ideas clear and know exactly what we are talking about. Thus, for Socrates, we obtained our knowledge through concepts. In order to appreciate fully the Socratic theory of knowledge, we must examine firstly his theory of concepts.

THEORY OF CONCEPTS
Socrates believed that knowledge was gained through the medium of concepts. A concept is an idea representing the characteristics common to all members of a class. A concept is opposed to a percept. A percept is an idea based on the observation of a particular thing, whereas a concept is an abstraction intellectually derived by considering the common features in a class of things. To illustrate: if we say that this is a book on philosophy, we have the percept of a particular book; but if we say books are printed materials designed to convey some ideas or information on some subject, the term 'Book' is a concept. When we say "book" we use a term applicable to all members of its class, whereas "this book" 419 applies to "this" and no other book. A concept includes in it those qualities alone which are common to all members of a class; it must also have in it a quality which distinguishes it from other classes, otherwise the concept will be vague and ambiguous. For example the concept "man" has quality of rationality and animality. However; if there were other creatures who were animals and rational, the above concept of man will be confusing. To illustrate; the concept of man as "biped (two footed) animal" is quite adequate, but the trouble arises when we note that all birds are two footed. The term "rational animal" is inadequate because we know of no animal which is rational. A concept, as we have noted, included only common or genetic features, the natural corollary from this point is that we cannot include those features in a concept which are peculiar to one or some of its members. For example, it will be erroneous to describe man as whiteskinned, crazy, stupid, genius, anglophile, misogynist or bigamist, because though some men no doubt have one or more above mentioned qualities, they are not found in other men. Socrates tries to construct a concept or definition of concept by using familiar examples, and then, by a process of induction and the aim of suitable example, ventures to form a provisional definition. The provisional definition, in turn, is tested by trying to discover the exceptions. This process of definition, in turn, is tested by trying to discover the exceptions. This process is carried on till a wholly satisfactory definition is found. As Frank Thilly has observed, "The aim is always to discover the essential characteristics of the subject to be defined, to reach clear and distinct notions, or concepts. At times Socrates tests the statements made by going back at once first principles, criticising statements in the light of basic definitions assumed to be correct." Reason and Definition in Knowledge By reason here we mean objective and universal power in man by which he gains knowledge. Therefore reason cannot be confused with intelligence. In the above sense, sophists denied that there was some rational faculty in man which he shared with other men. They took precipitation to be the source of all knowledge inasmuch as the sense organs of various people 420 differ in their strength and modality, the perception of each man is peculiar to him, and, therefore, there is no agreement among men about things and morals. Every man is his own measure or rule. But Socrates vehemently opposed this theory and pointed out that beneath apparent diversity and chaos in human opinions, there is a fundamental agreement.

In order to establish the universality of knowledge, Socrates emphasized the importance of precise and clear definitions. By definitions we secure fundamental elements of things. As a matter of fact, definitions are nothing but linguistic expressions of concepts. The abstract concepts are in the mind and when these are clothed in language, these become definitions. The definition accordingly, has same elements and features as found in concepts. The definitions mention generic or common characteristics of a class and also mention its distinguishing mark. Without exactitude and precision in definitions, we must know the meaning of justice and the meaning should be such that no important aspect of justice is ignored in it an, moreover, it should be free from superfluity and ambiguity. For example, if we say that justice consists in paying back one's debts, we have to ask ourselves if there are no special circumstances where paying back of debt may be immoral or unjust. To return a man's pistol who is under a fit of anger is a dangerous proposition. Therefore, we should define justice more adequately. Similarly, as we saw above we had to define reason as a universal power in man, because otherwise the statement that Sophists decried the role of reason in knowledge will be misleading, because, as we know, even perception involves definite cognitive elements. Sophists were not unaware of this, but what they denied was that reason was a faculty which is common and same in everyone. They denied its universal nature. Thus we presume that reason and definition are two elements of paramount importance in knowledge. Knowledge and Virtue The paramount interest of Socrates was ethical or practical. He wanted that knowledge should enlighten the path of each man's life. Accordingly, he regarded upright conduct to be of highest value and considered all else subservient to it. Virtue, 421 for Socrates, was the summum bonum of life. He, however, considered the two to be identical. For him, knowledge is virtue or knowledge of what is good and right in conduct. He believed that no one did any wrong knowingly and that wrong action was bred by ignorance. This doctrine of Socrates is a little difficult to comprehend, because we find numerous examples of bad actions done knowingly. Socrates, as a matter of fact, overstressed reason and failed to appreciate the strength of irrational in man. Following words express the theory that knowledge is virtue. "Then if virtue is one of the things in the soul, and if it must necessarily be helpful, if must be wisdom; since quite by themselves all the things about the soul are neither helpful nor harmful, but they become helpful or harmful by the addition of wisdom or senselessness." "But if we have ordered all our enquiry well and argued well virtue is seen as coming neither by nature nor by teaching, but by divine allotment incomprehensible to those to whom it comes." "Then from this our reasoning, Menon, virtue is shown as coming to us, whenever it comes, by divine dispensation but we shall only know the truth about this clearly when, before enquiring in what way virtue-comes to mankind, we first try to search out what virtue is in itself." Socrates firmly believed that right knowledge is the key to right conduct. As a matter of fact he held that no one ever committed any wrong knowingly, that vice was bred by ignorance about the nature of things rather than from the defect of the will. For example, ordinarily we attribute selfishness, aggressiveness, irritability etc. to his self-love and hatred of others. But according to Socrates, these traits are due only to lack of self knowledge. Hence, the first dictum of Socrates' moral theory is "know thyself".

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCRATIC EDUCATION

1. Knowledge is the Goal of Life. The concern of Socrates is to define and describe the concept of good or summum bonum. There are various views with regard to the goal of human life. 422 According to some, it is pleasure, and according to others it is happiness. Still some other philosophers believe that the highest good is to follow the rules of Elders. But Socrates considered knowledge to be the Highest Good and therefore the true aim of life. This was so because he believed that knowledge was a sine qua non of all virtues and that if we knew what is right, we cannot do the wrong. Therefore, the knowledge of self and society was the key to moral life. Virtue is nothing else than knowledge. Socrates used to say that "knowledge is virtue" and he tried to establish the proposition thus: Every man seeks happiness and happiness results from good deeds. In order to do good one must know what is good. That is, one must have the

knowledge of the good. Therefore, knowledge is a conditio sine qua non of moral conduct. Side by side with knowledge, Socrates gave equal importance to will and desire in moral conduct. But he did not subscribe to the view that there was some antinomy between will and reason, or that dichotomy existed between will and reason. He firmly believed that no one could do any bad knowing it to be bad, nor could anybody do some good unconsciously. Therefore, for him will was subject to reason and was moulded by knowledge. A moral good consisted in knowing what is good and doing it. There could be no virtue which was blind and unconscious. Without knowledge there could be no good and no virtue. Socrates also held an opinion which is contrary to the above and unintelligible to common sense. According to him, a wrong committed in full knowledge is superior to a wrong committed unwittingly. Normally, we take a lenient view of a bad act which has been done accidently. For example, a person whose gun fires and kills some one while he is cleaning it is treated less harshly than a person who kills a man with his gun deliberately. Accordingly the view of Socrates that known bad was superior to unknown bad would be tantamount to the belief that deliberate killing was preferable to accidental killing. Socrates' moral theory, as a whole seems contrary to common sense and it has been subject to both practical and theoretical criticism. In practice we can cite numerous instances of vices indulged in knowingly. Many people drink and eat gluttonously 423 and commit adultery, incest, sodomy, knowing them to be unpardonable wrongs. In theory, the belief that reason is subject to will is open to theoretical criticism. However, the above criticism is considered to be based on a mistake. Socrates' concept of 'knowledge' is no ordinary one. According to Socrates, a man of knowledge is a man of self control. Therefore, the idea of knowledge, for Socrates, presupposes government of reason over will and desire. Socrates' moral theory therefore is a blend of reason and will in a harmony. 2. Virtue can be Taught. Virtue is concerned with 'will' and 'will' becomes virtuous by habit and practice. Accordingly, we believe that it is not by reason but by repeated performance of good deeds, that we develop virtue. But Socrates held quite an opposite view. According to him virtue was knowledge and since knowledge was a system and a science, it could be taught. We sometimes give up many bad practices on learning their true nature. But, on the other hand, this is also a wellknown fact that we know better but do worse. Whether virtue is a matter of practice or matter of knowledge is a difficult question. Some emphasize the former whereas philosophers like Socrates stress the latter. However, as a matter of fact, there are both elements in virtue. 3. Virtue is one. The traditional Greek moral theory held that there are four virtues: Wisdom, Courage, Temperance and Justice. Socrates, however, believed in a single virtue, that of knowledge. According to him, knowledge was the virtue of virtues and all virtues were progeny of knowledge. 4. Virtue is Bliss. Accordingly to Socrates there can be no happiness without virtue and no happiness is equal to that of virtue. Therefore virtue, according to him, is bliss.

Questions for Exercise

1. Explain the dialectical method of Socrates for imparting knowledge. 2. "Knowledge is virtue". Discuss. 3. State the fundamental principles of Socratic wisdom. 424

25 Plato
Plato was born in 427 B.C., the son of noble parents. According to Trabing he first studied music, poetry, painting, and philosophy with other masters and became a pupil of Socrates in 407 B.C., remaining with him until the latter's death (399 B.C.) when he accompanied Socrates to Megara. He is said to have travelled in Egypt and Asia Minor, to have visited Italy and the Pythagoreans (388 B.C.) and to have lived for a time at the court of Dionysius I, the tyrant of Syracuse, who became his enemy and sold him into slavery as a prisoner of war: but all of these stories have been denied. He founded a school in the groves of Academus, the Academy, where he taught mathematics and the different branches of philosophy, by means of connected lectures and the dialogue. The story goes that he interrupted his work on two occasions (367 B.C.

and 361 B.C.), by further visits to Syracuse, presumably in the hope of assisting in the realisation of his ideal State, and that he was disappointed in this hope. His death occurred in 347 B.C. The life of Plato can be divided into three ages. In the first age he received the education from his great master Socrates besides some other minor teachers. He lived with Socrates for eight years and received instruction and ideas in different fields of human thought. After the death of Socrates, perturbed as he was Plato went on his journey through Egypt, Cyrene, Italy and Cicley etc. For ten years he was roaming in different countries, observing their ways of life, social and political structures and institutions and discussing with scholars of different countries. It was in this age that he planned his important dialogues. During this period Plato's thinking was generally centred around ideas, the universals. The dialogues 425 written during this period do not exhibit much literary excellence. The important dialogues written during this period were Gorgias, Theatetus, Sophistes, Statesman and Parmenides. After ten years of journey in different countries Plato's mind was almost settled. He now returned to Athens and started third and the most important age of his life. He established an institution known as Academy of Gymnasium. Here he started to live as a teacher, a mathematician and a philosopher. For 40 years he educated hundreds of illustrious disciples and created dozens of dialogues upto his death at the age of 82.

WORKS OF PLATO1
It seems unlikely that all of Plato's works have come down to us. Of the writings transmitted under his name (35 Dialogues, 13 Letters), most of the Letters and some of the Dialogues are considered to be spurious, although it seems likely that several of the Letters including the philosophically important seventh letter, are genuine. Chronological Order of Works Attempts have been made by many scholars to arrange the dialogues in chronological order. One method of ordering them employs the criterion of relative maturity of philosophical doctrine, but this method has produced very different orderings by different scholars. A method which has in recent years proved very useful is the ordering of the dialogues in accordance with stylometric considerations, adopting as a standard the style and vocabulary of The Laws, which is universally accepted as the latest of the dialogues. Sir David Ross, after summarizing the results of these stylistic and linguistic investigations suggests the following probable order of the Platonic dialogues: 1. First Period (before 389388 B.C.): Charmides, Laches, Enthyphro, Hippias Major, and Meno. 2. Second Period (between 389388 B.C. and 361366 B.C.): Cratylus (date doubtful). Symposium (385 B.C. or later), Phaedo, Republic, Phaedrus, Parmenides, Theaetetus (369 B.C. or later). 3. Third Period (between 367366 B.C. and 361360 B.C.): Sophistes, Politicus. 426 4. Fourth Period (after 361360 B.C.): Timaeus, Critias, Philebus, Seventh Letter (353352 B.C.), Laws. (Plato's Theory of Ideas, Ch. I.) This list does not include those of the earlier dialogues which throw little or no light on Plato's Theory of Ideas: The Apology, Crito, Lysis, Protagoras, Gorgias and Euthydemus. Spurious Dialogues Among the thirty-five dialogues the following are now generally rejected as spurious: Alcibiades I and Alcibiades II Epinomis, Anteras, Hippachus, Theages, Minos, Cleitophro, Io, and Menexenus. Many scholars have questioned the genuineness of Hippias Major.

AIM OF EDUCATION
Plato says in the Republic, "Then to help these two natures, as it seems, I would say some god has given two arts to mankind, music and gymnastic,

for the philosophic and the high spirited parts; not for soul or body particularly, except by the way; but for both together, in order that they may be fitted together in concord, by being strained and slackened to the proper point." "Then the one who best mingles music and gymnastic, and most proprotionably applies them to the soul, would most rightly be called the perfect musician and master of melody, much rather than the one who tunes together the strings of harps; and that is what we say." Plato in the Republic According to Plato, man's mind is always active. Man is attracted towards all things, that he sees in his surroundings, and he runs after them. The educator should take advantage of this propensity in the child and educate him. He should pay attention to the objects which surround the child. Such objects should be beautiful so that the child is naturally attracted to them and his curiosity is aroused. The process of education 427 advances through this constant interaction between the stimulus by which the mind develops. For this reason the child should be kept in beautiful environment. In fact, the human individual requires such an environment not only in infancy but through his entire life, because, according to Plato, the process of education is never complete. It continues throughout one's life. Plato has laid the greatest stress on mental development in education. He conceives of the state as an advanced mind. Education aims not merely at providing information but at training the individual in his duties and rights as a citizen. Just as the state evolves from the mind, the mind itself passes through all those stages of development through which the state passes. In Plato's opinion, the aim of education is human perfection, and with this end in view, he suggests a curriculum which comprehends all subjects.

CURRICULUM OF EDUCATION
Plato's education has its objective in the realization of truth, a truth which is comprehensive, not limited or narrow. Plato, therefore, believes that development of the mind, body and soul is essential. For this reason he has divided the curriculum into three parts: 1. Bodily Development. Plato's philosophy believes bodily development to be of the utmost importance in education, but this bodily development is achieved not merely through exercise and gymnastic activity, but also through a regulated and controlled diet. The educator must guide and train the educand to attend to his food. He must be a kind of doctor who advises a particular kind of diet after acquainting himself with weaknesses of the educand's body. This must be done in order to get rid of these debilities and finally to lead to complete development of the body. 2. Educational Impressions. But it must be remembered that bodily development is only a means to mental development, because a healthy mind resides only in a healthy body. Although much importance is attached to bodily development, even greater importance is attached to mental development. Being under the influence of Pythagoras, Plato recommended the teaching of mathematics as of supreme importance. The first step in the teaching of mathematics is the teaching of arithmetic. Geometry 428 and algebra should then be taught. Plato believed that the teaching of mathematics can remove many mental defects. In addition to mathematics, Plato considered the teaching of astronomy as of great significance, as part of higher education. 3. Training in Music. In order to achieve balance in education, Plato stressed the value of musical training as a supplement to training in gymnastics. Exercise is the source of bodily development while music helps in the development of the soul. But music and literature taught to the student must be capable of building character. Plato suggested that the child's curriculum should be purged of all literature and musical epics which tended to generate such qualities as cowardice, weakness, selfishness, egoism etc. He was critical of the epics of Homer and other contemporary poets on this ground. Plato considered balance in human life to be of the greatest importance, because in the absence of such a balance, man should neither fulfil his social obligations nor enjoy his own private life to the full. Hence it can be concluded that Plato suggested a balanced curriculum for education.

ROLE OF EDUCATOR
In Plato's plan of education, the educator is considered to have the greatest importance. He is like the torch bearer who leads a man, lying in a dark cave, out of the darkness into the bright light of the outside world. His task is to bring the

educand out of the darkness of the cave into the light of the day. He is thus the guide. In his methods of teaching Plato believes imitation to be of the greatest importance, for he realizes that the child learns a great deal through imitation. He will acquire the behaviour of the people among whom he is make to live. Hence, keeping in mind the status of the child, he should be made to live among people from whom he can learn good habits and avoid bad ones.

EDUCATION ACCORDING TO CLASSES

Plato's plan of education does not envisage uniform education for one and all. He accepted the concept of social stratification, 429 and suggested that since different individuals had to perform different tasks in society, they should also be educated differently, in order to train each one in his own respective sphere. He believed that different individuals are made of different metals. Those made of gold should take up administration and government, while those made of silver were best suited for trade and defence. Others made of iron and baser metals should become labourers and agriculturists. The state must make different arrangements for the education of these different kinds of people, although Plato implicitly agrees that education of governing classes is of the greatest importance. The education of the other classes in society does not concern him very much. Faced with the problem of determining the class of each individual, Plato suggested various kinds of tests to be conducted at different age levels. In the first place, primary education will be given to all between the ages of seven and twenty, following which a test shall be administered to everyone. Those who failed the test are to be sent to labour in the various occupations and productive trades. The successful candidates will be sent to the armed forces where training will be imparted to them for the next ten years. This will again be followed by a test, the failures will be compelled to remain in the armed forces while the successful ones will be sent to join the government. Then this governing class will be subjected to further education in science. Later on, one from among the governing class will be elected as the philosopher administrator whose task will be to look after the government and education of the state. This individual will occupy the highest position in the land, his word will be the law of the land. Apart from this supreme individual, all other members of the governing class will continue to receive education throughout their lives, most of this education consisting of teachings in philosophy. It is thus evident that Plato granted the highest place to philosophy in his educational scheme.

EVALUATION
Rousseau was correct when he commented that Plato's The Republic is the finest textbook on education. But it must be 430 admitted that Plato's scheme of education suffers from certain defects and shortcomings, which have been enumerated below. 1. Little education for the productive classes. In any society the labouring or productive class is invariably the largest in size. In Plato's scheme of education, this class is granted only primary education, which implies that higher education of all kinds is intended only for the soldiers and the governing classes, assuming that the labouring class has no need for such an education. Plato's dictum was that the productive class actually required no more than primary education. 2. Absence of variety. Plato's educational plan pays no attention to the individual differences between one individual and another. He suggested the same kind of education to be given to an entire class of people, according to a uniform curriculum. This will inevitably lead to the creation of only one kind of citizens, thus inevitably leading to deadening monotony and lack of variety, which kills all future progress. 3. Stress on philosophy. Some people get the impression that Plato's insistence on philosophy is exaggerated, and that it could only lead to an increase in the number of contemplative individuals at the expense of more practical members. But it must be remembered that Plato has stressed the importance of both bodily and mental development and in this respect, he has achieved a remarkable harmony of both. 4. Neglect of literary education. Plato's curriculum also neglects training in literature by stressing the importance of training in mathematics. In spite of the above defects, Plato's concept of education has influenced educational philosophy in almost all ages. In

particular, his influence can be seen in the idealist philosophy of education. And, many of the finest teachers still consider Plato as their only true guide.

