SpiraxSarco-B13-Condensate Removal

Block 13 Condensate Removal Heat Exchangers and Stall Module 13.
Module 13.1
Heat Exchangers and Stall
The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.1.1

Block 13 Condensate Removal Heat Exchangers and Stall Module 13.1
Heat Exchangers and Stall

Foreword
This Block discusses the removal of condensate from heat exchange equipment supplied by
saturated steam and fitted with:
o A temperature control valve on the steam line to the heat exchanger.
o A steam trapping device on the condensate line from the heat exchanger.
The primary side of the heat exchanger will be referred to as the ‘steam space’, and the steam
trapping device will be referred to as the ’trap’. The ‘trap’ can be a ‘steam trap’, a ‘pump trap’, or
a ‘steam trap and pump’ fitted in combination.
On these installations, a control sensor monitors the temperature of the outgoing heated fluid in
the secondary circuit. The control valve endeavours to maintain a temperature determined by
the controller, regardless of variations in heat load. The valve achieves this by opening or closing
to alter the flowrate of steam, thereby varying the steam space pressure.
The discharge from the steam trap may be subject to a lift and /or pressure in the condensate
line, or may fall to an open end where it is subjected only to atmospheric pressure. This Block
will refer to condensate pressure as ‘backpressure’.
The heat exchange equipment can be almost anything that meets the above criteria. Examples
include:
o Shell and tube heat exchangers.
o Plate heat exchangers.
o Air heating coils or batteries in ductwork.
o Pipe runs or pipe coils in process equipment, tanks, vats etc.
For brevity, this Block will refer to all such devices as ‘heat exchangers’ or ‘heaters’, and the
passage of fluid being heated by the heat exchanger will be referred to as passing through the
‘secondary’ side of the heat exchanger.
The performance of steam heat exchangers is often reduced due to condensate flooding the
steam space and waterlogging. The two main causes of waterlogging are:
o Fitting the wrong type of trap.
o Stall.
Important note
Some systems aim to achieve control of temperature by positively encouraging partial flooding
of the steam space of the heat exchanger. In these cases, the modulating action of the control
valve at the condensate outlet varies the condensate level in the steam space. This changes the
area of heating surface exposed to steam, and the effect is to change the heat transfer rate so as
to control the secondary outlet temperature.
With systems of this type, it is important that the heat exchangers be designed and manufactured
specifically to withstand the effects of flooding. Where this is not done, the presence of condensate
in the heat exchanger will have an adverse effect on operating performance and will reduce
service life.
This method of control can have certain benefits if the system is designed correctly. One is that
the condensate sub-cools in the heat exchanger before it is discharged. This can considerably
reduce the amount of flash steam in the condensate pipework, which may improve the
performance of the condensate system and also reduce heat losses.
The main operational disadvantage is that systems of this type are slow to respond to variations
in heat load.
13.1.2 The Steam and Condensate Loop

What is meant by stall?

Stall is the reduction or the cessation of condensate flow from the heat exchanger, and occurs
when the pressure in the heat exchanger is equal to, or less than, the total backpressure imposed
on the steam trap.
Lower than expected pressure in a heat exchanger may occur as a result of any of the following
circumstances:
o The secondary fluid inlet temperature rising as a result of a falling heat load.
o The secondary fluid flowrate falling as a result of a falling heat load.
o The secondary fluid outlet temperature falling due to a lowering of the set point.
As the control valve reduces the steam pressure to meet a falling heat load, the lack of differential pressure
across the steam trap causes condensate to waterlog the steam space, as shown in Figure 13.1.1.
Condensate return
Steam in Steam in
the top of Hot air coming
The control valve is throttling
the heater off the top of
to meet a reduced heat load
the heater
Lift and /or back

Fresh air in pressure
Air ducting Cooler air coming

off the bottom
Waterlogged condensate in
of the heater
the bottom of the heater
The steam trap goes cool or cold
Fig. 13.1.1 An air heater battery suffering the effects of stall
Due to applied safety factors and because heat exchangers are sold in pre-determined sizes, they
often have more heating area than required. This has the effect of increasing the heat transfer
capability of the exchanger above that required. It also means that the operating steam pressure
will be lower than in a comparable heat exchanger perfectly sized for the same duty. The result is
that less steam pressure is available to push out the condensate than may be expected. The steam
pressure in the heat exchanger is important because it influences the stall condition, which in turn
affects trap selection.
Before any trap selection and sizing can take place, it is necessary to determine whether or not stall
will occur, and if it does, to what degree. If this is not done, it is likely that the heat exchanger will
suffer from waterlogging for some or all of its operating life. This, when it occurs, may not be
immediately recognised by the observer or operator, as operating performance might not be reduced
in an oversized heat exchanger. However, waterlogging can have severe financial consequences,
short and long term, unless the heat exchanger is designed to operate this way.
Short-term problems
Consider an oversized heater battery operating as a frost coil and fitted with the wrong type (or
size) of trap, as in Figure 13.1.1.
In this example, the frost coil is preheating chilled air before it passes on to the main heater battery.
Though the frost coil is fulfilling its thermal expectations (because it is oversized for the duty), it will
do so with the bottom half of its coils waterlogged. Incoming cold air approaching 0°C (typically
flowing at 3 m /s) passing over the coils can easily cause the water in them to freeze. This results in
having to repair or replace the heater battery, either causing inconvenience or unexpected outlay.
Waterlogging and freezing will not arise if the application is correctly designed.

Long-term problems
Traps that are undersized will sometimes show no immediate adverse effects on heater
performance if the heater is oversized.
Ironically, the wrong type of trap fitted to a heat exchanger can often exaggerate a superficial
improvement elsewhere in the condensate system. For instance, a thermostatic or fixed orifice
fitted to any heat exchanger will hold back condensate so that it sub-cools below the steam
saturation temperature. This will have the effect of reducing flash steam from any natural outlet
such as a condensate receiver vent. The casual observer can interpret this as a way to save
energy and can easily be tempted to fit these devices. Unfortunately, the situation is not as
straightforward as it seems. The reality is that holding back condensate until it sub-cools implies
waterlogging to some degree. Condensate that continually floods the steam space will cause
corrosion with costly results. The service life of the heat exchanger is reduced, and the overall
lifetime costs of the installation will increase.
The effects suffered by a waterlogged heat exchanger depend upon the circumstances of the
particular installation.
The symptoms and effects of stall are itemised later in this Module.
How does stall occur?

To understand stall it is necessary to appreciate that saturated steam is a condensing vapour,
which gives up its heat as it condenses to water. This condensation always occurs at a constant
temperature when the pressure in the steam space remains constant.
For example, saturated steam at atmospheric pressure has a temperature of 100°C and will also
condense back into water at 100°C, whereas at a gauge pressure of 1 bar, saturated steam has a
temperature of 120°C and will condense back into water at 120°C. Steam can also exist inside
heat exchangers at below atmospheric pressure i.e. steam at 0.5 bar below atmospheric pressure
has a temperature of about 82°C, and will also condense back to water at 82°C. The pressure
and temperature relationship of saturated steam is entirely predictable and is documented in
steam tables.
Basic heat exchanger theory states that the higher the steam temperature above that of the
secondary fluid being heated, the greater the potential heat transfer rate. To vary the transfer of
heat from condensing steam, the temperature (and thus the pressure) of the steam in the steam
space is varied.
For example, if a heat exchanger uses steam at 160°C at maximum load, and the load is reduced
by 50%, steam at a lower temperature is required. To achieve this, the steam pressure must be
reduced, and, in many cases, becomes less than the backpressure.
Example:
A heat exchanger running at full-load uses saturated steam at 1 bar g (120°C) to heat water from
40°C to 60°C. Full-load therefore occurs when the water temperature rises by 20°C, and the
mean water temperature is:
40°C + 60°C
Mean water temperature at full-load = = 50°C
2
The difference between the steam temperature and the mean water temperature is termed the
Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference or AMTD, and the heat transfer rate is proportional to
this. The full-load AMTD in this example is 120°C - 50°C = 70°C.
Consider the situation where the process load falls to 2 /3 load.
At full-load, the water temperature rise is 20°C.
If the load falls to 2 / 3 full-load, and the outlet water temperature remains constant at 60°C, this
means that the temperature rise must be 2 /3 of 20°C
Therefore:
At 2 / 3 load, temperature rise = 2 /3 of 20°C = 13.3°C
and the inlet temperature = 60°C - 13.3°C = 46.7°C

Consequently at 2 /3 load, the return water temperature will have risen to 46.7°C, and so the
mean water temperature is now:
2 46.7°C + 60° C
Mean water temperature at load = = 53.3°C
3 2
At 2 /3 load, the heat transfer needed will be 2 /3 of that at full-load, and equally the AMTD will
be 2 /3 of that at full-load, i.e.
2 2
AMTD at load = x 70°C = 46.7°C
3 3
It follows that the steam temperature at 2 /3 load has to be the mean water temperature at 2 /3 load
plus the AMTD at 2 /3 load, i.e.
2
Steam temperature at load = 53.3°C + 46.7°C = 100°C
3
As the temperature of saturated steam at atmospheric pressure is 100°C, this means that the
pressure in the steam space is now atmospheric. Consequently, there is no steam pressure available
in the steam space to push the condensate through a steam trap. Even if the condensate line fell
to an open-ended steam trap, the condensate might not drain out of the exchanger. The
condensate will ‘back-up’ the drain line and waterlog the heat exchanger unless proper precautions
are taken.
If condensate backs up into the exchanger, the surface area available to condense steam is
reduced, the heat flow drops and the temperature of the outgoing heated water begins to fall.
When the temperature sensor detects this, the controller opens the control valve a little more
and the inflow of steam increases. This raises the pressure in the steam space above atmospheric
(in this case) and soon becomes high enough to push condensate through the trap. The condensate
level falls, but now the steam space pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure needed to
just heat the water to 60°C. The water temperature then climbs. When the sensor detects this,
the controller closes down the control valve. The steam space pressure falls to atmospheric - and
the flooding begins again.
The result is a continual cycling of the water temperature above and below 60°C. If the
secondary medium were other than water this could, in many cases, affect its quality.
What are the symptoms and effects of stall?

One or more of the following symptoms may be evident:
In summary:
1. Cold or cool steam trap.
2. Hunting control valve.
3. Fluctuating outlet temperature.
4. Stratified heater temperatures.
5. Waterhammer.
6. Reduced heat output.
7. Reduced product quality.
8. Corroding heat exchangers.
9. Leaking heat exchangers.
10. Failing heat exchangers.
In detail:
o The steam trap goes cold, or is noticeably cooler than the temperature of the steam pipe inlet
to the heat exchanger.
o The control valve is prone to ‘hunting’, i.e. it cycles regularly somewhere between its open
and closed positions.

o The temperature of the secondary fluid flowing from the heat exchanger is less accurate than
is expected or required.
o There is stratification of temperature on the output side of the heat exchanger. This will be
more apparent on heater batteries and unit heaters.
For example, it is almost certain to be detectable on the air heater battery depicted in
Figure 13.1.1. The design is such that the face of the heat exchanger surface is usually accessible,
often via an access panel or door in the side of the ducting. If stall is happening, the top of the
battery closest to the steam inlet will be very hot, whereas lower down, it will be much cooler
or even cold, and the trap will be cool or cold. The temperature of the air flowing through the
top of the battery will be noticeably higher than that flowing through the bottom.
o The heat exchanger makes crackling, banging or thumping noises either continuously or
intermittently. Sometimes these noises are associated with severe waterhammer that can cause
physical damage to the heat exchanger and any equipment fitted to it. The hot steam condensing
into the waterlogged condensate causes the waterhammer and resulting noises, especially
when the waterlogging level varies with changes in load.
o In process applications, the result of one or more of the above symptoms may be poor or
unreliable product quality.
o Increased corrosion. The waterlogged condensate cools to temperatures much lower than the
steam temperature at the inlet to the steam space. Carbon dioxide and oxygen dissolve much
more readily into cooler water.
o Carbon dioxide is a common by-product of incorrect boiler water treatment and is carried
over into the heat exchanger with the steam. When it dissolves into water it forms carbonic
acid, which causes corrosion.
Oxygen is present in raw water, and if not completely removed by the water treatment process,
it too will get carried over with the steam. Its presence in water, especially cool water in which
it will readily dissolve, also aggravates corrosion.
Corrosion rates are greatly accelerated when both gases are present.
The degree of corrosion will depend upon the heat exchanger material. Copper, carbon steel,
and stainless steel will each be affected differently.
o Mechanical stress.
The hot steam in the top of the steam space will cause the heat exchanger to expand there,
while the cool water in the bottom of the steam space has the reverse effect. This uneven
expansion / contraction can cause mechanical stress to the heat exchanger structure, notably
to the soldered, brazed, welded or expanded joints in ‘plate’ and ‘shell and tube’ heat
exchangers, and air heater batteries. The most common result is leakage of steam to the
surroundings in the former, or into the secondary airflow in the latter. The stress tends to be
worse if the waterlogging level continually varies, especially if it varies quickly. The level of
waterlogging will vary as the load changes, and as a result; the control valve and steam trap
will struggle to achieve stable control.
It should be said that a properly engineered plate heat exchanger with gasket joints suitably
designed for steam will be very resilient to such stress.
The ultimate effect of stall is increased maintenance and shorter service life of the heat
exchanger and associated equipment. This increases overall running costs.

