Berthold Singer International Law 1918

^â^y.
^ 9. SM^
UNIVERSITY
of
CALIFORNIA
AT
LOS ANGELES LIBRARY
INTERNATIONAL
LAW
By
Berthold Singer, LL. D.,

Professor of International
Law, Chicago Law School
Consul of Spain, Costa Rica, Salvador
and Consul-General of Nicaragua
1:^18
T. H.
FLOOD &
CO., Publishers
214 West Madison Street
Chicago
Copyright 1918
by
Berthold Singer
All Rights Reserved
L.
r A
Dedicated
to
Our Army, Naval and Aviation Forces

and
To My Son
Sergeant B. Alexander Singer
Somewhere
in
France
Preface
This book
Aviation Forces.
is
any question which 's work with reference to Internain their come up everyday may tional Law. International Law teaches civilization, its fundamental I)rinciples are based on friendly intercourse, and nations are bound to maintain respectable tribunals to which the citizens of other
It is a
especially prepared for our ready compendium for
Army, Naval and
(M
^
,
In those tribunals the status of commerce, industry, etc., is treated in accordance with the well established rules of International Law. Treaties are made for peace and war, and my book treats both subjects in such a manner that the student will find a ready reference to each question of -International Law.
states
may have
recourse.
front two
of the world war, in 1914, brought to the foredevices which prior thereto were relegated to the rank of experimental devices of destruction. The introduction of
The outbreak new war
the submarine and the aeroplane has played a most conspicuous part in the present war, and this has induced me to devote some
;
attention to the submarine
and
to the aeroplane, so that the student
-'^
-5
may have a clear understanding of the laws governing the employment of aeroplanes and submarines.
with Admiral Schley,
:
the protector of our commerce, and I fully agree who said (in his speech at Philadelphia, December 22, 1898) "The navy is that arm of the public defence, the nature of whose duties is dual, in that they relate to both
is
The navy
In time of peace the navy blazes the way across peace and war. the trackless deep, maps out and marks the dangers whicli lie in the routes of commerce, in order that the peaceful argosies of trade may
pursue safe routes to distant markets of tlie world, there the varied commodities of commerce. The bones of the
to
officers
exchange and
men of. the navy lie in every country in the world, or along the highways of commerce; they mark the resting places of martyrs to a sense of duty that is stronger than any fear of death."
tion,
I dedicate this
to
book to the masters of the world's present situabur Army, Naval, and Aviation Forces.
BERTHOLD SINGER.
Chicago, November 15, 1918-
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART
I.
I.
1
International
Law
Law
II.
Historical Development of International 1. Introduction.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
The Egyptian Commonwealth.

International Relations of Egypt. The Phenicians. The Babylonians and Assyrians.
7.
8.
9.
The Persian Empire. The Israelites. The Hellenic World. The International Relations
of the Hellenes.
10. 11. 12.

13. 14.
15.
War
and Peace.
of Foreigners in Hellas.
The Right
Macedonia.
The Roman
State.
16. 17. 18.
International Pêlations of the Romans. Treaties. The Jus Gentium of the Romans.
Medieval States. Maritime Law.

Grotius.
11
19.
III.
States
1.
2.
State Defined.
3. 4. 5.
Sovereignty and Independence. Neutralized States. Semi-Sovereign States.

Protected States.
IV.
State and
1.
2. 3.
4.
Government Kinds of Government. De Facto and De Jure Governments.
II
5. 6. 7.
Military Occupation. Confederate Government. Rights and Duties of States. Recognition of States. Recognition of Belligerency.
8.
Changes
of
Government.
18
V.
Ac(iuisitlon
1.
2.
3.
and Loss of Sovereignty Acquisition of Title to Territory. Rules for Establishing Title to Territory. Modes of Acquiring Title to Territory.
VI.
National Jurl.sdiction 1. Jurisdiction Over Vessels. 2. Limitations of Jurisdiction. ' 3. Status of Aliens.
vli
20
VII.
Exemption from Territorial Jurisdiction

1.
2.
21
Extraterritorial Jurisdiction. The Right of Asylum.

22
"VIII.
IX.
Citizenship Naturalization
1.
24
Naturalization Laws. Requirements for Acquiring Citizenship.
2.
3.
4. 5.
6.
Declaration of Intention. Declaration of Withdrawal. Continuous Residence.
Dual Nationality.
Impeachment
Requirements
7.
of Citizenship. in Other Countries. of
X.
XI.
Naturalization in
Aliens
1. 2.
Time
War
35
36
Residence. Sojourners.
37
39
XII.
XIII.
Expatriation
Diplomatic Agents
1.
2.
3.
Commissioners and Special Envoys. Appointment.

Classification of Ministers.
4. 5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Diplomatic Grades in the United States. Grade of Diplomatic Representatives. Superadded Consular Office. Credentials and Reception. Secretaries of Embassy or Legation. Rights to Protection.
Conseiller.
10. 11.
12. 13. 14.
15. 16. 17. 18. 1&. 20.
Attaches. Military Attaches. Naval Attaches. Scientific Attaches. Local Counsel. Claims.
Diplomatic and Consular Functions. Duties of Diplomatic Agents. Speeches.

Presents.
50
XIV.
Consular Service. 1. Classes and Titles. 2. Commercial Agents.

3.
4. 5.
Consuls.
Powers and Duties. Shipment and Discharge

Deserters.
Jurisdiction. Judicial Powers.
of
Seamen.
6. 7. 8. 9.
10. 11. 12. 13.

14.
15.
Privileges and Immunities. Merchant Consuls. Consular Treaty. In Eastern Countries. In the Barbary States. Military Rank of Consular Officers. Salutes.
65
XV.
Treaties
1. 2. 3.
Historical Development of Treaties. Oldest State Treaties. Objects of Treaties.

viii
4.
5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
Peace of Westphalia (1C48). Treaties of Miinster and Osnabriick. Peace of Utrecht. Peace of Carlowitz. The Treaty of Nystadt.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
The The The The The
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Partitions of Poland. First Peace of Paris and Congress of Vienna. Holy Alliance. Crimean War and the Treaty of Paris in 1856.
15.
16. 17.
Peace of Prague. Franco-Prussian Treaty. Treaty of San Stefano and Congress of Berlin. Conclusion of Treaties (Germany, Great Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, United States).
18.
Kinds
of Treaties.
19. 20.
21.
22.
Treaties Concluded in Times of War. Treaties Concluded by Whom. Form of Treaty.
Enforcement
of Treaties.
23.
24.
25.
Interpretation of Treaties. Ratification of Treaties.
Abrogation of Treaties.
80 91
91
XVI. XVII. XVIII.
Treaties of the United States
Most-Favored-Nation Clause Monroe Doctrine

International Union for the Protection of Industrial Property
XIX.
92 94
XX.
Passports
1.
2. 3.
Authority to Issue. Foreign Countries. Refusal of Passports.

î>
XXI. XXII.
Extradition
Asylum
1.
2. 3. 4.
98
Asylum Asylum Asylum
in America. in Legations. in Ships of "War.
Merchant Vessels.
10:]
XXIII.
Arbitration Mediation.
XXIV.
Good
Offices
106
PART
XXV.
XXVI. XXVII.
II.
10!)
War
Declare War Declaration of War 1. The Greeks.
Power
to
110
Ill
2.
3.
4.
.'5.
The Romans. The Middle Ages. Modern Times. Austria Hungary against
Iz
Servia.
6.
7.
8.
Germany against Russia. Germany against France.

Great Britain against Germany.
9.
10. 11.
12. 13. 14.
France against Germany. Austria-Hungary against Russia. France and Great Britain against Austria-Hungary. United States against Germany. Great Britain against Turkey. France against Turlvey.
119
XXVIII.
XXIX.
Combatants and Noncombatants Enlistment of Aliens

Recognition of Belligerency
1.
121
126
XXX.
Powers or Rights.
Foreign States.
129
130
2.
XXXI. XXXII.
XXXIII.
Suspension of Intercourse
Confiscation
132 Public and Private Property of the Enemy 1. Rules Governing the Occupation of Hostile Territory. 2. Private Property. 3. Salaries of Civil Officers.
4.
Municipal
Law
Suspended.
Acts.
5.
6.
Punishment for Unauthorized Capture and Booty.

Crimes.
7.
XXXIV.
Licenses
1. 2.
134
General and Special Licenses. Object of liicense.

135
136
Tolls; Taxes Rules Governing Levying of Taxes. Requisitions Made by Germans in Versailles. Conduct of the British in He de la Passe.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
Passports and Safe Conducts

Contributions;
1. 2. 3.
Requisitions;
XXXVII. XXXVIII.
Contracts
138
InsurrectionCivil 1. Civil War.

2.
3. 4. 5.
War Rebellion
139
Rebellion.
Treatment of Rebels. Loyal and Disloyal Citizens. Treatment Accorded to Disloyal

Spies.
Citizens.
XXXIX.
SpiesWar Traitors
1. 2.
3.
141
War
When
Traitors.
Punishment Commensurate with Danger.

not Considered Spies.
146
4.
5.
Deserters.
XL.
Prohibited War Measures 1. Prohibited Acts of Belligerents. Prohibition Affecting Aerial Warfare. 2. 3. Prohibition Affecting Land War.
XLI.
Prisoners of
1. 2.
War
148
3. 4.
5.
Treatment of Prisoners of War. Maintenance and Discipline of Prisoners of War. Right to Service of Prisoners.
Parole.
Status of Noncombatants Attached to Armies.
6.
7.
Payment and
Alien.
Information Agencies for Prisoners of War. Liberties Granted to Prisoners of War.
8.
9.
Reports on Prisoners.
152
XLII.
Parole
1.
Manner
2.
of Giving Paroles. Obligation of Parole and Punishment of Transgression.
XLIII.
Geneva Convention, 1864 (Red Cross) 1. Ambulances and Hospitals. 2. Treatment of Sick Soldiers
Nationality.
3.
153
Irrespective
of
Emblem.
Articles Concerning Naval Forces. Merchant Vessels. Hospital Ships.
4.
5. 6.
XLIV.
Cartel
1. 2.
159
Exchange
of Prisoners. Hobson's Heroic Act.
XLV.
XLVI. XLVII. XLVIII.
Deceit
Sieges and
160
Bombardments
161
Reprisals Retorsion or Retaliation
162
163 164 165 166
XLIX.
L. LI.
Devastation
Conquest Postliminy
Droit D'Aubaine.
^.
LII.
167 Military Jurisdiction 1. Military Jurisdiction Based on Statute and Com2.