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION IN LAWS

In the Laws, the work of his old age, Plato readdresses himself to the subject of education. The dialogue commencing with a consideration of the laws of Minos drifts into a consideration of the perfect citizen-ruler and how to train himinto a discussion on education, in short. Disillusioned by the experiences 431 of life, Plato in the Laws, so some interpreters maintain, recants the idealistic schemes which he projected in the Republic; in the later work he does not, however, really abandon his earlier principles, but rather seeks to illustrate their application in practice; he describes, if not the ideal city, the pattern of which is laid up in heaven, at least 'the second best' which might be realisable 'in present circumstances'. Aim of Education The treatment of education in the Laws supplements that in the Republic, emphasising the practical aspects and thus approximating to Aristotle's treatment of education in the Politics. The aim of education nevertheless remains the same, for as Plato says in the Laws: 'At present when we speak in terms of praise or blame about the bringing-up of each person, we call one man educated and another uneducated, although the uneducated man may be sometimes very well educated for the calling of a retail trader, or of a captain of a ship, and the like. For we are not speaking of education in this narrower sense, but of that other education in virtue from youth upwards, which makes a man eagerly pursue the ideal perfection of citizenship, and teaches him how rightly to rule and how to obey. This is the only education which, upon our view, deserves the name; that other sort of training, which aims at the acquisition of wealth or bodily strength, or mere cleverness apart from intelligence and justice, is mean and illiberal, and is not worthy to be called education at all. But let us not quarrel with one another about a word, provided that the proposition which has just been granted holds good: to wit, that those who are rightly educated generally become good men. Neither must we cast a slight upon education, which is the first and fairest thing that the best of men can ever have, and which, though liable to take a wrong direction, is capable of reformation, and this business of reformation is the great business of every man while he lives.' Universal Education Education in the Laws is to be universal, not restricted as in 432 the Republic to guardian class, and is to be compulsory; 'the children shall come (to the schools) not only if their parents please, but if they do not please; there shall be compulsory education, as the saying is, of all and sundry; as far as this is possible; and the pupils shall be regarded as belonging to the state rather than to their parents. My law shall apply to females as well as males; they shall both go through the same exercises. To the coeducational principle and the communistic scheme on which it is based Plato frequently alludes in the Laws, thus indicating that the proposal in the Republic was regarded by him as a serious one. In support of the idea that women and girls should undergo the same gymnastic and military exercises as men and boys, Plato states: 'While they are yet girls they should have practised dancing in arms and the whole art of fightingwhen grown-up women, they should apply themselves to evolutions and tactics, and the mode of grounding and taking up arms; if for no other reason, yet in case the whole military force should have to leave the city and carry on operations of war outside, that those who will have to guard the young and the rest of the city may be equal to the task; and, on the other hand, when enemies, whether barbarian or Hellenic, come from without with mighty force and make a violent assault upon them, and thus compel them to fight for the possession of the city, which is far from being an impossibility, great would be the disgrace to the state, if the women had been so miserably trained that they could not fight for their young, as birds will, against any creature however strong, or die or undergo any danger, but must instantly rush to the temples and crowd at the altars and shrines, and bring upon human nature the reproach, that of all animals man is the most cowardly." Subjects of Education The main subjects in the curriculum proposed in the Laws are the same as those given in the Republicfor the early education music and gymnastic, and for the higher education mathematics; dialectic, the study to which the mathematical subjects were merely preparatory in the Republic, is alluded to only indirectly in the more practical Laws.

433 1. Gymnastic Gymnastic occupies a more prominent place than it does in the Republic, where it was treated merely in outline. It is now divided into two branches, dancing and wrestling, and these are, in turn, further subdivided. 'One sort of dancing imitates musical recitation, and aims at preserving dignity and freedom; -the other aims at producing health, agility and beauty in the limbs and parts of the body, giving the proper flexion and extension to each of them, a harmonious motion being diffused everywhere, and forming a suitable accompaniment to the dance'. In regard to wrestling, that form 'of wrestling erect and keeping free the neck and hands and sides, working with energy and constancy, with a composed strength, and for the sake of health' is useful and is to be enjoined alike on masters and scholars. The general aim is that of all movements wrestling is most akin to the military art, and is to be pursued for the sake of this, and not for the sake of wrestling. 2. Music Plato's treatment of music in the Laws follows the lines of that in the Republic, the old quarrel between poetry and philosophy being frequently renewed. The same conclusion is reached, namely, that the compositions must impress on the minds of the young the principle 'that the life which is by the Gods deemed to be the happiest is also the best'. 3. Craft The omission in the Republic of any reference to the education of the industrial or artisan class is partially rectified in the Laws. 'According to my view', Plato now says, 'anyone who would be good at anything must practise that thing from his youth upwards, both in sport and earnest, in its several branches: for example, he who is to be a good builder, should play at building children's houses; he who is to be a good husbandman, at tilling the ground; and those who have the care of their education should provide them when young with mimic tools. They should learn beforehand the knowledge which they will afterwards require for their art. For example, the future carpenter should learn to measure or apply the line in play; and the 434 future warrior should learn riding, or some other exercise, for amusement, and the teacher should endeavour to direct the children's inclinations and pleasures, by the help of amusements, to their final aim in life. The most important part of education is right training in the nursery. The soul of the child in his play should be guided by the love of that sort of excellence in which when he grows up to manhood he will have to be perfected." Early Training As in the Republic so in the Laws, education cannot begin too early; 'Am I not right in maintaining that a good education is that which tends most to the improvement of mind and body? And nothing can be plainer than that the fairest bodies are those which grow up from infancy in the best and straightest manner? The care of the child even before birth is dealt with by Plato. The early discipline is to be, as with Aristotle, habituation to the good and the beautiful. 'Now I mean by education that training which is given by suitable habits to the first instincts of virtue in children;when pleasure, and friendship, and pain, and hatred are rightly implanted in souls not yet capable of understanding the nature of them, and who find them, after they have obtained reason, to be in harmony with her. This harmony of the soul, taken as a whole, is virtue; but the particular training in respect to pleasure and pain, which leads you always to hate what you ought to hate, and love what you ought to love from the beginning of life to the end, may be separated off; and, in my view, will be rightly called education. The early training in the Republic comprising music and gymnastic was designed to occupy the first seventeen years of life. The ages at which the various parts of these subjects were to be taken up were no further particularised. In the Laws, however, Plato is most precise as to the occupations of the early years and the time to be allotted to each. 'Upto the age of three years, whether of boy or girl, if a person strictly carries out our previous regulations and makes them a principal aim, he will do much for the advantage of the young creatures. But at three, four, five or even six years the childish nature will require sports. . . . Children at that age have certain natural modes of amusement which they find out for themselves when they meet.' 435

4. Sports The sports which the children at these early ages engage in, it may be interpolated, are, in Plato's opinion, of supreme significance in maintaining the stability of the state. In the Republic Plato repeatedly expresses his fear of innovations in music and gymnastic lest these should imperil the whole order of society. This was natural, for any change in an ideal state could only be regarded as a change for the worse. It was also in accordance with the Greek attitude of mind, to which the modern ideal of an infinite progress brought about by constant innovations was abhorrent, and which conceived of perfection after the manner of the plastic arts as limited and permanent. In the Laws, even when the constitution is but 'second-best', the dread of innovations still haunts Plato, and leads him to observe 'that the plays of children have a great deal to do with the permanence or want of permanence in legislation. For when plays are ordered with a view to children having the same plays, and amusing themselves after the same manner, and finding delight in the same playthings, the more solemn institutions of the state are allowed to remain undisturbed. Whereas if sports are disturbed, and innovations are made in them, and they constantly change, and the young never speak of their having the same likings, or the same established notions of good and bad taste, either in the bearing of their bodies or in their dress, but he who devises something new and out of the way in figure and colours and the like is held in special honour, we may say that no greater evil can happen in the state; for he who changes these sports is secretly changing the manners of the young, and making the old to be dishonoured among them and the new to be honoured. And I affirm that there is nothing which is a greater injury to all states than saying this. Upto the age of six the children of both sexes may play together. After the age of six, however, they were to be separated 'let boys live with boys, and girls in like manner with girls. Now they must begin to learnthe boys going to the teachers of horsemanship and the use of the boy, the javelin and sling, and girls too, if they do not object, at any rate until they know how to manage these weapons, and especially how to handle heavy arms.' 436 The musical is to alternate with the gymnastic training. 'A fair time for a boy of ten years old to spend in letters is three years; the age of thirteen is the proper time for him to begin to handle the lyre, and he may continue at this for another three years, neither more nor less, and whether his father or himself like or dislike the study, he is not to be allowed to spend more or less time in learning music than the law allows.' Suitable for Freemen There still remain three studies suitable for freemen. Arithmetic is one of them; the measurement of length, surface and depth is the second; and the third has to do with revolutions of the stars in relation to one another. Not everyone has need to toil through all these things in a strictly scientific manner, but only a few.' All that is required for the many is such a knowledge as 'every child in Egypt is taught when he learns the alphabet', and which frees them 'from that natural ignorance of all these things which is so ludicrous and disgraceful. He who is to be a good ruler of the state, must, however, make a complete study of these subjects and of their inter-connections; he must know these two principles 'that the soul is the eldest of all things which are born, and is immortal and rules over all bodies; moreover, he who has not contemplated the mind of nature which is said to exist in the stars, and gone through the previous training, and seen the connection of music with these things, and harmonised them all with laws and institutions, is not able to give a reason of such things as have a reason. And he who is unable to acquire this in addition to the ordinary virtues of a citizen, can hardly be a good ruler of a whole state.

DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION
While in the Republic education was to be in the immediate charge of the guardians of the state, in the Laws it is to be delegated to a Director of Education. The end of education nevertheless remains the same. Education is for the good of the individual and for the safety of the state. Thus Plato reaffirms in the Laws: 'If you ask what is the good of education in general, the answer is easythat education makes good men, and that 437 good men act nobly, and conquer their enemies in battle, because they are good. Education certainly gives victory, although victory sometimes produces forgetfulness of education; for many have grown insolent from victory in war, and this insolence has engendered in them in numerable evils; and many a victory has been and will be suicidal to the victors; but education is never suicidal.

LIMITATIONS OF PLATO'S PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION

Plato established the humanistic tradition in Western education. His influence on later educational thought can be traced in Quintilian in the medieval curriculum, the studies constituting the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, logic or dialectic) and the quadrivium (music, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy), if different in order, being practically identical with those prescribed by Plato for the philosopher, in More's Utopia, Elyot's Governour and other renaissance writers, in the educational scheme of The Book of Discipline ascribed to John Knox, Rousseau's Article on Political Economy and in Fichte's Addresses to the German Nation. Whether this influence has been for good or evil has been vigorously debated. That different interpretations can be derived from the writings of a thinker so original and fertile as Plato is only to be expected. 1. Static view of state. Thus his static view of the state, with divisions into clearly demarcated classes, each of which is required to keep as much as possible to itself, has been condemned as undemocratic. 2. Neglect of Technical Education. Another evil side of Platonic culture, according to Whitehead, was its total neglect of technical education as an ingredient in the complete development of ideal human beings.

CONTRIBUTION OF PLATO
One the other hand, Whitehead recognises that the Platonic ideal has rendered imperishable service to European civilisation by encouraging art, by fostering that spirit of disinterested curiosity which is the origin of science and by maintaining the dignity of mind in the face of material force. Dewey likewise 438 acclaims Plato's procedure of untrammelled inquiry, remarking: 'Nothing could be more helpful to present philosophising than a 'Back to Plato' movement, but it would have to be back to the dramatic, restless, co-operatively inquiring Plato of the Dialogues, trying one mode of attack after another to see what it might yield; back to the Plato whose highest flight of metaphysics always terminated with a social and practical turn, and not to the artificial Plato constructed by unimaginative commentators who treat him as the original university professor'.

Reference
1. Taylor, Plato: The Man and His Work, Chapter I.

Questions for Exercise

1. What is the aim of education according to Plato? Explain the curriculum of education for human perfection. 2. Critically evaluate Plato's idea of education according to classes. 3. Explain Plato's Theory of Education in the Laws. 4. Evaluate Plato's theory of education and point out its contribution to the field of education. 439

26 Aristotle
Born in 384 B.C., in Stagira, a city of Greece, Aristotle had a silver spoon in his mouth right from his childhood. His father, Nicomachus, was the court physician of Philip of Macedon. Aristotle entered the famous Academy of the great philosopher Plato at the early age of 17 years. He stayed there for almost 20 years as a student and a teacher. In 347 B.C. after the death of his master Plato, Aristotle left the academy and started travelling. He went to Assos in Mysia and from there to Mitylene. He was called by the king Philip to look after the education of his son Alexander the Great, in 342 B.C. For seven years he was the tutor of Alexander after which he returned to Athens to establish the School known as Lyceum. It was also known as Peripatetic school because of the habit of Aristotle of walking while lecturing. His method of teaching was not only through lectures but also through dialogues. After the death of Alexander the Great he was accused of sacrilege. He left Athens for Euboea where he died in 322 B.C. Aristotle was master of dialectic. He was a great observer, a voracious reader and a specialist both in natural sciences as well as in philosophy. Among his writings one finds not only on metaphysics and logic but also on human sciences like psychology and ethics and politics as well as upon natural sciences.

WORKS OF ARISTOTLE
It has been said that Aristotle wrote as many as 400 books. Each book, however, means a chapter of a book as we generally understand by the term 'book' today. 440 Aristotle's works have been classified into those of logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, rhetoric, psychology and natural sciences. In these fields his important works are as follows: 1. Logic. Aristotle's views concerning logic are available in his work Organon. This work includes categories, rules of interpretations, analytic and fallacies etc. This great work is divided into different books on these different topics. 2. Metaphysics. Metaphysics includes as many as 14 books of Aristotle. 3. Ethics. Aristotle's famous work Nicoamachean ethics consists of 10 books on different topics concerning ethics. Another important work on ethics is Eudemian ethics. 4. Politics. Aristotle's famous book Politics consists of 8 books. Besides this important work he also wrote another book entitled On the Constitution of Athens. It contain Aristotle Philosophy of Education as well. 5. Psychology. Aristotle's famous work On the Soul consists of 8 books on different topics concerning human psychology. Besides, he also wrote small independent treatises on memory, dream etc. 6. Natural Science. Aristotle's has a wide influence on almost all the natural sciences due to his pioneer work in different fields. Of these the most important are: Physics (eight books of which Book VII is an interpolation); Astronomy (four books); Origin and Decay (two books); Meterorology (four books); Cosmology (spurious), Botany (spurious); History of Animals (ten books), (Book X spurious); On the Parts of Animals (four books); On the Progression of Animals (not genuine, according to some); On the Origin of Animals (five books); On the Locomotion of Animals (spurious). From the point of view of the period of writing, Aristotle's works are classified into the following three periods: 1. Writings of Platonic Age. These were written during Aristotle's stay in Plato's academy. Of these the most important is On the Soul. 2. Writings in the Court of Macedon. While the first class of writings has a clear influence of Plato, the writings during this period were more free and original. Of these the most important areAristotle's work on Metaphysics and Politics. 441 3. Writings in Lyceum. These writings were composed in Aristotle's school known as Lyceum. Of these the most important areOn Creation and Destruction and On Heavens, etc.

PLATO AND ARISTOTLE

Similarities It is a common saying in the field of philosophy that a philosopher must be either a Platonist or an Aristotelian. This shows that Plato and Aristotle represented mutually contradictory views. This, however, is far from the fact. No one can deny that Aristotle was sufficiently influenced by his master Plato in spite of the fact that he presented so many views contradicting the views of his master. He was undoubtedly the greatest Platonist. His realist philosophy was in a way a purer and better form of Plato's theory of ideas. According to Professor Zeller one can find the following similarities between the philosophical views of Plato and his disciple Aristotle. 1. Objective and Scope of Philosophy. Both Plato and Aristotle believe that the subject of philosophy is Being as such, the essence which is present every where, the universal essence. Both believed that philosophy aimed at finding out the bases and the causes of physical things. This, however, is not the causation as found in sciences. It is the search after the supreme or the ultimate good which is the basis of all things but which in itself is uncaused self-evident, free and selfsufficient. 2. Value of objective knowledge. Both Plato and Aristotle agreed that the philosopher must have sufficient knowledge of things in order to know the ultimate essence or being.

3. Distinction between knowledge and opinion. Both Plato and Aristotle distinguished between knowledge and opinion. Knowledge according to them was eternal and necessary, while knowledge and opinion were temporary and changing. Like Plato, Aristotle believed that knowledge is realisation and not only a matter of thinking. 4. Distinction between knowledge and experience. Plato believed that knowledge is the knowledge of universals and therefore cannot be subject to perception. Similarly, according to Aristotle, knowledge is different from sense experience. While sense 442 experience gives us the knowledge of 'that', knowledge not only is the information concerning that but also concerning 'what'. 5. Knowledge begins in wonder. Both Plato and Aristotle believed that all knowledge starts in wonder. 6. Philosophy is the mother of all sciences. Both according to Plato and Aristotle, philosophy is the highest knowledge, the mother of all sciences, the supreme and the best knowledge possible for man. This knowledge again, is necessary in order to gain any happiness in human life. 7. Philosophical method. Both Plato and Aristotle have accepted the Socratic dialectical method and also improved upon it. Differences In spite of the above mentioned similarities, as has been already pointed out in the famous philosophical proverb about their distinction, Plato and Aristotle propounded certain fundamentally different views. According to Prof. Gomperz, the difference between Plato and Aristotle were natural since while the former was the enquirer into ideas, the later was an inquirer into Nature. Therefore, while Plato was more interested in Abstract universal, Aristotle constantly evaluated and criticised Plato's theory of ideas. According to Prof. Zellar, Aristotle followed the fundamental principles of the theory of ideas advocated by Socrates and Plato, improved upon it, elaborated it, re-defined it and presented it in a form which, in spite of having its similarities, was very much different from the original. According to Zeller, Plato and Aristotle differed in the following fundamental points: 1. Difference concerning philosophy. Plato defined philosophy in a very wide sense including almost all metaphysical, moral, practical and theoretical aspects of knowledge, though he considered it different from every other activity of human being. On the other hand, Aristotle distinguished philosophy as theoretical knowledge, as distinct from the applied knowledge. The aim of applied knowledge, according to Aristotle, is not the search after fundamentals but concerning things. Therefore, it includes sciences rather than philosophy. 2. The place of Science in Philosophy. Plato did not elaborate his concept of creation. His primary aim was concerning theory 443 of ideas. Aristotle agreed with Plato that scientific knowledge is primarily concerned with the universal essences. But then he proceeded to explain the phenomena as well. Thus he found a place for sciences within the realm of philosophy. According to Plato philosophical discussion was intellectual discourse, while according to Aristotle it also included discourse concerning the actual problems and things of everyday life. 3. Dialectical method. Though Aristotle adopted the dialectical method of Plato, he enquired further in its field and gave it completely original form. As an observer of Nature, he discovered the method of observation and included it in its philosophical method. To the analytic of Socrates, he gave a more technical form so that it may be utilised in inventions and discoveries. It has been rightly pointed out by Zeller that while Aristotle's dialectic can be used in the explanation of physical facts, the same cannot be said about the dialectic of Plato. Aristotle was not only a speculative thinker but also an accurate observer. 4. Objectivity of Knowledge. Aristotle accepted the Platonic principle that a science is concerned with the concept and the discovery of the essences but then, while according to Plato the essences were subjective, according to Aristotle they were objective and cannot be separated from the objects. Thus Aristotle, as contrasted to Plato, does not believe in a world of ideas as distinct and separate from the world of things. According to him the idea and the thing cannot be separated from each other, and knowledge is not only subjective but also objective. 5. Factual interest. Thus it can be said that as compared with the philosophical interest of Plato, Aristotle had more factual

interest. He always aimed at exact and accurate scientific knowledge. He was always prepared to gather facts though they my be found in any science. Therefore, Francis Bacon has wrongly concluded that Aristotle has neglected facts concerning nature. 6. Definite knowledge. Besides being a philosopher, Plato was also a poet. Therefore one finds myths, imaginations and poetry along with mysticism in his philosophical writings. Aristotle, on the other hand, favoured exact knowledge. 7. Distinction concerning language. Thus Plato and Aristotle differed in their styles of writing and language. Plato had extraordinary mastery over language and words. But Aristotle did not pay much attention to the beauty of style or language. As contrasted to Plato, Aristotle's writings do not have that artistic eminence and 444 linguistic excellence. He kept his works absolutely free from all literary and artistic leanings. He attended more to the meaning and communication through the words. Therefore, though his style is often crude and even sometimes ugly, it helps in the understanding of concepts. He selected definite words to convey definite meanings and where such words were not available, he coined words himself. Therefore, Aristotle is known as one of the greatest linguists of the world. In fact he was the pioneer of the philosophical language and technical dictionary. Words coined by him are still very much used not only in philosophy but in so many sciences in order to convey abstract and subtle ideas. This does not mean that Aristotle's writings are absolutely devoid of poetic beauty. On the other hand, some of his writings are even more beautiful than that of Plato. In fact, Aristotle wanted to keep art and science as distinct and used different languages in their communication. A mixture of them, according to him, was injurious to both. If art is made subservient to reason, beauty will be destroyed. On the other hand, if philosophy is communicated through poetic language, it will not meet its purpose. In order to search beauty we must follow the path of art while in order to discover truth we must treat the path of reason.