Do all heat exchangers suffer from stall?

No. The conditions may be such that there will always be sufficient positive pressure upstream
of the steam trap to clear the condensate so stall cannot occur.
As a general rule, the higher the secondary temperature above 100°C, and the more stable the
running load, (especially if near to the maximum output of the heat exchanger), the less likely
for stall to occur. However, each application is unique and will require individual consideration.
The only ways to determine the dynamics of the installation are to either plot the application
temperatures on a chart or to perform a mathematical calculation. This is explained in
Module 13.2, ‘Condensate Removal from Heat Exchangers’.
Some applications can appear to operate with partial waterlogging, and show little effect of
waterhammer. These tend to be steady load applications, or where the load changes only slightly
and very slowly, and /or applications that employ very robust heat exchange equipment.
One such example would be large bore corrosion resistant heating coils inside tanks correctly
arranged to have a positive fall towards the trapping points.
Even in applications of this type, if the installation is designed or corrected to eliminate stall,
improved operation, improved reliability, and reduced lifetime costs are virtually guaranteed.

Questions
1. What is the prime cause of stall in heat exchangers?

a| Not enough steam pressure upstream of the control valve ¨
b| The heat exchanger pressure is equal to or less than the backpressure ¨
c| The heat exchanger is undersized ¨
d| The condensate discharges to atmosphere ¨
2. What effects will waterlogging cause in some heat exchangers?

a| None at all ¨
b| It increases the steam pressure in the heat exchanger ¨
c| It can cause swings in the temperature of the heated fluid and corrode the
heat exchanger? ¨
d| It increases the thermal performance ¨
3. In a heat exchanger at full-load, steam temperature is 140°C,

inlet temperature is 20°C, and the outlet temperature is 80°C, what is the AMTD?
a| 40°C ¨
b| 120°C ¨
c| 60°C ¨
d| 90°C ¨
4. In the same heat exchanger at half load, what is the secondary mean temperature?
a| 65°C ¨
b| 50°C ¨
c| 80°C ¨
d| 45°C ¨
5. In the same heat exchanger at half load, what is the steam temperature?
a| 70°C ¨
b| 100°C ¨
c| 110°C ¨
d| 95°C ¨
6. If, for the same duty, a larger heat exchanger were used, what would be expected
of the steam temperature at full-load?
a| It would be higher than 140°C ¨
b| It would be lower than 140°C ¨
c| It would also be at 140°C ¨
d| It would be at 100°C, i.e. atmospheric pressure ¨
Answers
1:b, 2: c, 3:d, 4: a, 5: c, 6: b

Block 13 Condensate Removal The Heat Load, Heat Exchanger and Steam Load Relationship Module 13.2
Module 13.2
The Heat Load, Heat Exchanger
and Steam Load Relationship

The Heat Load, Heat Exchanger

and Steam Load Relationship
Saturated steam is used to provide primary heat to a process fluid in a heat exchanger. The term
heat exchanger is used to describe all types of equipment where heat transfer is promoted from
one fluid to another. For convenience, this broad definition will be applied to the term heat
exchanger. While shell and tube heat exchangers and plate heat exchangers will be principally
referred to, stall may also be relevant to applications including air heater batteries, submerged
tank coils, jacketed vessels and storage calorifiers.
Temperature controlled applications

In a temperature control application, the inlet temperature of the secondary fluid to the heat
exchanger may change with time. This means that in order to maintain a consistent secondary
fluid outlet temperature, the heat supplied to the heat exchanger must also vary. This can be
achieved by using a control valve on the inlet to the primary side of the heat exchanger, as shown
in Figure 13.2.1.
Temperature controller
set at 60°C
Temperature
Control sensor
valve
P1 P2 Hot water out 60°C
Steam in
Steam pressure into Shell and tube

heat exchanger heat exchanger
Cold
water
in 10°C
To condensate main
Steam trapping
Fig. 13.2.1 Typical temperature control of a steam /water shell and tube heat exchanger
A control valve is used to vary the flowrate and pressure of the steam so that the heat input to the
heat exchanger can be controlled. Modulating the position of the control valve then controls the
outlet temperature of the secondary fluid. A sensor on the secondary fluid outlet monitors its
temperature, and provides a signal for the controller. The controller compares the actual
temperature with the set temperature and, as a result, signals the actuator to adjust the position
of the control valve.
For a constant heating area and heat transfer coefficient, the rate at which heat is transferred
from the steam to the secondary fluid for a particular heat exchanger is determined by the mean
temperature difference between the two fluids. A larger difference in mean temperatures will
create a large heat transfer rate and vice versa. On partially closing the control valve, the steam
pressure and the temperature difference fall. Conversely, if the control valve is opened so that
the steam mass flow and hence pressure in the heat exchanger rise, the mean temperature
difference between the two fluids increases.
Altering the steam pressure will also slightly affect the amount of heat energy available in the
condensing steam as the enthalpy of evaporation actually falls with increasing pressure. This
means that the latent heat available per kg of steam reduces as the steam pressure increases. If
steam flow accuracy is required, this must be accounted for.

Example 13.2.1
A manufacturer is to design a heat exchanger in which the specification calls for steam at 4 bar g
to heat secondary water from 10°C to 60°C. The water flow is to be constant at all loads at 1.5 L /s.
It is assumed that 1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg, so the mass flowrate = 1.5 L/ s x 1 kg/L = 1.5 kg/ s.
The manufacturer uses a heat transfer coefficient ‘U’ for the heat exchanger of 2 500 W /m 2 °C.
Take the specific heat of water as 4.19 kJ /kg °C.
Determine:
(A) The design heat load.
(B) The corresponding steam flowrate.
(C) The minimum heating area required.
Also, if the customer’s minimum heat load occurs when the inlet water temperature rises to
30°C, determine:
(D) The minimum heat load.
(E) The corresponding steam pressure in the heat exchanger.
(F) The corresponding steam flowrate.
Calculations:
(A) Find the design heat load using the heat transfer flowrate equation (Equation 2.6.5):
Q = m cp ∆T Equation 2.6.5
Where:
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW)
m = Mean secondary fluid flowrate (kg)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ / kg K) or (kJ / kg °C)
DT = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (K or °C)
Q = 1.5 kg/s x 4.19 kJ / kg °C x (60 -10)°C

Q = 314.25 kW
(B) Find the corresponding steam flowrate at 4 bar g, saturation temperature (T s) is 152°C,
and hfg = 2 108.1 kJ / kg (from steam tables). Calculate the required steam flow at the design
condition using Equation 2.8.1:
Load in kW x 3 600
Steam flowrate (kg h) = Equation 2.8.1
hfg at operating pressure
314.25 x 3 600
Steam flowrate (mS ) = kg / h
2 108.1
Steam flowrate (ms) = 536.6 kg /h

(C) Find the minimum heating area to meet the requirement using Equation 2.5.5. Note; the
manufacturer uses the Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (DTLM) to calculate the
minimum amount of heating area to satisfy the design rating:
T2 - T1
∆TLM =
æ Ts - T1 ö Equation 2.5.5
In ç ÷
è Ts - T2 ø
Where:
DTLM = Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
Ts = Steam temperature (°C)
T1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (°C)
T2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (°C)
ln = The mathematical function known as ‘natural logarithm’
60 - 10
∆TLM =
152 - 10 ö
In æç ÷
è 152 - 60 ø
50
∆TLM =
142 ö
In æç ÷
è 92 ø
50
∆TLM =
0.434
DTLM = 115.2°C
By re-arranging the general heat transfer equation (Equation 2.5.3: Q = U x A x DT)
Equation 13.2.1 can be formulated, where DT can be represented by the mean value DTM.
Q
A= Equation 13.2.1
U ∆TM
Where:
A = Heating area (m²)
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (W)
U = Heat transfer coefficient (W / m² °C)
DT M = Mean Temperature Difference. Note: DTM may be either DTLM (LMTD) or DTAM (AMTD).
314 250 W
A=
2 500 W/m2 °C x 115.2°C
A = 1.09 m²
For the purpose of this example it will be assumed that the heat exchanger is designed to have
exactly this area of 1.09 m².
(D) Find the minimum heat load, when the inlet water temperature is 30°C, using the heat
transfer flowrate equation (Equation 2.6.5) as used in Part ‘A’ of these calculations:
Q = m cp ∆T Equation 2.6.5
Qmin = 1.5 kg / s x 4.19 kJ/ kg °C x (60 - 30)° C
Q min = 188.5 kW

To calculate the corresponding steam flowrate, it is first necessary to determine the steam
temperature at the minimum load condition.
It is possible to use the DTLM design figures to accurately predict the steam temperature for any
load condition, but this requires the use of logarithmic calculations. However, once the exchanger
size is fixed and the design temperatures are known, it is much easier to predict operating
temperatures using what could be termed a heat exchanger Temperature Design Constant (TDC).
The TDC method does not require logarithmic calculations. Please note: TDC cannot be used
on those applications where the secondary flowrate varies or where control is achieved by varying
the condensate level in the steam space.
Note: When sizing a heat exchanger it is normal for heat exchanger manufacturers to use the
DTLM method. Once sized, by knowing the heating area and the full-load operating temperatures,
TDC can be used to accurately predict all operating temperatures resulting from changes in load,
as can be seen in the following text.
Operating temperatures can also be predicted graphically by using what is termed a ‘Stall Chart’.
This method is discussed in Modules 13.5, 13.6, and 13.7.
Temperature Design Constant (TDC)

For any type of steam-heated exchanger with the secondary liquid flowing at a constant rate,
TDC can be calculated from the test figures quoted by the manufacturer for full-load. If these
data sets are not available and the heat exchanger is already installed in service, TDC can be
calculated by observing the steam pressure (and finding the steam temperature from steam
tables) and the corresponding secondary inlet and outlet temperatures at any load.
TDC is the ratio of the steam to water temperatures at the inlet and outlet; and is shown in
Equation 13.2.2.
Ts - T1
TDC = Equation 13.2.2
Ts - T2
Where:
TDC = Temperature Design Constant
Ts = Steam temperature
T1 = Secondary fluid inlet temperature
T2 = Secondary fluid outlet temperature
In Example 13.2.1 at full-load conditions:
The steam pressure = 4 bar g
The inlet water temperature (T1) = 10°C
The outlet water temperature (T2) = 60°C
Steam temperature at 4 bar g (Ts) = 152°C
Ts - T1
TDC =
Ts - T2
152 - 10
TDC =
152 - 60
142
TDC =
92
TDC = 1.543 5 for this particular heat exchanger

The TDC equation can be transposed to find any one variable as long as the other three variables
are known. The following equations are derived from the TDC equation (Equation 13.2.2).
To find the steam temperature at any load use Equation 13.2.3:
(T2 x TDC) - T1
Ts = Equation 13.2.3
TDC - 1
To find the secondary fluid inlet temperature at any load use Equation 13.2.4:
T1 = Ts - [ TDC (Ts - T2 ) ] Equation 13.2.4
To find the secondary fluid outlet temperature at any load use Equation 13.2.5:
TS - T1 ù
T2 = TS - éê Equation 13.2.5
ë TDC úû
For any heat exchanger with a constant secondary flowrate, the operating steam temperature
can be calculated for any combination of inlet temperature and outlet temperature.
In Example 13.2.1 the secondary outlet temperature remains at 60°C, and minimum load occurs
when the inlet temperature is 30°C. What is the steam temperature at minimum load?
Inlet temperature = 30°C
Outlet temperature = 60°C
Using Equation 13.2.3:
(60 x 1.543 5) - 30
Ts =
0.543 5
62.61
Ts =
0.543 5
Steam temperature (T s) = 115.2°C
(E) Find the corresponding heat exchanger steam pressure and enthalpy at minimum load
From steam tables:
A steam temperature of 115.2°C corresponds with a steam pressure of 0.7 bar g.
The specific enthalpy of evaporation at 0.7 bar g (hfg) = 2 215 kJ / kg
(F) Find the steam flowrate at minimum load:

From (D) the minimum heat load is 188.5 kW.
From (E) the hfg is 2 215 kJ /kg.
Using Equation 2.8.1:
kW rating x 3 600
Steam flowrate (kg /h) = Equation 2.8.1
hfg at operating pressure
188.5 x 3 600
Steam flowrate (mS ) = kg / h
2 215
Steam flowrate (m s) = 306.4 kg / h at minimum load

Questions
1. What determines the rate of heat transfer for any given heat exchanger?
a| The heat transfer coefficient ¨
b| The mean temperature difference between the two fluids ¨
c| The heating surface area ¨
d| All of the above ¨
2. How is the temperature of steam controlled in a heat exchanger?

a| By a steam trap ¨
b| By changing the steam pressure upstream of the control valve ¨
c| By controlling the steam flow and pressure in the steam space ¨
d| By an adjustable safety valve ¨
3. What is LMTD?
a| Logarithmic Maximum Temperature Difference ¨
b| Latent Mean Temperature Difference ¨
c| Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference ¨
d| Lowest Minimum Temperature Difference ¨
4. What is the basic difference between LMTD and TDC?

a| None ¨
b| LMTD is used to accurately calculate a required heating surface area
while TDC can be used to easily predict operating temperatures ¨
c| LMTD is easier to use ¨
d| Using TDC is more accurate than using LMTD ¨
5. What effect does lowering the steam pressure have?

a| The steam temperature rises ¨
b| It has no effect on the temperature but increases the latent heat ¨
c| The steam temperature falls ¨
d| The total heat in steam increases ¨
6. Knowing the heat load, what other factor has to be known to accurately determine the
steam mass flowrate to any piece of equipment?
a| The temperature of steam ¨
b| The total heat in the steam ¨
c| The enthalpy of evaporation of the steam at the evaporating pressure ¨
d| The specific volume of the steam ¨
Answers
1: d 2: c, 3: c, 4: b, 5: c, 6: c


Block 13 Condensate Removal Oversized Heat Exchangers Module 13.3
Module 13.3
Oversized Heat Exchangers

Oversized Heat Exchangers
The effect of oversizing a heat exchanger

The previous calculations (Module13.2) assumed that the heat exchanger had been sized on the
perfect heating area to meet the specification. This would mean that the heat exchanger was
exactly sized for the duty.
This is highly unlikely in practice as the designer or specifier will usually add other factors, including
those for fouling and uncertainty of maximum operating loads. It is also unlikely that manufacturers
can supply heat exchangers to match a specification exactly. As undersized heat exchangers are
impractical they are usually bought oversized.
The operating conditions laid down in Example 13.2.1, Part C, have been reconsidered in
Example 13.3.1 by adding 15% to the required heating area to account for contingencies.
Required heating area is calculated to be 1.09 m² (Example 13.2.1, Part C) therefore the specified
heating area for Example 13.3.1 is to be 1.09 + 15% = 1.254 m².
The minimum size that the manufacturer can supply has a heating area of 1.31 m², representing
an actual heating area of some 20% above that required. A larger heating area requires less
steam pressure for the same heat transfer rate, and because of this the steam pressure in an
oversized heat exchanger will be lower for the same heat load.
As the steam pressure is less, the steam temperature is less, and the heat exchanger LMTD
(Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference) will also be less.
To determine the steam temperature for the design condition, it is first necessary to find the new
LMTD (DTLM) for the larger heating area (see Example 13.3.1).
Example 13.3.1
The DTLM can be found by re-arranging Equation 13.2.1 to give Equation 13.3.1

$ Equation 13.2.1
8∆70

∆70 Equation 13.3.1
8$
Where:
DTM = Mean temperature difference. Note: DTM may be either DTLM (LMTD) or DTAM (AMTD)
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (W)
U = Heat transfer coefficient (W / m² °C)
N:
∆70 &
:P &[P

From Example 13.2.2, at full-load:

The secondary inlet temperature (T1) = 10°C
The secondary outlet temperature (T2) = 60°C
The new steam design temperature can now be determined using Equation 2.5.5:
7 7
∆7/0
 7V 7  Equation 2.5.5
,Q  
 7V 7 
Where:
DTLM = 95.95°C
T1 = 10°C
T2 = 60°C
TS = Steam temperature °C

 7V 
/Q  
 7V 
  76  
/Q    =
  76  
  76  
/Q    =
  76  
By taking antilogs of both sides of the equation . . .
76
= H
76
76
=
76
76 76
76 76 [
76

6WHDPWHPSHUDWXUH76

Steam temperature (TS) = 133.1°C
This temperature corresponds to a steam pressure of 1.95 bar g. When the heat exchanger was
perfectly sized in Module 13.2, the steam pressure was 4 bar g. In this example, with a heat
exchanger 20% oversized, the steam pressure is 51% less.
Now that the steam pressure has been predicted at the full-load condition, it is possible to
calculate the steam flow at full-load.

By using Equation 2.8.1 find the steam flowrate at the full heat load of 314.25 kW. At 1.95 bar g,
steam tables state that the enthalpy of evaporation is 2 164.6 kJ / kg.
/RDGLQN:[
6WHDPIORZUDWHNJ K = Equation 2.8.1
KIJ DWRSHUDWLQJSUHVVXUH
[
6WHDPIORZUDWHV NJ K

6WHDPIORZUDWH V NJ KDWIXOO ORDG
The steam flow was 536.6 kg / h in the perfectly sized heat exchanger (Example 13.2.1), so it can
be seen that there is a slight drop (2.5%) in mass flowrate. This is due to the steam having a
slightly larger enthalpy of evaporation in the larger heat exchanger due to its lower pressure.
Determine the TDC for the larger heat exchanger

Now that the steam temperature has been determined for the oversized heat exchanger (using
the LMTD equation [Equation 2.5.5]), it is now possible to find its TDC, using Equation 13.2.2.
76 7
7'& Equation 13.2.2
76 7
Where:
TS = 131.1°C
T1 = 10°C
T2 = 60°C

7'&

7'&

TDC = 1.684
At the minimum heat load:
When the heat exchanger was perfectly sized in Example 13.2.1 the steam temperature was
115.2°C at the minimum heat load of 188.5 kW.
Because the oversized heat exchanger in this example is about 20% larger, the steam
temperature will also be less at the minimum heat load. The minimum heat load remains the
same as in Example 13.2.1 and occurs when the secondary inlet temperature rises to 30°C.
From Equation 13.2.3:
7 [7'&7
76 Equation 13.2.3
7'&
Where:
TS = Steam temperature °C = 133.1°C
T1 = Secondary fluid inlet temperature °C = 30°C
T2 = Secondary fluid outlet temperature °C = 60°C
TDC = Temperature Design Constant = 1.684

[
76

76

TS = 103.8°C
Comparing the two heat exchangers at minimum load, the steam temperature has dropped from
115.2°C in the perfectly sized heat exchanger to 103.8°C in the oversized heat exchanger.
From steam tables, this steam temperature corresponds with a steam pressure of about 0.15 bar g,
and hfg = 2 247 kJ / kg. The steam pressure in the perfectly sized exchanger (at 115.2°C) was
0.7 bar g.
By using Equation 2.8.1, it is possible to find the steam flow at the minimum heat load of
188.5 kW.
/RDGLQN:[
[
6WHDPIORZUDWH6 NJ K

Steam flowrate (mS) = 302 kg / h at full-load
The minimum steam flow was 306 kg / h in the perfectly sized heat exchanger (Example 3.2.1),
so it can be seen that there is a marginal drop in mass flow in the oversized heat exchanger at the
minimum heat load. This is due to the steam having a slightly larger enthalpy of evaporation in
the larger heat exchanger due to its lower pressure.
The steam pressure, the steam trap, and effective condensate removal
As the steam gives up its heat across the heat transfer surface to the secondary fluid, it condenses
in the steam space. Condensate passes out through the outlet of the heat exchanger, and through
a steam trap, which traps the steam in the steam space whilst allowing the condensate to be
freely discharged.
If the heat exchanger has not been specifically designed to operate with condensate flooding the
steam space, the steam pressure needs careful consideration to ensure the heat exchanger is
properly drained of condensate. Any waterlogging of the steam space will reduce the effective
heating surface area, and the heat transfer requirement may be satisfied only if the exchanger is
sufficiently (perhaps accidentally) oversized.
The capacity of the steam trap will depend upon its type, its orifice size and the differential
pressure across it. Differential pressure provides the energy to push the condensate through the
trap, and is the difference between the steam pressure in the heat exchanger, and the backpressure
exerted on the outlet of the trap by the condensate system.
If the steam trap drains by gravity via a properly sized pipe to a vented condensate receiver or an
open end, the backpressure should be very near atmospheric. Under these conditions, the
differential pressure on a sizing chart can simply be read as the gauge pressure in the heat
exchanger.
If, however, there is a lift after the trap (a rise in the trap discharge line), or the trap discharge line
is undersized, or this line is pressurised for any other reason, the backpressure may, at times,
be greater than the pressure in the steam space. When this is so, the differential pressure across
the trap is reversed and is deemed to be a negative differential pressure. The trap capacity is
now zero.

As can be seen in the above calculations, the steam pressure in any heat exchanger is governed
by its size and the secondary conditions. As the capacity of the steam trap depends on the
differential pressure, it follows that changes in the steam pressure and backpressure effect the
capacity of the steam trap at all times. As the differential pressure reduces, the capacity of the
steam trap will fall. Provided the differential pressure is positive and the steam trap is selected
and sized with this in mind, waterlogging and its associated problems will not occur.
Sizing the steam trap for the oversized heat exchanger

The conditions that need consideration are:
o Full-load : 523 kg / h at 1.95 bar g in the steam space
o Minimum load: 302 kg / h at 0.15 bar g in the steam space
o Backpressure: Atmospheric pressure (0 bar g)
Controller
Control valve
Vacuum
breaker Secondary out
Steam in
Heat exchanger
Secondary in
Static head above trap

usually 0.5 to 1 m
Float type steam trap
Must drain by gravity to atmosphere
Fig. 13.3.1 Static head and vacuum breaker method of dealing with stall
Consider, on the float trap capacity chart Figure 13.3.2, a DN25 (1") FT14-4.5 ball float steam
trap. It can be seen that it will pass 850 kg / h at a differential pressure of 1.95 bar. It may also be
seen that at a differential pressure of 0.15 bar it will pass about 370 kg / h. In this example,
consider the trap fitted to the oversized heat exchanger and draining by gravity to a vented
condensate receiver, as depicted in Figure 13.3.1.
To ensure proper drainage, the steam trap has to be able to cope with all loads between the
full-load and minimum load conditions.