3.
mon Law. Humanitarian Aspects of Law

Scope of Military Necessity.
of
War.
4.
5. 6. 7.
Notices of Bombardment. Citizens of Hostile Country Considered Enemies.
Lenient Measures Accorded to Noncombatants.
8.
War
Law
Temporary Allegiance of Hostile a Means to an End.
Citizens.
LIII.
Martial
1.
170
2.
Objects of Martial Law. Scope of Martial Law.

172
Inviolability of Flag Bearer. Hostilities May Be Suspended. Abuse of Flags of Truce.
LIV.
Flags of Truce
1.
2.
3.
4.
0.
Buildings Protected Against Firing. Regulations Issued by V. S. Navy

Effect.
Department.
174
LV.
Truce and Armistice 1. Truce and Its

2.
3. 4.
Time Limits of Truce. Rules Governing a Truce. Conditions Controlling an Arinistico.

18(?
I. VI.
SiKjnsions
Sponsions Require Ratification.

LVII.
Suspension of
Arms
zl
182
LVIII.
Capitulations
1.
182
2.
3.
4.
Authority to Make Capitulations. Limitations of Auttiority. Terms of Surrender. Capitulations Strictly Observed.
LIX.
End
of
War
184
PART
LX. LXr. LXII.
III.
186
The Term "High The Marginal Sea
-Seas"
186
Neutralization of Canals and Waterways 1. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. 2. Suez Canal.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
188
London Conference
of 1885.
Paris Conference of 1887. Corinth Canal. Kiel Canal. Panama Canal.

195
LXin.
Merchant Vessels
1.
2.
Extraterritorial Right. Papers of Ships,
LXIV.
Ships of
1.
War
Extraterritoriality. Limitations of Exemption Supplies Free of Duty.
198
2.
3.
from Jurisdiction.
4.
Asylum.
201
LXV.
Nationality of Vessels 1. Evidence of the Flag. 2. Flags. 3. Proof of Nationality, 4. Registry.

Salutes Between Ships and Forts 1. Vessels Carrying Sovereigns. 2. Salutes Between Ships of War.
3. 4.
LXVL
204
Visits.
5.
6.
Grades. Celebration of Fetes. U. S. Regulations Regarding Salutes.

209 210
LXVII.
Privateers or Letters of Marque
LXVin.
Blockade in Time of
1.
War
2.
3.
Declaration of Blockade. Liability of Neutral Vessels.
Blockading Operation.
LXIX.
Contraband of
1. 2.
3.
4. 5.
War
213
Absolute Contraband. Conditonal Contraband.

Articles Adapted to Form Contraband. Articles Not Contraband. Additional Articles Not Contraband.
6.
7.
8.
Absolute Contraband Liable to Capture. Vessel Carrying Contraband. Vessel Carrying Conditional Contraband.
xll
LXX.
Visit and Searcli Definiton. 1.

2.
"17
Right Exercised by Cruiser.

Duties of Merchant Vessels. Mail Steamers and Mails. Resistance to Search.
221.
3. 4.
5.
LXXI.
Transfer of Flag
1. 2.
Time
in
Which
to Effect Transfer.
Valid and Invalid Transfer.

222 Vessel Carrying Contraband.
LXXII.
Capture
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Condemnation of Vessels.
Vessel Unaware of "War. Delivery of Contraband. Indemnity.
224
LXXIII.
Prize Courts International Prize Court Convention.
LXXIV.
Convoy
1.
225
Exemption from Search.

Neutral Convoy.
Belligerent Convoy.
227
4,
2.
3.
LXXV.
Neutrality
1. 2. 3.
American Neutrality Proclamation Aug. Comment by Officers Forbidden,

Appeal to Americans. Angary.
1914.
4.
LXXVI. LXXVII.
Unneutral Service
235 236
Hydroaeroplanes Noncontrabaud Character. 1. 2. Hydroaeroplanes are Not War Vessels.
LXXVIII.
Landing
1.
2.
3.
4.
of Submarine Cables Cables Under Control of Government. Conditions Affecting the Laying of Cables. Protection of Submarine Cables. Cutting of Cables.
239
LXXIX.
LXXX.
242 Automatic Submarine Contact Mines, and Torpedoes 243 Submarines 1. Restraint on Commerce. 2. U. S. Proposal for the Conduct of Submarine Warfare. 3. Reply of the British Government. 4. Reply of the U. S. Department of State, March 30, 1915. 5. Reply of the British Government, July 24, 1915.
LXXXI.
Submarines and Armed Merchantmen 1. Submarine as Affecting Armament Duties Imposed Upon Submarines. 2.
3.
249
of
Merchantmen.
4.
to Status of Armed Merchant Vessels. Relations of Belligerents and Neutrals as Affected by Status of Armrd Merchant Vessels.
Laws Relating
LXXXII.
Aerial Warfare
1.
-.
257
The Opinion
Jurisdiction.
of the
French Government
in 1910.
2.
LXXXIII.
LXXXIV.
LXX XV.
LXXXVI. LXXXVII.
Wireless Telegraphy Declaration of Paris, 185G International Naval Conference
263
265
260
279
Hague Convention Definitions of Terms Employed

Second
xill
in
International
Law
307
INTERNATIONAL
PART
I.
LAW
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
International law or the law of nations is that system of rules which states acknowledge as binding upon them in their intercourse with one another or in transaction with each other's subjects. As a science, international law assumed a distinct form in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in the works of the great philosophical jurists, of whom Grotius is the most illustrious. His great "He work, "De Jure Belli ac Pacis," was published in 1625. the who be first had "to reduced Internaclaims," says Whewell, tional Law to the form of an art or science. The law of nations may be considered of three kinds, to wit,
' '
general, conventional, or customary. The first is universal, or established by the general consent of mankind, and binds all nations. The
second
is founded on express consent, and binds those nations that have assented to
is
it.
not universal, and only
The third
is
founded
on tacit consent, and is only obligatory on those nations who have adopted it. Every nation, on being received, at her own request, into the circle of civilized governments, must understand that she not only
attains rights of sovereignty and the dignity of national character, but that she binds herself also to the strict and faithful observance
of all those principles, laws, and usages which have obtained currency among civilized states, and which have for their object the mitigation of the miseries of war. Xo conimnnity can be allowed to enjoy the benefit of national character in modem times without submitting to all the duties which that character imposes. A Christian people who exercise sovereign
who make treaties, maintain diplomatic relations with other and who should yet refuse to conduct their military operations according to the usages universally observed by such states, would present a character singularly inconsistent and anomalous." JiOid Tallif)t (If'C'larcd in a flcai- opinion, 'that the law of nations, in its fuU extent, was part of the law of England.' 'That the act
power,
states,
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
. .
.'that the law of nations was to of Parliament was declaratory;'. be collected from the practice of different nations, and the authority
of writers.'
"A
question
may
be raised
Does this
customary law of nations,
as established in Europe, bind the United States? answer to this is warranted by conclusive reasons.
An
affirmative
"1.
The United
States,
when a member
of the British Empire,
were, in this capacity, a party to that law, and not having dissented from it, when they became independent, they are to be considered
The common law of England, as having continued a party to it. 2. which was and is in force in each of these States, adopts the law of
nations, the positive equally with the natural, as a part of itself. 3. Ever since we have been an independent nation, we have
appealed to and acted upon the
stood in Europe various resolutions of Congress during our revolution, the correspondence of executive officers, the decisions of our
4. Executive courts of admiralty, all recognized this standard. and legislative acts, and the proceedings of our courts, under the
modem
law of nations as under-
The President's present government, speak a similar language. proclamation of neutrality, refers expressly to the modern law of nations, which must necessarily be understood as that prevailing in Europe, and acceded to by this country; and the general voice of our nation, together with the very arguments used against the
same point. It is indubitable, that the customary law of European nations is as a part of the common law, and, by adoption, that of the United States."
treaty, accord in the
Hamilton, Letters of Camillus, No. 20, Lodge's Hamilton, V. 89; Hamilton's ed., VH. 349. "Offences committed in the territorial jurisdiction of a nation may
be tried and punished there, according to the definitions and penalties of its municipal law, which becomes for the particular purpose the international law of the case."
Report of Mr. Bayard, Sec. of State, Jan. 20, 1887, in the case of Pelletier, charged with attempt at slave trading in Haytian waters. Sen. Ex. Doc. 64, 49 Cong. 2 sess. Moore, Int. Arbitrations, II. 1799. "International law is part of our law, and must be ascertained and administered by the courts of justice of appropriate jurisdic;
tion as often as questions of right depending upon it are duly presented for their determination. For this purpose, where there is
no treaty and no controlling executive or legislative act or judicial decision, resort must be had to the customs and usages of civilized
nations, and, as evidence of these, to the
works of
jurists
and com-
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW,
mentators, who, by years of labor, research, and experience, have made themselves peculiarly well acquainted with the subjects of which they treat. Such works are resorted to by judicial tribunals, not for the speculations of their author concerning what the law
Hilton
but for trustworthy evidence of what the law really is." Guyot, 159 U. S. 113, 163, 164, 214, 215. The law of nations, unlike foreign municipal laws, does not have to be proved as a fact. The Scotia, 14 Wallace, 170; The New York (1899), 175 U. S. 187.
ouj,'ht to be,
V.
II.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INTEENATIONAL LAW.