SOCIETY AS EDUCATOR
In an early dialogue of Plato's the Protagoras, Socrates asks Protagoras why it is not as easy to find teachers of virtue as it is to find teachers of swordsmanship, riding or any other art. Protagoras' answer is that there are no special teachers of virtue, because virtue is taught by the whole community. Plato and Aristotle both accept the view of moral education implied in this answer. In a passage of the Republic (492 b) Plato repudiates the notion that the sophists have a corrupting moral influence upon young men. The public themselves, he says, are the real sophists and the most complete and thorough educators. No private education can hold out against the irresistible force of public opinion and the ordinary moral standards of society. But that makes it all the more essential that public opinion and social environment should not be left to grow up at haphazard as they ordinarily do, but should be made by the wise legislator the expression of the good and be informed in all their details by his knowledge. The legislator is the only possible teacher of virtue. 445

THE BEST STATE

Aristotle's Politics, is a handbook for the legislator, the expert who is to be called in when a state wants help. It is one of the most marked characteristics of Greek political theory that Plato and Aristotle think of the statesman as one who has knowledge of what ought to be done, and can help those who call him into prescribe for them, rather than one who has power to control the forces of society. The desire of society for the statesman's advice is taken for granted. Plato in the Republic says that a good constitution is only possible when the ruler does not want to rule; where men contend for power, where they have not learnt to distinguish between the art of getting hold of the helm of state and the art of steering, which alone is statesmanship, true politics is impossible. The best society is possible only in the best state. Therefore, education by society is education by state. Aristotle assume the characteristic Platonic view that all men seek the good, and go wrong through ignorance, not through evil will, and so he naturally regards the state as a community which exists for the sake of the good life. It is in the state that that common seeking after the good which is the profoundest truth about men and nature becomes explicit and knows itself. The state is for Aristotle prior to the family and the village, although it succeeds them in time, for only when the state with its conscious organisation is reached can man understand the secret of his past struggles after something he knew not what. If primitive society is understood in the light of the state, the state is understood in the light of its most perfect form, when the good after which all societies are seeking is realised in its perfection. Hence for Aristotle as for Plato, the natural state or the state as such is the ideal state, and the ideal state is the starting point of political inquiry.

VALUE OF EDUCATION IN THE STATE

Aristotle assigns the paramount political importance to education. It is the great instrument by which the legislator can ensure that the future citizens of his state will share those common beliefs which make the state possible. The Greeks with their 446 small states had a far clearer apprehension than we can have of the dependence of a constitution upon the people who have to work it. If the state is the organisation of men seeking a common good, power and political position must be given to those who can forward this end. This is the principle expressed in Aristotle's account of political justice, the principle of "tools to those who can use them." As the aim of the state is differently conceived, the qualifications for government will vary. In the ideal state power will be given to the man with most knowledge of the good; in other states to the men who are most truly capable of achieving that end which the citizens have set themselves to pursue. The justest distribution of political power is that in which there is least waste of political ability. According to Aristotle the virtue of a good citizen and good governor is the same as of a good man; and that every one before he commands should have first obeyed, it is the business of the legislator to consider how his citizens may be good men, what education is necessary to that purpose, and what is the final object of a good life. Now life is divided into labour and rest, war and peace; and of what we do the objects are partly necessary and useful, partly noble; and we should give the same preference to these that we do to the different parts of the soul and its actions, as war to procure peace; labour, rest; and the useful, the noble. The politician, therefore, who composes a body of laws ought to extend his views to everything; the different parts of the soul and their actions; more particularly to those things which are of a superior nature and ends; and, in the same manner, to the lives of men and their different actions. They ought to be fitted both for labour and war, but rather for rest and peace; and also to do what is necessary and useful, but rather what is fair and noble. It is to those objects that the education of the children ought to tend, and of all the youths who want instruction.

EDUCATION OF THE CHILD

When a child is born the strength of its body will depend greatly upon the quality of its food. People who desire that their children should acquire a warlike habit, feed them chiefly 447 with milk, as being best accommodated to their bodies, but without wine, to prevent any distempers; those motions which are natural to their age are very serviceable; and those should be prevented which makes their limbs crooked. On account of their extreme ductility, some people use particular machines that their bodies may not be distorted. It is useful to enure them to the cold when they are very little; for this is very serviceable for their health; and to enure them to the business of war; whatever it is possible to accustom children to, it is best to accustom them to it at first, but to do it by degrees; besides, boys have naturally a habit of loving the cold, on account of the heat. No Education Upto Five Years According to Aristotle, these, then, and such-like things ought to be the first object of our attention: the next age to this continues till the child is five years old; during which time it is best to teach him nothing at all, not even necessary labour, lest it should hinder his growth; but he should be accustomed to use so much motion as not to acquire a lazy habit of body; which he will get by various means and by play also; his play also ought to be neither illiberal nor too laborious nor lazy. Imitation Theory of Play Their governors and preceptors of children should take care what sort of tales and stories it may be proper for them to hear; for all these ought to pave the way for their future instruction: for which reason the generality of their play should be imitations of what they are afterwards to do seriously. They too do wrong who forbid by laws the disputes between boys and their quarrels, for they contribute to increase their growth; as they are sort of exercise to the body. The struggles of the heart and the compression of the spirits give strength to those who labour, which happens to boys in their disputes. The preceptors also ought to have an eye upon their manner of life, and those with whom they converse; and to take care that they are never in the company of slaves.

448 Home Education At this time and till they are seven years old it is necessary that they should be educated at home. It is also very proper to banish, both from their hearing and sight, everything which is illiberal and the like. The legislator should banish every indecent expression out of the state: for from a permission to speak whatever is shameful, very quickly arises the doing it, particularly with young people. Let them never speak nor hear any such thing. If it appears that any freeman has done or said anything that is forbidden before he is of age to be thought fit to partake of the common meals, let him be punished by disgrace and stripes: But if a person above that age does so, let him be treated as you would a slave on account of his being infamous. As we forbid child speaking everything which is forbidden, it is necessary that he neither sees obscene stories nor pictures. The magistrates should take care that there are no statues or pictures of anything of this nature, except only of those gods to which the law allows persons of a certain age to pay their devotions, for themselves, their wives, and children. It should also be illegal for young persons to be present either at iambics or comedies before they are arrived at that age when they are allowed to partake of the pleasure of the table. "Indeed a good education will preserve" them from all the evils which attend on these things." According to Aristotle, what we meet with first pleases best: for which reason children should be kept strangers to everything which is bad, more particularly whatsoever is loose and offensive to good manners. When five years are accomplished, the two next may be very properly employed in being spectators of those exercise they will afterwards have to learn.

TWO PERIODS OF EDUCATION

According to Aristotle, there are two periods into which education ought to be divided, according to the age of the child; the one is from his being seven years of age to the time of puberty; the other from puberty till he is twenty-one. Those who divide ages by the number seven are in general wrong: 449 it is much better to follow the division of nature; for every art and every instruction is intended to complete what nature has left defective. Thus Aristotle, like the sages of India of his time considered good sanstomes as the most important in the early education of the children. Today, when children are being indiscriminately exposed to all types of experiences, particularly through the media, it is a point with consideration by those who are concerned with the education of the children. It is unfortunate that today, almost all over the world the contemporary pedagogues are neglecting this common wisdom of East and West.

EDUCATION OF MAGISTRATES
Aristotle says, "No one can doubt that the magistrate ought greatly to interest himself in the care of youth; for where it is neglected it is hurtful to the city, for every state ought to be governed according to its particular nature; for the form and manners of each government are peculiar to itself; and these, as they originally established it, so they usually still preserve it." Universally, the best manners produce the best government. Besides, as in every business and art there are some things which men are to learn first and be made accustomed to, which are necessary to perform their several works. So it is evident that the same thing is necessary in the practice of virtue.

UNIFORM SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

According to Aristotle, as there is one end in view in every city, it is evident that education ought to be one and the same in each; and that this should be a common care, and not the individual's, as it now is when every one takes care of his own children separately, and their instructions are particular also, each person teaching them as they please; but what ought to be engaged in ought to be common to all." Besides, no one ought to think that any citizen belongs to him in particular, but to the state in general; for each one is a part of the state, and it is the natural duty of each part to regard the good of the whole. Aristotle praised Lacedaemonians for they give the greatest attention to education, and make it public. "It is evident, 450 concludes Aristotle, then, that there should be laws concerning education, and that it should be public "

CURRICULUM OF CHILD EDUCATION

According to Aristotle, "What education is, and how children ought to be instructed, is what should be well-known; for there are doubts concerning the business of it, as all people do not agree in those things they would have a child taught, both with respect to their improvement in virtue and a happy life: nor is it clear whether the object of it should be to improve the reason or rectify the morals." From the present mode of education continues Aristotle "we cannot determine with certainty to which men incline, whether to instruct a child in what will be useful to him in life; or what tends to virtue, and what is excellent: for all these things have their separate defenders." As to virtue, there is nor particular in which they all agree: for as all do not equally esteem all virtues, it reasonably follows that they will not cultivate the same. It is evident that what is necessary ought to be taught to all: but that which is necessary for one is not necessary for all; for there ought to be a distinction between the employment of a freeman and a slave. The first of these should be taught everything useful which will not make those who know it mean. According to Aristotle, "Every work is to be esteemed mean, and every art and every discipline which renders the body, the mind, or the understanding of freemen unfit for the habit and practice of virtue: for which reason all those arts which tend to deform the body are called mean, and all those employments which are exercised for gain; for they take off from the freedom of the mind and render it sordid." There are also some liberal arts which are not improper for freemen to apply to in a certain degree; but to endeavour to acquire a perfect skill in them is exposed to the faults. Aristotle points out that there are four things which it is usual to teach children; reading, gymnastic exercise, and music, to which (in the fourth place) some add painting. Reading and painting are both of them of singular use in life, and gymnastic exercise, as productive of courage. As to music, some persons may doubt, as most persons now use it for the sake of pleasure: 451 but those who originally made it part of education did it because, nature requires that we should not only be properly employed, but to be able to enjoy leisure honourably. According to Aristotle "But, though both labour and rest are necessary, yet the latter is preferable to the first; and by all means man ought to learn what he should do when at rest: for he ought not to employ that time at play; for then play would be the necessary business of his lives. Play is more necessary for those who labour than those who are at the rest: for he who labours requires relaxation; which play will supply: for as labour is attended with pain and continued exertion, it is necessary that play should be introduced, under proper regulations, as a medicine: for such an employment of the mind is a relaxation to it, and eases with pleasure. Now rest itself seems to partake of pleasure, of happiness, and an agreeable life: but this cannot be theirs who labour, but theirs who are at rest; for he who labours, labours for the sake of some end which he has not. According to Aristotle, "Happiness is an end which all persons think is attended with pleasure and not with pain: but all persons do not agree in making this pleasure consist in the same thing; for each one has his particular standard, correspondent to his own habits; but the best man proposes the best pleasure, and that which arises from the noblest actions." To live a life of rest there are some things which a man must learn and be instructed in. The object of this learning and this instruction centres in their acquisition. The learning and instruction which is given for labour has for its object other things. The ancients made music a part of education; not as a thing necessary, for it is not of that nature, nor as a thing useful, as reading, in the common course of life, or for managing of a family, or for learning anything as useful in public life. Painting also seems useful to enable a man to judge more accurately of the productions of the finer arts: nor is it like the gymnastic exercise, which contribute to health and strength; for neither of these things do we see produced by music. The employment of our rest, they had in view who introduced it. It is a proper employment for freemen. It is evident, then, that there is a certain education in which a child may be instructed, not as useful nor as necessary, but as noble and liberal. We have the testimony of the ancients in our favour, by what they have delivered down upon education 452 for music makes this plain. Moreover, it is necessary to instruct children in what is useful, not only on account of its being useful in itself, as, for instance, to learn to read, but also as the means of acquiring other different sorts of instruction. Thus they should be instructed in painting, not only to prevent their being mistake in purchasing pictures, or in buying or selling of vases, but rather as it makes them judges of the beauties of the human form. According to Aristotle, "To be always hunting after the profitable ill agrees with great and freedom souls." Whether a boy should be first taught morals or reasoning, and whether his body or his understanding should be first cultivated, it is plain that boys should be first put under the care of the different masters of the gymnastic arts, both to form their bodies and teach them their exercises. Physical Education

Aristotle criticises those states which look the greatest care of their children's education by bestow in their chief attention on wrestling, because it both prevents the growth of the body and hurts the form of it. The Lacedaemonians made their children fierce by painful labour, as chiefly useful to inspire them with courage: though, this is neither the only thing nor the principle thing necessary to attend to; and even with respect to this they may not thus attain their end. Aristotle points out that "we do not find either in other animals, or other nations, that courage necessarily attends the most cruel, but rather the milder, and those who have the dispositions of lions: for there are many people who are eager both to kill men and to devour human flesh, as the Achaeans and Heniochi in Pontus, and many others in Asia, some of whom are as bad, others worse than these who indeed live by tyranny, but are men of no courage." The Lacedaemonians did not acquire their superiority by training their youth to these exercise, but because those who were disciplined opposed those who were not disciplined at all. What is fair and honourable ought then to take place in education of what is fierce and cruel: for it is not a wolf, nor any other wild beast, which will brave any noble danger, but rather a good man. According to Aristotle, "those who permit boys to engage too earnestly in these exercise, while 453 they do not take care to instruct them in what is necessary to do, to speak the real truth, render them mean and vile, accomplished only in one duty of a citizen, and in every other respect, as reason evinces, good for nothing. Gymnastic exercise are useful during youth. It is very proper to go through a course of those which are most gentle, omitting violent diet and painful exercise as they may prevent the growth of the body. In support of his argument, Aristotle point out that amongst the Olympic candidates one can scarce find two or three who have gained a victory both when boys and men: because the necessary exercise they went through when young deprived them of their strength. When they have allotted three years from the time of puberty to other parts of education, they are then of a proper age to submit to labour and a regulated diet. According to Aristotle, "it is impossible for the mind and body both to labour at the same time, as they are productive of contrary evils to each other; the labour of the body preventing the progress of the mind, and the mind of the body". Education in Music About the purpose of education in music Aristotle points out, "It is no easy matter to distinctly point out what power it has, nor on what accounts one should apply it, whether as an amusement and refreshment, as sleep or wine; as these are nothing serious, but pleasing, and the killers of care, as Euripides says; for which reason they class in the same order and use for the same purpose all these, namely, sleep, wine and music, to which some add dancing; or shall we rather suppose that music tends to be productive or virtue, having a power, as the gymnastic exercises have, to form the body in a certain way, to influence the manners so as to accustom its professors to rejoice rightly? Or shall we say, that it is of any service in the conduct of life, and an assistant to prudence? For this also a third property which has bee attributed to it." Difference in Learning and Playing According to Aristotle boys should be instructed in music as play because those who learn don't play, for to learn is rather 454 troublesome." Neither is it proper to permit boys at their age to enjoy perfect leisure; for to cease to improve is by no means fit for what is yet imperfect: It may be thought that the earnest attention of boys in music is for the sake of that amusement they will enjoy when they come to be men and completely formed: but, if this is the case, why are they themselves to learn it, and not follow the practice of the kings of the Medes and Persians, who enjoy the pleasure of music by hearing others play, and being shown its beauties by them; for of necessity those must be better skilled therein who make this science their particular study and business, than those who have only spent so much time at it as was sufficient just to learn the principles of it. But if this is a reason for a child's being taught music they ought also to learn the art of cookery, which is absurd. The same doubt occurs if music has a power of improving the manners; for why should they on this account themselves learn it, and not reap every advantage of regulating the passions or forming a judgement on the merits of the performance by hearing others. The same reasoning may be applied if music is supposed to be the amusement of those who live an elegant and easy life, why should they learn themselves, and not rather enjoy the benefit of others' skill. Music for Harmony According to Aristotle, the first question is, whether music is or is not to make a part of education? And of those three things which have been assigned as its proper employment, which is the right? Is it to instruct, to amuse, or to employ the vacant hours of those who live at rest? Or may not all three be properly allotted to it? For it appears to partake of them all;

for play is necessary for relaxation, and relaxation pleasant, as it is a medicine for that uneasiness which arises from labour. It is admitted also that a happy life must be an honourable one, and a pleasant one too, since happiness consists in both these; and music is one of the most pleasing things, whether alone or accompanied with a voice: for which reason it is justly admitted into every company and every happy life, as having the power of inspiring joy. From this any one may suppose that it is necessary to instruct young persons in 455 music; for all those pleasure which are harmless are not only conducive to the final end of life, but serve also as relaxations; and, as men are but rarely in the attainment of that final end, they often cease from their labour and apply to amusement, with nor further view than to acquire the pleasure attending it. It is therefore useful to enjoy such pleasures as these. There are some persons who make play and amusement their end, and probably that end has some pleasure annexed to it, but while men seek the one they accept the other for it; because there is some likeness in human actions to the end; for the end is pursued for the sake of nothing else that attends it; but for itself only; and pleasures like these are sought for, not on account of what follows them, but on account of what has gone before them, as labour and grief; for which reason they seek for happiness in these sort of pleasures; and that this is the reason any one may easily perceive. That music should be pursued, not on this account only, but also as it is very serviceable during the hours of relaxation from labour, probably no one doubt. Music naturally gives pleasure, therefore the use of it is agreeable to all ages and all dispositions. It fills the soul with enthusiasm; which is an affection of the soul and strongly agitates the disposition. Music is one of those things which are pleasant. In poetry and music there are imitations of manners: Different harmonies differ from each other so much by nature, that those who hear them are differently affected, and are not in the same disposition of mind when one is performed as when another is; the one, for instance, occasions grief and contracts the soul, others soften the mind, and as it were dissolve the heart: others fix it in a firm and settled state, while the others fill the soul with enthusiasm, as has been well described by those who have written philosophically upon this part of education; for they bring examples of what they advance from the things themselves. The same holds true with respect to rhythm; some fix the disposition, others occasion a change in it; some act more violently, others more liberally. Thus, it is evident that music has an influence over the disposition of the mind, and it can fascinate it variously and if it can do this, most certainly it is what youth ought to be instructed in. The learning of music is particularly adapted to young disposition; for at their 456 time of life they do not willingly attend to anything which is not agreeable. Music is naturally one of the most agreeable things; and there seems to be a certain connection between harmony and rhythm: Some wise men held the soul itself to be harmony; others, that it contains it. Questions for Exercise 1. What is the object of education according to Aristotle? Whom does he entrust the function of education? 2. Discuss the curriculum of education according to Aristotle. 3. Explain the function of gymnastic and music in education according to Aristotle. 457

27 John Amos Comenius

According to Comenius, God is the ideal of education. Education includes knowledge concerning the world and its relationship with man. Thus, Comenius was influenced by the religious aims of education. However, he also opened the gates of secular ideals of education. Education, according to him, starts in the lap of the mother. The mother makes a significant contribution to the first six years of the child development. The development of his tendencies in the next six years very much depends upon the school. In the next six years more intelligent students may be allowed to study in the Latin schools. Those who successfully pass through it may study at the university for another six years. The method of education, according to Comenius, should adhere to the rules of child's nature. His interests should be developed and intellectual development should be realised through the use of his senses. Perception should be given emphasis in learning.

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
According to Comenius there are three sources of knowledge inner knowledge, observation and idea. The means of

attainment of knowledge are: senses, intelligence and talent. The three aims of education are: 1. To give knowledge to man for success in life. 2. To give wisdom for moral and character development. 3. To create devotion to God in man. 458

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION
From the point of view of teaching methods, Comenius has laid down the following principles meant for the reform of the educational system of his time: 1. Whatever is to be taught to the child should be told in direct and clear words. 2. The thing to be taught should have practical utility. 3. Education should not be complex. 4. The purpose of whatever is to be taught should be clearly stated. 5. General rules should be explained before-hand. 6. It is necessary to teach everything or all aspects of a subject in a proper order, proper place and proper relationship. 7. All subjects should be taught in a proper order. 8. The subject should not be left unless the child understands it properly. Rules for the Development of the Child The above principles were summarised in the following rules for the development of the child: 1. Proceed from concrete to abstract. 2. If possible, present mutual co-relation. 3. Adopt result method. 4. Prompt the interest of the child. 5. It is necessary to proceed towards 'to prove' instead of 'to assure', 'to see' instead of 'to discuss' and 'to know' instead of 'to believe'.

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
Comenius has classified schools according to different stages of the development of the child. Thus school may be organised for infants, children, adolescents and the adults. Infancy schools may admit infants from birth to six years of age. Childhood schools may admit children from six years to twelve years to be taught through mother tongue. Adolescence schools provide education to adolescents from 12 to 18 years of age through 459 Latin. These are also called Latin schools. Beyond 18 years of age the educand may be admitted to schools for adulthood. The functions of all these categories of schools are: 1. Teaching of language. 2. To develop faculties through the study of science and art. 3. To develop morality.