As the condensate backpressure is atmospheric in this example, the minimum steam space pressure
of 0.15 bar g is always higher than the backpressure. It can be seen from the capacity chart
(Figure 13.3.2) that the trap has enough capacity at the minimum and maximum loads, so the
DN25 (1") FT14-4.5 ball float steam trap is big enough.
If, however, in this example, the backpressure were higher than the minimum steam pressure of
0.15 bar g, the system would stall somewhere within the normal operating range. (This would
only require a lift of just more than 1.5 metres after the trap to cause this). Accordingly, the trap
would have to be selected and sized depending upon the amount of backpressure. With larger
amounts of backpressure it may be necessary to fit a pump - trap.
Advice on how to select the correct trap for a heat exchanger is given in Module 13.4.
1500
1000
Trap capacity
at 1.95 bar Dp 4 .5
1 4-
) FT
1"
2 5(
DN
Maximum flow
500
Trap capacity 400

at 0.15 bar Dp 10
1 4-
FT
Minimum flow ")
(1
300 5
D N2 4.
5
1 4-
FT
Condensate kg/h
")
¾
200 ",
(½ 4
2 0 -1
DN T 14
1 5, F
")
DN (1 0
25 -1
DN T 14
F
")
," ¾
(½
100
N 20 -1
4
, D T14
15 ")
F
DN ," ¾
(½
N20
,D
15
DN
50
40
30
20
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 10 14
DP at minimum load DP at maximum load

(0.15 bar) (1.95 bar)
DP - Differential pressure (bar)
Fig. 13.3.2 FT14 ball float steam trap capacity chart showing data for Example 13.3.1

Questions
1. Why is it usual to fit an oversized heat exchanger?

a| It can cope with contingency loads ¨
b| It can cope with future fouling effects ¨
c| Because this is what the supplier will offer ¨
2. The oversized exchanger had about 20% more heating area than the one perfectly sized
in Example 13.2.1. What was the percentage drop in steam pressure at the same minimum
heat load?
a| About 78% drop in pressure ¨
b| About 24% drop in pressure ¨
c| About 10% drop in pressure ¨
d| The steam pressure remained the same in each heat exchanger ¨
3. For the same heat load on two heat exchangers, why is the mass flowrate of steam
always less in the exchanger with greater heating surface?
a| Because the control valve is smaller ¨
b| The steam pressure is less and so the enthalpy of evaporation is more ¨
c| Because there is more heating area in the oversized exchanger ¨
d| The steam pressure is less and so the steam will be drier ¨
4. What is the effect of higher backpressure on a steam trap?

a| None whatsoever ¨
b| It reduces the steam pressure in the heat exchanger ¨
c| It reduces the capacity of a steam trap ¨
d| It increases the differential pressure across the steam trap ¨
5. What effect does a lowering steam pressure have?

a| The steam temperature rises ¨
b| It has no effect on the temperature but increases the latent heat ¨
c| The steam temperature falls ¨
d| The total heat in steam increases ¨
6. In Example 13.3.1, if the backpressure were 2 bar g, what size should the trap be?
a| Larger than 1 ¨
b| 1 ¨
c| A pump-trap should be used ¨
d| 2 ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: c, 3: b, 4: c, 5: c, 6:c

Block 13 Condensate Removal Example: Selecting the Trap Module 13.4
Module 13.4
Example: Selecting the Trap

Example: Selecting the Trap

Example 13.4.1 Selecting the trap
A factory requires a steam / water heat exchanger operating at a nominal 4 bar g to heat process
water circulating at 1 L / s (1 kg / s) from 10°C to 80°C, giving a design load of 293 kW. The process
is such that a minimum heat load occurs at 60% of the full heat load. This is a permanently
running process line with no future load increase. Two suppliers are asked to provide a heat
exchanger. The following information is important to selection:
o Supplier X can provide a heat exchanger with a heating area of 2 m2, a U value of 2 500 W/ m2 °C
and duty of 350 kW when operating with steam at 4 bar g and with a water flow of 1 L / s.
o Supplier Y is able to provide a heat exchanger with a smaller heating area more suitable for
the design heat load of 293 kW, when operating with steam at 4 bar g and with a water flow of
1 L / s. The U value is 2 500 W / m² °C.
o The heat exchanger condensate line will lift 5 metres to a condensate return pipe that falls
en route to a vented receiver, and having a total backpressure of 0.5 bar g. Note: A one metre
column of water under atmospheric pressure will exert a pressure at the bottom of the column
of approximately 10 kPa or 0.1 bar g. Any lift in the condensate discharge line will thus exert
a static lift due to the column of condensate held in the line, in addition to any pressure in the
condensate system.
It is necessary to determine the system operating conditions to select and size the trap for proper
condensate removal from both heat exchangers under any operating load condition.
The following questions need to be answered for proper condensate removal:
(A) Will stall occur during normal operation?
(B) At what load will stall occur?
Check the application heat load at the design condition.
From the heat transfer flowrate equation (Equation 2.6.5):
&S ∆7 Equation 2.6.5
Q = 1.5 kg / s x 4.19 kJ / kg °C x (80 -10)°C
Heat transfer rate (Q) = 293 kW (293 000 W)
Consider supplier X

A 350 kW heat exchanger with a 2 m2 heating area.
What will be the steam space pressure in this heater at this design heat load?
It is first necessary to determine the LMTD (DTLM) for a 2 m2 heating area.

$ Equation 13.2.1
8∆70
:
P
:P &[ D 70
:
D 70
:P &[P
DTM = 58.6°C

The steam design temperature can now be calculated, by use of Equation 2.5.5:
7 7
∆7/0
 7V 7  Equation 2.5.5
,Q  
 7V 7 
Where:
DTLM = 58.6°C
T1 = 10°C
T2 = 80°C

 76 
,Q  
 76 
 76 
,Q  
 76 
 76 
,Q  
 76 
By taking antilogs of both sides of the equation:
76
H
76
76

76
76 76
76
Steam temperature (TS) = 110°C

This saturation temperature is equivalent to a steam pressure of 0.45 bar g. This pressure is less
than the 0.5 bar g backpressure, and the system will permanently stall.
In this case, if a ball float steam trap were fitted, condensate would permanently flood the heat
exchanger, its level modulating relative to changes in load. Operating performance might be
unsatisfactory as the secondary outlet temperature will tend to fluctuate, and the heat exchanger
might fail prematurely due to corrosion.
If the system is permanently running under stall conditions, a ball float steam trap is the wrong
choice for this application, and a pump-trap should be fitted instead.

Consider supplier Y

For the manufacturer to size the heating area that best matches the design condition, it is
necessary to find the minimum heating area that will satisfy the operating full-load. It is first
necessary to determine the rated LMTD for the heat exchanger with a steam space pressure is
4 bar g (TS = 152°C).
7 7
∆7/0
 7V 7  Equation 2.5.5
,Q  
 7V 7 
Where:
DTLM = LMTD
T1 = 10°C
T2 = 80°C
TS = 152°C

∆7/0

,Q  
 

∆7/0

,Q  
 

∆7/0
,Q

∆7/0 &

By using Equation 13.2.1 the minimum heating area can now be determined for the rating of
293 kW.

$ Equation 13.2.1
8∆70
Where:
Q = Heat transfer rate (kW)
T2 = Heat transfer coefficient (W / m² °C)
DTM = DTLM

$
[
+HDWLQJDUHD$ P
From his standard range, supplier Y can provide a plate heat exchanger that meets the
specification with a heating area of 1.198 m2. This is oversized (by about 5%) and steam pressure
will therefore be less than 4 bar g at the full-load operating condition.
In practice, heat exchangers are likely to be specified at least 10% over capacity. It is for this
reason that the operating steam pressure (not the quoted normal working pressure) should always
be established before selecting and sizing the steam trapping device. The reputable manufacturer
should be willing to supply this information, or, at least, the heating area, the U value, and the
heat output. From this data, the rated LMTD can be calculated, from which the operating pressure
can be found.

Find the LMTD for the heat exchanger with a heating area of 1.198 m²:

$ Equation 13.2.1
8∆70

∆70
8$
:
∆70
:Pò &[Pò
D 70 &
The operating steam temperature at full-load can now be found by use of Equation 2.5.5:
7 7
∆7/0
 76 7  Equation 2.5.5
,Q  
 76 7 
Where:
DTLM = 97.8°C
T1 = 10°C
T2 = 80°C
TS = Steam temperature°C

 76 
,Q  
 76 
 76 
,Q  
 76 
 76 
,Q  
 76 
By taking antilogs of both sides of the equation:
76
H
76
76

76
76 76
6WHDPWHPSHUDWXUH76 &
This saturation temperature is equivalent to a steam pressure of 3.4 bar g at the design condition.
As this pressure is more than the constant 0.5 bar g backpressure, the system will not stall at
full-load.

What is the steam flowrate (ms) at full-load?

The steam mass flowrate will depend upon the steam space pressure, which is 3.4 bar g at
full-load, with an enthalpy of evaporation of 2 122 kJ / kg.
From Equation. 2.8.1:
/RDGLQN:[
[
6 NJ K

6WHDPIORZUDWH 6 NJ KDWIXOOORDG
What is the TDC?

It is now necessary to find the heat load at which the system will stall. In order to do so, it is
necessary to calculate the TDC for this heat exchanger from the design conditions.
76 7
7'& Equation 13.2.2
76 7
Where:
T1 = 10°C
T2 = 80°C
TS = 147°C

7'&  
 

7'&

The stall condition

At stall, the pressure in the steam space will equal the 0.5 bar g backpressure.
The saturation temperature of steam at 0.5 bar g is 111.6°C.
From Equation 13.2.4 the inlet temperature can be found:
7 7V [ 7'&7V 7 ] Equation 13.2.4
Where:
T1 = Inlet temperature °C
T2 = 80°C
TS = 111.6°C
TDC = 2.045
7 [ [ ]
7
7 &DWVWDOO

What is the heat load at stall?

From the heat transfer flowrate equation (Equation 2.6.5):
&S ∆7 Equation 2.6.5
NJ V[N- NJ &[&
+HDWWUDQVIHUUDWH N: :
As full-load is 293 kW, the percentage stall load [ RIIXOOORDG

The selection of the trapping device will depend on whether the minimum heat load is higher or
lower than the stall load.
The minimum load is quoted as being 60% of the full-load of 293 kW, therefore:
Minimum load = 0.6 x 293 kW = 176 kW
Stall load = 138 kW
As the minimum load is greater than the stall load, the system will never stall. It is therefore practical
to fit a ball float steam trap, as there will always be a positive differential pressure across it.
However, the ball float steam trap has to be sized to carry both the full-load and the minimum
load, and it is therefore necessary to calculate the steam flows and the corresponding steam
space pressures at both conditions.
It is first necessary to calculate the secondary inlet temperature at the minimum load. This can be
predicted by use of Equation 13.4.1:
7; [ 7 7[ ] 7 Equation 13.4.1
Where:
Tx = The secondary inlet temperature at any load factor x
T1 = The secondary inlet temperature at full-load
T2 = The secondary outlet temperature at full-load
x = The load factor.
For example; the minimum heat load of 60% is equivalent to a load factor of 0.6
7 [ 7 7[ ] 7
7 [ ]
7 [[ ]
7 &

The minimum load condition

7 [7'&7
76 Equation 13.2.3
7'&
Where:
TDC = 2.045
T2 = 80°C
T1 = 38°C
[
76

76

6WHDPWHPSHUDWXUH76 &DWPLQLPXPORDG
This is the steam temperature at the minimum load of 176 kW, and is equivalent to a steam
pressure of 1.0 bar g. The condensate pressure is 0.5 bar g. The differential pressure across the
ball float steam trap at minimum load therefore equals 1.0 bar g - 0.5 bar g = 0.5 bar.
What is the steam flowrate (mS(min)) at the minimum heat load of 176 kW?
The minimum steam flowrate will depend upon the steam space pressure, which is 1.0 bar g
with an enthalpy of evaporation of 2 201.1 kJ / kg.
/RDGLQN:[
[
6 NJ K

6WHDPIORZUDWH 6 NJ KDWWKHPLQLPXPKHDWORDGRIN:
As it has been established that this system will not stall, a ball float steam trap is suitable. It is now
necessary to size a ball float steam trap for operation up to the maximum system differential
pressure of 3.5 bar and pass . . .
a) the full-load of 498 kg / h with a differential pressure of 3.4 bar g - 0.5 bar g = 2.9 bar g.
b) the minimum load of 288 kg / h with a differential pressure of 1.0 bar g - 0.5 bar g = 0.5 bar g.
It can be seen from the ball float steam trap sizing chart (Figure 13.4.1) that a DN25 (1") FT14-4.5
will satisfy both of these conditions, and could be selected. However, if the minimum heat load
were less than the stall load, then a pump-trap would have to be selected.
The methods of selecting trapping devices are further discussed in Module 13.8, Practical methods
of preventing stall.