1.
Introduction.
is closely related to a few leading ethical axito facts and established by the dicta of history. To arrive at oms, a sound understanding of the subject, the natural development of international law must be traced back to the earliest times, so that
International law,
by the historical antecedents a better understanding of the present day rules and postulates is obtained. The practice of confining
investigation to the state systems obtaining as early as the times of the hegemony of Athens, however, according to the writer's views,
is
not sufficient, and in a concise manner the facts preceding the Greek and Roman state systems will be briefly discussed.
2.
The Egjrptian Commonwealth.
The Egyptians anxiously avoided travel to distant and unexplored parts, had a "fixed abode," and possessed a civilization of a high order, provoking the cupidity of itinerant, nomadic tribes of the neighborhood eagerly seeking for prey. Egypt was invaded and finally could not escape a foreign yoke in an unsuccessful war against the Assyrians and Persians. Previously, however, under its twelfth and eighteenth dynasties, Egypt could point to remarkable war successes, defeating the attacks of nomadic peoples without, however, expanding Egyptian territory, but requiring booty, imposing tributes, or forcing regal supremacy over foreign potentates. The renaissance of Egyptian studies and the scientific basis conceded to Egyptology have formed the starting point for prominent investigators in determining the beginning of international law.
4:
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
3.
International Relations of Egypt.
The foreign
to
relations of the Egyptians were in no
manner
hostile
example of II and between Rameses form a of a state treaty, in the peace treaty the conclusion of the marked the Khita ruler, which Assyrian War, and which stipulated eternal peace under the protection of the mutual state gods and an alliance against the enemies of the contracting The treaty also stipulated extradition of criminals on conparties.
neighboring communities.
dition that severe
Within
this time falls the
punishment be renounced.
relations of
in
Egypt with foreign peoples were the slave trade, as evidenced by view of important, presumably the reference in the Bible to the selling of Joseph to Egypt. Contemporaneously with slavery, trade in luxuries, such as ornaments,
The commercial
was carried on. The Phenicians entertained commercial relations with Lower Egypt and the ports of the Nile Delta, where numerous settlements of Greek origin existed. Incidentally it may be remarked that
jewels, incense, etc.,
with the appearance of the papyrus plant in the Nile Delta the first wTiting material was obtained. Egyptian kings at a later period fostered trade with foreigners by "privileges."
4.
The Phenicians.
Phenician civilization, reaching its zenith in the middle of the second millennium, was closely related to Egyptian civilization in political respects. The Phenicians were the first and most powerful among the navigating and colonizing peoples of ancient times until outclassed by the Greeks. They dominated the trade routes between
and the mouth of the Nile and the valleys of the and the Euphrates Tigris. Their commercial supremacy was responsible for their share in the development of international relations, and to them is ascribed the authorship of changing a barter trade to a purchasing trade, based on valuable metal as exchanging means. The Phenicians permitted the influx of citizens of other nations, granting them the right to carry on commerce in their seaports. The Chaldeans, Assyrians, and Jews carried on commerce in Sidon and
their
seaports
safe to
Tyre, whereto Plato repaired to learn their art of business. It is assume that the establishment of trade routes was protected
treaties
tribes,
by
with interior Asiatic rulers or with the heads of Arabic creating certain fundamental rules of international inter-
with
course between their colonies and Carthage. The decisive battle Rome finally decided the political position of the Semitic world.
THE BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS.

5.
The Babylonians and Assyrians.
Babylon constituted an important market place for the sea trade Ocean and an important crossing point for the land trade of the Phenicians. The Babylonians possessed an advanced law system, based on carefully recorded documents of treaties. Numerous inscriptions on stones excavated in the nineteenth century attest to the valorous deeds of the kings and to the principal contents of alliances with neighboring peoples. Babylon was the predecessor, and consequently a servant, of Nineveh. The relation of these two metropoles alternately appears as an international relation and as a mutual subjugation.
of the Indian
The origin of the Assyrian Empire dates back to the period between the division of the Jewish Commonwealth and the rise of the Persians. The importance of the Assyrians in the gradual develop-
ment
of international civilization cannot be easily estimated.
They
are characterized as a murderous people, insidious, barbarous, and given to excesses. Ancient documents establish the fact that the
old oriental rulers considered other rulers inferior.
6.
The Persian Empire.

of
which dates from the midtwo and Cambyses, and the absence of serious resistance were responsible for the tolerance and leniency against the vanquished, although the Persian kings, in attacking Greece, entertained the idea of world domination. The knowledge which is possessed of treaties, intervention, and commercial relations of the Persian epoch is largely obtained from Greek sources and is only of ancillary importance. Of greater interest is the fact that a large number of Greeks volunteered their services to the Persian kings and satraps as generals,
dle of the sixth century B. C, hardly extended over a space of centuries. The comparatively easy conquests under Cyrus
artists, politicians, writers, etc.
The Persian Empire, the existence
7.
The
Israelites.
between the Jewish state and other naThe laws of the national god Jehovah remained immutable and were interpreted by the priests. After the settlement in Canaan they lacked the unity of priestly, judicial, and executive power, and instead of being classed as a state
essential difforence
The
tions
is
largely based on religion.
they
may
be more properly designated as an aggregation of tribes.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
of common defense existed only in times of danger. The formation of a kingdom, embracing twelve tribes, marked the second important epoch, although extending over a comparatively short period of two hundred years. In the absence of a standing army, in an emergency the militia was summoned and forced into action.
The duty
The laws of war clearly disclose the barbarism of the power of the which manifested itself in the treatment accorded to a vanquished enemy. No document in writing has caused such far reaching results in the development of international community life than the Old Testament. The Decalogue fonns the constitution of the civilized world and the basis of moral, practical education. The law of domestic relations of the medieval period was influenced by
priest,
Mosaic tenets.
8.
The Hellenic World.
None of the older or more recent civilized peoples manifested such a cosmopolitan, universal, and natural disposition in the diversity of their formation as the Hellenes, apparently favored by the formation of the soil which they occupied. The cult of the Greeks did
not possess that localism peculiar to the cult of the Asiatic people. The Hellenes possessed the political intuition to form free states
They possessed a keen for for the appreciation foreign countries, predominance of their national spirit, and for the inability to accept the yoke of a conqueror. It is significant that Athens as a community reached the
independent of the doctrines of theocracy.
to the
decision to seek refuge behind wooden walls rather than to submit power of the approaching Persians.
9.
The Inteniational Relations
of the Hellenes.
It is impossible to refer to a Hellenic international law in the absence of a plurality of similar states vdth unlimited freedom,
naving a constitution, and the recognition of a common system of laws applicable to their mutual foreign relations. The idea of complete equality of single states in a confederation and the complete fusion of the particular interests for the purpose of unitary, mon-
archical conduct of diplomacy, were entirely lacking, thus precluding the possibility of organizing foreign affairs. The democracies
by Pericles could not be placed on the same plane with the laws of other states predicated on aristocratic prinAthens despised Spartan aristocracy, and Sparta feared the ciples. attraction of democratic Athens.
effectively introduced
WAR AND PEACE

The Hellenic formation
OF HELLENES.
of the Confederation
was
effected either
for the purpose of prosecuting a war or of granting rights of sojourn " to citizens of foreign communities, termed "Isopolity. Of highest political importance during the fifth century was the Hellenic Federation, based on the sea cised a lasting influence.
power of Athens, whereby the
latter exer-
This council of states, however, was suppressed by the amphietyony of the Delphic Apollo, which in the As later history of the Hellenes played a not unimportant role.
regards international relations, it is important to note that the Amphictyonian Council considered itself as a forum to supervise the observance of international principles and to punish contraventions
although the historical opposition between Athens and Sparta did not permit this function to be put into full effect.
thereof,
10.
War and
Peace.
"War combined with the love of liberty a retaliating idea of right, by the triple form of battle, on the field, on water, and by siege. Prior to the Trojan War an envoy was sent with the reas evidenced
quest to obtain satisfaction from the Trojan violators of the right of hospitality. It was generally assumed that the fortunes of war
settled the dispute of right and wrong, from which emanated the often transgressed, but in substance adhered to, postulate of a sys-
tematic declaration of
war
to hold the adversary to account
when
refusing to do justice voluntarily. Even during war time the peaceable means of subsequent understanding were not cut off. Messengers and heralds enjoyed protection by virtue of a special quasi
The killing of non-combatants appealing to the was disproved and contrary to tradition. The fate of prisoners of war was different according to the circumstances. Ordinarily they had to pay off in servitude the debt of their o^vn state. Cities conquered by storm were at the mercy of the victor. The conclusion of peace treaties was, in effect, in accordance with
diplomatic duty.
mercy of the
victors
stipulations in the Constitution of Solon, ten years.

11.
who
fixed the duration for
The Right of ForeigTiers
in Hellas.
The to foreigners. their views commercial in of of reentered conceptions hospitality and political relations, and were responsible for the rights accorded The Hellenes were predominantly friendly
to foreigners in the
Even
form of proxeni granting national protection. slaves enjoyed certain rights in Athens, being protected against
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
The cosmopolitan character of furthermore evidenced by the right of domicile of the Metics, who at that time numbered about forty-five thousand persons. In conclusion it may be stated that the right of foreigners in
arbitrary killing and mistreatment.
is
Athens
Athens reached a high state of development.

12.
Macedonia.
rule represents, even before the war against Persia, the only example of a confederation of international formation in which the distinction between several nations, between
The Macedonian
Greeks and barbarians, was eliminated in political and military

respects.
13.
The Roman
State.
Rome accepted, after the conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily and the conquering expeditions in an easterly direction, the cultural The Romans may be considered as a inheritance of the Greeks. legal and national people. The formation of their laws and constitution was predicated first on a regal and then on a republican
foundation.
Roman
tinct branches
law, from the viewpoint of civilization, contains three dis1, private law 2, public law, and 3, a branch which
: ;
may be designated as international law, in a narrow meaning. The private law is a pure product of practical legal knowledge and juristical experience, adapted to be utilized as international private law. The public law was based, of course, on the imperial idea, and
the attraction of Caesarism
was responsible for the
jurisprudence to survive the destruction of the

14.
ability of Roman Roman Empire.
International Relations of the Romans.
In international relations changes occurred only after Rome entered into contact with the Gauls and with other peoples differing in customs and manners from the Roman-Latin type. The second
period falls within the time of the Punic Wars. The subjugation of provinces was accompanied by the disappearance of moderation
against other nations, and national consciousness of political superiority gradually developed, ripening into a desire for general
hegemony.
Special offices were provided for the purpose of legal intercourse with foreign countries, and especially the fetiales exercised a whole-
TREATIES OF THE ROMANS.
[)
some influence when tumultuous public assemblies seemed to contravene the course of prudent foreign politics. The rules relating to foreign relations and subject to the jurisdicThe jus fetiale, tion of the fetiales are designated "jus fetiale." in addition to declarations of war and conclusion of treaties, em-
who violated international law, the maintenance of peace by supervising treaty rights and stipulations, and the observance of the tradition relating to envoys.
braces the extradition of criminals
The centumviral court may be considered an organ of interIts jurisdiction and procedure, however, are not cerThe court having jurisdiction in cases arising out of internatain. tional private law was constituted by the Praetor Peregrinus in connational law.
trast to the Praetor Urbanus,
having jurisdiction in controversies
between
citizens.
According to the
Roman
conception of right,
war was decreed by
divine order, and a test for determining the justice of war was whether there was sufficient cause and whether the regular declaration of war followed. Among the causes for prosecuting a war, violation of territory combined with the appropriation of cattle herds or slaves, and violation of envoys were considered pre-eminent.
Roman
quired
Breach of a treaty or a violation thereof, and alliances against the people or their confederates were also acknowledged as sufThe exact form of declaration of war reficient cause for war.
its
execution by the fetiales.

15.
Treaties.
the so-called "recuperators."
Treaties designated as "foedus" were under the jurisdiction of The method of concluding treaties
difl'erent from that observed today, and it rethe ratification of the Senate and of the people. At no time quired have the Romans denied the legally binding character of state
was not materially
treaties,
although they also took care to provide guaranties.