4. To create true devotion in God.

NEW SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

The following characteristics show that Comenius established a new system of education in seventeenth century: 1. Practical. Children should be taught practical things having utility in their life and at the same time they should understand them as well. 2. Self-experience. The child should understand the reality by his self-experience, should explore things himself and should not depend on others. 3. Mother Tongue. The medium of education should be mother tongue. Only then education will be enjoyable, easy and useful. 4. No Pressure. No pressure should be exerted on child. If the child does not take interest in studies, it means there is some defect in the teaching method of the teacher. 5. No Punishment. The child should not be given corporal punishment, if he is unable to read. 6. Equal Opportunities. Boys and girls should be given equal opportunities for education. 7. Physical Development. It is necessary to make proper arrangement for the physical development of children. Provision of games only is not sufficient. 8. Greek and Latin. It is necessary to teach Greek and Latin through the mother tongue. But these languages should be taught only to those who have interest in them. 9. Scientific Methods. Education is a science. All subjects should be taught by scientific methods. By finding natural law and order it is necessary to base education on them. Object-knowledge should be given first and then word-knowledge. In order to develop the mind of children properly, it is better to discuss about the things before telling them the rule. 460 10. Psychological Education. First easy and then difficult things should be taught. Proceed from concrete to abstract with objects so that they can understand them well. The children should take interest in analysis and should not study books only.

EVALUATION
Though it is undeniable that reforms suggested by Comenius made all-round improvement in the existing system of education, criticisms have been advanced by educationists upon the philosophy of education given by Comenius. The most important evaluation has been advanced as follows: 1. He considered the child as inheritor of human-race but could not present an educational system accordingly. He forgot ancient culture in his zeal for scientific study. He thought it necessary to teach the works of contemporary authors only. 2. Comparison is useful only when it is explained. In his principles he takes inspiration from nature and compares man to trees and birds. But he forgets human nature. He begins to give importance to nature, without man. Reality lies in proof. 3. On the basis of Divine-voice, he imagined that man should learn everything, but did not estimate 'knowledge' and 'human power' properly. This made his educational system defective. Later on, in his old age Comenius admitted that his books did not fulfil the need of the time. 4. It is not proper to give the essence of 'worldly knowledge' to the children. 5. It is not proper to explain general rules first. 6. Comenius was of the view that the essence of language should be taught to the child, but this is not suitable because there are many words in the language which we do not know nor is there any need of knowing. In spite of the above mentioned criticism, it should be remembered that Comenius has been compared to Copernicus and Newton in science so far as his contribution in education is concerned.

Questions for Exercise 1. Describe educational philosophy of Comenius. 2. Assess to contribution of Comenius to the philosophy of education. 461

28 Jean Jacques Rousseau

In modem times Rousseau was undoubtedly, the most important naturalist philosopher of education. His writings were published since 1750 A.D. onwards. Some of his famous works as are: 1. The Progress of Arts and Science; 2. Social Contract; 3. New Heloise; and 4. Emile. Of these the most important are Emile and Social Contract. Emile is a novel in which the author has described the education of Emile, an imaginary child. The author described the methods of bringing the child in contact with Nature and removing the social evils. The child is left under the guidance of an ideal teacher away from school and society. The teacher teaches the child in a natural environment. The book Emile consists of five parts respectively devoted to infancy, childhood, adolescence, youth and the imaginary wife of Emile named Sofia. Rousseau' was particularly impressed by the poverty and suffering of the people. He hated society for the evils and wanted to reform it. He realise, "Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the author of the nature but everything degenerates in the hands of man". Thus Rousseau, on the one hand, opposed society and praised Nature on the other hand. His book Social Contract portrays his ideas concerning society and politics. He gave the slogan 'Return to Nature'. His work Emile aroused reactions everywhere, favourable as well as unfavourable. France and Switzerland banned this book. It was burnt at so many places. Rousseau had to leave France for England in 1766. After 462 11 years he returned to France and wrote his last book entitled Confessions. He died in 1778. His thoughts influenced French revolution. He was acclaimed as a great revolutionary and reformer.

NATURALIST PHILOSOPHY
Rousseau's naturalist philosophy shows three forms: Social naturalism, Psychological naturalism and Physical naturalism. In his social naturalism he devices education as a method to develop society. According to him one cannot become a man and citizen at the same time. Every new culture is born out of the old. The past mistakes or evils must be removed though old ideals may be honoured. As a bitter critic of society Rousseau condemned old traditions opposing new reforms. He said, "Whatever is generally banned today you should do just the opposite, then you will find the right path". Rousseau's social naturalism may be found in his book Social Contract. His aim is man making and not the making of social man and citizen. In man making the man should follow his own inner feelings and natural tendencies. The child should be left to behave naturally. He learns in the contact of plants, animals, birds and natural objects. Society and man spoil the child. From moral and physical point of view the city is opposed to human good. The people should organise government to fulfil their needs. Wealth should not be concentrated in few hands. Thus, Rousseau pleaded for liberty and equality. According to him education means, "natural development of organs and powers of the child".

NEGATIVE EDUCATION
According to Rousseau, the first education ought to be purely negative. It consists not at all in teaching virtue or truth but in shielding the heart from vices and mind from errors. Thus Rousseau was against imparting any education to the child. According to him, "In childhood the aim of education is not to utilise time but to loose it". Elsewhere he said, "A twelveyear old child should know nothing. The teacher should pay attention to the child only and not to knowledge." 464

In Rousseau's time the children were given moral and religious education through various types of books in order to prepare them for adult life. Explaining his new system of education Rousseau said, "Give me a twelve-year old child who does not know anything. By 15 years of age, I will teach him so much as other children read in 15 years of early life. The only difference will be that your student remembers only knowledge and my student will be able to use it in practical life." Thus, Rousseau precisely reversed the old order. As he said, "Take the reverse of the accepted practice and you will almost always do right". This was what we called, negative education.

CRITICISM OF CURRENT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Criticising the educational system of his time Rousseau said, "What must we think then, of that barbarous education which sacrifices the present to an uncertain future, which loads a child with chains of every sort and begins by making him miserable in order to prepare for him long in advance, some pretended happiness, which it is probable, he will never enjoy". This was positive education emphasising the mind and trying to make the child an adult. Negative education, on the other hand, strengthens the sense organs and the power of reasoning. As Rousseau said, "Nature wants that the child should remain a child before he becomes an adult. By changing this sequence we shall get raw fruits which shall soon perish. The child has his own ways of seeing, thinking and experiencing. We should not impose our own methods on him. It will be a folly". We do not understand the child and assume our ideas as his ideas. Elsewhere he said, "I want that some wise man should tell us the art of counselling the child. This art will be valuable for us. The teachers have not learnt even its elementary rule". Thus, negative education is self-education. It is the education of sense organs and body. This may be more possible in the playground rather than in the classroom. As Rousseau said, "We give too much importance to words. We produce by chattering education chatterers only. If you are all the time teaching morals to the child, you will make him a fool. If your mind is always giving instruction to the child, then his mind 465 will become useless. Whatever the child learns in playground is four times more useful than what he learns in the classroom".

FOUR STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

According to Rousseau man's development may be classified into the following four stages: 1. Infancy, from birth to 5 years of age. 2. Childhood, from 5 years to 12 years of age. 3. Adolescence, from 12 years to 15 years of age. 4. Youth, from 15 years to 20 years of age. Rousseau has suggested suitable education in all these stages in his book Emile.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
In the opinion of Rousseau, education aimed at the natural development of the child's inner faculties and powers. Education should help the child to remain alive. Life implies not merely the taking of breath but working. To live is to work, to develop and to properly utilise the various parts of the body, the sense organs and the various other powers of the body. In his book Emile, Rousseau seeks to train Emile in the profession of living so that he may become a human being before becoming a soldier, a churchman or a magistrate. Education, thus, in Rousseau's opinion, must aim at making the child a real human being. But the aims of education change at different stages of the child's development, because at each stage something different needs stress. The following are the various aims of education according to each level of the child's development: 1. Infancy. This stage begins at birth and continues upto five years of age. The chief objective during these five years is bodily development, the development and strengthening of every part of the body. This is essential if the child is to grow up healthy and strong. It forms the basis of subsequent healthy development of the mind. Rousseau expressed the opinion, "All wickedness comes from weakness. The child should be made strong so that he will do nothing which is bad." When the

465 child is allowed to freely engage in playing and exercising his body, he remains active and has no time to indulge in undesirable activities. Nothing need be done to develop his instincts other than to give him complete liberty. If such freedom is given, he naturally develops his own instincts. 2. Childhood. This stage lasts from the fifth year to the twelfth, and it is the period of developing the child's sense organs. This development is achieved through experience and observation. Hence the child should be made to observe and experience those things in his environment which will assist the development of his sense organs. 3. Adolescence. For Emile, adolescence was believed to last from the twelfth to the fifteenth year. The child has, by this time, achieved the development of his body and his sense organs, and is, therefore, prepared, for systematic education. At this stage, education aims at developing the adolescent personality through hard work, guidance and study. During adolescence the individual should be given knowledge of various kinds so that he is enabled to fulfil his needs. 4. Youth. The individual passes through his youth between his fifteenth and twentieth year and undergoes development of emotions and sentiments. Rousseau pointed out, "We have formed his body, his sense and intelligence, it remains to give him a heart". Development of the sentiments will lead to development of moral and social qualities, but it is essential to pay attention to the development of religious emotions also. Summing up, the aim of education is to achieve the bodily, sensory, mental, social and moral development of the individual.

CURRICULUM OF EDUCATION
It is possible to arrive at Rousseau's concept of a curriculum from an analysis of the various stages of development described in his Emile. Even in framing the curriculum, Rousseau paid attention to these four stages in development, and it will be better to consider the curriculum in the same fashion. 1. Infancy. Rousseau was very critical of the contemporary curriculum laid down for the education of infants, because he stressed the fact that infants should be treated as infants and not as adults in the miniature. The child is not young adult, 466 because his instincts and tendencies are dissimilar to those of the adult. For this reason, it is imperative to first understand child psychology and then to frame a curriculum. Instead of giving him controlled information of various subjects at this stage, it is far more important to pay attention to the development of his body and his sense. Before thinking of making the child a successful engineer or doctor, it is desirable to make him a healthy and self-sufficient young animal. In this age, the child can be taught a great deal through normal conversation carried on in the child's mother tongue. This will develop his linguistic ability. It is better not to try and instil any kind of habits in the child at this stage. Rousseau stated, "The only habit the child should be allowed to contract is that of having no habits". 2. Childhood. Even in childhood, Rousseau objected to the use of any textbooks for education, because he wanted to keep Emile away from books of any kind upto the twelfth year. He thought it necessary to give the child a chance to learn everything through direct experience and observation. Education of this kind is based on the concept of negative education which suggests that the child's mind should not be stuffed with information of different kinds. Instead he should be given liberty to learn through experience, because experience develops the sense organs which in turn lead to mental development, reason and development of the power of argument and reasoning. When the child is free to play, move, act at his own will during his childhood, he goes through a variety of experiences and learns all kinds of activities. During childhood, the child should not be given any verbal lessons on history, geography or even language. It is not desirable even to do any moral preaching. Rousseau opined that the child will learn his morality by the natural consequences of his own actions. Hence, upto the childhood stage no curriculum of any kind is required. 3. Adolescence. Having arrived at the appropriate level of bodily and sensory development, the child can now be exposed to teaching according to a formal curriculum consisting of education in natural science, language, mathematics, woodwork, music, painting, social lie and some kind of professional training. Even here, Rousseau opined, more stress should be laid on the use of the sense organs than books. The very object of training in all these various subjects is the training and development of 467 the sense organs. The study of science will enhance the child's curiosity and his inclination towards research, invention and self-education. Painting helps to train the muscles and eyes. Handicrafts help in developing the ability to work, apart from the mental development which is part of the process. Passing through various phases of social life, the individual

learns that men depend upon each other, and thereby the child learns to assume and fulfil social responsibility. Rousseau gave it as his opinion that books do not give knowledge, but only train one to talk. Hence it is better if the curriculum for adolescence is based on active work than on books. During this period the adolescent must get adequate opportunity and time for hard work, education and study. 4. Youth. In the curriculum for youth, special stress has been laid on moral and religious education. But even moral education is to be derived through actual experience rather than through formal lectures. The youth learns a moral lesson when the sight of a physically handicapped person arouses in him the emotions of pity, sympathy and love. Religious education also follows the same pattern, but it can be assisted by the teaching of history, mythological stories and religious stories. The youth derives many lessons from these stories. Apart from moral and religious education, Rousseau gave appropriate importance to education in bodily health, music and sex.

EDUCATIONAL METHOD
Pointing out the importance of experience in education Rousseau said, "To be alive does not mean to breathe, but it means to work and to develop our organs, senses and other powers. That man is not happy who has a long life but happy is one who has gained experiences of life." As the method generally pursued in education in his time was mainly oral and theoretical, Rousseau criticised the present teaching methods. He said, "I want that some wise man should tell us the art of counselling the child. This art will be valuable for us. The teachers have not learnt even its elementary rule." Rousseau wanted to adopt playway method in education in place of verbal teaching. He maintained, "Education should be practical rather than oral. The child will not have to read through books, he will have 468 to stop reading words". Then, what should be the proper method of teaching the child? For Rousseau education to the child should be provided by play. "Thus, real education is self-education. The infant himself learns to develop by utilisation of his sense organs and reacting to the environment."

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION
Rousseau is a naturalist in his methodology of education just as much as he is a naturalist in the curriculum of education. He has stressed the importance of the two following principles governing the process of education. 1. Learning through self-experience. Rousseau wanted to educate Emile through experience and not through book. He was opposed to bookish education, because he contended that books try to teach one to talk about those things which one does not, in fact, know. That is why he wanted to keep Emile away from books for twelve years, so much so that he did not want Emile even to know what a book is. Rousseau has praised only one book, Robinson Crusoe, because it presents the natural needs of human beings in such a simple manner that the child can easily comprehend them. From this book the child can also learn the manner in which these needs are to be satisfied. 2. Learning through doing. Rousseau opposed the rote method of learning on the ground that knowledge acquired through actual doing or actual experience is far more permanent that knowledge acquired through words. He wanted the child's power of reasoning and not his power of memorising things to be developed. That is why Rousseau was so severely critical of the existing methods of education. He wanted the child to become educated through his own observation, experience and analysis. Instead of stuffing the child's mind with his own knowledge, the educator's task is to arouse the child's curiosity so that the child is inspired to find out things for himself, thus developing his own mind. Science is best taught through curiosity and desire to experiment and research. Rousseau's insistence on these elements was later manifested in the evolution of the Heuristic method. If the child is to give moral education to himself he must be active. Long lectures bore the child, and instead of contributing to his education, only hinder it because 469 they blunt the child's appetite for new things. Hence, instead of delivering long lectures to the child, it is better to give him the opportunity to act for himself. In education, the object is more important than the word. It is undesirable to fashion a method of education and to mould the child accordingly.

DISCIPLINE
Rousseau, being a naturalist, wanted complete freedom as the first step towards inducing discipline in the child. He wanted a total absence of any restraints on the child, because he felt that they hindered the development of discipline. It is better to leave the child free environment so that he can develop his natural powers. Rousseau's plan also did not include

any arrangement for punishment, because he felt that punishment should be the natural outcome of their own mistakes. This is the naturalist conception of punishment. In this theory it is assumed that the child has no knowledge of good and bad, but he suffers pain when he makes a mistake and pleasure when he does something right. Hence, he gets the reward of his actions. This is the natural pattern of punishment and it is this which will instill discipline in the child. This is natural discipline, which implied obedience of natural laws, because neglect or violation of these laws invariably leads to pain and suffering. Hence, it is not necessary to lecture to the child. He is naturally possessed of a fine character, and this character is defiled by long lectures. He will learn better discipline, if he is left to himself.

SCHOOL ORGANISATION
The title given above may be a little misleading because Rousseau objected to the system of school education. He contended that the child is born innocent and pure, that he is only defiled and distorted by the defective environment of the school. In fact, the only suitable environment of every kind is defective and impure. It is better to separate the child from his parents, to take him away from school, and leave him by himself in a natural environment. The educator's only task is to look after the child, because in natural surroundings the child will himself 470 look after the development of his natural abilities. Even if schools are created, they can be utilised by stressing the natural surroundings instead of insisting on creating a social atmosphere. In the predominantly natural surroundings the child will be able to develop naturally. Questions for Exercise 1. Explain Rousseau's aim of education. What is the principal method of child education? 2. Explain Rousseau's principles of education for different stages of development. 3. Discuss Rousseau's theory of education as a naturalist. 471

29 Friedrich August Froebel

By reason of his irregular training, Froebel neither adopted nor developed a consistent philosophic attitude. As he himself explains in a letter to Krause, he continued 'without ceasing to systematise, symbolise, idealise, realise and recognise identities and analogies amongst all facts and phenomena, all problems, expressions, and formulae; and in this way, life with all varied phenomena and activities become, more and more free from contradictions, more harmonious, simple and clear, and more recognisable as a part of the life universal.

PHILOSOPHICAL INFLUENCES ON FROEBEL

1. Philosophy of Kant. Kant set himself to determine the conditions of knowledge or of experience. He found that it was impossible to account for experience as a mere reflection of nature. Hume had tried this and ended in scepticism. The other alternative was that nature must conform to our method of conceiving it. The world of science was found to be arranged in space and time. Its phenomena were connected in a causal series. According to Kant this arrangement and determination follows from the fact that the mind is so constituted that only thus is experience possible for it. The world apprehended by the forms of space and time and conceived in accordance with the categories of substance, cause, etc., is the phenomenal world. Kant leaves open the possibility of another form of experience by postulating the existence of the noumenal world which cannot be known through perception and understanding, but which might be experienced by an intuitive intelligence. 472 When we attempt to apply the forms of perception and the categories of the understanding beyond the sphere of the phenomenal world such application gives rise to antinomies or conflicting conclusions. For example, it can be proved that the world had a beginning, and that it had no beginning; that it had a First Cause, and that it had no First Cause; that the soul is a simple substance, and that it is not so. From the antinomies Kant draws the conclusion that the conceptions of cause, substance, etc., are valid only within the phenomenal sphere. It is their application beyond this sphere that creates the antinomies.