1500
1000
Trap capacity
at 1.95 bar Dp .5
4 -4
F T1
)
( 1"
25
DN
Maximum flow
500
Trap capacity 400

at 0.15 bar Dp 10
1 4-
FT
Minimum flow ")
(1
300 5
D N2 4.
5
1 4-
FT
Condnesate kg/h
")
¾
200 ",
(½ 4
0 -1
D N2 14
5, FT
1 ")
DN (1 0
25 -1
DN T 14
F
")
¾
",
(½
100
N20 -1
4
,D T14
15 F
")
DN ¾
",
(½
N 20
,D
N 15
D
50
40
30
20
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 10 14
DP at minimum load DP at maximum load

(0.15 bar) (1.95 bar)
Fig. 13.4.1 FT14 ball float sizing chart showing data for Example 13.4.1

Questions
1. If the heat exchanger from supplier X had a heating area of 1 m² instead of 2 m²,
what would have been the LMTD for the same secondary full-load conditions?
a| 33.6°C ¨
b| 29.3°C ¨
c| 117.2°C ¨
d| 107°C ¨
what would have been the steam temperature at the full heat load of 293 kW?
a| 55°C ¨
b| 100°C ¨
c| 117.2°C ¨
d| 165.7°C ¨
would the system still stall at the full heat load of 293 kW?
a| Yes, because the backpressure is higher than the steam pressure ¨
b| No, because the full-load pressure is 6.1 bar g ¨
c| No, because there is more heating area in the oversized heat exchanger ¨
d| The steam pressure is less, consequently the steam will be drier ¨
4. What is the effect of higher backpressure on a ball float steam trap?

a| None whatever ¨
b| It reduces the steam pressure in the heat exchanger ¨
c| It reduces the ball float steam trap capacity ¨
d| It increases the differential pressure across it ¨
5. What can be done to stop any heat exchanger waterlogging?

a| Increase the pressure upstream of the steam control valve ¨
b| Ensure the condensate discharges to atmospheric pressure ¨
c| Calculate the stall point and fit the correct trapping device ¨
d| Increase the size of the steam trap pipework ¨
6. Steam pressure in a heat exchanger at minimum load is 0.8 bar a.

What is the differential pressure across the ball float steam trap if the backpressure
is 0.1 bar g?
a| +0.7 bar ¨
b| -0.7 bar ¨
c| +0.9 bar ¨
d| -0.3 bar ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: a, 3: b, 4: c, 5: c, 6: d

Block 13 Condensate Removal The Stall Chart - Constant Flow / Varying Inlet Temperature Module 13.5
Module 13.5
The Stall Chart
- Constant Flow Secondary
- Varying Inlet Temperature
- Constant Outlet Temperature

The Stall Chart

By definition, stall will occur when the steam pressure in the heat exchanger is less than or equal
to the condensate backpressure.
Good results are obtained from heat transfer calculations as shown in Module 13.4. Those not
wishing to use a mathematical approach can use a simpler method to arrive at a practical result.
This method is graphical and involves the use of a stall chart. It gives slightly less accurate results,
but is perfectly adequate for most practical purposes.
A reduction in heat load is usually due to an increasing inlet temperature or a reducing secondary
fluid flowrate, and requires a fall in steam pressure for control to be maintained. Sometimes stall
may be caused by a combination of these, or perhaps a fall in outlet temperature due to a change
in the set point.
Constant secondary flowrate with

varying inlet temperature
In this type of heat exchanger, the secondary flowrate and outlet temperature remain constant
while the inlet temperature varies with changes in heat load.
Steam flow controlled by control valve Flow temperature sensor placed in secondary outlet
Hot water out
Steam
Constant secondary flow
through heat exchanger
Cold water in
Steam trapping device Condensate
Fig. 13.5.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger with primary control valve
At full-load the inlet temperature will be at its lowest. With a constant secondary flow through the
heat exchanger, any reduction in the heat load will cause the inlet temperature to rise. The stall
chart can show how the steam temperature and the inlet temperature change as the heat
load changes, and predict the inlet temperature at stall and the minimum load condition.
Under full-load conditions, the temperature difference between the steam and secondary fluid
will be large. Conversely, under no-load conditions there is no heat exchange so the steam and
secondary fluid must be the same temperature, and the temperature difference between them is
zero. By proportionality, it follows that at 50% load this temperature difference is 50% of its
maximum value.
From this basic principle of proportionality, two straight lines can be drawn onto a chart to represent
all these conditions. At full-load the lines are furthest apart, showing that the temperature difference
is at a maximum. At no-load the lines converge to a single point, showing that the temperature
difference is zero.
A typical stall chart is shown in Figure 13.5.2. It considers a steam temperature of 120°C heating
a constant flow of secondary water from 20°C to 80°C. Note that the steam temperature of 120°C
is arrived at by one of two means:
o It has been calculated from LMTD design figures, as per the calculations in Module 13.4,
which take into consideration the heat exchange surface area.
o The steam space pressure has been observed during operation and the temperature calculated.
Firstly, the steam temperature in the heat exchanger under full-load conditions (Point A) is marked
upon the left vertical axis in the stall chart in Figure 13.5.2. Secondly, the desired secondary fluid
outlet temperature is marked on the right vertical axis (Point B). The secondary fluid inlet
temperature (Point C) at full-load is then marked on the left vertical axis.

If a straight line then joins the points A and B, the line AB will represent how the steam temperature
alters relative to changes in heat load. Similarly, if a straight line joins the points B and C, the line
BC will represent the changing inlet temperature of the secondary fluid as the heat load varies.
200
180
160
140
A
120
Temperature °C
100
80
B
60
40
20
C
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Percentage heat load
Fig. 13.5.2 Constant flowrate / Varying inlet temperature - Stage 1
It is then necessary to add a horizontal line to represent the equivalent steam saturation temperature
of the condensate backpressure. This temperature should be marked on the right vertical axis, as
shown in the Figure 13.5.3 (Point D). A straight line should then be drawn in to connect this point
with the same temperature on the left vertical axis at point E.
200
180
160
140
A
Temperature °C
120
D
100
E
80
B
60
40
G
20
C
F
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.5.3 Constant flowrate / Varying inlet temperature - Stage 2
The condensate backpressure takes into account the pressure in the condensate system plus any
static pressure that may be due to a lift in the condensate discharge line from the bottom of the
heat exchanger. A column of liquid will exert a pressure at its base due to its own mass. This is
often referred to as static lift when it is exerted on the outlet of the trap.

A 1 metre column of water under atmospheric pressure will exert a pressure at the bottom of
the column of approximately 10 kPa or 0.1 bar g (actually 9.806 65 kPa or 0.098 066 5 bar).
Any lift in the condensate discharge line will thus exert a static lift due, to the column of condensate
held in the line, in addition to any pressure in the condensate system.
The horizontal line DE will either intersect the line AB, or will be above point A on the chart.
The point of intersection between the lines AB and DE represents the stall point, where the
steam pressure and the backpressure are the same. If the line DE is on or above point A, the
system permanently operates under stall conditions. (In vacuum condensate systems, or when
B is greater than 100°C, point D may also be below point B, if this is the case, the system will
not stall at any heat load). A vertical line should then be dropped down from the stall point.
The point at which this vertical line crosses the bottom horizontal axis (Point F) marks the percentage
stall load relative to the full heat load. The percentage stall load can also be quickly calculated
using Equation 13.5.1.
'%
6WDOOORDG [ Equation 13.5.1
$%
Where:
A = The steam temperature in the steam space at full-load
B = The secondary fluid outlet temperature
D = The backpressure equivalent saturated steam temperature
The vertical line connecting the stall point with point F will also intersect the line BC. If a horizontal
line is drawn from this intersection point to the left vertical axis, this will mark the secondary inlet
temperature at which stall occurs (Point G).
Example 13.5.1
The steam pressure in a heat exchanger at full-load is observed to be 7 bar g. Condensate pressure
is 1 bar g, and there is a lift after the trap of 10 m. At full-load, the secondary fluid enters the heat
exchanger at 25°C and leaves the heat exchanger at 80°C.
1. What is the percentage heat load at stall?
2. What is the secondary inlet temperature at stall?
The saturation temperature of saturated steam at 7 bar g is 170°C. Therefore the steam
temperature in the heat exchanger at full-load is 170°C. This can then be plotted as point A in
Figure 13.5.4:
200
180 A
160
140 D
E
120
Temperature °C
100
80 B
60
G
40
20 C
F
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.5.4 Stall chart for Example 13.5.1

1. What is the percentage heat load at stall?

The secondary fluid outlet temperature of 80°C should be plotted as point B in Figure 13.5.4,
while the secondary fluid inlet temperature at full-load of 25°C should be plotted as point C.
The lift in the condensate line of 10 m creates a backpressure of 1 bar, in addition to the 1 bar g
pressure in the condensate system. Therefore, the total system backpressure is 2 bar g. As the
saturation temperature of steam at 2 bar g is 135°C, the horizontal line DE representing the
backpressure is added at this temperature.
The stall chart in Figure 13.5.4 shows that the percentage heat load at stall (Point F) is
approximately 61%. The mathematical calculation can be validated by use of Equation 13.5.1:
'%
$%
Where:
A = The steam temperature in the steam space at full-load = 170°C
B = The secondary fluid outlet temperature = 80°C
D = The backpressure equivalent saturated steam temperature = 135°C
'%
6WDOOORDG [
$%

6WDOOORDG [

6WDOOORDG [

6WDOOORDG
2. What is the secondary inlet temperature at stall?

The stall chart in Figure 13.5.4 also indicates that the inlet temperature at stall (Point G) is about
46°C or 47°C. The mathematical calculation can be validated by use of Equation 13.4.1:
7; [ 7 7[ ] 7 Equation 13.4.1
Where:
Tx = The secondary inlet temperature at any load factor x
T1 = The secondary inlet temperature at full-load
T2 = The secondary outlet temperature at full-load
x = The load factor.
For example; the minimum heat load of 61% load is equivalent to a load factor of 0.61
7 [ 7 7 [[ ] 7
7 [ [ ]
7 [ [ ]
7 &

Questions
1. What causes stall?

a| The steam pressure is more than the condensate pressure ¨
b| The condensate pressure less than the steam pressure ¨
c| The condensate pressure is more than or equal to the steam pressure ¨
d| The steam trap is too small ¨
2. What is the relationship between the steam and secondary fluid inlet temperature at
full-load?
a| The difference is large ¨
b| The difference is small ¨
c| The difference is zero ¨
d| The secondary inlet temperature is higher than the steam temperature ¨
3. What is the temperature difference between the steam and secondary fluid inlet
temperature at 75% load?
a| It is 75% of the temperature difference at full-load ¨
b| It is 25% of the temperature difference at full-load ¨
c| It is at a minimum ¨
d| It is exactly the same ¨
4. Figure 13.5.4 shows the backpressure at 2 bar g.

What would the stall load be if the condensate pressure was atmospheric?
a| 10% ¨
b| 22% ¨
c| 30% ¨
d| 80% ¨
5. Also, what would be the secondary inlet temperature?

a| 25°C ¨
b| 45°C ¨
c| 55°C ¨
d| 68°C ¨
6. If, at full-load, the steam pressure were 1 bar g (120°C) instead of 7 bar g,
what would be the approximate stall load for an atmospheric backpressure?
a| 20% ¨
b| 30% ¨
c| 40% ¨
d| 50% ¨
Answers
1: c, 2: a, 3: a, 4: b, 5: d, 6: d

Block 13 Condensate Removal The Stall Chart - Varying Flow / Constant Inlet Temperature Module 13.6
Module 13.6
The Stall Chart
- Varying Flow Secondary
- Constant Inlet Temperature
- Constant Outlet Temperature

The Stall Chart

Varying flowrate with constant inlet / outlet temperature
Not all heat exchangers are required to operate with a constant secondary flow. Sometimes, due
to the configuration of the secondary pipework, as the heat load changes, the liquid flowrate
through the heat exchanger will vary while the inlet and outlet temperatures remain constant. At
full-load, the flowrate through the heat exchanger will be at its maximum. Any reduction in the
heat load must lead to a reduction in the flowrate through the heat exchanger. In practice, this
could mean either a 3-port diverting valve fitted in the secondary return line, bypassing the heat
exchanger, or a 3-port mixing valve fitted in the flow line, (see Figure 13.6.1).
Flow temperature controlled by 3-port mixing valve
Outlet temperature controlled

by a steam control valve Hot water out
Steam Bypass
balancing valve
Cold water in
Condensate
Fig. 13.6.1
The stall chart can also be used in these types of installations, but the construction method is
slightly different to that used for constant secondary flow. This method is described below.
The first part of this method is very similar to that shown in Example 13.5.1. With reference to
Figure 13.6.2, the steam temperature in the heat exchanger under full-load conditions (Point A)
should be marked on the left vertical axis. The desired secondary fluid outlet temperature should
then be marked on the right vertical axis (Point B).
The secondary fluid inlet temperature (Point C) should also be marked on the left vertical axis.
The horizontal line representing the system backpressure must also be marked on this chart. This
temperature should be marked on the right vertical axis at point D, with a straight line connecting
it to the same temperature on the left vertical axis at point E.
200
180
160
140
A
120
Temperature °C
100
E D
80
B
60
40
C
20
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.6.2 Varying flowrate / Constant inlet temperature - Stage 1