16.
The Jus Gentium

"
of the
Romans.
The term "jus gentium,

plied to
state,
especially in a
narrow
seuse,
was ap-
an international
ord(;r for the foreign intercourse of the

Jtoinaii oi-igiii.
and was of nulional,
Tin; jus iialiirale laclccd,
for the corresponding organs of the

identical.
Romans, direct application, but and they were finally considered as gradually acquired importance,
10
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
17.
Medieval States.
by the Teutonic nations has finally associated a state with territory marked by certain geographical States recognized by modern international law were boundaries. established in medieval times after the fall of the Western Empire. The influence of the Roman Empire, however, survived and the
The modern
slate established
German Empire was

state.
believed to be a successor of the old
Roman
International law of the Middle Ages was greatly influenced by The commerce between numerous independent comthe Church. munities assumed an international character. Italy became the
birthplace of medieval European right of commerce based on custom law, which spread in a short time over the whole of Europe. Nu-
merous formations
of
commercial law took place which extended

civil
beyond the scope of
Roman
18.
law.
Maritime Law.
Among
ical basis,
1.
the sources of maritime law four groups, on a geographmay be distinguished

:
The East Byzantine Group, including the collection of so-called older maritime laws. The jurisdiction of these laws extended from the outbreak of the Sicilian wars to the fifteenth century, and then, on a Franco-Germanic basis, includes the Assizes of Jerusalem, beginning with Godfrey of Bouillon, as far as they relate to maritime
rules.
I
Italian Group, in which the oldest maritime law is that of the Tabula Amalfitana, of considerable age, and that of Pisa, which are followed by several other less important codes.
2.
The Central
These codes, however, were rejected by Genoa, which later on oflieially compiled the maritime doctrines. A comparatively independent position was occupied by the cities on the Adriatic, with Venice The oldest maritime law of the Venetians was as their leader.
established at the beginning of the thirteenth century, which
was
afterwards supplemented and extended. The sea laws of Montpelier, Aries, Marseilles, and especially 3. the consular rules of Valencia. A prior collection of maritime customs originated about the middle of the fourteenth century in Barcelona, written presumably by a clerk of a maritime court and of
interest as indicating the general
4.
development of international law.
laws.
The next group embraces the North French-Dutch-Hanseatic They are headed by the decisions of the maritime court of
MARITIME LAW.
Oleron,
11
which spread over the whole of western and northern Europe, and presumably originated in the twelfth century. The right in the Baltic Sea is determined by the laws of Wisbuy, which substituted the maritime laws of Oleron and the old northern maritime customs. The development of the northern maritime law is intimately associated with the history of the Hanseatic League.
A further source
is
of maritime law
is
the Consolato del Mare, which
a gradual collection of the maritime customs of the cities of the
Mediterranean.
The source of maritime law no doubt of more ancient origin is the Rhodian law, a code set up by the inhabitants of the island of Rhodes
after having acquired naval supremacy. Except as to the article on jettison, nothing is extant at the present time.
19.
Grotius.
In line with the gradual development of nations, a general revolt human mind against authority took place. The questions concerning the state and its administration received close attention,
of the
giving birth to politics. Together with politics, jurisprudence was eagerly studied, as evidenced by the writers of the time. To the publications of these writers the student of international law will
give importance in establishing the rules of international law. The most noted writer, Hugo Grotius designated as the father of international law has clearly defined international law and its sources
as the law
"which obtains between peoples and their rulers, springing from nature itself or instituted by laws divine, or by custom and
silent
agreement."
III.
STATES.
1.
State Defined.
The
state, or political society, in its
broadest sense,
may
be de-
an association of human beings established for the attainment of certain ends by certain means. For the purpose of international law a state may be defined to be a people having a fixed
fined as
abode, united by
common laws and customs

its
into a
body
politic,
and
exercising, through the agency of an organized government, control
over
all
persons and things within
boundaries, and possessing
12
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
certain powers to establish or modify international relations with

ties
state is distinguished from other socieother political societies. function being defense against the its functions; primary by external enemies and the maintenance of peaceable and orderly con-
ditions within its boundaries, the subsidiary functions being legislation and taxation. Thus, a voluntary association of outlaws
(pirates) of otlier societies, of nomadic hordes lacking a abode, and the like cannot be properly designated as a state.
2.
fixed
Sovereignty and Independence.
and
is the supreme power by which a state is governed, power may be exercised internally or externally. Independence, in a negative sense, signifies the absence of any control or dictation exercised by other states. Sovereignty and independence can not always be used interchange-
Sovereignty
this
ably, as there
may
be different degrees of sovereignty, while inde-
pendence does not permit of grading. A state is either independent or dependent, whereas international law recognizes a state to be
sovereign when it is independent of every other state in the exercise of its international rights, and states having an existence not entirely independent of other states are recognized as semi-sovereign.
may be classified as simple states and composite states. Simple states are distinguished again as single states and personal unions. Simple states are such as have one supreme government and exert a single will either by a sovereign ruler, by a representative
States
assembly, or' by a popular body. The possession of colonies having more or less self-governing powers, or the subdivision of the state for purposes of administration is immaterial. The simple state may
be single, constituting an entity separate and distinct from another state, or it may be connected with another state by a so-called personal union.
tities
The
latter designates
two separate
states
whose iden-
never merge, but who have the same ruling monarch. The best example of a personal union is that of Great Britain and Hanover during 1714-1837. A state is designated as composite when comprising two or more states, and in accordance with the nature of the act creating the union, they are classed as real unions, confederacies, and federal
unions.
A real union comprises a plurality of states ruled by the same monarch and united by an express agreement. Austria-Hungary and Sweden and Norway (the latter two before their separation)
are instances of real unions.
NEUTR.VLIZED STATES.
13
A
in
confederation
It differs
common
a permanent association of states exercising the prerogatives of sovereignty for the general advanis
tage.
from a league of nations not only by the permanence of existence, but by the possession of a common organization constituting the agency for carrying into effect the will of the component states. The states retain their external sovereignty to a greater or less extent, and constitute a band of states (Staatenbund) as distinguished from a banded state (Bundesstaat).
A federal union exists when states are united under a central government exercising national sovereignty in foreign matters. The Instances of a act effecting the union is called the constitution. federal union are the United States and Switzerland.
3.
Neutralized States.
state,
In contradistinction to a neutral
which holds aloof from
countries in a state of war, neutralized states are such as are officially created by convention. These states can not participate in a war
entered into by neighboring states and in return be secured against The Treaty of Paris (1815) and the Treaty of Turin (1860) The Treaties of neutralized Switzerland and portions of Savoy.
attack.
1831 and 1839 neutralized Belgium, recognizing her as an "independent and perpetually neutral state, bound to observe the same neutrality with reference to other states."
4.
Semi-SovereigTi States.
Semi-sovereign states are those subject to the authority of another state in external matters. The dominant state is called the
suzerain and the relation
may
is termed a suzerainty. The subject state be represented in foreign matters by the suzerain state or may maintain diplomatic relations subject to the control of the paramount state. Instances of semi-sovereign states are Egypt, under
the suzerainty of the Ottoman Porte, and formerly Bulgaria, by the Treaty of Berlin (1878) being constituted an autonomous and
tributary principality under the suzerainty of the Sultan.

5.
Protected States.
Protected states are those having semi-sovereignty, and the office termed a protectorate. These terms are loosely evidenced as by the French protectorate Indo-China and applied,
of the suzerain is
other territories, wbich
may
properly be classed as colonies and
14
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
are, in fact,
under the jurisdiction of the Colonial Minister. the Republics of Andorra, San Marino, and states are Protected are exercised by a state of European civilProtectorates Monaco.
which
civilization. Thus, France exercises a and similarly, England over Zanzibar. The protectorate over Tunis, a protected state and a protectorate feature between distinguishing
ization over one of other
lies
in
the
divided between
fact that in the former the territorial sovereignty is it and the protecting state, while in the protecis
torate the territorial sovereignty
in abeyance.
IV.
STATE AND GOVERNMENT.

The
state
and the government, although commonly accepted
as
synonymous terms, in reality are different conceptions, the existThe overence of one being independent of that of the other.
throw of the government does not mean concurrent termination
of a state; on the other hand, the state can not be recognized until a stable government has been inaugurated.
1.
Kinds of Government.
An
examination of the governments of the various states reveals
certain distinguishing features which characterize one government from another and which permit of a classification in accordance
with the limits or absence of limits controlling the power of the government. Governments are distinguished as constitutional and as absolute
stricted
governments, the former possessing a sovereignty limited and reby the constitution. The constitution either may be enacted, as in the case of the United States Constitution, or it may be partly
written and partly unwritten, as in Great Britain, or it may be contained in the municipal law. An absolute government, on the other
hand, possesses no limitations as regards the power which the chief Such governments have no representative executive may wield.
institutions
and provide no guaranties for the

classified as
liberties, duties,
and
aris-
privileges of citizenship.
Governments may be further

tocracy, a
monarchy, an
democracy, or a republic.
is
A monarchy
characterized by the concentration of the sovereign
DE FACTO AND DE JURE GOVERNMENTS.
15
in a single person. The authority exercised by the monarch be restricted by commensurate representative institutions, as is the case in England, where Parliament has reduced the importance
powers
may
of the king to the condition of a hereditary executive. An aristocracy is a government wherein the ruling
powers are
exercised by a privileged class.
democracy
is
government
in
which the people possess sovis
ereign powers and exercise the same directly.
republic, akin to a democracy,
government
in
which the
people have the sovereign powers and exercise the same indirectly by
electing representatives therefor.
2.
De Facto and De Jure Governments.
Governments are distinguished as de facto and de jure governA de facto government, akin to a de jure government is, to all intents and purposes, the same lacking, however, formal recognition. Adherents of a de facto government against the lawful government cannot be prosecuted as traitors, and history is replete
ments.
with cases of obligations entered into by a de facto government and subsequently recognized by the lawfully constituted authorities. The status of foreigners during a change of governments remains practically unaffected, it being their duty to hold aloof from interference in political matters and to submit to the authority exercisIn the absence of ing jurisdiction over the respective territory.
intermeddling in internal affairs their lives and property are under protection, and no ex post facto laws which, promulgated by the authorities then in power, subject property to forfeiture for acts
committed under the approval of the preceding government, will be recognized. De facto governments may come into existence by the removal of the lawful authorities or by the separation of a portion of a country and the establishment of an independent government.
3.
Military Occupation.
In the case of military occupation of a country, the invading forces exercise the prerogatives of a legally constituted authority, suspending ipso facto the laws in force prior to the occupation, and
forcing the inhabitants to a temporary allegiance to the invading This status prevails until a treaty of peace or the withforces. drawal of the forces is effecte<l. The civil government existing
prior to the occupation is substituted by the temporary government set up by the conquering forces, which have a right to make prepa-
16
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
rations for securing the conquests by the erection of fortifications, and to levy taxes to defray the expenses for maintaining the con-
quered territory.
4.
Confederate Government.
In the case of the Confederate Government, no recognition was accorded thereto by any civilized nation, nor was a treaty concluded with it. The Government of the Confederate States was considered as the military representative of the insurrection against the authority of the
United States.
by the states as a duty to obey the authorities for the sake of preserving civil order. Obligations which are incurred, even though promoting the
ends of the unlawful government,
tion of peace
The inhabitants of the territory controlled were considered enemies, and it devolved upon them
may
be enforced after the restora-
whenever of
5.
a just character.
Rights and Duties of States.
may
state is presumed to possess rights and duties, and consequently possess property and have the right to execute certain acts necessary for preserving and developing its existence and therewith ita
independence.
The holding
lation of rights of others.
The
of property, however, cannot be in vioacts which a state may inaugurate
include the rights of organization to take certain measures for the purpose of increasing its prosperity and strength and to occupy unappropriated territory and to incorporate new provinces with the
genuine consent of the inhabitants and without violation of

superior rights of another state. Nations are presumed to be
th''
equal, irrespective of size and The relative power of sovereign states for the purpose strength. of international law is of no significance, each state being possessed
same rights and the same duties and being bound to observe same obligations. The relative magnitude being immaterial, it follows that what is lawful for one nation is considered lawful for another. States have the right to acquire territory and other kinds
of the
the
of property to be held in absolute ownership.