In his Critique of Pure Reason Kant thus restricted the application of the conceptions of space, time, substance, cause, etc., to the scientific realm, reserving the possibility of the existence of another realm where freedom would be possible, and the immortality of the soul and the existence of God would not be self-contradictory conceptions. Opposed to the phenomenal world he set the noumenal world regarded as mere limiting conception implying the possibility of a form of experience other than the material and scientific. In the Critique of Practical Reason Kant maintained that the noumena have positive significance and content. In the ethical sphere the conception of duty is a positive conception which in its nature demands freedom. Thus for Kant there were two spheres in which man lived the phenomenal or scientific world governed by the conception of cause, and the noumenal or ethical world characterised by freedom. Kant failed to relate these two spheres satisfactorily to each other. But to him is due the credit of demonstrating that either alone is incomplete. He made both materialism and naturalism untenable. By establishing the priority of the ethical life and the reality of the spiritual realm Kant laid the foundation of modern idealism. In opposition to, but not incompatible with, a mechanical concatenation of external phenomena, stands a free inner synthetic or creative activity. The priority assigned by Kant to the inner and determining aspect of experience gives the necessary philosophical support to the psychological treatment of education which was characteristic of succeeding educational thought. 2. Fichte. The task of the successors of Kant was to resolve the dualism inherent in his system. His naturalistic and realistic interpreters, insisted on the connectedness and completeness 473 of the phenomenal world, and resolved the realities of the noumenal or intelligible worldGod, freedom and immortality into mere serviceable illusions. On the other hand, Fichte emphasised the noumenal character of the intelligible world to such an extent as to reduce the phenomenal world to a mere appearance or illusion. The free activity of reason of selfconsciousness could not be conditioned by anything alien to itself. Fichte consequently assumed that the object which consciousness demanded as a necessary condition of its own existence and progressive realisation was not a mere sensuous element externally 'given', but a product of the self-estranging process of consciousness itself. 3. Schelling. Schelling's standpoint was at the outset practically identical with that of Fichte. However in his later writings he sought to correct the overstatement of Fichte which tended to reduce nature to a nonentity, by insisting that the Absolute equally manifests itself in nature and in spirit, and that the intelligence could find itself in nature as well as in itself. In his Autobiography Froebel admitted that he was acquainted with Schelling's work On the World Soul, stating "what I read in that book moved me profoundly, and I thought I understood it". In this work Schelling seek mainly for a principle which shall reduce the whole of nature to unity. This principle must not be sought in any transcendental, supernatural region, whether called God or Fate, but in nature itself. A principle such as is sought by Schelling seemed to find in a conception of matter as a unity of opposite forces, and hence he naturally attempted to reduce all the varied phenomena of nature to the single principle of a force that always manifests itself in opposite directions. Accordingly, nature must no longer be divided up into separate groups of phenomena, with a special kind of force for eachmechanical, chemical, electrical, vitalbut in all must be seen the same force in various forms, the same unity in duality. . . . In thus making the idea of force the supreme principle of nature, Schelling has manifestly stripped that conception of its purely mechanical connotation, and thus it becomes practically identical with the idea of nature as an eternal process or manifestation of selfactivity. Schelling took the aesthetic view of nature according to which reality was regarded as a living whole, as the expression throughout of spirit, the highest reach 474 of thought, and the final attitude of speculation. Froebel likewise employed aesthetic metaphor to explain the relation of the world to God. Thus he said, "The relation of nature to God may be truly and clearly perceived and recognised by man in the study and elucidation of the innermost spiritual relation of a genuine human work of art to the artist." 4. Hegel. In Hegel the idealism of Kant found its consummation and completest expression. For Hegel there is only one form of existence, the spiritual, and it comprises the natural. The ultimate source of all being and of all knowing is Mind or the Absolute. In introducing the couplet "the real is the rational and the rational is real" Hegel referred to Plato, "The Absolute", he explained "is Mind (Spirit)this is the supreme definition of the Absolute. To find this definition and to grasp its meaning and burden is, we may say, the ultimate purpose of all education and all philosophy." The opening paragraph of Froebel's The Education of Man expresses in vague terminology the Hegelian standpoint: "The whole worldthe All, the Universeis a single great organism in which an eternal Uniformity manifests itself. This

principle of uniformity expresses itself as much in external nature as in spirit. Life is the union of the spiritual with the material. Without mind or spirit, matter is lifeless; it remains formless, it is mere chaos. Only through the entrance of the spiritual into the material does the cosmos originate. Spirit manifests itself in order. Every creature, every subject is matter informed by spirit . . . . God is the presupposition, the condition of their existence. Without God they would not exist. God is the one ground of all things. God is the all-comprehending, the all-sustaining. God is the essential nature, the meaning of the world." A transition into its opposite is the result of extending a conception beyond its legitimate sphere. This Taw of opposites' Froebel fully exploited when he said "Everything and every being comes to be known only as it is connected with the opposite of its kind, and as its unity, its agreement with its opposite, is discovered". Opposites have nevertheless significance only within a more inclusive unity. Froebel exemplified Hegelian dialectical movement in his various writings: the child is a child of nature, a human child and child of God." Morality mediates between religion and practical efficiency. The selection of objects 475 constituting the second 'gift' is determined by the same principle. "The sphere and the cube are pure opposites. They stand to each other in the relation of unity and plurality, but especially of movement and rest, of round and straight. The law of connection demands for these two objects of play a connecting one, which is the cylinder. It combines unity complete in itself in the round surface; and plurality in the two straight ones." 5. Krause. Froebel was acquainted and maintained a correspondence with Krause. Krause's writings and his acquaintance with Froebel had an influence upon the latter. Krause's writings even lent expression to Froebel's views, in formulating which the latter experienced much difficulty. For Krause, everything exists in God. The world is not, however, God Himself, but it is only in and through God. Reason and nature are the two highest hemispheres of the world as they exist in God, as bright and powerful as God's actual image and likeness. Nature is as holy, as worthy, as divine as reason. The life of reason is not lawless caprice nor the life of nature is dead necessity. In both are recognised divine freedom and beauty. There is parallelism between the power and works of nature and reason. This parallelism is necessary and abiding, because both nature and reason exhibit the same essential being of the Deity. Man is the living unity of the two. He is the inmost and most glorious part of that harmony of reason and nature which is established by God. According to Baroness von Marenholz-Bulow, "The theory in which Froebel and Krause agreed especially, is the idea of the analogy existing between organic development in nature and organic development in the spiritual world, and according to which the historical development of mankind had proceeded, obeying the same laws as those of nature and its organisms. The same logic of the one all-penetrating Divine reason rules in both, unconscious in the one (nature), conscious to itself in the other (mind). Therefore are the opposites ruling everywhere, not absolute, but relative, and always find connection or solution in the process of life." Development of the Individual Froebel maintains that the mind unfolds from within according to a predetermined pattern. "All the child is ever to be and 476 become, lies, however slightly indicated, in the child, and can be attained only through development from within outward." "The pattern followed is that known as preformation according to which the germ contains in miniature the fully developed plant or animal, point for point. Thus in The Pedagogies of the Kindergarten Froebel says: "The tree germ bears within itself the nature of the whole tree, the development and formation of the whole future life of each being is contained in the beginning of its existence". The development of the individual also parallels the course of development of the race. 'In the development of the inner life of the individual man the history of the spiritual development of the race is repeated.' It is also a continuous process. 'It is highly important', Froebel affirms, "that man's development should proceed continuously from one point, and that this continuous progress be seen and ever guarded. Sharp limits and definite subdivisions within the continuous series of the years of development, withdrawing from attention the permanent continuity, the living connection, the inner living essence, are therefore highly pernicious, and even destructive in their influence."

AIM OF EDUCATION
Awakening of Spiritual Nature The aim of education, according to Froebel, consists solely in so treating man as to awaken in him his spiritual nature. "Surely the nature of man is in itself good." Thus Froebel derived from Rousseau the view of the innate goodness of the

child. Its corollary for the early stages, of development was negative education. If man's inner and divine nature is not marred by untoward external influences, the ideal education would be passive and non-interferring. "Indeed, in its very essence education should have these characteristics; for the undisturbed operation of the Divine Unity is necessary good cannot be otherwise than good. However, this ideal condition of affairs is seldom obtained. Froebel admits 'Nature' rarely shows us that original state, especially in man; but it is for this reason only the more necessary to assume its existence in every human being until the opposite 477 has been clearly shown; otherwise that unmarred original state where it might exists contrary to our expectation, might be easily impaired." When it is clearly established that the original nature of the individual has been marred, then Froebel does not hesitate to prescribe categorical, mandatory education in its full severity. Like Kant's categorical imperative Froebel says "in its inner essence the living thought, the eternal spiritual ideal, ought to be and is categorical and mandatory in its manifestations. . . . The ideal becomes mandatory only where it supposes that the person addressed enters into the reason of the requirement with serene, childlike faith, or with clear, manly insight. It is true, in word or example, the ideal is mandatory in all these cases, but always only with reference to the spirit and inner life, never with reference to outer form." Meaning of Freedom As for Hegel "freedom is the truth of necessity, so for Froebel "in good education, in genuine instruction, in true training, necessity should call forth freedom; law, self-determination; external compulsion, inner free-will; external hate, inner love. Where hatred brings forth hatred; law, dishonesty and crime; compulsion, slavery; necessity, servitude; where oppression destroys and debases; where severity and harshness give rise to stubbornness and deceitall education is abortive. In order to avoid the latter and to secure the former, all prescription should be adapted to the pupil's nature and needs, and secure his co-operation. This is the case when all education in instruction and training, in spite of its necessarily categorical character, bears in all details and ramifications are irrefutable and irresistible impress that the one who makes the demand is himself strictly unavoidably subject to an eternally ruling law, to an unavoidable eternal necessity, and that, therefore, all despotism is banished."

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
The stages recognised by Froebel, namely, infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth, corresponded to Rousseau's divisions in the Emile. 478 1. Infancy. For Rousseau the activity characteristic of infancy is habit; for Froebel it is sensory development. Froebel's account of sensory development is highly artificial, the result of an attempt to impose on it the dialectical form. 2. Childhood. Childhood, the second stage, is distinguished from infancy by the appearance of language; it is then that the child begins to represent the internal outwardly. Actual education now begins, attention and watchful care, being less directed to the body than to the mind. Speech training should now begun. Each object should be given its appropriate name, and each word should be uttered clearly and distinctly. On pedagogical grounds Froebel supports Pestalozzi, maintaining that to the child names are still one with the thing, and that the name creates the thing for the child. In The Pedagogies of the Kindergarten he adds that the name defines the object by connecting it with something familiar.

PLAY WAY OF CHILD EDUCATION

It is in treating of childhood in The Education of Man that Froebel formulates his plea for the significance of play in education. Play is the characteristic activity of childhood. It is," says Froebel, "the highest phase of child-development-of human development at this period; for it is self-active representation or the inner-representation of the inner from inner necessity and impulse. Play is the purest, most spiritual activity of man at this stage, and, at the same time, typical of human life as a whole of the inner hidden natural life in man and all things. It gives, therefore, joy, freedom, contentment, inner and outer rest, peace with the world. It holds the source of all that is good." Guidance in Play

To have educative value the play of the child must not be a purposeless activity. His play impulses must be directed and controlled by the use of definite material necessitating an orderly sequence in the feelings engendered and in the activities exercised. 'Without rational conscious guidance', Froebel said, "childish activity degenerates into aimless play instead of preparing for those tasks of life for which it is detained. . . . In The Kindergarten the children are guided to bring out their 479 plays in such a manner as really to reach the aim desired by nature, that is, to serve for their development. . . . Human education needs a guide which I think I have found in a general law of development that rules both in nature and in the intellectual world. Without law-abiding guidance, there is no free development.

WORK IN ADOLESCENCE OR BOYHOOD

Law of Opposites At the transition from childhood to boyhood, Froebel proposes an inversion. Whereas the period of childhood is characterised as predominantly that of life for the sake of living, for making the internal external, the period of boyhood is predominantly the period for learning, for making the external internal. Here we have an illustration of Froebel's law of opposites. Education is not to be endowment determined. It is to be environmentally determined. It is not to be childcentred; it is to be curriculum-centred. Actually, it is both endowment and environmentally determined from the outset. In The Pedagogies of the Kindergarten Froebel virtually admits this through his recognition of a third or synthesising stage. "Another fundamental idea is that all knowledge and comprehension of life are connected with making the internal external, the external internal, and with perceiving the harmony and accord of both." Work in Boyhood While play is the characteristic activity of childhood, work is that of boyhood. Interest in the process gives place to interest in the product. In the words of Froebel, "What formerly the child did for the sake of the activity, the boy now does for the sake of the result or product of his activity." If activity brought joy to the child, work now gives delight to the boy." For while during the previous period of childhood the aim of play consisted simply in activity as such, the aim lies now in a definite, conscious purpose. This contrast is forced and invalid. Work is regarded as directed and purposive, whereas, in disregard of Froebel's previous statements on play, play is now simply 480 an 'activity as such'. The more extended range of the pupil's environment has provided him with new patterns of activity in the shape of vocational occupations to be imitated. For the boy there are another form of play, not work in the sense of his parents' work. The pupil's activities at the boyhood stage are self-selected, their products have no economic significance, and their features are characteristic of play. In childhood the pupil imitates domestic activities, in boyhood neighbourhood occupations. His development is determined by the widening range of environment rather than by a sudden transition from inner experience to outer. For Froebel there is, a unity transcending the opposition between play and work, for both he regards as means to the individual's self-realisation. "Man works", he affirms, "only that his spiritual divine essence may assume outward form, and that thus he may be enabled to recognise his own spiritual, divine nature and the innermost being of God." Project Activities The activities in which the boy engages have all the characteristics of projectspractical problems involving cooperative effort and affording intellectual and moral training. "If in his former activity (in childhood) he emulated phases of domestic life, in his present activity (in boyhood) he shares the work of the house-lifting, pulling, carrying digging, splitting." According to Schlipp Froebel, particularly in his Education of Man, has given the world no mean anticipation of Dewey's own school. Instruction The other main feature of boyhood education is instruction. It also serves to mark the transition from making the internal external to making the external internal. 'Instruction is conducted not so much in accordance with the nature of man as in accordance with the fixed, definite, clear laws in the nature of things, and more particularly the laws to which man and things are equally subject. It is conducted in accordance with fixed and definite conditions lying outside the human being.

481 School Curriculum In describing his pupil's life and education from the development standpoint Froebel proposes various educational occupations and expounds his attitude to these. The subjects are not to be regarded as ends in themselves; they are merely instrumental to the full realisation of the pupil's personality. Manual Instruction Froebel was an early advocate of the inclusion of manual instruction in the school curriculum. It is a necessary condition of the realisation of the pupil's personality. Through it he comes to himself. "Every child, boy, and youth, whatever his condition or position in life, should devote daily at least one or two hours to some serious activity in the production of some definite external piece of work. . . . Childrenmankind, indeedare at present too much and too variously concerned with aimless and purposeless pursuits, and too little with work. Children and parents consider the activity of actual work so much to their disadvantage, and so unimportant for their future conditions of life, that educational institutions should make it one of their most constant endeavours to dispel this delusion. The domestic and scholastic education of our time leads children to indolence and laziness; a vast amount of human power thereby remains undeveloped and is lost." Other Supports Froebel also recommends the introduction of such subjects as drawing, nature study and school gardening. He insists on an all-round development as the aim of education. As the main divisions of an educational curriculum he enumerates (i) religion and religious instruction (ii) natural science and mathematics (iii) language, (iv) art and objects of art. Human education requires the knowledge and appreciation of religion, nature and language with reference to the aim of 482 instruction in art Froebel states "Its intention will not be to make each pupil an artist in some one or all of the arts, but to secure to each human being full and all-sided development."

THE KINDERGARTEN
Froebel devoted the later part of his life to founding the Kindergarten on which his fame mainly rests. The name 'Kindergarten' came to Froebel one spring day in 1840 as with some friends he was proceeding from Keilhau to Blankenburg when from a hill he saw the valley of the Rinne, a tributary of the Saale, stretching out before him like a great garden and exclaimed, T have found it. Kindergarten shall the name be.' It was not till 1843 that institution of the Kindergarten, as we now know it, was founded, the date usually given is 1840. Froebel considered 'childhood as the most important stage of the total development of man and humanity'. In his Reminiscences he gives his reason thus: "The earliest age is the most important one for education, because the beginning decides the manner of progress and the end. If national order is to be recognised in later years as a benefit, childhood must first be accustomed to law and order, and therein find means of freedom." For this stage of childhood Froebel elaborated his gifts, the first being the ball, the second the sphere, the cube and the cylinder. Gifts and Occupations In his gifts Froebel personifies playthings and assumes that children will be able to appreciate the symbolism involved. He also believes that the quasi-philosophic conceptions which underlie the games will impress themselves on the child's mind and determine his attitude to life. He was obsessed with his philosophical formulae that his psychological insight cannot save him from such absurdities as assuming that the child when dealing with the second gift, that is, during the second half of the first year of his life, has some dim perception of the nature and destiny of man. In his account of the same play

he affirms: man himself 'in play, even as a child, by play should perceive within and without how from unity proceed manifoldness, 483 plurality, and totality, and how plurality and manifoldness finally are found again in and resolve themselves into unity and should find this out in life." In reviewing the first plays he observes: "In and by means of the ball (ns an object resting in itself, easily movable, especially elastic, bright, and warm) the child perceives his life, his power, his activity, and that of his senses, at the first stage of his consciousness, in their unity, and thus exercises them. . . . The ball is therefore to the child a representative or a means of perception of a single effect caused by a single power. The sphere is to the child the representative of every isolated simple unity; the child gets a hint in the sphere of the manifoldness as still abiding in unity. The cube is to the child the representative of each continually developing manifold body. The child has an intimation in it of the unity which lies at the foundation of all manifoldness, and from which the latter proceeds. In sphere and cube, considered in comparison with each other, is presented in outward view to the child the resemblance between opposites which is so important for his whole future life, and which he perceives everywhere around himself, and multifariously within himself." By his methodological arrangement of the gifts and occupations Froebel founded a new type of educational institution. Although his system too readily lent itself to formalism by later generations of teachers who had not the spirit of the master, it ameliorated the lot of countless children. His theory is also open to criticism, on the ground of its excessive symbolism. To conclude this Dewey says, "Froebel's recognition of the significance of the native capacities of children, his loving attention to them, and his influence in inducing others to study them, represent perhaps the most effective single force in modern educational theory in effecting widespread acknowledgement of the idea of growth". Questions for Exercise 1. Trace the influences on Froebel's theory of education. 2. What is the aim of education according to Froebel? How can it be achieved? 3. Discuss the curriculum of education according to Froebel. 4. Explain Froebel Kindergarten method of education. 484

30 Maria Montessori (1870-1952)

Montessori's House of Childhood was situated in the slums of Rome, a European capital. She "established the centre of gravity of her system in the environment". In her The Secret of Childhood she affirms: 'Our own method of education is characterised by the central importance that we attribute to the question of environment'; it is well-known how our pedagogy considers the environment so important as to make it the central point of the whole system." The Roman Association for Good Building was formed to remove the social evils of the poorest quarters of Rome. Its plan was to acquire tenements, remodel them, put them into a productive condition and administer them in the interests of the occupier. The care of the reconstructed tenements was given to the tenants, and they did not abuse their trust. Difficulties however, arose in regard to young children under school age. Left to themselves during the day, unable to appreciate the motives which led their parents to respect the property, there children spent their time defacing the buildings. In order to cure this evil it the Director General of the Roman Association for Good Building planned to gather together in a large room, all the little ones between the ages of three and seven, belonging to the families living in the tenement. The play and the work of these children were to be carried on under the guidance of a teacher who should have her own apartment in the tenement house. Thus came to be instituted the House of Childhood the school within the tenement on 6 January 1907. In accordance with the general self-supporting principle of the reconstruction scheme the expenses of the new institution were met by the 485 sum that the Association would otherwise have been forced to expend upon redecoration and repairs.

THE MONTESSORI METHOD

The Director General of the Roman Association of Good Building entrusted to Montessori the organisation of the infant schools in the model tenements in Rome towards the end of 1906: She adopted method according to her training and previous experience. Having graduated in Medicine, she was for a time in charge of the training of mentally defective children. She taught a number of such children to read and write so efficiently that they were able to be presented for examination with normal children of the same age. This phenomenal result she attributed to an improved method. She therefore conjectured that if this method is applied in the training of normal children, it would yield even more surprising results. To be successful, these methods should obviously be applied in the training of infants. At this period of life the child has not acquired the co-ordination of muscular movements necessary to enable him to perform dexterously the ordinary acts of life. His sensory organs are not fully developed, his emotional life is still unstable and his volitional powers irresolute. About the significance of the pedagogical experiment for which the institution of the House of Childhood afforded the facilities, Montessori wrote: "It represents the results of a series of trials made in the education of young children, with methods already used with deficients."