With reference to Figure 13.6.3, the secondary load line BC should be drawn connecting points B
and C. A horizontal line should then be drawn from where BC crosses the 50% load ordinate, to the
right axis. This represents the mean secondary fluid temperature, and is shown as point F.
The mean secondary fluid temperature point F should then be connected by a diagonal straight
line to the steam temperature point A in the heat exchanger under full-load, creating the line AF.
200
180
160
140
A
120
Temperature °C
D
100
E
80
B
60
40 F
20
C
G
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.6.3 Varying flowrate / constant inlet temperature - stage II
The backpressure line DE will either intersect the steam line AF, or be above point A on the
chart. The point of intersection between the lines AF and DE marks the stall point, where the
steam pressure and the backpressure are the same. A vertical line may be dropped down from
the stall point, to indicate when the stall condition occurs.
The point at which this vertical line crosses the bottom horizontal axis (Point G) should mark the
percentage load. As in the previous example, if the line DE is above the point A, stall occurs
under all load conditions.
The percentage stall load can also be calculated using Equation 13.6.1:
% + & 
'  
 
 % + & 
$  
 
Where:
A = Steam temperature at full-load
B = Secondary fluid outlet temperature at full-load
C = Secondary fluid inlet temperature at full-load
D = Equivalent backpressure steam temperature

The minimum steam temperature

It should be noted that the lowest operating steam temperature equals the set point temperature
at point B. This occurs at 70°C in the stall chart, Figure 13.6.4, and is represented by point H on
the steam line AF.
200
180
160
140
A
120
Temperature °C
D
100
E
80
H
B
60
40 F
20
C
G
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.6.4 Minimum steam temperature equals the set point
In practice, as the heat load decreases, and the steam temperature approaches the secondary
control temperature at point H, changes in steam temperature occur slowly rather than the
rapid step change suggested at point H in Figure 13.6.4. The steam temperature will tend to fall
in a similar way to that shown in Figure 13.6.5. It is difficult and unnecessary to draw this line on
a stall chart, whereas Figure 13.6.4 is practical and easy to use.
Referring to Figure 13.6.4, it can be seen in this example that the steam temperature at any load
less than 37% is 70°C. In truth, the gradual fall in steam temperature is more like that depicted
in Figure 13.6.5, but the difference is so small as to be insignificant with regard to selecting and
sizing the trapping device.
200
180
160
140
A
120
Temperature °C
100
80
B
60
40
C
20
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.6.5 The decay of steam temperature at low loads

Example 13.6.1
The steam pressure inside a heat exchanger with a varying secondary flowrate at full-load is
8 bar g, the pressure in the condensate line is 0.5 bar g, and there is a lift of 7 metres after
the trap. At full-load, the secondary fluid enters the heat exchanger at 30°C and leaves the
heat exchanger at 90°C with a flowrate of 3.64 L / s.
What is the percentage load at stall, and what is the secondary flowrate through the heat exchanger
at stall?
The saturation temperature of the steam at 8 bar g is 175°C. Therefore the steam temperature in
the heat exchanger at full-load is 175°C. This should then be plotted as point A in Figure 13.6.6.
The secondary fluid outlet temperature of 90°C should be plotted as point B, while the secondary
fluid inlet temperature of 30°C should be plotted as point C.
200
180 A
160
140
D
120 E
Temperature °C
100
B
80
60
F
40
20 C
G
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.6.6 Stall chart for varying flow / constant temperature
The lift in the condensate line of 7 m creates a differential pressure of 0.7 bar, in addition to the
0.5 bar g pressure in the condensate line. Therefore, the total system backpressure is 1.2 bar g.
As the saturation temperature of steam at 1.2 bar g is 123°C, the horizontal line DE representing
the backpressure is drawn at this temperature in Figure 13.6.6.
In this example the percentage load (Point G) is approximately 55%. This means that the secondary
liquid flowrate must reduce to 55% of the maximum flowrate for stall to occur, that is, 55% of
3.64 L / s = 2 L / s. This can be verified mathmatically by using Equation 13.6.1.

%& 
'  
 
%& 
$  
 
Where:
A = Steam temperature at full-load = 175°C
B = Secondary fluid outlet temperature at full-load = 90°C
C = Secondary fluid inlet temperature at full-load = 30°C
D = Equivalent backpressure steam temperature = 123°C

 
 
6WDOOORDG [

 
 

6WDOOORDG [

6WDOOORDG [

6WDOOORDG
Most heat exchanger applications will either be varying flowrate or varying temperature as
described above and in the previous Modules in Block 13.
There may, however, also be instances where both the flowrate and the inlet temperature of the
secondary fluid vary. In these examples it becomes more difficult to determine their combined
effect by interpretation of the stall chart. Systems such as these can be analysed by comparing
the results from both methods shown above and using the worst case.

Questions
1. What is the difference between the constant and variable stall charts?
a| Nothing ¨
b| The steam line is constructed differently ¨
c| The backpressure line is at different pressures ¨
d| The secondary line is constructed differently ¨
2. If the backpressure line is higher than Point A on the steam line what does this mean?
a| The system will never stall ¨
b| The system will constantly stall ¨
c| The system is constantly in vacuum ¨
d| The heat exchanger is too big ¨
3. If the backpressure line is lower than Point B the steam line what does this mean?
a| The system will never stall ¨
b| The heat exchanger is too small ¨
c| The system is constantly in vacuum ¨
d| The system will constantly stall ¨
4. If, in Example 13.6.1, the condensate backpressure were atmospheric, at what percentage
load would stall have occurred?
a| 18% ¨
b| 28% ¨
c| 35% ¨
d| 55% ¨
Answers
1: b, 2: b, 3: a, 4: c


Block 13 Condensate Removal The Stall Chart - Constant Flow / Varying Outlet Temperature Module 13.7
Module 13.7
The Stall Chart
- Constant Flow Secondary
- Varying Inlet Temperature
- Varying Outlet Temperature

The Stall Chart -

Constant Flowrate / Varying Outlet
Temperature
All systems discussed up to this point assume that the secondary fluid outlet temperature remains
constant. In some applications, the outlet temperature may change with time. This will also
change the heat load and affect the stall point.
Such changes often occur in process applications, and also heating calorifiers that change their
outlet temperature to compensate for changes in ambient conditions.
If the highest heat requirement occurs when the control temperature (the set point) is at a
maximum, any reduction in the set point will cause a reduction in the heat load.
A reducing set point will tend to increase the stall load, as shown in the following calculations.
Once the design conditions are known, the effect of reducing the set point can either be calculated
mathematically as shown below or illustrated on a stall chart by means of proportionality.
Example 13.7.1
Initially, secondary water at a rate of 1.5 L / s enters a heat exchanger at 20°C and leaves at 70°C.
It is observed via a pressure gauge on the steam inlet that the pressure in the steam space under
these conditions is 5.2 bar g (TS = 160°C). The condensate drains down to a vented receiver in
a plant room below the installation. (T(back) = 100°C).
If the set point is reduced to 60°C, what is the effect on the stall point and the steam load at stall?
Calculating the effect of reducing the set point arithmetically
It is first necessary to establish the heat exchanger TDC from the full-load operating conditions
and by use of Equation 13.2.2:
7V 7
7'& Equation 13.2.2
7V 7
The full-load conditions are:

T1 = 20°C
T2 = 70°C
TS = 160 °C (steam temperature at 5.2 bar g)

Therefore: 7'&

7'&

7'&

7'&
How does the stall load change with a lowered set point?
Firstly, consider the stall load with the higher set point of 70°C
The design conditions are:
T1 = 20°C
T2 = 70°C
TS = 160°C
T(back) = 100°C

For a constant secondary flowrate, the stall factor can be calculated from Equation 13.5.1:
'%
$%
Where:
A = The steam temperature at full-load with a 70°C set point (TS)
B = The secondary fluid outlet temperature (T2)
D = The backpressure equivalent saturated steam temperature (T(back))
'%
6WDOOORDG [
$%

6WDOOORDG [

6WDOOORDG [

6WDOOORDG 6WDOOIDFWRURI
With the set point at 70°C

Full heat load (Q) = m cp DT (kW)
Full heat load (Q) = 1.5 kg / s x 4.19 kJ / kg°C x (70 - 20) °C
Full heat load (Q) = 314 kW
Heat load at stall = 0.333 3 x 314 kW
Heat load at stall = 105 kW
The condensate discharges to atmosphere, and the hfg at atmospheric pressure is 2 257 kJ / kg.
N:[ V K
Steam load at stall =
N- NJ
Steam load at stall = 168 kg / h with the set point at 70°C
Secondly, consider the stall load with the lower set point of 60°C
The steam temperature can be predicted for any load by use of Equation 13.2.3:
7 [7'&7
7V Equation 13.2.3
7'&
Where:
TS = Steam temperature (°C)
T2 = Secondary outlet temperature = 60°C
TDC = Temperature Design Constant = 1.555
T1 = Secondary inlet temperature = 20°C
[
7V

7V

7V &ZLWKWKHVHWSRLQWDW&

At the reduced set point of 60°C, the stall factor can again be calculated by use of Equation 13.5.1:
'%
$%
Where:
A = The steam temperature at full-load with a 60°C set point (TS)
B = The secondary fluid outlet temperature (T2)
D = The backpressure equivalent saturated steam temperature (T(back))
'%
6WDOOORDG [
$%

6WDOOORDG [

6WDOOORDG [

6WDOOORDG 6WDOOIDFWRURI
With the set point at 60°C

Full heat load Q = m cp DT (kW)
Full heat load Q = 1.5 kg / s x 4.19 kJ / kg°C x (60 - 20) °C
Full heat load Q = 251 kW
Heat load at stall = 0.555 5 x 251 kW
Heat load at stall = 140 kW
The condensate discharges to atmosphere, and the hfg at atmospheric pressure is 2 257 kJ / kg.
N:[ V K
Steam load at stall =
N- NJ
Steam load at stall = 223 kg / h at the reduced set point of 60°C
It can be seen from the above calculations that when the set point is reduced from 70°C to 60°C,
the stall load increases from 168 kg / h to 223 kg / h.
It is therefore important that if the application is such that the set point will be reduced, the
trapping device, i.e. ball float steam trap or pump-trap, is selected on the stall condition at the
lower set point.

Illustrating the effect of reducing the set point by the stall chart method
The stall chart in Figure 13.7.1 shows the secondary temperature line CB and the corresponding
steam line AB for this application (Example 13.7.1) with the higher set point of 70°C.
200
180
A
160
140
120
Temperature °C
100
80
B
60
40
C
20
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.7.1 The full-load condition with 70°C set point
As mentioned at the beginning of this module, once the operating conditions are known, the
effect of reducing the set point can be illustrated on the stall chart by means of proportionality.
This is shown in Figure 13.7.2 by marking the reduced secondary outlet temperature of 60°C
(Point D) on the secondary load line CB and drawing a line ED parallel to, and below, the dotted
steam line AB.
200
180
A
160
140
120 E
Temperature °C
100
80
B = 70°C
60 D = 60°C
D
40
20
C
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.7.2 Defining the steam temperature for 60°C set point
It is observed that the new steam line DE cuts the left hand side of the stall chart at 132°C (Point E),
and this is the steam temperature when the set point is reduced to 60°C, for a constant secondary
flowrate. The steam line DE represents steam temperature for reducing heat loads when the set
point is 60°C.