6.
Recognition of States.
Recognition
is
accorded to such states which have come into being,
and
this is a condition precedent to being received into the family
The prerogatives and attributes of sovereignty, however, are independent of recognition, but the exercise thereof can take place only after formal recognition.
of nations.
RECOGNITION OF BELLIGERENCY,
Recognition
17
written or oral declais either express or implied. or it may be implied the of act constitute recognition, may into the as evidenced entry negotiations, the desby by conduct, of and diplomatic agents, or the granting of receiving patching
ration
Recognition can be accorded only by a recde facto government could not bestow, a ognized nation, character upon a new state which it does not possess itself. Recognition, although in exceptional cases, accorded conditionally, as a general rule is absolute and irrevocable. History furnishes many examples of recognition accorded to newly formed states, and attenexequaturs to consuls.
as
by way of reference, to the recognition of the Republic by receiving the charge d'affaires. Mexico was formally recognized together with the Republics of Argentine and Chile in 1823 by the appointment of a minister to that country. In a similar manner Peru and other South American countries received recognition by the United States.
tion
is
called,
of Colombia in 1822
7.
RecogTiition of BeUigerency.
The recognition of a state of belligerency is a question of fact to be decided by the degree of force and the mass of population engaged therein. The mere existence of hostilities between two nations does not necessarily constitute this act as a legal state of war, but merely classifies it as a de facto war, such as existed between
France and San Domingo. The recognition of belligerency involves certain rights acquired by a belligerent, such as the right of
search, visitation, seizure of contraband, and the right of blockade. The recognition of a state as a belligerent power does not necessarily imply its recognition as an independent poAver, but accords thereto
the rights and duties of an independent state for purposes relating to the war.
The recognition of a state is sometimes caused by the necessity of enabling intercourse with communities; however, the mere fact of intercourse does not in itself constitute proper recognition, but in
such cases
it is proper to determine the intention. The surrender, for instance, of an ordinary criminal to a de facto government does not necessarily constitute recognition; but, as previously stated, the despatch of diplomatic officials and similar acts constitute rec-
The question of according recognition, as ognition by conduct. established by numerous cases, is determined by the executive, sometimes with the aid and cooperation of Congress, but more often on
his
own
responsibility.
18
8.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Changes of Government or Territory.
The continuity of states is not affected by territorial changes, neither do changes in population have any bearing on the existence of a state. Changes in the government or internal matters of a state
ordinarily do not alter the international purview of the state. The transformation of a republic into a monarchy and vice versa do not create any changes whereby the foreign affairs of the nation would
be affected but rights and obligations remain unaffected and unaltered by such internal changes.
V.
ACQUISITION AND LOSS OF SOVEREIGNTY.

1.
Acquisition of Title to Territory.
The
title to
property
may
be acquired by occupation.
In the ease
of territories, such occupation depends upon discovery, user, settlement of the territory not claimed by any civilized state.
and The
mere act
of discovery in itself does not confer
any right
of possession,
but the other elements of user or settlement must be present. In the case of America, European nations, in dividing the immense territory,
agreed on the principle that discovery vested the title in the government under whose authority or by whose subjects the discovery was made. This principle, hovvêver, is modified by the necesThis is now definitely sity that possession must follow discovery. agreed upon and recognized by all civilized states. The territory discovered and settled upon must also be vacant, either by having been unoccupied or by having been abandoned by the previous occupant. In the former case, title is acquired
by occupation;
in the latter case, title is acquired by consent either expressly granted by the prior occupant or impliedly obtained by the absence of the dispute of possession. The title acquired by discovery, and subsequently improved by a title by settlement, the
perfect title of the occupant national law.

tain rules
is
recognized, as
is
well settled in inter-
The extension of territory given by discovery is regulated by cerwhich grew out of the practice observed by European nations. The taking of possession of an extensive sea coast confers possession from the interior country to the source of the rivers which flow to the coast, including the branches of the river and the
ACQUISITION AND LOSS OF SOVEREIGNTY.
19
country covered thereby. A European nation takes possession of a portion of a continent and subsequently another nation takes possession at some distance from the territory occupied by the first
the boundary is determined by the middle distance. The third principle embraces the undisputable right to any portion of territory acquired by discovery and user even where purchases are made or grants obtained from the natives occupying the
nation
territory.
2.
Rules for Establishing Title.

civilized nations are the result of nat-
The
rules
promulgated by
ural development. Priority of itself gave a right to occupy discovered territory, the occupation to be effected within reasonable time after the discovery. This right was not limited to the spot actually
occupied, but extended rather to a section of country drained by In later years, however, the tendency prevailed to show rivers.
more substantial grounds

ficient.
of title than was hitherto deemed sufin the declaration adopted in the culminated finally Berlin Conference of 1885, in which Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal,
It
Russia, Sweden, Norway, Turkey, and the United States agreed that "any power which henceforth takes possession of a tract of land on
the coasts of the African continent outside of
its present possessions, or which, being hitherto without such possessions, shall acquire effect, as well as the power which assumes a protectorate there, shall accompany the respective act with a notification thereof addressed to
them,
the other signatory powers of the present act, in order to enable if need be, to make good any claims of their own. The the' '
ory of spheres of influence and the theory or practice of the "Hinterland" idea are not introduced into international municipal law.
3.
Modes
of Acquiring Title.
Title to territory
may
also be acquired
instance, a gradual formation of
Other modes of acquiring
titles
by accretion where, for an island or dry land takes place. are by cession, the document stip-
ulating such cessiou, the effects of such cession, in addition to the rules of international and municipal law which are applicable. Cession takes place without the consent of the population, which is
only necessary whenever

Title
title
by conquest
is
no longer recogni'-ed.
acquired if, after occupation by military forces, the occupied territory is ceded by treaty. The cession of such territory docs not operate to disturb the relations of the inhab-
by conquest
is
20
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
itants with respect to one another, but severs the ties with the former government and transfers allegiance to the new sovereign.
by prescription, and arises out of a long continued possession either where no original proprietary right can be shown or where adverse possession has continued without oppoThe length of time of sition being raised by the rightful owner.
Title is also acquired
occupation is not definitely established, although a period of fifteen 3êars could be assumed as a sufficiently long possession to vest a The title, in order to permit acquisition title (For Rel. 1896, 254).
of title
by occupation, must be
clearly
shown by an express
act or
by some kind of manifestation. That a revolution may establish a new sovereignty is frequently set forth by historical facts. Internal development may also cause the acquisition of sovereign rights, as evidenced by Japan, which, after acknowledging the postulates of international law, was recognized as a law governed nation.
VI.
NATIONAL JURISDICTION.
state,
National jurisdiction is exercised in the territory constituting a which includes land and water. If a river forms a boundary
states, it is the
between two
common property
of both states
and
accessible for navigation to every country.
As regards
straits, the
"Institut de Droit International" has fixed
certain rules according to which the bordering states exercise sovereignty to the middle line, while straits having shores belonging
to
one
state
form part of the
territorial borders of such states.
Straits serving as a passage from one free sea to another cannot be closed. The Dardanelles, by various treaties concluded with Turkey,
opened to navigation by commercial vessels. No stipulation, however, was made as regards men-of-war. In a treaty concluded at London in 1841, Turkey expressly prohibited the entrance of foreign
Avere
war
vessels into the Dardanelles

1.
and the Bosphorus.
Jurisdiction Over Vessels.
In connection with the national jurisdiction of states, the status may be considered, which, to all intents and purposes, may be considered a part of the territory of the nation under whose flag
of ships
they sail. It therefore follows that an offense perpetrated on board a man-of-war on the high seas is subject to the jurisdiction of the
nation to
whom
the ship belongs.
This view
is
accepted for public
NATIONAL JURISDICTION.
21
and private vessels of every nation on the high seas and without the territorial limits of another state. The crew of a ship is therefore not subject to the criminal laws and procedure of another nain contravention of the tion, and any attempt to enforce jurisdiction
rules of international
is
'
law should be staunchly resisted. Jurisdiction not acquired over a foreign vessel where a crime or a tort has been committed on the high seas, and the vessel subsequently enters the port of a nation whose citizen has suffered by reason of said crime or tort. The rules Avith respect to regularly chartered vessels,
of course, are not applicable to vessels lacking in national character The jurisdiction of a nation in its own territory is absolute, and
is
not modified by any limitations imposed from without as being
in contravention of the sovereignty exercised
by the
state.
A vessel
in
harbor or port of a country within the territorial limits A vessel, therefore, thereof, is subject to its laws and procedure. of French nationality in the harbor of New York cannot be seized, for instance, by a Spanish ship under any pretext, as this act would constitute an infringement of the sovereign rights of the United
the
States.
2.
Limitations of Jurisdiction.
Limitations of national jurisdiction have been created by treaties neutralizing a part of the whole of the state or particular bodies or streams of water. Further limitations of jurisdiction are given
where an act of an individual under the authority of his government, in times of war and dictated by necessity, is committed, and such act is cognizable in accordance with the rules and practices of international law. It is otherwise, however, if the act is not done in times of war and forced by necessity.
3.
Status of Aliens.
The status of
is
citizens of
a foreign country residing in another

;
practically identical with that of a native they are subject to the laws and judicial procedure of that country.
In the absence of partiality and miscarriage of justice, redress to the diplomatic representatives of their country does not lie.
VII.
EXEMPTION FROM TERRITORIAL JURISDICTION.