PRINCIPLES OF MONTESSORI METHOD

The first principle is to train the pupil to be independent of others in respect of the ordinary practices of life. It necessitates approach to the child mind at a lower level than can be adopted with normal children, an appeal to the senses rather than to the intellect. With physically defective children it implies training one sense to function vicariously for another. The ultimate reference is to the sense of touch, which is regarded as fundamental and primordial. The Montessori system accordingly becomes an 'education by touch'. Montessori maintains that 486 the sense of touch is fundamental. It undergoes great development during the early years of life. If neglected at this age, it loses its susceptibility to training. The Psychological Method Montessori "psychological method in education implies that the educative process is adapted to the stage of mental development of the child, and to his interest. It is not wholly subordinated to the necessities of a curriculum or to the teacher's scheme of work. 'By education', says Montessori, 'must be understood the active help given to the normal expansion of the life of the child". The 'psychological moment' in the educative process comes when consciousness of a need arises in the child mind. In the Montessori method, 'It is necessary then to offer those exercises which correspond to the need of development felt by an organism, and if the child's age has carried him past a certain need, it is never possible to obtain, in its fullness, a development which missed its proper moment. If a child fails to perform a task or to appreciate the truth of a principle, the teacher must not make him conscious of his error by repeating the lesson. She must assume that the task has been presented prematurely. Before again presenting the stimulus, she must await the manifestation of the symptoms which indicate that the need exists. The duration of a process is determined not by the exigencies of an authorised time-table, but by the interval which the child finds requisite to exhaust his interest. Thus in a Montessori school one may find a pupil working unremittingly a self-imposed task for several days on end. No Prizes In the Montessori system there are no prizes. The pupil's sense of mastery is his highest reward: "His own selfdevelopment is his true and almost his only pleasure". Such correction as is admitted in the Montessori system comes from the material, not from the teacher. "From the "Children's Houses the old-time teacher who wore herself out maintaining discipline of immobility and wasting her breath in loud and continual discourse, has disappeared, and the didactic material which 487 contains within itself the control of errors is substituted, making auto-education possible to each child. It is an intellectual discipline by consequences." Perfect Freedom The psychological method implies the perfect freedom of the child, which consists in absolute obedience to the laws of the development of his own nature. According to Montessori, "The method of observation (that is, the psychological method) is established upon one fundamental basethe liberty of the pupils in their spontaneous manifestations. This liberty

necessitates independence of action on the part of the child. "Whoever visits a well kept school is struck by the discipline of the children. There are forty little beings from three to seven years old, each one intent on his own work; one is going through one of the exercises for the senses, one is doing an arithmetical exercise, one is handling the letters, one is drawing, one is fastening and unfastening the pieces of cloth on one of the wooden frames, still another is dusting. Some are seated at the tables, some on rugs on the floor." Adapted Environment As instruction should be adapted to the stage of development of the pupil, Montessori advocates that the environment should likewise be so adapted. She gave the child an environment in which everything is constituted in proportion to himself and let him live therein. Thus, will develop within the child that "active life" which has caused to many to marvel because they see in it not only a simple exercise performed with pleasure but also the revelation of a spiritual life. Such an environment "should contain the means of auto-education. He who speaks of liberty in the schools, ought at the same time to exhibit objectsapproximating to a scientific apparatus which will make such liberty possible."

PRACTICES OF MONTESSORI METHOD

The practices of the Montessori method fall into three classes: 488 1. the exercises of practical life; 2. the exercises in sensory training; and 3. The didactic exercises. The Exercises in Practical Life Freedom, according to Montessori, does not consist in having others at one's command to perform the ordinary services, but in being able to do these for oneself, in being independent of others. Thus in the House of Childhood the pupils learn how to wash their hands, using little wash-stands with small pitchers and basins, how to clean their nails, brush their teeth and so on. Exercises are also arranged to train the child in the movements necessary in dressing and undressing. The apparatus for these exercises consists of wooden frames, mounted with two pieces of cloth or leather, which are fastened by means of buttons and buttonholes, hooks and eyes, eyelets and lacings or automatic fasteners. After some practice in fastening and unloosening the pieces of cloth with the various types of fasteners, the child finds that he has acquired a dexterity which enables him to dress and undress himself. Not content with the satisfaction derived from such independence, his consciousness of the possession of a new power excites in him a desire to assist in dressing the whole family. All the furniture in the House of Childhood, tables, chairs, etc. are of such a size and construction that the pupils can handle them easily. They learn to move them deftly and without noise, and are thus afforded a training in motor adjustment. Montessori devised certain formal gymnastic exercises to develop co-ordinated movements in the child. She disapproved of the child practising the ordinary gymnastic exercises arranged for the adult. She maintained "We are wrong' if we consider little children from their physical point of view as little men. They have, instead, characteristics and proportions that are entirely special to their age." A new set of exercises has been evolved in accordance with the general Montessori principles, by observing the spontaneous movements of the child. One piece of apparatus, is the little round stair. It is a wooden spiral stairway enclosed on one side by a balustrade on which the children can rest their hands. The other side being left open, 489 enables the children to habituate themselves to ascending and descending stairs without holding on, it teaches them to move up and down with poised and self-controlled movements. The steps are very low and shallow. The children can thereby learn movements which they cannot execute properly in climbing ordinary stairways in their homes, where the proportions are suited to adults. The new exercises give the pupils of the House of Childhood a gracefulness of carriage which distinguishes them from other children.

SENSE TRAINING
Exercises in Sense Training

For the method and the apparatus of her scheme of sensory training, Montessori is largely indebted to the tests and apparatus employed by the experimental psychologist. However, Montessori is not interested in measuring the powers but in furthering their development. Practice-effects frequently disclose themselves. In the application of tests by psychologists, especially when the investigation extends over a long period, these are disturbing factors to the psychologist which he must estimate and eliminate. However, it is just these practice-effects that sensory education strives to secure. "To make the process one of self-education", Montessori explains in The Advanced Montessori Method, "it is not enough that the stimulus should call forth activity, it must also direct it. The child should not only persist for a long time in an exercise; he must persist without making mistakes. All the physical or intrinsic qualities of the objects should be determined, not only by the immediate reaction of attention they provoke in the child, but also by their possession of this fundamental characteristic, the control of error, that is to say, the power of evoking the effective collaboration of the highest activities (comparison, judgment)." In sensory training the senses are isolated whenever that is possible. This procedure is suggested by the education of physically deficient children. The pupils of the Montessori schools are blindfolded, a feature of the training which seems to add zest to their efforts. The auditory exercises are given in an environment not only of silence, but even of darkness. 490 Material Used in Sensory Training 1. For perception of size. A series of wooden cylinders varying in height only, in diameter only or in both dimensions at once, are employed, likewise blocks varying regularly in size, and rods of regularly, graded lengths: 2. For perception of form. In it are used geometrical insets in metal, in wood or the shapes of the insets drawn on paper. 3. For discrimination in weight. lt was tablets of wood similar in size but different in weight. 4. For touch. All highly polished surface and a sand-paper surface is used. 5. For sense of temperature. Here are used small metal bowls with caps. 6. For auditory acuity. Cylindrical sound boxes are used containing different substances. 7. For the colour sense. A graded series of coloured woods is used. 8. Tactual Activity. Similar methods are adopted in developing in the child's tactual acuity, and in training him to discriminate differences in temperature and in weight. In these exercises the child is blindfolded or is enjoined to keep his eyes closed during the tests; he is encouraged to do so by being told that he will thus be able to feel the differences better.

EXERCISES DIRECTED TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF FORMS

1. The first exercise is to sort out of a heap of bricks and cubes such as are employed by Froebel. Young children come to recognise the forms of these merely by grasping them; they do not require to trace the contour. This exercise may be varied by the use of different materials, as for example, by the use of coins, and so expert do the children become that they can distinguish between small forms which differ but little from one another, such as corn, wheat and rice. 2. The real training in the perception of form begins, when the child passes to the exercises of placing wooden shapes in spaces made to receive them, or in superimposing such shapes on outlines of similar form. 491 3. Geometric insets of various designs, the initial ones strongly contrasted, the later ones merely dissimilar forms of the same figure, as for example, the triangle, are mixed up and have to be sorted out by the children and fitted into the frames made to receive them. The frames furnish the control necessary to test the accuracy of the work. Montessori method is determined purely from the pedagogical standpoint. "The objects most commonly used are table tops, doors, window frames, etc. In learning to fit the geometric insets into the spaces provided for them the child employs not only the visual sense but also the tactual and muscular sense. He is taught to run the index finger of the right hand round the contour of the form and to repeat this with the contour of the frame into which the inset fits. It is frequently observed that children who cannot recognise a shape by looking at it do so by touching it. According to Montessori, "The association of the muscular-tactile

sense with that of vision aids in a most remarkable way the perception of the forms and fixes them in memory". 4. From the exercises with the solid insets in which the control is absolute, the child passes to exercises in the purely visual perception of form. The wooden insets have to be superimposed on figures cut out of blue paper and mounted on cards. In a further series of exercises the figures are represented by an outline of the blue paper, which for the child represents the path which he has so often followed with his finger. Finally, he is required to superimpose the wooden pieces on figures whose outlines are represented merely by a line. He thus passes from the concrete to what is relatively abstract, from solid objects to plane figures represented merely by lines and perceived only visually. Through such exercises the forms of the various figures, circles, ellipses, triangles, rectangles, etc., come to be known. When the need for them becomes urgent the names of the figures are given. As no analysis of the forms is undertaken, no mention made of sides and angles, the teaching of geometry is not being attempted at this stage. The Didactic Exercises The methods adopted in training the perception of form prepare the way for the teaching of writing and of the other didactic processes. 492 Popular interest was aroused in the Montessori method by the success attending the application of the didactic processes of writing, reading and numbers. At the inception of the system it was not intended that such exercise should be included. Therefore, the results were incidental.
1. Teaching of Writing

In the Montessori system the teaching of writing precedes the teaching of reading. Montessori maintained that in normal children the muscular sense is most easily developed in infancy, and this makes the acquisition of writing exceedingly easy for children. In writing of dictation the child translates sounds into material signs and performs certain movements, the latter process being easy and usually affording pleasure to the child. In accordance with her general principle, Montessori adopts psychological standpoint in respect to writing. "Let us observe an individual who is writing and let us seek to analyse the acts he performs", she proposes; and again: "It goes without saying that we should examine the individual who writes, not the writing; the subject, not the object". According to the Montessori view, writing is not a mere copying of head-lines, but the writing of words which express ideas. In writing are involved two diverse types of movement, the movement by which the forms of letters are reproduced and that by which the instrument of writing is manipulated. In addition, the phonetic analysis of spoken words into their elementary sounds is also necessary. Preparatory exercises for each of these factors must be devised and practised independently before writing is actually commenced. As the children had already learned to know the forms of the geometric insets by remaining their fingers round the contours, so, to teach the forms of the letters, Montessori got the pupils to trace with the finger the shapes of the letters cut out in sand-paper and pasted on cards, the roughness of the sand-paper providing a control for the accuracy of the movements. As soon as they have acquired facility in this tracing of the forms of the letters, the children take great pleasure in repeating the movement with closed eyes. Thus the forms of the letter are not learned and impressed on the minds of the pupils by visual analysis and retained by visual 493 imagery, but by tactual and motor experiences and grapho-motor imagery. The phonetic sounds of the letters are taught at the same time as the tracing of the forms, the steps in the lesson following the three-stage procedure already illustrated. The audio-motor imagery helps to reinforce the grapho-motor and to facilitate the retention of the forms of the letters. The children are also practised in analysing the spoken word into its sounds and in reconstructing the word with sand-paper letters. The control of the pen is also attacked indirectly. Recourse is had for his training to the geometric insets, of which mention has already been made. Taking one of the metal frames into which the inset fits, the child draws on a sheet of paper with a coloured crayon around the contour of the empty frame. Within the figure which results he places the metal inset, and with a crayon of a different colour traces the outline of the inset. Thus are reproduced upon the paper the two figures in different colours. With another crayon of his own selection the pupil fills in the figures which he has outlined. In

making the upward and downward strokes he is taught not to pass outside the contour. Variety is lent to the task by the choice of different coloured crayons and by the use of different insets, the employment of the latter also training him to make upward and downward strokes of various lengths, Gradually the lines tend less and less to go outside the enclosing boundary until at last they are perfectly contained within it. Both the centre and the frame are filled in with close and uniform strokes. The child is now master of the writing instrument: The muscular mechanism necessary to its manipulation is established. Now the three prerequisites to writing are at the pupil's command that is, he has acquired control of the writing instrument, he can reproduce the forms of the letters moving his fingers in the air, and the composition of words out of the isolated sounds of letters can be effected psychically. At this point the imitative tendency in the child arouses in him the impulse to write. Now a pupil who has given no previous indication of having developed ability in this direction begins straightway to write.
2. Teaching of Reading

The way to the teaching of reading is prepared in the Montessori system by the procedure adopted in the teaching of writing. 494 In the exercises preparatory to writing is included word-building with sand-paper script character representing the sounds of the spoken word. Reading demands the inverse process, that is, the reproduction of the sounds from the symbols and the fusion of these sounds into words. The proper accentuation of the syllables is also necessary for the correct enunciation of the word. This comes only with recognition of the meaning. Montessori refuses to give the name 'reading' to anything less than this. Just as writing is something more than mere copying pothooks and head-lines, so reading is not a mere 'braking at print' but the recognition of the meanings represented by the visual characters. She says, "What I understand by reading, is the interpretation of an idea from the written signs". "Until the child reads a transmission of idea from the written words he does not read." The didactic material for the lessons in reading consists of slips of paper or of cards upon which are written words and phrases in clear large script. The lessons begin with the reading of names of objects which are known or which are present. The child is given a card on which a name is written in script. He translates the writing slowly into sounds. If the interpretation is exact the directress restricts herself to saying 'Faster'. The child reads more quickly the second time, but still often without understanding. The teacher repeats, 'Faster, faster'. The child reads 'faster' each time, repeating the same accumulation of sounds: Finally the word emerges in consciousness. When the child has pronounced the word, he places the card under the object whose name it bears, and the exercise is finished. It is a lesson which proceeds very rapidly since it is only presented to a child who is already prepared through writing. Sentences describing actions or expressing commands are likewise written on slips of paper. The children select these and carry out the requests contained in them. The child does not read the sentences aloud. The aim of reading is to teach the child to discover ideas in symbols, hence the reading should be silent and not vocal. According to the Montessori analysis, 'reading aloud' implies the exercise of two mechanical forms of languagearticulate and graphicand is a complex task. The child, therefore, who begins to read by interpreting thought 495 should read mentally." "Truly", claims Montessori, "We have buried the tedious and stupid A B C primer side by side with the useless copy-books." The period intervening between the commencement of the writing process and the appearance of the ability to read is about a fortnight. Facility in reading is, however, arrived at much more slowly than in writing. Normal children trained according to the Montessori method begin to write at four years of age and at five know how to read.
3. Teaching of Number

In the teaching of number in the Montessori system is used the 'long stair', a set of ten rods, the first being one metre in length, the last one decimetre, the intermediate rods diminishing in length by decimetres. The rods are divided into decimetre parts, the spaces on the rod being painted already red and blue. When arranged in order they form what is called the 'long stair'. They are utilised in the sensory exercises for training the children in discrimination of length. In

these exercises the rods are mixed up, and the teacher grades them in order of length, calling the child's attention to the fact that the stair thus constructed is uniform in colour at one end. The child is then permitted to build it for himself. After the child has had practice in arranging the rods in order of length he is required to count the red and the blue divisions, beginning with the shortest rod, thus: one; one, two; one, two, three; always gong back to one in the counting of each rod and starting from the same end. He is then required to name the various rods from the shortest to the longest, according to the total number of divisions each contains, at the same time touching the rods on the side on which 'the stair' ascends. The rods may then be called 'piece number one', 'piece number two', and so on, and finally they may be spoken of in the lessons as one, two, three. The graphic signs for the numbers are cut in sandpaper, and by the three-period lesson arrangement previously illustrated, the pupil is taught to associate the names of the numbers with their graphic forms. The graphic signs are then related to the quantity represented. 496
4. Teaching of Arithmetics

Addition may then be taught by suggesting to the child to put the shorter rods together in such a way as to form tens; I is added to 9, 2 to 8 and so on. Subtraction, multiplication and division can also be introduced by means of the same didactic material, and later on the child, is allowed to express graphically his operations with the rods. The means and methods of dealing with the larger denominations of number and the higher arithmetical processes are dealt with in The Advanced Montessori Method. It also deals with the teaching of drawing, music, grammar and prosody. Recapitulation Principle Montessori accepts the recapitulation principle in education: 'The child follows the natural way of development of the human race. In short, such education makes the evolution of the individual harmonise with that of humanity." In The Advanced Montessori Method, however, Montessori rejects the recapitulation principle discussing it as 'a materialistic idea now discredited."

ROLE OF TEACHER
The Montessori method requires the employment of teachers possessed of a training in child psychology and in its application to young children. According to Montessori, "The broader the teacher's scientific culture and practice in experimental psychology, the sooner will come for her the marvel of unfolding life, and her interest in it". "The more fully the teacher is acquainted with the methods of experimental psychology, the better will she understand how to give a lesson." The training of the teacher should enable her to know when to intervene in the child's activities, and, when to refrain from intervening. According to Montessori "In the manner of this intervention lies the personal art of the educator." Montessori has substituted the term 'directress' for the title 'teacher' she says "instead of facility of speech she has to acquire the power of silence; instead of teaching she has to observe; instead of the proud dignity of one who claims to be infallible she assumes the vesture of humility." 497 Sir John Adams attributed to Montessori the credit of sounding the death-knell of class teaching as the most significant feature of the system is the individualisation of instruction.

Questions for Exercise

1. What is the aim of Montessori method in education? What are its practices? 2. Explain and elaborate the exercises and material of sense training in Montessori method. 3. Explain the didactic exercises in Montessori education. 4. Discuss the role of teacher in Montessori method of education. 498

31 John Dewey
John Dewey, greatest of the pragmatists and generally recognized as the most outstanding philosopher his country has yet produced, made significant contributions to virtually every field of philosophy as well as to such other areas of inquiry as education and psychology. Active for 70 years as a scholar, he was a prolific writer publishing approximately fifty books and more than eight hundred articles. Many of these have been translated into various foreign languages. New volumes are still coming out with more Dewey material, mainly correspondence, and books and articles on him are appearing at a rapidly increasing rate.

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
1. Analysis of reflective inquiry. Perhaps the most important single emphasis of John Dewey is his insistence upon applying reflective or critical inquiry to problems or indeterminate situations. What is involved in problem solving or thinking through a problem? What is critical inquiry? How does one apply intelligence to human affairs? Dewey's answer to these questions is set forth in its simplest terms in How We Think, and a more sophisticated version is given in Logic; The Theory of Inquiry. In a sense the phases or steps in a complete act of reflective thinking afford an outline for each of his major works, and he had a lifelong concern with what is involved in reflective thinking. 2. View of experience. Experience is one of the central concepts in Dewey's thought, occurring and recurring throughout his 499 writing. Though he finally concluded that he might have done better to use another term, many of his most important works are concerned with clarifying itfor example, his Casus Lectures: Experience and Nature or his Art as Experience or Experience and Education. For him experience constitutes the entire range of men's relations to, or transactions with the universe. We experience nature and things interacting in certain ways made up of experience. 3. View of Knowledge. Dewey rejects the traditional epistemology which sets up a knower outside the world and then asks about the possibility, extent and validity of knowledge in general. He laughingly suggests that we might equally well have a problem of digestion in generalits possibility, extent, and genuinenessby assuming that the stomach and the food-materials were inhabitants of different worlds. The significant problem is not how such a knower is somehow to mirror the antecedently real but rather one how one set of experienced events is to be used as signs of what we shall experience under another set of conditions. The important distinction, moreover, is not between the knower as subject and the world known as object. Instead it is between different ways of being in the movement of things, between an unreflective physical way and a purposive, intelligent one. On Dewey's view knowledge needs to be placed in the context of the problematic or indeterminate situation and reflective inquiry. Knowledge is more than immediate awareness or the presence of a set of sense data. Having qualities before us does not constitute knowing. Knowledge is always inferential, and the problem is how the processes of inference are to be guided to trustworthy or warranted conclusions. It involves operations of controlled observation, testing, and experimentation. It is a product of inquirythe steps in a complete act of reflective thinking. Dewey liked Bacon's idea that knowledge is power and it may be tested by the promotion of social progress. 4. Conception of philosophy. In "The Need for a Recovery of Philosophy" Dewey declares that philosophy must cease to be "a device for dealing with the problems of philosophy" and become "a method, cultivated by philosophers for dealing with the problems of men". But the problems of man as he sees them cover a range broad enough to include in one way or 500 another most of the traditional problems as well as many others. The method involves treating philosophy as vision, imagination and reflection; and though the clarifying process may show that certain epistemological problems are pseudoproblems, the fact that they are raised may point to genuine cultural crises. If action at all levels needs to be informed with vision, imagination and reflection to bring clearly to mind future possibilities with reference to attaining the better and averting the worse, there is more than enough for philosophy to do. 5. Biologism. What is sometimes referred to as Dewey's biologism reflects: (a) his emphasis on the genetic point of view, and (b) his conviction that inquiry has a biological matrix.