Once the new steam temperature of 132°C has been established, it is possible to draw the new
steam line DE from 132°C to 60°C and the secondary temperature line CD from 20°C to 60°C.
This stall chart, Figure 13.7.3, represents the steam and secondary inlet temperatures when the
set point is at 60°C, consequently zero load now occurs on this stall chart when the secondary
temperature is 60°C.
200
180
160
140 E
120
Temperature °C
100
80
60 D
40
20
C
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.7.3 The steam line and secondary line for a 60°C set point
By superimposing the backpressure line of 100°C (line HJ) onto Figure 13.7.4 it is now possible
to depict the new stall load and the corresponding inlet temperature, with a set point of 60°C.
The stall load is approximately 55% (Point F) and the inlet temperature at which stall occurs is
approximately 38°C (Point G).
200
180
160
140 E
120
Temperature °C
J
100 H
80
60 D
G
40
20
C
F
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.7.4 The backpressure line is added

By combining Figure 13.7.1 and Figure 13.7.3, it is now possible to observe how the reduction
in the outlet temperature from 70°C to 60°C has affected the stall load. In the stall chart below
(Figure 13.7.5), it is possible to draw both steam lines AB (160°C to 70°C) and ED (132°C to 60°C).
It can be seen that the backpressure line (JH) cuts the two steam lines in different places. The
steam line for the higher heat load (with the 70°C set point) is cut at approximately 33% (Point F1),
whilst the part load line (with the 60°C set point) is cut at approximately 55% (Point F2).
200
180
A
160
140
120 E
Temperature °C
100 H
J
80
B
60 D
40
20
F2 F1
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.7.5 The change in stall load
It is important to remember that the above percentages refer to different heat loads. At
full-load, the outlet temperature is 70°C and the heat load was calculated in the first part of
Example 13.7.1 to be 314 kW, and at the reduced load, when the set point is reduced to 60°C,
the heat load was calculated to be 251 kW.
For example
When the set point is 70°C:
The heat load is 314 kW, and stall occurs at 33.33% of this load.
N:[ V K
Steam load at stall is [ NJ KNJ KE\FDOFXODWLRQ
N- NJ
When the set point is 60°C:

The heat load is 251 kW, and stall occurs at 55.55% of this load.
N:[ V K
Steam load at stall is [ NJ KNJ KE\FDOFXODWLRQ
N- NJ
It is observed that the steam load at stall increases as the set point is reduced.

The stall chart can also illustrate the inlet temperatures for both stall conditions. This can be
useful when carrying out diagnostics on heat exchangers with stall problems. In the stall chart
below (Figure 13.7.6), it can be seen how the inlet temperatures can be observed for each of the
stall conditions.
200
180
A
160
140 E
120
Temperature °C
J
100 H
80
B
60 G1 D
G2
40
20
C
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.7.6 The difference in inlet temperatures at the two stall points
With the 70°C set point, an inlet temperature above 53°C (Point G1) will produce a stall.
With the 60°C set point, an inlet temperature above 38°C (Point G2) will produce a stall.
The validity of these figures can be confirmed by use of the calculation method - Equation 13.2.4:
7 7V [ 7'&7V 7 ] Equation 13.2.4
At the higher set point, T2 = 70°C

T1 = 100 - [1.555 (100 - 70)]
T1 = 100 - [1.555 (30)]
T1 = 100 - 46.7
T1 = 53.3°C
At the lower set point, T2 = 60°C

T1 = 100 - [1.555 (100 - 60)]
T1 = 100 - [1.555 (40)]
T1 = 100 - 62.2
T1 = 37.8°C

Summary
It can be seen from the above information that the stall load will increase as a result of a reducing
set point. In fact, stall load will continue to increase to a maximum until the steam pressure falls
to equal the condensate backpressure. It is also possible to predict the set point at, and below
which permanent stall occurs. The effect can be predicted in the stall chart below (Figure 13.7.7).
Stall occurs when the steam temperature is the same as the condensate backpressure, which, in
this example, is 100°C, (Point K).
In Figure 13.7.7 it is possible to predict the outlet temperature at 100% stall, by projecting the
steam temperature line from 100°C (Point K) parallel to the full-load steam line AB, creating line
(KL). Where the new steam line KL cuts the secondary load line BC at point M, the outlet
temperature can be observed, to be approximately 49°C. If the set point is reduced to (or below)
49°C, stall would be permanent for this example.
200
180
A
160
140
120
Temperature °C
100 K
80
B
60
40 M
20
C L
0
100 80 60 40 20 0
Fig. 13.7.7 The outlet temperature at 100% stall load (for Example 13.7.1) is approximately 49°C
Selecting the correct trapping device

The object of predicting steam pressures and their corresponding steam loads is to enable the
selection of the correct trapping device for any application.
In this instance, the trapping device would be selected on the following information.
Maximum steam load = 543 kg / h with the set point at 70°C
Steam pressure at this load = 5.2 bar g
Condensate backpressure = 0 bar g (atmospheric pressure)
\Trap differential pressure = 5.2 bar at maximum steam load
Stall steam load = 168 kg / h when the set point is 70°C
Stall steam load = 224 kg / h when the set point is 60°C
Differential pressure at stall = 0 bar
A ball float steam trap can be specified if it meets the following two criteria satisfying the
initial brief in Example 13.7.1:-
1. It can pass the full-load condition, i.e. 543 kg / h at 5.2 bar differential pressure
2. It can pass the maximum stall load, i.e. 224 kg / h at the 60°C set point

Creating a static head above the ball float steam trap

At the stall condition, with the steam pressure inside the heat exchanger equalling the backpressure,
a differential pressure would not exist to push the condensate through a ball float steam trap.
Because of this, pressure has to be manufactured on the upstream side of the trap by means of a
static head.
Static head must be available between the heat exchanger condensate outlet and the trap inlet
to generate enough differential pressure to enable the trap to pass the stall load of 224 kg / h. In
order to allow condensate to drain easily from the exchanger, a vacuum breaker is fitted to its
steam inlet downstream of the control valve (Figure 13.7.8).
It can be seen in Figure 13.7.9 that a DN25 (1) FT10-10 ball float steam trap will accommodate
these criteria. However, the trap requires a minimum of 4 metres head above the trap inlet to
pass the stall load.
A 4 metre head might not be available in practice, and, if so, a larger trap would need to be
specified. Refer to Figure 13.7.8.
For the purposes of Example 13.7.1, if the available head were only 200 mm then it can be seen
from Figure 13.7.10 that a DN40 (1½) FT10-10 ball float steam trap would be required.
Control Temperature sensor

valve Vacuum
P1 P2 breaker
Flow
Heat exchanger
DN25 (1) FT needs 4 m head
DN40 (1½) FT needs 200 mm head Return
Steam trap
Fig. 13.7.8 The trap size depends on the static head
Footnote:
Should the backpressure have been greater than atmospheric pressure, due perhaps to a lift after
the trap and /or a pressurised condensate line, then the same sizing routine could be carried out.
Depending upon the amount of backpressure, it may be that even the largest sized steam trap
cannot pass the required amount of condensate at stall.
Under these circumstances, a ball float steam trap cannot be specified, as the heat exchanger
will flood at part loads. Instead, a pump-trap must be used, which is able to clear the condensate
from the heat exchanger into the condensate system at any heat load.

1500
1000
4. 5
4-
T1
" )F
DN25 (1) FT14-10 5 (1
trap capacity D N2
at 5.2 bar Dp
Maximum load
500
543 kg / h
400
10
4- 5
FT
1 4.
) 1 4-
( 1" FT
300 25 ")
¾
DN ",
(½
0
Stall load D N2
5,
224 kg / h 200 1
DN 4 0
-1 -1
14
Condensate kg/h
T T14
F F
") ")
(1 ¾
25 ",
DN (½
N 20 -1
4
, D
T 14
15 ")
F
100 DN ¾
",
(½
N 20
,D
N15
D
50
40
30
20
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 10 14
DP at stall load DP at maximum load

(0.4 bar) (4 metres head) (5.2 bar)
Fig. 13.7.9

5 000
4 000
3 000
.5
T1 4 -4
2 000 (2 ") F
50
DN
-1 0
F T 14
(2 ")
1 000 50
DN
4 .5
FT 14-
½ ")
Condensate kg / h
(1
40
DN 4 -1
4
") FT1
500 5 0 (2
DN 4 -1
0
") FT1
400 (1 ½
40
DN
4
DN40 (1½) 300 4 -1
") FT1
FT14-10 capacity 2 5 (1
DN C
.5 H
T1 4 -4
Stall load ") F
(1
224 kg / h 25
200 DN
HC
14 -1 0
(1 " ) FT
100 25
DN
4H C
T1 4 -1
(1 ") F
25
DN
50
100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1 000
Available head 200 mm above the trap

Differential pressure (mm w.g.)
Fig. 13.7.10

Questions
1. How does a reduction in set point affect stall?

a| It does not affect it at all ¨
b| It reduces the percentage stall ¨
c| The system operates under permanent stall conditions ¨
d| It increases the percentage stall ¨
2. How does a reduction in the set point affect the steam pressure?
a| It reduces the steam pressure ¨
b| It does not affect it at all ¨
c| It increases the steam pressure ¨
d| The steam pressure equals the backpressure ¨
3. In Example 13.7.1, with the set point at 60°C what would the steam temperature be if the
system were operating at 30% heat load?
a| 100°C ¨
b| 110°C ¨
c| 120°C ¨
d| 80°C ¨
4. In Example 13.7.1, with the set point at 60°C if the minimum possible heat load were 70%,
would the system stall?
a| Yes, at all loads ¨
b| Only if the set point were increased ¨
c| No ¨
d| Yes, but only on loads higher than 70% ¨
5. If, in Example 13.7.1, the set point were reduced to 40°C, what would be the approximate
steam temperature if the inlet temperature remained at 20°C?
a| 66°C ¨
b| 45°C ¨
c| 55°C ¨
d| 76°C ¨
6. If, in Example 13.7.1, the set point were reduced to 40°C, what would be the approximate
steam temperature if the inlet temperature rose to 30°C?
a| 28°C ¨
b| 38°C ¨
c| 48°C ¨
d| 58°C ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: a, 3: d, 4: c, 5: d, 6: d


Block 13 Condensate Removal Practical Methods of Preventing Stall Module 13.8
Module 13.8
Practical Methods of
Preventing Stall

Practical Methods of Preventing Stall

If stall conditions are inevitable, potential problems can be overcome by designing the installation
around one of three basic solutions:
1. Ensure the steam pressure in the steam space can never drop below atmospheric pressure,
and that the condensate can drain by gravity to and from a ball float steam trap.
2. Accept that the pressure in the steam space may be less than the backpressure, and provide
an alternative means of removing condensate, by installing a pump-trap.
3. Ensure the pressure in the steam space is stable and higher than the backpressure. This will
entail having the temperature control system on the secondary side of the system.
Taking these three options in turn:
1. Installations that ensure the conditions in the steam space can never drop below
atmospheric pressure, and that the condensate can drain by gravity to and from a
steam trap:
1a) Condensate removal by vacuum breaker method (see Figure 13.8.1)

The steam trap cannot be subject to any backpressure higher than atmospheric, and must drain
condensate either to an open end (which may be wasteful), or to a nearby vented receiver and
pump, enabling the energy contained in the condensate to be reclaimed.
There are two criteria that must be satisfied:
o A vacuum breaker must be fitted to the steam inlet to the heat exchanger after the control
valve.
o The trap must be installed at a discreet distance below the heat exchanger outlet such that
sufficient static head is created to pass the requisite amount of condensate when stall occurs.
A distance of between 0.5 to 1 m is usually sufficient; however, smaller distances can be
accommodated with larger traps, if less head is available.
Controller
Control valve
Vacuum Sensor
breaker Secondary flow out
Steam in
Heat exchanger
Secondary flow in
Static head above trap

usually 0.5 to 1 m
Float type steam trap

Fig. 13.8.1 Static head and vacuum breaker method of dealing with stall

1b) Auxiliary drain trap method (see Figure 13.8.2)

A standard float trap set is installed with condensate returning to a condensate system, which is
either pressurised and / or elevated above the trap. An auxiliary float trap may be fitted, discharging
condensate via an open end to drain.
When there is sufficient steam pressure to overcome the backpressure, the main float trap will
function, but when stall occurs, condensate will back-up and drain through the auxiliary float
trap thus preventing condensate flooding back into the heat exchanger.
As this condensate will drain to waste, this method should only be used if stall occurs infrequently.
The auxiliary trap should be sized on static head to pass the stall load as in method 1a, and the
main trap should be the same size, but fitted at least 150 mm below the auxiliary take-off
tee-piece.
Apart from the obvious disadvantage of energy loss, this method also requires available head
between the trap inlets and the heat exchanger outlet.
Controller
Control valve
Vacuum
breaker Secondary flow out
Condensate
discharge
against a lift or
Steam in backpressure
Heat exchanger
Secondary flow in
Static head
above auxiliary
trap usually
0.5 to 1 m Minimum 150 mm
Auxiliary Main float type steam trap about

float type 150 mm below auxiliary trap
steam trap
Fig. 13.8.2 Auxiliary drain method of dealing with stall