Territorial jurisdiction
is
not exercised in certain cases.
Thus, the
person of a sovereign
foreign territory;
ministers.
exempt from arrest or detention within a the same consideration is extended to foreign
is
22
Jurisdiction
is
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
also
waived where a sovereign permits the passage
of troops of a foreign nation through his territory. Vessels of war are subject only to the law of the state under
This exemption from local jurisdiction is flag they sail. accorded to such vessels even when sojourning in the ports or territorial waters of a foreign state.
whose
1.
Extraterritorial Jurisdiction.
The
diversities of the laws of the
non-European countries are
re-
sponsible for the enforcement of an exemption from the operation of the local law. By treaties consuls exercise jurisdiction over citizens
of consuls are usually rather broad, but are nature and are exercised only in such cases
non-European country. The powers more of a mediatory where the return of citizens to their home country cannot be awaited to obtain adjudication of the matter at issue. Such extraterritorial jurisdiction is exercised in Turkey, China, and other countries.
of their country residing in a
2.
The Right of Asylum.
In the exercise of sovereignty, the state has the right to determine under what circumstances and to what persons asylum is granted, either as a matter of permanent residence or of temporary
sojourn. It is the common practice of states to grant refuge to political offenders exiled from the state of nativity. The practice of
asylum
is
not sanctioned by international law, but
is
traced ])ack
in this book.
to the consent of the state in
which
it is
sought
to be maintained,
Further discussion of
this subject is
made elsewhere
VIII.
CITIZENSHIP.
The state, having been defined as an association of human beings, the latter form the component units and as such are called subjects or citizens. The terms subject and citizen are synouomous in international law and apply to all owing allegiance to the state. The Constitution of the United States, as originally adopted, uses the words "citizen of the United States" and "natural-born citizen
of the United States." By the original Constitution every Representative in Congress is required to have been "seven years a citizen of the United States" and every Senator to have been "nine
CITIZENSHIP.
23
years a citizen of the United States"; and "no person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of
The fourteenth article of amendment, besides declaring that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside," also declares that "no State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or
President."
immunities of citizens of the United States
nor shall any State de-
prive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal pro;
tection of the laws."
And
the iifteenth article of
amendment
de-
clares that "the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." A citizen or subject may be defined as an individual member of
a state owing the duty of allegiance in return for the protection

received.
The Constitution nowhere defined the meaning of these words, either by way of inclusion or of exclusion, except in so far as this is done by the affirmative declaration that "all persons bom or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction
thereof, are citizens of the United States." In this respect, as in other respects, it must be interpreted in the light of the common law, the principles and history of which were familiarly known to
the framers of the Constitution.
(Per Mr. Justice Gray in United 169 U. S., 649, 654.) States V. Ark, 1897, be made the citizenship of the United to Additions might always and in two ways: first, by birth, States second, by naturalization. Constitution from the This is apparent itself, for it provides that
Wong Kim
"no person except a natural-born
citizen, or
a citizen of the United
States at the time of the adoption of the Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President," and that Congress shall liave
power "to
establish a
uniform rule of naturalization."
Thus new
citizens may be born or they may be created by naturalization. (Minor v. Ilappersett, 1874, 21 AVall. 162, 167, Mr. Chief Just.
Waite).
Citizenship by birth
may
exist
(1)
by
reason
of
birth
in
particular place (jure soli). and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not (Rev. taxed, are declared to be citizens of the United States.
Stats.
All persons born in
tlu;
United States
1992;
sec.
1,
Civil
iiights Act,
April
9,
1860, 14 St. 27.)
24
(2)
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
reason of the nationality of the parents (jure sanguinis). By section 1993 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, incorporating the provisions of the act of February 10, 1855, "All
By
children heretofore born or hereafter born out of the limits and

jurisdiction of the United States, whose fathers were or may be at the time of their birth citizens thereof, are declared to be citizens of
the United States
but the rights of citizenship shall not descend to children whose father never resided in the United States." Ludlam
;
V.
Ludlam, 26 N. Y. 356; Albany
v.
Derby, 30 Vt. 718;
Ware
v.
Wisner, 50 Fed. Rep. 310).
IX.
NATURALIZATION.
Citizenship may be acquired by renouncing allegiance to the state of nativity and acquiring allegiance in a new state. "The inadequacy of existing legislation touching citizenship and naturalization demands your consideration. While recognizing the
right of expatriation, no statutory provision exists providing means for renouncing citizenship by an American citizen, native-born or naturalized, nor for terminating and vacating an improper acquisition of citizenship. Even a fraudulent decree of naturalization cannot now be canceled. The privilege and franchise of American citizenship should be granted with care, and extended to those only
who intend in good faith to assume its duties and responsibilities when attaining its privileges and benefits; it should be withheld from those who merely go through the forms of naturalization with
the intent of escaping the duties of their original allegiance without taking upon themselves those of their new status, or who may
acquire the rights of American citizenship for no other than a hostile purpose towards their original governments. These evils have had many flagrant illustrations. I regard with favor the suggestion put forth by one of my predecessors, that provision be made for a central bureau of record of the decrees of naturalization
granted by the various courts throughout the United States invested with that power."
(President Cleveland, annual message, Dec.
8,
now
1885, For. Rel. 1885,
XV.)
"I renew the recommendation of my last annual message, that existing legislation concerning citizenship and naturalization be revised. have treaties with many states providing
We
NATURALIZATION.
for the renunciation of citizenship
25
aliens,
by naturalized
but
no statute is found to give effect to such engagements, nor any which provides a needed central bureau for the registration of naturalized citizens." (President Cleveland, annual message, Dec.
6,
1886, For. Rel. 1886, XI.)
NATURALIZATION LAWS.
Act of June
29, 1906 (34 Stat. L., Part 1, p. 596), as amended in sections 16, 17, and 19 by the act of Congress approved in section 13 March 4, 1909 (35 Stat. L., Part 1, p. 1102) by the act of Congress approved June 25, 1910 (36 Stat. L., Part 1, p. 830) by the act of Congress approved March 4, 1913 (37 Stat. L., Part 1, p. 736), creating the Department of Labor; and by the act of Congress approved May 9, 1918 (Public, No.
; ;
144, 65th Cong., 2d sess.) Sec. 3. That exclusive jurisdiction to naturalize aliens as citizens
of the United States

fied courts:
is
hereby conferred upon the following speci-
may
United States circuit and district courts now existing, or which hereafter be established by Congress in any State, United States district courts for the Territories of Arizona, New Mexico,
Oklahoma, Hawaii, and Alaska, the supreme -court of the District of Columbia and the United States courts for the Indian Territory
;
also all courts of record in
any State or Territory now existing, or which may hereafter be created, having a seal, a clerk, and jurisdiction in actions at law or equity, or law and equity, in Avhich
the
amount
in controversy is unlimited.
That the naturalization jurisdiction of all courts herein specified shall extend only to aliens resident State, Territorial, and Federal within the respective judicial districts of such courts.
The
courts herein
specified shall,
upon the
requisition
of the
clerks of suoh courts, be furnished from time to time by the Bureau of Naturalization with j^nch blank forms as may be required in the naturalization of aliens, and all certificates of naturalization shall be consecutively numbered and printed on safety paper furnished
by said bujeau.
1.
Requirements for Acquiring Citizenship.
That an alien may be admitted to become a citizen oC the Sec. 4. United States in the foHowing mauner and not otherwise: First. He shall declare on oath before the clerk of any court authorized by this Act to naturalize aliens, or liis authorized deputy,
in the district in
which such
alien resides,
two years
at least prior
26
to his admission,
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
and after lie has reached the age of eighteen years, bona fide his intention to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state or sovereignty, and particularly, by name, to the prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty of which the
that
it is
alien
may
be at the time a citizen or subject.
And
such declaration
name, age, occupation, personal description, place of birth, last foreign residence and allegiance, the date of arrival, the name of the vessel, if any, in which he came to the United States, and the present place of residence in the United States of said
alien Provided, howevei*. That no alien who, in conformity with the law in force at the date of his declaration, has declared his
:
shall set forth the
intention to become a citizen of the United States shall be required to renew such declaration.
Second. Not less than two years nor more than seven years after he had made such declaration of intention he shall make and file, in
duplicate, a petition in writing, signed
by the applicant
in his
own
handwriting and duly verified, in which petition such applicant shall state his full name, his place of residence (by street and number,
and place of the place from which he emigrated, and the date and place of his arrival in the United States, and, if he entered through a port, the name of the vessel on which he arrived the time when and
if
possible), his occupation, and, if possible, the date

:
his birth
the place and name of the court where he declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States if he is married he shall state
;
of his wife, and, if possible, the country of her nativity and her place of residence at the time of filing his petition; and if he has children, the name, date, and place of birth and place of the
name
residence of each child living at the time of the filing of his petition Provided, That if he has filed his declaration before the passage of
;
this
Act he
shall not be required to sign the petition in his
own
handwriting
The petition shall also be verified by the affidavits of at least two credible witnesses, who are citizens of the United States, and who shall state in their affidavits that they have personally known the
least five years continuously, trict in which the application
applicant to be a resident of the United States for a period of at and of the State, Territory, or dis-
is made for a period of at least one the date of the filing of his petition, and year immediately preceding that they each have personal knowledge that the petitioner is a
person of good moral character, and that he is in every way qualified, in their opinion to be admitted as a citizen of the United States
27
Third. He shall, before he is admitted to citizenship, declare on oath in open court that he will support the Constitution of the United States, and that he absolutely and entirely renounces and
abjures all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state or sovereignty of which he was before a citizen or subject that he will support and defend the Constitution and laws of the United
;
States against
faith
all
and allegiance
enemies, foreign and domestic, to the same.