He was interested in how ideas originate and become more complex, in the parallels between human responses and lower levels, and in the continuity of different species of organic life from the lowest forms to man. To understand the present situation, he held, we inquire into its specific conditions as well into its probable consequences. 6. Experimentalism. Dewey's experimentalism relates to his analysis of reflective inquiry for which hypotheses, prediction and experimentation are central. An experiment is a programme of action to determine consequences. It is a way of introducing intelligence into a situation. It is an intelligently guided procedure for discovering what adjustments an organism must make to its environment to ward off ill or secure goods. Experimentation for Dewey is relevant not merely on the individual biological level, but wherever planned reconstruction of a situation may help effect desired transformation, for example, in social planning or in education. The more important the issue at stake, the more clearly is experimentation seen to be preferable to such alternatives as authoritarianism, simple guesswork or merely waiting for events to run their course. 7. Instrumentalism. Dewey's instrumentalism also stems from his analysis of reflective inquiry. Ideas are not copies, images or visions of external objects but rather tools or instruments to facilitate an organism's behaviour. They are instruments for operating on things or on stimuli. Things or objects are what we can do with them, and we can distinguish among them by the behaviour reactions they make possible. 501 Truth, accordingly, is adverbial. It is a way ideas work out in practice. It is a matter of whether hypotheses lead to predicted consequences, an affair of verified predictions of warranted assertions. Dewey's instrumentalism encourages a new respect for instruments or means. The more we value ends or goals, on his view, the greater is our attention to the means which may bring them about. The separation of goods into natural and moral or into instrumental and intrinsic may have the harmful consequence of making moral and intrinsic goods more remote from daily living besides encouraging us to think that we can have the intrinsic without having to concern ourselves with the instrumental. Viewing any good as merely instrumental, moreover, is fairly sure not to do it justice. 8. Relativism. Dewey's relativism is to be opposed to absolutism and is a way of stressing the importance of context, situation, relationships. To take things out of relations is to deprive them of value and meaning. Absolutes are ruled out on his view, and unqualified generalisations are likely to be misleading. An economic policy or a plan of action is a good relative to a specific situation which makes it desirable. A knife may be good for sharpening pencil and bad for cutting a rope; but to speak of it without qualifications as good or bad is quite misleading. 9. Meliorism. In ethics, according to Dewey's account in Reconstruction in Philosophy, the emphasis should be placed on improving or bettering our present situation rather than upon good or bad in some absolute sense. The good, if one is to speak of the good rather than the better, is what will enable us to solve the problem or difficulty. Thus what is usually referred to as a moral end or standard becomes on this view a hypothesis as to how to overcome a moral problem. Since every problematic situation is unique, values are also unique; but if one is to specify an end, then growth, education, or problem solving would be that end. Instead of treating acquisition of skill and attainment of culture as ends, we should see them as marks of growth and means to its continuing difficulties or furthering growth. 10. Humanism. Dewey's humanism stems from his acceptance of the Baconian view that knowledge is tested by promotion of human intelligence based in good part on the experience of modern science for the sake of bettering the human situation. 502 Supernaturalism and the usual dogmas of revealed religion have no place in Dewey's view. As he tells us in A Common Faith, the things of greatest value in civilization exist by the grace of the continuous human community in which we are a link and we have the responsibility of conserving, transmitting, rectifying and expanding our heritage of values in order that those who come after us may share it more generously and more securely. Our common faith draws its main stand from our attempt to carry out this responsibility. 11. Education and experience. Most of the major theses in Dewey's general philosophy find expression in his philosophy of education. Reflective inquiry is as central for education, on his view, as for any other phase of life or experience. Indeed, for him education is a problem solving process, and we learn by doing, by having an opportunity to react in real life situation. In education not indoctrination, but inquiry is focal. Not simply amassing facts but learning to apply intelligence to problem solving has top priority. Education must be experimental without being simply improvisation. The reconstructive purpose is as much at work in education as anywhere else in experience. As he says in Democracy and Education, "Education is a constant reorganizing and reconstructing of experience". Present experiences must be so guided

as to make future experiences more meaningful and worthwhile. Though the value and the knowledge of the past are transmitted, this must be done in such a fashion as to broaden, deepen and otherwise improve them. Criticism and not simply passive acceptance is demanded. Dewey equates education and growth. As teachers we start with the child where he now is, with his present stock of interests and knowledge and seek to help him expand and enrich both his interests and his knowledge and grow as a person in his community and his society. He learns to work responsibly for his own development and for social conditions which will encourage a similar development for all other members of his society. Education must not be simply a means to something else. It should not be merely preparation for the future. As a process of growth it should have its own enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding features at the same time that it helps further continued education, and, on Dewey's view, the test of 503 our social institutions may be found in their effect in furthering continued education or growth. Dewey himself had considerable reservations over some features of "progressive education", but he continued to emphasize some of the strengths of the newer education as compared with the traditional outlook. His humanism and meliorism are richly exemplified in his account of the theory and practice of education. His philosophy of education stresses the social nature of education, its intimate and multiple relations to democracy, and its cultural significance.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
According to Dewey the aim of education is the development of child's powers and abilities. It is impossible to lay down any definite principle for a particular kind of development, because this development will differ from one child to the next, in conformity with the unique abilities of the individual. The educator should guide the child according to the abilities and powers he observes in it. It is better, in Dewey's opinion, to leave the question of educational objectives unanswered. If a definite aim is ascribed to education, it may do very great harm by compelling the teacher to guide the educand in a particular direction, not in keeping with the innate abilities of the child. In general, the aim of education is to create an atmosphere in which the child gets an opportunity to be active in and contribute to the social awakening of the human race. From the pragmatic standpoint, education aims at creating social efficiency in the child. Man is a social being who must develop within the confines of society, outside which he cannot develop at all. For this reason, education must aim at creating social efficiency and skill. Pragmatic education aims at instilling democratic values and ideals in the individual, at creating a democratic society in which there is no distinction between one individual and another, each individual is completely independent and willing to cooperate with others. Every individual must be given the freedom to develop his own desires and achieve his ambitions. Every individual must be equal to every other member of society. Such a society can be created only when there is no fundamental difference between the individual and collective interest. Hence, 504 education should create co-operation and harmony among individuals, instilling democratic values in school going children. In fact, the school itself is a miniature form of a democratic society in which the child undergoes various forms of development, of which moral education and development is the most important. Morality can be developed through active participation, because such participation in the activities of the school trains the child in shouldering responsibility. This develops the individual's character and grants him social skill. Equality of opportunity in the school helps to develop boys and girls according to their own individual traits and inclinations. Pragmatic education is basically practical inasmuch as it aims at preparing the individual for future life in such a manner that he can fulfil his requirements and achieve contentment. Future life in the pragmatic sense implies not merely individual life but also social life. Dewey was critical of the contemporary modes of education because they tend to drive the child away from democratic life by giving advantages to a small section of society. It also lays more stress on book or formal teaching than is really desirable. This mode of teaching compels the educand to listen long lectures which blunt his own mental powers. Hence, Dewey laid the foundations of a progressive education in the form of a Progressive School which aimed at establishing democratic values and developing the child's personality.

CURRICULUM
Dewey believed that the educational process has two aspects psychological and social. 1. Psychological. The curriculum and the method of education should be determined by the child's instincts and abilities.

The child should be educated according to his interest and inclination. Education should be attempted only after discovering the interests of the child, and these should be used as the basis for determining the curricula for the various stages of education. 2. Social. All education has its beginnings in the individual's participation in the social consciousness of the race. Hence it is necessary to create an atmosphere in the school which will allow the child to take an active part in the social awakening of his group. This improves his conduct and develops his personality and abilities. 505 Principles of Curriculum Formation Dewey has stressed the following four principles as underlying the formation of educational curricula: 1: Utility. The curriculum imposed on the child must have some utility, meaning thereby that curriculum should be based on the child's interests and inclinations during various stages of his development. In general, the child evinces four major interests the desire to talk and exchange ideas, discovery, creation and artistic expression. The curriculum should be conditioned by these four elements, and designed to include the teaching of reading and writing, counting, manual skill, science, music and other arts. It is not desirable to introduce the child to all these subjects at once, but to teach a subject only when it is desired at a particular stage of mental development. 2. Flexibility. It is better for the curriculum to be flexible and not predetermined and rigid. It must be capable of accommodating the changes in the child's interests and inclinations. 3. Experiential. The curriculum should be related to the child's contemporary experiences, and these can be multiplied and reinforced by presenting different kinds of activities in the guise of problems which inspire the child to attempt a solution. In this way, the variety of his experiences can be increased. As far as possible, the teaching of each subject should be related to the content of the child's experiences. 4. Close to life. As far as possible, the curriculum should include only those subjects which can be related to the child's pattern of life at that particular stage. This proximity to life can help in creating a distinctive unity in the knowledge imparted to him and thereby some harmony can be created in the teaching of history, geography, mathematics and language, etc. Dewey was very critical of the contemporary method of dividing knowledge into separate compartments, because he felt that such fragmentation of knowledge was unnatural. As far as possible the various subjects in the curriculum should be harmonized.

EDUCATIONAL METHOD
Dewey, himself a successful educational psychologist, has presented many novels and useful ideas on educational methods 506 in his two books, How We Think and Interest and Efforts in Education. 1. Learning by doing. The most well-known principle enunciated by him is the theory of learning by doing, in which the child learns best when he himself performs actions related to particular subjects. The educator is not to stuff the child's mind with information he himself has gathered throughout his life, but to guide the child to those activities by which the child can develop his own natural abilities and qualities. The child should be acquainted with facts while he is engaged in activity relating to those facts. Besides, the child should be confronted with practical difficulties and problems which he should try to solve. Problem solving is a god technique because it adds to the child's experience. 2. Integration of life and subjects. Dewey is of the opinion that there should be integration between the child's life, his activities and the subjects he studied. All subjects to be taught to the child should be arranged around his activities in such a manner that he acquires knowledge in the process of doing activities to which he is accustomed. Dewey's principle was later on adopted by Mahatma Gandhi in his plan of basic education. 3. Catering to child interest. The next question that arises is that of designing the method of teaching according to the child's interests. Dewey considers interest and effort to be of supreme importance in the process of education. The educator must understand the child's interest before organising the activities which are useful for the child. Given the opportunity to formulate programmes on their own, children will be able to make programmes according to their own interests. It is better if this effort is free of any fear or compulsion, because only then can the children make a programme independently. Once this is done, all school activity takes on the form of self willed activity. Dewey's ideas on educational

methods later on led to the evolution of the project method in which the child was made to indulge in those activities which helped in the development of enthusiasm, self-confidence, self-reliance and originality. 4. Participation in collective activities. In a democratic educational pattern, the child should be made to participate in collective activity which can help in evolving a co-operative and social spirit. 507 This method of education is apparently very suitable inasmuch as it meets the requirement of educational psychology. But in fact it has one inherent shortcoming that if the education of the child is fashioned exclusively according to the child's natural inclination he will remain ignorant of many subjects. Besides, even his knowledge of other subjects will remain disorganised, objections which are accepted by Dewey himself.

SCHOOL ORGANISATION
Dewey has commented in detail upon the organisation of schools as follows: Role of the Educator Pragmatic education grants considerable importance to the educator, who is conceived as a servant of society. His task is to create in the school an environment which will help in the development of the child's social personality and enable the child to become a responsible democratic citizen. Dewey considers the educator to be so important that he goes so far as to call him God's representative on earth. In determining the educator's own behaviour in the school, Dewey accepts democratic principles and educational psychology as suitable guides for shaping the educator's conduct. In order to realise the values of equality and independence in the school, the educator should not treat himself as superior to the children. He must also consciously abstain from imposing his own ideas, interests, views and tendencies on the children. He must confine his own activity to an observation of the child's own natural inclinations and personality traits, to engaging the child in suitable activities which will help in developing these traits. Hence, it is essential for the educator to pay constant attention to the individual differences of the children. If this is done, administration of the school becomes easier. The educator must also try and engage the children in activities which compel them to think and reason out things for themselves. 508 Discipline If the educator conducts himself on the lines suggested above, discipline in the school becomes easy. Difficulties arise only when discipline takes the form of an external force employed to restrain the child from expressing his natural desires. This is the traditional concept of discipline, which was severely criticised by Dewey. He argued that discipline depends not only upon the child's own personality but also upon the social environment in which he is placed. True discipline takes the form of social control and this is evolved when the child engages in collective activity in the school. It is therefore desirable to create an atmosphere in the school which encourages the children to live in mutual harmony and cooperation. Discipline and regularity of habit can be induced in children by making them act in consonance with each other in trying to achieve a single objective. This objective may be social, moral, intellectual or purely physical. School programmes go a long way in creating the child's character. It is therefore better to provide the child with a social environment and a mode which inspire him to self-discipline rather than to subject him to long lectures. By methods such as these the child can be turned into a really social being. A peaceful atmosphere is undoubtedly conducive to good and rapid work, but peace is only a means, not an end in itself. The educator's real task is to engage the children in work which suits their natural inclination. If, in the process, the children come into conflict with each other, it is not desirable to scold them and compel them to be peaceful. Self-discipline is a better weapon, and this can be taught through responsibility. When the educand is faced with the responsibility of looking after most of the work of the college or school he automatically evolves self-discipline. Participation in social activity is an essential part of educational training, in Dewey's opinion. The school itself is a rudimentary form of society. If the child is encouraged to take part in all collective activities in the school, he will not only be able to maintain discipline in the school, he will also be simultaneously trained for many activities he must perform in social life. Thus he will also learn to lead a disciplined life as an adult. 509

CRITICISM
Although Dewey's views on educational principles were enthusiastically received, they were also subjected to criticism on the following grounds: 1. Difficulties of not accepting truth to be permanent Pragmatist philosophy does not treat truth as permanent and objective. Instead as Dewey explains, all truth is relative to time and space. No philosophy is always true or correct. It has its utility only in a particular set of circumstances. And utility is the final criterion of truth. In actual practice, of course, Dewey's philosophy is fairly useful, but when his own principles are applied to his own theories, the latter also become relative to time and space and thus have only a limited utility. Hence, the principle of pragmatism itself becomes only relatively true because it does not accept truth as something permanent. 2. Materialistic bias. Pragmatism was born out of reaction to idealism, and consequently it manifests a distinctly materialistic bias, in contradiction of the spiritual bias of idealist philosophy. At the same time, Dewey wants to realize democratic ideals of freedom, equality and fraternity through education. But it is difficult to understand how this can be done unless he accepts an idealistic basis for his system of education. If worldly success is the only criterion of truth, few if any people will concern themselves with moral superiority, since the latter has no obvious relationship with material success. 3. Absence of any aim of education. The achievement of democratic ideals through education seems to b implicit in Dewey's educational philosophy, because he rarely ascribes particular aim to education in explicit terms. For him, education is life itself, and it is not possible to determine any objective for it. Most scholars disagree with this opinion because they believe that education can progress only when it has some definite aim and objective. There is always some definite purpose in sending the educand to school. And even though school resembles society in many ways, it has a distinct existence within the larger framework of society. Hence, the aims of education must be defined. 4. Excessive emphasis upon individual differences. Modern educational psychology accepts in principle that the curriculum of education must take into account the individual differences 510 of children and that children must be educated according to their individual and unique interests and inclinations both in respect of curriculum and also of the method of teaching. While in theory this is quite acceptable, any attempts to apply it in practice lead to immediate complications. It is almost, if not completely impossible to provide a separate educational plan for every individual child in a school. It is for this reason that all schools nowadays provide a uniform pattern of education imparted in the same manner. Besides, the teacher may have to educate the educand in a subject in which the latter is not at all interested. Thus, it is not possible to eliminate many complex and difficult subjects from the curriculum only because the student is not interested in them. 5. Limitations of learning through doing. There is no doubt that the child should learn by actually doing things, as Dewey suggested yet the theory has its limitations. Many facts known to an individual are acquired from another person. It is almost impossible for one individual to experience every fact known to him. Thus, the educand should also try to benefit from the experience of his teacher, educator and colleagues. The educator must also supplement the educand's efforts at self-education with guidance and communication of his own experience.

IMPACT ON MODERN EDUCATION

Many of Dewey's ideas have had great impact on modern education. Some important facts in this connection are: 1. Impact on the aims of education. Nowadays, one of the important aims of education is the teaching of democratic values. Dewey insisted on developing social qualities in the child. In modern schools these aims of education have been accepted as valid. 2. Impact on educational methods. The greatest impact of Dewey's ideas is seen in the methods of education in more recent times. Dewey suggested that education should be based on the child's own experience, and also that the method of teaching should vary according to the interests and inclinations of each individual child. These ideas influenced modern teaching techniques and led to active teaching in schools. One such school is the Activity School. The project method is also a result of Dewey's ideas. Even in the other schools, attention is paid to 511 the principles of child psychology which guide the educator in creating an atmosphere suitable for developing social

consciousness in the educand. 3. Impact on curriculum. The impact of Dewey's ideas on the subject of curriculum led to the introduction of manual skill subjects into modern curricula. Special importance is now being attached to various kinds of games, objects, the use of certain tools and implements, etc. In selecting the subjects to be taught, attention is now paid to the individual interests and abilities of the child. 4. Impact on discipline. As a result of Dewey's theorising on the subject of discipline, now the educand is entrusted with much of the work done in the school. In this manner the educand is trained in self-control and democratic citizenship. Apart from this, once the educand has to face responsibility, he is compelled to think scientifically and reason out things for himself. 5. Universal education. Dewey's thinking and ideal also led to faith in universal and compulsory education. Education aims at the development of personality. Hence every individual must be given the opportunity to develop his personality through education. The current stress on the scientific and social tendency owes much to Dewey's influence. He pointed out that education was a social necessity, in that it was not merely a preparation for life, but life itself. It aimed at the development of both the individual as well as society. This leads to the comprehensive development of the individual.

Questions for Exercise

1. Explain the fundamental principles of Dewey's philosophy of education. 2. What are the principles and aspects of curricula in Dewey's philosophy of education? 3. Discuss the salient features of Dewey's method of education. 4. Evaluate the objections against Dewey's philosophy of education. 5. Assess the impact of Dewey's ideas on modern education. 512

32 Bertrand Russell
In contemporary times the philosophy of education of Bertrand Russell is a fine example of pragmatic approach to education. Among his most important works may be mentioned: 1. Principles of Social Reconstruction, 1916. 2. The A.B.C. of Atoms, 1923. 3. The A.B.C. of Relativity, 1925. 4. On Education, 1926. 5. The Analysis of Matter. 6. Principia Mathematica, 1927. 7. The Outlines of Philosophy, 1928. 8. Sceptical Essays, 1928. 9. Marriage and Morals, 1929. 10. The Conquest of Happiness, 1930. 11. The Scientific Outlook, 1931. 12. Education and the Social Order, 1932. 13. Freedom and Organization, 1934. 14. Power: A New Social Analysis, 1928.

15. An Enquiry Into Meaning and Truth, 1940. 16. A History of Western Philosophy, 1946. 17. Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits, 1948. 18. Authority and Individual, 1949. 19. Now Hopes for a Changing World, 1951. 20. The Impact of Science on Society, 1952.

PHILOSOPHICAL IDEAS
Russell's philosophy has been called Logical Atomism. For the first time Russell propounded his mature views on Logical 513 Atomism in a series of Lectures, delivered in London, in the year 1918. Later on, the University of Minnesotta published them under the title, The Philosophy of Logical Atomism. Russell was an eminent mathematician. He developed his philosophy of Logical Atomism as a consequence of his deep and penetrating studies in the philosophy of mathematics. By atom Russell meant that point in analysis where further analysis is not possible. In other words, logical atom is the irreducible element of logical analysis. Thus, Russell tries to find irreducible elements through logical analysis instead of physical or chemical analyses. Explaining the reasons for naming his philosophy Logical Atomism, Russell writes, "The reason that I call my doctrine logical atomism is because the atoms that I wish to arrive at as the sort of last residue in analysis are logical atoms and not physical atoms". The philosophers subscribing to the viewpoint of Logical Atomism believe that logical analysis is a method of discovery. According to Bertrand Russell, we can learn about the fundamental elements of the universe by using the technique of logical analysis. The fundamental task before philosophy is the discovery of the basic elements of the universe and this is possible through analysis of the gross objects. The philosophers like Hegel, F.H. Bradley and B. Bosanquet do not accept the technique of logical analysis to be valid. According to them an object upon analysis ceases to be what it originally was; it is transformed into something else. For example, if we analyze man into his limbs, this would be distortion. The man can exist as a totality only; his limbs have no existence apart from this totality. Therefore, according to them, we can understand things as a unity, apart from this unity they are not real but merely appearance. Russell, however, rejects this line of argument and firmly believes in the efficacy of the logical analysis to reveal reality. It is, according to him, a most appropriate means of discovery. It may not be practically a very fertile method in philosophic inquiry; but undoubtedly, there is no theoretic difficulty or problem in its application to philosophy. The logical analysis is different from the physical or chemical analysis. David Hume also used the analytic method in his philosophy, but his method was psychological and not logical. In psychological analysis we analyze memories, thoughts, 514 emotions and such psychological processes, whereas in logical analysis the objects of analysis are concepts and propositions. The main object of logical analysis is the discovery of the fundamental elements of the universe and from this it follows that logical atomist philosophy postulates the reality of the universe and the existence of facts therein. After the First World War Russell published his famous work Principles of Social Reconstruction in 1916. In this book he maintained that expression of creative tendencies of the individual and society is the aim of human life. Creativity can be expressed in a democracy and free atmosphere. It is the opposite of possessive tendencies which are the major source of evil in social institutions. Russell maintained that family, marriage, education, religion, state and other human institutions should be guided by creative tendencies and not possessive tendencies. Happiness is the result of expression of creativity. Therefore, Russell suggested reconstruction of social institutions and social organisation in such a way as to realise maximum expression of creativity.