2. Installations which allow the steam pressure in the steam space to drop below the
backpressure, but where the condensate can drain by gravity to a pump-trap
arrangement:
2a) A pump and float trap installed in combination (see Figure 13.8.3)
This method uses a pump and float trap installed in combination. It is better suited to heat
exchangers with nominal heating capacities in excess of 1.5 MW (nominally 2 500 kg / h of steam).
The steam pressure changes relative to changes in heat load. At high loads the steam pressure
will be higher than the backpressure, but at low loads it will be lower.
The pump is a mechanical pressure-powered type, in which an auxiliary steam supply
automatically takes over to provide the motive power to discharge the condensate when stall
occurs. If the steam space pressure is higher than the backpressure, condensate passes through
the pump body to the float trap, which allows the condensate to discharge.
This method is more practical and economical on larger installations; for example, those using
condensate drain lines of 40 mm or more.
Controller
Control valve Sensor

Secondary
flow out
Steam in
Heat
exchanger
Secondary
flow in Condensate
discharging
against a
backpressure
Exhaust
Reservoir pipe
SPIRAX
Pressure
SARCO
powered pump
Float-thermostatic trap
Fig. 13.8.3 Combination pump and steam trap method of dealing with stall

2b) A pump-trap with constant flow heat exchanger (see Figure 13.8.4)
The secondary flowrate does not change as it passes through the heat exchanger, consequently
the steam pressure changes relative to changes in the secondary inlet temperature. At high loads
the steam pressure will be higher than the backpressure, but at low loads it will be lower.
This method uses a pump-trap device, which offers the functions of a pump, steam trap and
check valves in one body.
The Spirax Sarco APT14 automatic pump trap is designed to occupy a minimum amount of
space, and can be fitted to heat exchangers with nominal heating capacity of up to 1.5 MW.
It is most suited to installations with condensate drain lines up to 25 mm, but can be used on
drain lines up to 40 mm in some circumstances.
A typical installation is shown on Figure 13.8.4.
Pressure
reducing Control Safety valve
valve Secondary
Separator valve
DP17
flow out
Steam in
High limit cut-out Secondary

Steam flow in
to pump Steam
Condensate plate heat
Condensate exchanger
Automatic pump trap
Fig. 13.8.4 Pump-trap method of dealing with stall
2c) A pump-trap device with varying flow heat exchanger (see Figure 13.8.5)
This method is similar to 2b), but the secondary flow through the heat exchanger varies with the
heat load, due to the action of the secondary mixing valve.
The heat exchanger delivers a constant temperature water flow which is blended by the secondary
mixing valve according to load. As the secondary flow varies, the steam pressure changes to
maintain a constant outlet temperature, such that, at high loads, it is above the backpressure,
and at low loads it is below.
Control
Pressure valve
reducing Safety
valve valve Flow
Separator
out
Steam in
High limit cut-out

Steam
to pump
Condensate Secondary
Condensate
flow in
Automatic pump trap Steam plate
heat exchanger
Fig. 13.8.5 Pump-trap method of dealing with stall

3. Installations which ensure the steam pressure is kept constant and can never drop
below the backpressure, and that the condensate can drain to and from a steam trap:
3a) Steam trap with temperature control valve in secondary circuit (see Figure 13.8.6)
This method requires temperature control to be carried out with a 3-port mixing or diverting
valve in the secondary circuit. The steam supply to the heat exchanger is held at a constant
pressure (usually less than 1 bar g) with a pressure control valve, and as such, condensate can
always be cleared from the heat exchanger against a lower backpressure.
This method is not always practical or possible. It is unsuitable on steam / air heater batteries or
liquid systems where the secondary system is at such a low pressure that it is unable to prevent
the liquid from boiling.
Like all methods, it has both advantages and disadvantages, which must be assessed before an
option can be chosen.
Pressure Safety valve Control

reducing valve valve Secondary
Separator flow
out
DP17
Steam in
Steam plate
heat exchanger Secondary
flow in
High limit cut-out
Condensate
Condensate
Fig. 13.8.6 Constant steam pressure - Secondary temperature control
3b) Steam trap and modulating valve in condensate drain line (see Figure 13.8.7)
Condensate drainage is achieved with a modulating valve in the condensate drain line. This
method also maintains the desired steam pressure in the steam space regardless of load conditions.
However, it encourages (instead of eliminates) waterlogging in the heat exchanger, as control is
achieved by deliberately flooding the steam space with condensate as the load reduces. Usually
this method is only considered if:
o The heat load is steady or changes very slowly.
o The heat exchanger is designed to withstand the effects of waterlogging.
o The likely stratification of temperatures of the secondary fluid is acceptable.
Pressure Safety valve

Separator reducing valve
DP17 Air vent
Steam in Secondary
flow
out
High limit cut-out
Condensate
Control valve Secondary
flow in
Steam
Condensate plate heat
exchanger
Fig. 13.8.7 Constant steam pressure - Condensate level control

On / off control should not be used with heat exchangers

An on / off temperature control valve does not modulate depending on heat load, but is either
fully open or fully closed. An example would be a solenoid valve. When open, full steam pressure
will be maintained in the heat exchanger to clear the condensate against the backpressure. At
first glance, this method of control would seem to overcome any backpressure problems, but is
not recommended on processes such as heat exchangers, where the secondary fluid has to be
heated to its required temperature as it passes through. There are three main reasons for this:
o An on / off control system is activated by a thermostat which relies upon a product
overtemperature to achieve control. As steam has high heat content, a significant amount of
heat can be held in the steam space after the solenoid valve has shut. The overall effect is a
higher product temperature than required. Should the thermostat setting be lowered to
counteract this effect, the on temperature may be lower than the system parameters may
require. It can result in poor control of the system temperature and the potential for product
spoilage.
o The continual and rapid changes in pressure and temperature will impose thermal and
mechanical stresses upon the heat exchanger which will probably reduce its service life.
o It is never a good idea to subject steam systems to an instantaneous increase in pressure. Any
condensate present in the steam space and condensate pipe is instantly pushed, by the sudden
inrush of steam, through the system towards the steam trap. This can cause waterhammer,
and damage the heat exchanger and steam trap.
On / off control is normally only suitable for non-flow or batch type heat exchange processes,
notably tanks with robust heating coils, or jacketed pans, where the desired steam pressure is
applied over a long heating up period (usually over many minutes or even hours). The rise in
product temperature is much slower than that experienced with flow-type systems that are
expected to heat the product in the short time it takes to pass through a heat exchanger.

Conclusion
The most suitable type of steam trap for heat exchange equipment in general, and especially if
stall is likely, is a ball float steam trap with integral balanced pressure air vent.
If there is any likelihood of stall, a pump-trap is generally the most effective way of dealing with
it, as it benefits from being:
o Simple.
o Cost effective.
o Compact.
Please note: The diagrams in this Module are schematic only, and for simplicity do not contain
all the ancillary equipment that would be necessary or advisable for a specific installation. The
exception is Figure 13.8.8, which shows a detailed, actual, installation of an APT14 automatic
pump-trap.
Note: Motive steam supply must be trapped and free of condensate
Soft sealing check

Secondary
valve
100 liquid outlet
mesh
strainer
Spirax Sarco sized length of

Motive Exhaust pipe to act as a reservoir
Condensate IN OUT
Secondary
outlet liquid inlet
Minimum installation head
0.2 m from base of pump
Condensate inlet
APT14
Automatic Recommended the reservoir is installed at least
pump trap 1 pipe diameter below the process outlet, but
as high as possible above the APT inlet.
Fig. 13.8.8 Detailed installation of a pump-trap with plate heat exchanger
Footnote
The subject of stall can become somewhat complex, especially when selecting and sizing the
most appropriate equipment and designing its installation such that it can be guaranteed to work
when commissioned to do so.
This Module is not so much intended to make the reader an expert in the subject of stall, but
rather:
o To allow him or her to understand what it is.
o To understand why it exists.
o To know what can be done to prevent it.
o To know who to contact for proper advice.

Questions
1. Which of the following methods can be employed to prevent the effects of stall?
a| Prevent vacuum formation in the steam space and drain to atmosphere ¨
b| Maintain the condensate backpressure below the steam space pressure ¨
c| Ensure condensate removal by installing a pump-trap ¨
2. When using the vacuum breaker method of preventing stall, which of the following
methods is ideal to ensure the backpressure is maintained below atmospheric pressure?
a| Install the auxiliary steam trap ¨
b| Drain the condensate to the atmosphere ¨
c| Drain the condensate to a vented receiver to allow energy recovery ¨
d| Replace the float trap with a balanced pressure thermostatic device ¨
3. Which of the following functions is provided by an automatic pump-trap?

a| Check valve ¨
b| Float type steam trap ¨
c| Pressure powered pump ¨
4. When should a separate pump, steam trap and reservoir combination be used to prevent
stall?
a| In small heat exchangers where backpressure may be greater than steam pressure ¨
b| In large heat exchangers where backpressure may be greater than steam pressure ¨
c| In vacuum breaker systems where the condensate is drained under gravity ¨
5. What is the advantage of placing a modulating valve in the condensate drain line?
a| The desired steam pressure is maintained regardless of the load conditions ¨
b| It can be used to effectively deal with rapid heat loss changes ¨
c| It is not necessary to control the steam flowrate ¨
d| Stall is prevented regardless of the backpressure ¨
6. Why should on / off control not be used on heat exchangers where the secondary fluid is
heated whilst it flows through the heat exchanger?
a| Product damage may result from continued heating after the steam valve is closed ¨
b| Rapid opening of the steam valve may cause waterhammer ¨
c| On / off control cannot accurately maintain product temperature ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: c, 3: d, 4: b, 5: a, 6: c


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Block 13 Condensate Removal Heat Exchangers and Stall Module 13.

The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.1.1

Heat Exchangers and Stall

13.1.2 The Steam and Condensate Loop

What is meant by stall?

Lift and /or back

Air ducting Cooler air coming

The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.1.3

How does stall occur?

13.1.4 The Steam and Condensate Loop

What are the symptoms and effects of stall?

The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.1.5

13.1.6 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Do all heat exchangers suffer from stall?

The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.1.7

1. What is the prime cause of stall in heat exchangers?

2. What effects will waterlogging cause in some heat exchangers?

3. In a heat exchanger at full-load, steam temperature is 140°C,

13.1.8 The Steam and Condensate Loop

The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.2.1

The Heat Load, Heat Exchanger

Temperature controlled applications

Steam pressure into Shell and tube

13.2.2 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Q = 1.5 kg/s x 4.19 kJ / kg °C x (60 -10)°C

Steam flowrate (ms) = 536.6 kg /h

The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.2.3

Qmin = 1.5 kg / s x 4.19 kJ/ kg °C x (60 - 30)° C

13.2.4 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Temperature Design Constant (TDC)

The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.2.5

T1 = Ts - [ TDC (Ts - T2 ) ] Equation 13.2.4

(F) Find the steam flowrate at minimum load:

13.2.6 The Steam and Condensate Loop

2. How is the temperature of steam controlled in a heat exchanger?

4. What is the basic difference between LMTD and TDC?

5. What effect does lowering the steam pressure have?

The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.2.7

13.2.8 The Steam and Condensate Loop

The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.3.1

Oversized Heat Exchangers

The effect of oversizing a heat exchanger

13.3.2 The Steam and Condensate Loop

From Example 13.2.2, at full-load:

By taking antilogs of both sides of the equation . . .

76   76  

 76 76 [ 

76  

Steam temperature (TS) = 133.1°C

The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.3.3

Determine the TDC for the larger heat exchanger

13.3.4 The Steam and Condensate Loop

The Steam and Condensate Loop 13.3.5

Sizing the steam trap for the oversized heat exchanger

Static head above trap

Float type steam trap

Must drain by gravity to atmosphere

13.3.6 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Trap capacity 400

DP at minimum load DP at maximum load

76 76

76 76 [

76

&S ∆7 Equation 2.6.5

Consider supplier X

Consider supplier Y

7 7V [ 7'&7V 7 ] Equation 13.2.4

&S ∆7 Equation 2.6.5

NJ V[N- NJ &[&

+HDWWUDQVIHUUDWH N: :

7; [ 7 7[ ] 7 Equation 13.4.1

7; [ 7 7[ ] 7 Equation 13.4.1

7 [ 7 7 [[ ] 7

7 [ [ ]

7 [ [ ]