2.
and bear true
Declaration of Intention.
The status of aliens having made the declaration of intention to become citizens of the United States is next to be considered. Under the law an alien who desires to become a citizen of the United States must declare on oath before the clerk of a court authorized to naturalize aliens that it is his intention to become a citizen of the United States and renounce all other allegiance, and
that he intends to permanently reside in the United States, such declaration being made at least two years prior to his final application for admission to citizenship. (Sec. 4, par. 1, Sec. 27, form
approved June 29, 1906.) The following paragraph in the declaration must be taken into consideration: ''It is my bona fide intention to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, and particularly to of which I am now a citizen
of declaration,
(subject)." It is true that the government does not accord a declarant the protection accorded a citizen for the reason that the citizenship of a declarant
pleted,
it
is
in a formative state
and
in order that
it
may
be com-
necessary that he reside continuously in the United States for five years. The government does not owe protection to
is
one
who has
declared his intention and by mere chance goes abroad
for a short period, for the reason that his first paper (declaration) becomes null and void; he has destroyed the continuance of his
residence.
By
his
declaration of citizenship he "renounced for-
ever
.state,
all
He
is
any foreign prince, potentate, or sovereignty," and consequently he expatriated himself. a man without nationality. The United States laws have
liim,
allegiance and fidelity to
under oath, to renounce allegiance to his former expatriating him, and still these laws are not in a position to give him the rights of a citizen. Furthermore, in accordance with the law, lie is denationalized. For this reason foreign
required
govcrniiieiit,
governments do not recognize the declaration of intention
to
become
28
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
American
citizens. The United States Government, in its convention treaties like that signed with Costa Rica and ratified by the United States Senate December 14, 1912, states in Article 5: "The
declaration of intention to become a citizen of the one or the other
country, has not for either party the fact of naturalization." (Nicaragua, Naturalization Convention, 1908, Article 3; Argentine, Naturalization Convention, 1909, Article 5.) No other country in the
world has enacted any statutes expatriating a citizen without

ing him with
vest-
new
citizenship.
3.
Declaration of Withdrawal.
In one of the leading cases, "The Venus," 1814, Cranch 253, 280, Chief Justice Marshall laid down the law in such comprehensive
terms that
it
may
be well quoted:
this national character which a man acquires by residence may be thrown off at pleasure by a return to his native country, or even by turning his back on the country in which
"But
he has resided on his way to another. .. .Mere declarations of such an intention ought never to be relied upon when contradicted, or, at least, rendered doubtful by a continuance of that residence which impresses the character. They may have been made to deceive or, if sincerely made, they may never be executed. Even the party himself ought not to be bound by them, because he may afterwards find reason to change his determination, and ought to be permitted to do so. In accordance with this decision, the Selective Service Regulation of the United States, published by the office of the Provost
;
' '
Marshall General August
form of
affidavit
under Section 323, issued a for neutral declarants which provides that "a
15,
1918,
citizen or subject of a country neutral in the present war who has declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States
shall be relieved
from
liability to military service
upon
his
making
declaration, in accordance with such regulations as the President
may
prescribe, withdrawing his intention to become a citizen of the United States, which shall operate and be held to cancel his declaration of intention to become an American citizen and he
shall forever be debarred

States.
(C. S. S.
R. No.
6,
from becoming a citizen of the United August 15, 1918.)"
4.
Continuous Residence.
By
section
12 of the act approved
March
3,
1813,
which act
provided for "the regulation of seamen on board the public and private vessels of the United States," it was declared that "no
person
29
United States from and after the time admitted to become a citizen of the United States who shall not for the continued term of five years next preceding his admission as aforesaid have resided within the United States, without being at any time durmg the said five years out of the territory of the United States. Only one case has been foimd in which the stringent rule exIn pressed in the statute of 1813 was brought into operation. that case, Ex parte Paul, 1844, 7 Hill, 56, it appeared that Alexander
who
shall arrive in the
when
this act shall take ejffeet shall be
' '
lie
Paul, an alien born in Ireland, applied for naturalization as a citizen. had come to the United States in July 1836, and he had since that time resided here. The only question as to his naturalization arose out of the following facts "In September, 1843, the applicant left the city of Rochester to go to Ogdensburgh, St. Lawrence County, by way of the The steamboat in which he traveled stopped about ten lake.
:
minutes at Kingston, Upper Canada, to take in passengers, during w^hich time the applicant stepped upon the wharf or dock, where he remained some two or three minutes, and then returned to the boat and proceeded to Ogdensburgh." The court, referring to the strict language of the statute of 1813,
said:
object of the provision was undoubtedly to right depend upon the simple enquiry whether he has in fact remained within the United States during the whole five years next preceding his application, and thus exclude all enquiry as to the intention and purpose of his deIn the present ease the applicant has not complied parture. with the condition upon which his right to become a citizen depends, and his application must, therefore, be rejected." In the case of in re Ilawley, 1866, 1 Daly, 531, the court refers
"The leading make the alien's
to
the court has in

facts of
a case (which seems never to have been reported, unless, indeed, mind and is confused over Ex parte Paul), the
which he stated as follows "It was decided in this court that a person visiting the falls of Niagara, who had crossed to the Canadian side to look at the falls from that point of view, had been out of the territory'- of the United States, and could not be naturalized until the
:
expiration of five years thereafter."

5.
Dual Nationality.
Cases frequently arise where the jus soli and the jus sanguinis are both applicable, giving rise, to a conflict of citizenship termed "dual allegiance or nationality." The reason for this conflict is
found in the mnnici[)al law of the United States declaring
th;it
30
xêrsons
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
bom in the jurisdiction of the United States are citizens of the country, and in the further rule that children born abroad of citizens are considered citizens of the country. The conflict of
soli
citizenship arises frequently by reason of the existence of the jus and the jus sanguinis, and such conliict is solved by the express
or implied election of the child upon reaching majority. This election may be manifested either by repairing to the country of the father's nationality or by remaining in the country of birth.
Another cause of dual allegiance is present where a person obnew allegiance by naturalization without severing the ties binding him to the country of original allegiance. Of interest is the new German law of nationality of 1913 (Reichs- und StaatsJuli 1913, R. G. Bl. 583), which Angehorigkeitsgesetz vom 22.
tains a
designedly approves of dual allegiance by stipulating that a

subject residing in a foreign country
German
therein without renouncing his German nunciation of the prior allegiance is a condition precedent to obtaining the new nationality. (This requirement is made in the United
States.)
6.
may acquire naturalization nationality, unless such re-
Impeachment
of Citizenship.
to
Naturalization being an act by a court of record, it is subject impeachment for similar reasons which would render any judgment of a court invalid. Thus, naturalization obtained under
may be impeached. A recent case in point United States v. Darmer, 249 Fed. 989, according to which the defendant refused to buy any government bonds for the prosecution of the war on the ground that he, the defendant, was of German descent, and that by buying bonds he would be "kicking his own mother." The Court held that the conduct and statements
fraudulent statements
is
of the defendant conclusively proved that defendant's allegiance was to Germany and not to the United States, and that defendant
took falsely an oath renouncing his allegiance to Germany and his Emperor by means of which he secured his certificate of naturalization.
For
this reason the certificate of citizenship

7.
was canceled.
Requirements in Other Countries.

of 1869.
ARGENTINE: Law
by naturalization
:
Art.
2.
The following are
citizens
1. Foreigners over eighteen years of age who reside two years continuously in the Republic and declare their desire to be such before the federal district judges.
31
AUSTRIA:
General Civil Code.
See. 29.
B'oreiguers acquire
Austrian citizenship by entering the public service; (by engaging in an industry the carrying on of which necessitates a regular domicile in the country;) by an uninterrupted residence of ten years in these States, provided the foreigner has not incurred punishment
for
any crime during

Provided he
is
this period.
HUNGARY: Law
(2)
is
of
1879.
foreigner
acquires
citizenship:
if
a member of any home parish community, or

so.
he
in process of
(3)
becoming Provided he has been living in the interior for

list
five
years
without interruption. Providing he has been inscribed on the (6)

five years.
of taxpayers for
BELGIUM:
LaAV of August
it is
6,
1881.
Art.
to
2.
In order to obtain
have attained the full necessary: 1, "grand" to one or more children married or have be to age of 25 years; 2, in resided to have from a marriage; 3, Belgium for at least ten
naturalization
years.
BOLIVIA: x\ct of October 28, 1880. Par. 2. Foreigners who, having resided one year in the Republic, declare their desire to
settle
in
Bolivia
reside.
before
the
authorities
of
the
nuinicipality
in
which they
Par. 4. All forConstitution. Citizenship acquire: do not declare their who November Brazil on in 15, 1889, eigners intention to retain their original nationality within six months after
the constitution goes into force.
BRAZIL:
who own real estate in Brazil, and are married have Brazilian children, provided they reside or to Brazilian women, in Brazil, unless they declare their intention not to change their
Par.
5.
Foreigners
nationality.
CHILE:
Constitution of 1833.
Citizenship acquire:
Par.
3.
For-
eigners who, having desire to settle in Ciiile before the municipality of the Territory in which they reside, and apply for naturalization papers.
resided in the Republic one year, declare their
Par.
4.
Those who have been naturalized as a special favor by
the Congress.
Foreigners
COLO.MBIA: Constitution of 1886. Par. 3. P,y ad()i)1ion. who request and obtain naturalization papers. Persons born COSTA RICA: Con.stitution of 1871. Iîr.
:{.
in
other countries who, after having resided one year obtain naturalization papers.
in tlie
Republic,
32
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
CUBA: Constitution, Par, 3. Foreigners who, after five years' residence in the territory of the Republic, and not less than two years from the time that they declared their intention of acquiring Cuban citizenship, may obtain their letters of naturalization in
conformity with the laws.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Constitution
Par,
4.
All persons
naturalized according to the laws.

Par. 5, All foreigners of any friendly nation, provided they establish their domicile within the territory of the Republic and declare their desire to become Dominicans, and provided they shall
have resided here at
least
two years and expressly renounce their
nationality before the proper authority, acquire citizenship. For the purpose of this article the legitimate children of foreigners
residing in the Republic as representatives or in the service of their country shall not be considered as being born within the territory
of the Republic,
ECUADOR:
Constitution of 1897,
Citizenship acquire:
Par,
5.
Foreigners who profess science, art, or useful industry, or who may be owners of real property or invested capital, and who, after having resided one year in the Republic, declare their intention of becoming
domiciled therein and obtain letters of naturalization.
Par,
6,
All
who
obtain nationality rights for services to the
Republic.
FRANCE
Those who
1,
26, 1889, grants citizenship to naturalized their application, be on may Aliens who have obtained permission to establish
:
The law of June
III,
their
domicile in France, after three years of such domicile, Art. 8, Sec, 5, new, of the Code,)
(Same law,
GERMAN EMPIRE: Law

have
lost their citizenship
of June, 1870,
by
a ten years' residence abroad
North Germans who and then
return to the territory of the North German Confederation, acquire citizenship in that State of the Confederation in which they settle
by means
request.
of a certificate of admission issued
trative authority.
by the higher adminisThis certificate must be issued to them on their

Naturalization Act of 1870.
Par.
GREAT BRITAIN:
7.
An
alien who, within such limited time before making the application hereinafter mentioned as may be allowed by one of Her Majesty's
principal secretaries of state, either by general order or on any special occasion, has resided in the United Kingdom for a term of
not less than
33
five years, or lias been in the service of the Crown for a term of not less than five years, and intended when naturalized either to reside in the United Kingdom or to serve under the
Crown, may apply
to
one of Her Majesty's principal secretaries of