AIM OF EDUCATION
The aim of education, according to Russell, is to create individuals who are creative and may realise a creative society. Such a system will be democratic. According to Russell, one cannot progress without education. Therefore, with Dewey and other American educationists, Russell supported democratic system of education. He appreciated American system of education as an ideal system. The aim of education is to develop the child in such a way as to express his creative tendencies. In this process the educand should develop vitality, courage, sensitiveness and intelligence. The educated

persons must have openness of mind. Observation, patience, industry and faith in the possibility of knowledge are necessary for everyone who wants to learn. The above-mentioned four qualities are necessary for the development of character and personality.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION

The child's education should start at the age of six years. At 515 this stage the aim of education should be to satisfy curiosity and to develop the natural skills of the child. The most important traits required for the educand are curiosity, freedom from prejudice, faith in the possibility of knowledge, perservance, intense, durable and voluntary attention, patience and realism in ideas, words and action. Education must be interesting according to the educands stage of development. The teacher should act as a friend, philosopher and guide.

NURSERY SCHOOLS
The responsibility of the early development of the child may be entrusted to nursery schools. Nursery education must be free and compulsory. The teacher at this stage should be well versed in psychology and medicine so that he may help in the physical development of the child. Kindergarten and Montessori schools are ideal for nursery education.

PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION
At this stage care should be taken to provide education according to the individual peculiarities of the children. The children should develop the ability of reading and writing. This should be creative during the first five years. Mental exercises such as the study of mathematics may be postponed upto the age of seven years. Before it a knowledge of geography and history and general knowledge may be given. The teaching of history and geography should start at the age of five years. Children may be allowed to develop skill in art and languages. Teaching of science and mathematics should start between the age of 12 and 14. Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Physics, Chemistry and Biology may form part of the curriculum during this period. Classical languages should be taught between 12 and 14 years of age.

EDUCATION BETWEEN 14 AND 18 YEARS

Russell has classified curriculum into: 1. Classical languages, 2. Mathematics and Science, 516 3. Modern Humanities. Science and Mathematics are correlative, however, they may be taught separately. By the age of 18 the child must learn at least one of these special groups.

TEACHING METHOD
The teaching method should be based upon interest of the child. Educational standards must be maintained. The teacher should himself have sound knowledge of the subject. He should be well prepared and motivate students to learn. Along with interesting subjects the students must learn uninteresting subjects in science and mathematics. The teacher should try to make these subjects interesting. The educand should actively participate in the learning process. Learning by doing is an important method. Individual work should be given more importance than class work. The students may be given guidance and opportunities for developing their individual potentialities. Academic, physical and social development should go together. The school should be treated as a miniature society and the students may be asked to develop interest in all sorts of subjects, social, political, religious and secular. They should be taught to think independently. Their aim should be the search of truth. Free exchange of ideas should be developed.

SCHOOL ORGANISATION

There may be day schools and residential schools, since both have their own merits and demerits. These schools should be organised on democratic basis. Either of these two type of schools may be selected for the child on the basis of his circumstances, health, age, household conditions, nature and interests. The parents should select a suitable school for the child after careful consideration. University Education University education should be allowed only to the able and willing students. The aim of university education is firstly to 517 expand knowledge and research and secondly to prepare trained men and women for various vocations. Admissions to the universities may be given according to merit. The teachers should encourage the students to study books giving necessary knowledge and also catering individual tastes, interests and abilities. The teacher should guide the students in their studies and evaluate their abilities. The teachers themselves should be free from financial worries. They should get sufficient leave for enrichment of their knowledge. Research work is an important aim of universities. The universities are research workshops. The research work should aim at welfare of humanity and progress of the world.

Questions for Exercise

1. Describe Bertrand Russell's philosophy of education. 2. Evaluate Bertrand Russell's contribution to education. 518

Index
Abbotwood 245 Absent of Social Justice in Education 344 Academy of Gymnasium 425 Activities of Vienna Circle 180 Adams 95, 99, 125 Advaita Vedanta 269 Advantages of European System of Education 336 Adoption of Secular Policy 221 Advocate of Ancient Indian Vedanta Philosophy 389 Aim of Education 68, 82, 94, 110, 131, 158, 176, 218, 280, 296, 317, 319, 396, 464, 476, 503, 514 in Educational Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo 339-42 Nationalist 102, 126 Physical 321 Realistic 112 Aim of University Education 516 Aims and Ideals of Education 94, 295, 300 According to Radhakrishnan 402

Aims and Objectives of Education 255 Aims of Sarvodaya in India 301 Alipur Conspiracy Case 330 All Contemporary Educationists in India 24 All India Language 403 All India Radio 12 All Modern Educationists 80 Altekar, A.S. 6 American System of Education 514 Ancient Indian Approach to Human Psychology 247 Ancient Indian System of Education 344 Ancient Indian Traditions and Institutions 22 Ancient Philosophers 46 Anne Besant's Contribution to Education 275-76 Apastamba Dharmasutra 232-33, 235-37 Application of Naturalistic Principles 145 Ardent Promoter of Women Education 275 Aristotle 27, 57, 61, 413 Aristotle's Work 440 Arnold, Sir Edwin 294 Aspects of Philosophy 52 Auckland, Lord 242 Aurobindo, Sri 6-8, 29-30, 53, 77-79, 214, 320, 391 Aims of Education in Educational Philosophy of 339 Followers of 359 519 and The Mother 352, 361 True Education 334, 336 Work of 332 Aurobindo's Aim in India 342 Aurobindo's System of Education 350 Axiology and Education 65 ----- and Humanism 212 Baroness von Marenholz-Bulow 475

Basic Plan of Education 298 Basic Problems of Education 70 Beginner in Philosophy 30 Beginning of Philosophy in India 51 Bergson 28-29 Berkeley 91 Best Means of Education 282 Bhave, Vinoba 301 Biesanz and Biesanz 14 Birth of Western Philosophy 214 Blackham, J. 170 Bobit, Franklin 112 Body of Social Doctrine 203 Boston and Cambridge 150 Bradlaugh 220 Branches of Philosophy 48-49 British Philosophy of Education 245 British System of Education 242, 245 Brubacher 158 Buddha, Gautam 32, 50 Carnap, Rudolf 182, 188-93 Chairman of University Education Commission 393, 403-04 Champion of the Uplift of Backward Classes 315 Characteristic Activity of Childhood 479 Characteristics of Avidya 253, 255 Extentialism 170-75 Idealism 87-89 Knowledge 254 Marxism 203-04 Philosophical Thinking 36 Secular Education 224-25 Socialism 197 Chief Aim in Planning for Education in India 300

Chief Characteristics of Philosophical Attitudes 50-51 Chief Tenets of Realism 106-07 Child's Education 256-57 Christian Missionaries 243 Classification of Philosophical Problems 33 Cole, G.D.H. 81 Comenius Principles for the Reform of Educational System 458 Common Feature of Education 117 Communism 206 Communist Countries 21 Complex Modern Civilization 76 Comte, August 120, 149 Concept of Education 72 Contemporary Indian Philosopher 251, 264 ------, of Education 246, 248, 277, 320, 396, 402, 406 Contribution of Dayanand 265 Contribution of Pragmatism in Field of Education 166 Contribution of Realism in Field of Education 117-18 Contribution of Radhakrishnan to Indian Education 400 Crawford, S. Cromwell 234 Criticism of Marxism 204-05 Cunningham, J.W. 58, 82 Darwin, Charles 124 Dayanand's Philosophy of Knowledge 254 520 Definition of Education in West 3 Definitions of PhilosophyTwo Types 30-31 Definition of Secularism 220-21 Denominational Schools 227 Descartes, French Philosopher 50 Description of Ideal Child 350 Despatch, Wood 243 Dharmasastra 231-32 Different Aspects of Truth 26

Dewey, John 30, 54, 56, 68, 70, 74-75, 149, 155, 159-60, 437 ----- Biological Instrumentalism of 335 -----'s Instrumentalism 500-01 -----'s Relativism 501 -----'s View on Educational Principles 510-11 Differences between Gandhi and Nehru 375-77 Different Aspects of Truth 26 Disadvantage in Bi-lingualism in Our Education 403 Disadvantage in Idealist Philosophy of Education 104 Distinct System of Philosophy 89-90 Diversity of Philosophical Conclusion 38 Dominant Theme in Metaphysics of Radhakrishnan 392 Dowsett, N.C. 334, 340, 349 Dutt, N.K. 234 Early Advocate of the Inclusion of Manual Instruction 481 Early Dawn of Modern Philosophy 27 Economic Objectives of Education 371 Education Commission 199, 221 Education in Social Life 20 ---- Sri Aurobindo's Philosophy 334 Educational Ideals Advocated by Vivekananda 290 Implications of Humanism 219 Institutions 116, 227 Philosophy 155 System in Ancient India 231 Educationists 18 Eight Source of Knowledge 252 Elimination of Metaphysics 188 Emile 464, 477 Empiricist School of Philosophy 64 English and Indian Languages 243

Epistemological Problems 63-64 Epistemology 63, 89 ---- All the Schools of 64 Essence of Spiritual Nationalism 271 Essential Conditions of Success of Democracy 387 Part of Educational Training 508 Principle of Sri Aurobindo's Philosophy of Education 346 Existentialist 177 Approach to Education 176 Philosophy 155 Writings 175 Father of Modern Western Philosophy 50 First Fascist State 202 First World War After the 244, 514 Consequences of 369 Five Kinds of Tests 252 Foundations of All Educations 67 Formal and Informal Agency of Education 133-34 Formal and Informal Education 22 521 Forms of Naturalism 123-24 Francis, Bacon 149 Froebel 4, 96 Kindergarten Pattern of Education 98-99 Philosophical Influence 471 Stages of Recognised by 477 Function of a Language 403 Functions of Education 17-24, 255 Fundamental Characteristics of Humanism in West 214 Principles of Pragmatism 153 of Socratic Education 421 Galaxy of Great Indian TeachersRadhakrishnan's Place in the 404 Gandhi, M.K. 6-7, 55, 245-46, 291, 369 ---- Mahatma 506

---- and Marx 205 ---- Social Philosophy of 301 Gandhi's Associate in Political Life 372 Gandhian Scheme of Education 307, 314 Gandhiji's Educational Plan 309-13 ---- Primary EducationBasic Principles of 305 ---- Scheme of Basic Education 303, 399 Gautama and Baudhayana Dharmasutra 235 German Fascism 202 Goal of Education 320 Gospel of Spiritual Nationalism 270 Greatest Scientists of the WorldThinking of 82 Great Impact of Dewey's Ideal 510-11 Linguistic of the World 444 Philosopher and Yogi 333 Pragmatist and Most Outstanding Philosopher 498 Greek and Roman Literature 113-14 Hedonism 145 Hegel 92, 474, 477 Hegeliam Form of Idealism 92 Herbart Idealist Philosopher of Education 97 Hertog Committee 244 Hindu Kingdom 240 History of Education 297 History of Philosophy 26 ---- of Education in Naturalism 122 Hocking, William E. 38 Holidake, George Jacob 220 Horne, Herman Harrel 94-95, 154 Hughes, A.G. 4 Humanism Education 217 in West 214 Humanist Approach in Social Science 212

Educational Value 383 Psychology 213 Hume, David 28, 64, 123, 184, 392, 513 Huxley, Aldous 52 Hunter Commission 244 Ideal Control of Education 342 Ideal for Nursery Education 515 Idealism in the Contemporary Field of Education 102-03 and Discipline 101 in Education 95 and Materialism 89-91 and Realism 108-09 Idealist Bases of Curriculum 96 Idealist Methodology in Education 100 Idealistic Pattern of Education 98 522 Ideas of Modern Western Thinkers 247 Impact of Socialism on Education 198-201 Implication of Marxism in Education 205 Importance of Experience in Education 467 Important Branches of Philosophy 61 Element in the Pragmatist Conception of Education 165 Function of Philosophy 57, 82 Implication of Logical Positivism in the Field of Education 194-95 Metaphysical Theories 62 Pragmatic Concept in Education 156-58 Problem of Higher Education 401 Work of Bertrand Russel 512 Index of Cultural Progress 56 Indian Gurukula System of Education 281, 299 Philosophical Tradition 278 Philosophy of Education 248 Thinkers 6 University Act 244

Institution of Kindergarten 482 James, William 150-51, 154 Joad, C.E.M. 207 Kane, P.V. 238 Kant 28, 42, 91-92, 149, 471-72 Idealism of 474 Task of the Successor of 472 Kher, B.G. 305 Kierkegaard 169 Kinds of Discipline 361 Kinds of Education 9-14 Kon Nagar Village of Hoogli District 325 Krause 475 Lacedaemonians 449, 452 Lamarks and Followers 126 Lamont, Corliss 216 Landmarks in the Field of Realistic Thinking 110 Latest Technique of Education 131 Laws of Geometry 28 Locke, John 149 Logic of Science 189 Logical Atomism 512. Philosophy of 513 Lord Curzon 244 Lord Macaulay 242 Mackenzie, Prof. J.S. 67 Magna Carta of Indian Education 243 Mahabharata 263 Main Branch of Philosophy 41 Difficulties in Secular Education System 227 Feature of Boyhood Education 480 Problems of Philosophical Sciences 41-44 Types of Realism 107-08

Major Objective of Education 21 Mancken, Norman 138 Manusmriti 231-32, 234-36 Marx, Karl 55, 203, 206, 369, 390 ---- and Frederick Engels 207-10 McDougall 126, 136 Meaning of Education in India 4, 206 Meaning of Education in West 3-4 523 Meaning of Education in West and India 6 Medium of Culture and Civilization 22 Members of Vienna Circle 181 Method of Education 507 Method of Instruction of Education 233 Method of Evaluation in Sri Aurobindo's System 364 Methodology in Education 99 Model of Ideal Teacher 103 Modern Education 104 Modern Educationists 102 Modern Naturalists 121 Modified form of Materialism 120 Montessori System 485-86, 492 Psychological Method in Education 486 Teaching of Number 495 Way to the Teaching of Reading 493 Montessori's House of Childhood 484 Most Important Metaphysical Theory 62 Motwani, Kewal 76 Muslim Rulers 239 Naidu, Sarojini 241 Nationalistic Wave of Education 244 Naturalist Education 128 Organisation of Education Naturalist's Role 132

Philosopher of Education 461 Nature of Atom 120 Nature of Philosophy 39 Necessity of Basic Philosophy 28 Negel, Ernest and Morris R. Cohen 65-66 Nehru, J.L. 248, 323 Nehru's View Points on the Means and Ends of Education 374 Neil, A.S. 137 News System of Education of Seventeenth Century 459 Object of Philosophy 28 Object of Theosophical Education 272 Objections against Naturalism 122 Objectivity of Physical Sciences 16 Oldest School of Thought in the World of Philosophy 87 Opposite School of Empiricists 27 Pearson, Karl 14 Period of Reformation 114 Philosophers of Education 246 Philosophers of the Vedas 46 Philosophical Field 33 Methods 34-37, 72 Problems 33-34, 40, 44-46 Sciences 40 Philosophy of Education Ancient Indian 329 Contribution of 75 Disadvantages of the Idealist 104 Important Feature of 239 Medieval Indian 238, 240-41 Modern Indian 242 Most Important Schools of 149 NaturalismHistory of 122 Realistic 118 Scope of 72, 74

System of 117, 134 Warning Against the Neglect of 77 Pivot of the Whole Educational System of Ancient India 231 524 Plato 3-4, 8, 75, 104, 214, 384, 414 and Aristotle 24, 441-43, 445 Life of 424 and Shaw 94 Works of 425 Plato's Plan of Education 428 ---- Principle of EducationLimitations 437 Practices of the Montessori Method 487 Pragmatic Education 507 Pragmatic Methodology of Education 162 Pragmatists 149-50, 160, 165, 167 Prejudice against Sophists 413 Present Education SystemGrave Defects of 394-95 Primary Duty of Teacher Under Fascism 203 Primary Objective of Fascism 202 Principle of Self Education 317-19 Prominant Naturalist in Greece 124 Protagorian Principle of Homo-Mensura 54 Psychologist 18, 20, 80 Purpose of Education in Music 453 Question of Philosophy 93 Rabindranath's Philosophy of Education 322 Radhakrisnan, Dr. 169 Radhakrishnan's Philosophy 391 ---- View on Various Types of Education 398-400 Realism in Education 110 Realist Approach to Education 116 ---- Thinkers 114-15 Realistic Aim of Education 112 Regimes of Mussolini and Hitler 201

Revolutionaries of Bombay 329 Richard, Madame Paul 6-7 Role of Teacher 131 Roman Association for Good Building 484 Director General of the 485 Ross, John 96-97 Rousseau 134-38, 296, 429 ---- a Naturalist 468-69 Rousseau's Concept of Curriculum 465 ---- Naturalist Philosophy 462 Roy, M.N. 246, 248, 379-80, 382-87 ---- Fundamental Principle of Educational Philosophy 381 Rusk, Robert R. 4, 81, 93, 149-50 Salient Feature of Dialectic Method 415-17 Scheme of Basic Education 303, 306 ---- Muslim Education 239 Schiller, F.C.S. 154 Schlezinger, A.M. 76 Science of Beauty 68 Scientific Nature of Education 15 Scope of Philosophy 47 Second Round Table Conference 293 Secondary Education Commission 241 Seth, James 67 Shah, Bernard 126 Shelling 473 Shrimali, K.L. 77 Sidgwick, Prof. 16 Social Philosopher 70 Social Philosophy 69-70 Socio-Political Ideas of Annie Besant 269 Socrates 96 Approach of 414

Early Education of 411 525 First Task of 413 Paramount Interest of 420 Pupils of 424 Solid Foundation for Self-Development 280 Son of Nobel Parents 424 Sources of Knowledge 457 Spencer, Herbert 126 Successful Educational Psychology 505 Supreme Value in Sri Aurobindo's Thought 342 System of Education 262, 360 ---- Contemporary 277-78 System of Truth 14 Task of Educator 282-89 Teaching Method of Gandhiji's Scheme of Education 314 Teaching of Sophists 412 Theories and Principles of Metaphysics 182 Theory of Darwin 121 Theosophical Ideal Education 272 Theosophical Society 269 Theosophists Brothers 293 Things Required for Character Formation 280-82 Thorndike 136 Three Great Men of India 325 Tilak, B.G. 329 Traditional Concept of Education 130 Traditional Institutions 226 Traits Characterise Education for Secularism in India 225-26 True Humanist 265 Tutor of Alexander 439 Two Aspects of Educational Process 504 Two Period of Education 448

Types of Humanism 215-16 Ultimate Ideal School 343 UNO 23 Upanishad and Gita 293, 317, 319 ---- Chandogya 234 Value of Basic Education 302 ---- Brahmacharya 267 ---- Education in the State 445 ---- Mother Tongue 402 ---- of Philosophy 53-54 ---- Teacher 404 Varieties of Idealism 91-92 Various Audio-Visual Means 104 Virtue of Good Citizen and Good Governor 466 Vivekananda 6, 24, 320 ---- Contribution of 290 ---- and Tagore 336 Votary of Science 391 Walker, F.W. 325 War of Independence 243, 325 Wardha Scheme of Basic National Education 303 Weinberg, G. 180 Western Educationists 27 ---- Modern 290 ---- Philosophers 30, 53 Western System of Education 322 Whitehead, A.N. 45 Wittgenstein 185-87 ---- Basic Contention of 184 ---- Writings of 187 Wisest Man of Athens 411 World Education 3

Writings of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee and Madhusudan Datta 328 Yojnavalkya 6 ---- Smriti 231-32, 234-35 Yeravada Jail 303 Zakir Hussain (Dr.) 307 Zellar, Prof. 442-43