A=rt. 15.
state for a certificate of naturalization.
GREECE
is
Civil LaAv 391, Oct. 29, 1856.
An
alien
who
of age according to the laAv of the nation to which he belongs may become a Greek by naturalization. Every person wishing to be naturalized must declare his desire to the authorities of the place
where he wishes
three years
to establish his residence,

if
he shall reside in Greece two years

;
he
is
and after the declaration of the Greek race, and
if of a different race upon the expiration of this period, and upon procuring a certificate from the proper public attorney that he has not committed any of the crimes or offenses embraced within article 22 of the penal code, he must take the oath of a Greek before the proper prefect.
GUATEMALA:
ization
Constitution.
Par.
:
6.
Law
relating to natural-
and acquisition
of citizenship
All foreigners may acquire citizenship in Guatemala after (a) two years' residence and complying with legal requirements. ("Ley de Extranjeria," articles 86 and 88. Inclosure II).
HAITI:
Constitution.
Art.
9.
Every
citizen
who has
attained
the age of 21 years shall exercise political rights if he the other conditions established by the constitution.
after five years' residence in the Republic.
fulfills all
Naturalized Haitians are only permitted to exercise these rights
HONDURAS:
by:
Par.
2.
Constitution, 1901:.
Citizenship
may
be acquired
Other foreigners who have resided in the country two their desire to become naturalized therein before and declare years
the proper authority. Law of July 9, 1898. II. The minister of the home department may give the permission mentioned in the preceding article, if the following requisites exist as to the alien.
JAPAN
1.
He must have had

in
his domicile or residence for at least one full
year
Japan.
Constitution. Art. 13.
MP]XICO:
At
the expiration of
tlio
six
months, and when the alien has resided two years in the Republic, he may petition the Federal Government to grant liim Iiis certificate of naturalization. In order to obtain it lii> must first appear before
the district .judge in
whose
jurisdietioii
he
is,
and undertake to
prove the following facts:
34
I.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
That under the laws of his eoimtry he enjoys
full civil rights,
being of age. II. That he has resided in the Republic at least two years, and has conducted himself properly.
III.
That he has a business, trade, profession, or income to supof

:
port him.
NETHERLANDS: Law
December
12, 1892.
foreigner, to
Par. 2. That he has lost his Netheracquire citizenship, lands nationality or that he has during the last five years had his
residence or his principal stopping place in the
nies or possessions in other parts of the world.
must prove
Kingdom
or
its colo-
Constitution, 1905. Citizenship is acquired by: Spanish- American citizens who declare before the respective authority their desire to become naturalized in the country.
NICARAGUA:
1.
Par.
Par.
2.
All other aliens
who have
resided two years in the coun-
try and
make
the same declaration.

Constitution.
PANAMA:
Citizenship
is
acquired by:
Par,
3.
Foreigners who, professing some science,
art, or
industry, or owning
some real estate or capital in circulation, and who, having completed ten years of residence within the Territory of Panama, declare before the municipal authorities of the place in which they have been residing, their intention of becoming citizens of Panama.
PARAGUAY
ization in
Constitution of 1870.
it
Art. 36.
To obtain naturalhave
re-
Paraguay
shall be sufficient for the alien to
sided two consecutive years in the country and owned some real estate, had some capital invested in business, practiced some proThis fession, or engaged in some industrial occupation or art.
period of two years
may
be shortened
if
the alien has married a
Paraguayan or proves that he has rendered services to the Republic. PERU: Constitution. Art. 35. The following are Peruvians by
naturalization
:
Foreigners over 21 years of age residing in Peru,
who
exercise
some trade, industry, or profession, and who are inscribed in the civil register in the manner prescribed by law. PERSIA: Ordinance. Sec. III. Whosoever being a citizen of a foreign state applies to become a subject of Persia, he must show,
of full age second, that he has lived five years in of succession in some part Persia; third, that he is not under conin the country of his nativity, committed demnation for any crime
first,
that he
is
and that he
is
not a fugitive from the military service of the state.
NATURALIZATION IN TIME OF WAR.
35
Having given proof

and privileges of
of his fitness, his certificate of naturalization
will be delivered to him,
and he can then obtain
all
the rights
a citizen of Persia.
Civil Code.
:
Foreigners may acquire citizenship they are able to earn a livelihood by tlieir own efforts or have other means of subsistence
:
PORTUGAL
1.
Par.
When
Par.
2.
When
:
they have resided at least a year in Portuguese
territory.
SALVADOR Constitution. Citizenship is acquired by Par. 2. Foreigners who apply for and obtain naturalization from the same authority, by proving their good character and two years' residence
:
in Salvador.
TURKEY
lived in the
Law
of 1869.
Art. 111.
foreigner of age
who has
Ottoman Empire consecutively for five years can obtain Ottoman nationality by submitting personally, or through intermediary, a petition to the department of foreign
affairs.
URUGUAY:
ized citizens:
Constitution.
Ai't.
8.
The following are natural-
zens and
Foreigners who are the parents of native-born citiwho were domiciled in the country before the establish;
ment
the children born abroad of a of the present constitution father or mother born in the country, as soon as they take up their residence therein foreigners who have fought or may fight in
;
foreigners, even without children, or with foreign children, but married to women of the country, who professing some science, art, or industry, or having
the
army
or
navy of the nation
as officers;
some capital invested

at
the time this constitution
in business or real estate, reside in the State is adopted; foreigners, married to
foreign
tioned,
women, who possess some of the qualifications just menand have resided three years in the State.
X.
NATURALIZATION IN TIME OF WAR.

The Act of 1798 provides: "No alien who shall be a native citizen or denizen or subject of any nation or state with whom ohe United States shall be at war at the time of his application shall be then admitted to become a citizen of the United States." This was repealed by the act of 1802, but the latter law contained a similar Tliis l.'iw was enforced wlicn tlic war of 1812 was dej)rovision. clared, and two decisions were rendered under it.
36
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
In his "Element of International
Law"
General Halleck declares
(Page 133)
of peace
"The
right of voluntary expatriation exists only in time
and for lawful purposes." Mr. Pish, Secretary of State, said: "It (expatriation) cannot be exercised by one while residing in a country whose allegiance he desires to renounce. During the existence of hostilities no subject of a belligerent can transfer his allegiance or acquire another citizenship, as the desertion of one country in time of war is an act of criminality, and to admit the right of expatriation 'flagrante bello' would be to afford a cover to desertion and treasonable aid
to the public
enemy,"
XI.
ALIENS.
aliens, for a long time a subject of dispute and has now been definitely settled by judicial decisions contradictions,
The Status of
and by agreement. Aliens coming within our territory are
entitled to the same protection in their personal rights as our own citizens and no more. The policy of the United States (Butler, At. Gen. 1837, 3 Op. 254.) in all cases of complaints made by foreigners is to extend to them
the
same means of redress
as
is
enjoyed by our own
citizens.
(Gush-
ing, At. Gen. 1855, 7 Op. 229).
Every foreign-born, residing in a country, owes to that country allegiance and obedience to its laws as long as he remains in it, as a duty imposed upon him by the mere fact of his residence, and the temporary protection which he enjoys, and is as much bound to
obey its laws as native subjects or citizens. This is the universal understanding in all civilized states, and nowhere a more established doctrine than in this country. (Mr. Webster, Sec. of State, report
to the President, Dec. 23, 1851.)
1.
Residence.
Residence, in its legal acceptation, is the place of the party's home or domicile, and not merely the spot occupied by him for the
time being. This may be constantly varying, but every change of abode is not regarded as constituting a new residence without the accompaniment of an intention to abandon the former with the
purpose of taking up another. Aliens domiciled in the United States owe to the Government a
local
and temporary
allegiance,
which continues during the period
ALIENS.
of
tlieir
37
residence,
and for the violation of which they may become

for treason, just as a
citizen.
liable to prosecution
(Carlisle
v.
United States, 16 Wall. 147.)

2.
Sojourners.
Mr. Justice Field laid down the controlling principle in these words: "The rights of sovereignty," says Wildman, in his Institutes on International Law, "extend to all persons and things not privileged that are within the territory. They extend to all strangers therein, not only to those who are naturalized and to those who are domiciled therein, having taken up their abode with the intention of permanent residence, but also to those whose residence is transitory. All strangers are under the protection of the sovereign while they are within his territories, and owe a temporary allegiance in
return for that protection." By allegiance is meant the obligation of fidelity and obedience which the individual owes to the governlives, or to his sovereign in return for the he receives. It may be an absolute and permanent obligaprotection or it tion, may be a qualified and temporary one. The citizen or subject owes an absolute and permanent allegiance to his govern-
ment under which he
ment or sovereign, or at least until, by some open and distinct act, he renounces it and becomes a citizen or subject of another government or another sovereign. The alien, whilst domociled in the country, owes a local and temporary allegiance, which continues
during the period of his residence.
XII.
EXPATRIATION.
an act approved March 3, 1865 (Stats, at Large, chap. 79, Congress provided that in addition to the other laAvful I)onalties of the crime of desertion from the military or naval service, all persons who have deserted the military or naval service of the United States, who shall not return to said service or report themV>y
see. 21),
selves to a provost-marslial within sixty days after the proclamation hereinafter mentioned, shall be deemed and taken to have voluntarily
relinquished and forfeited their rights of citizenship and their rights

to
become citizens. The act means,

it
said the court in a
number
of cases, that the
forfeiture which
must
prescribes, like all other ponnlties for desertion, be adjudged to the convicted person, after a trial by a court-
martial, and sfiitciK'c ii|.i)roved.
(lluber
v.
Reily, 18GG, 53 Pa. St.,
115918
38
112.)
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Aud
the conviction in such case can be proved only
by
duly authenticated record. N. Y. 420.)
(Groetscheus
v,
Matthewson,
187-5,
61
The question of the right of a citizen to expatriate himself from the American Union has been the subject of considerable discussion by the courts. One of the earliest expressions on the question is to be found in Jansen v. Brigantine, 1794, Bee, 11, 23, where the
court,
parties cases cited on both sides as to the right of expatriation and emigration, in the general manner there laid down, where no legal prohibition exists and no prejudice is done thereby. The act of naturalization of Congress
this doctrine,
commenting upon the alleged expatriation to the action said: "I have perused, with
of one
of
the
attention, the
and the constitution of this State concur to sanction and we should with an ill grace refuse to our own citito others.
zens
what we thus hold out
The same view,

circuit courts in
substantially,
v.
was expressed by one
of the Federal
Stoughton Taylor, before 1840, 2 Paine C. C, 656, 661: "In this country," said Van Ness, J., "expatriation is conceived to be a fundamental right." As far as the principles maintained and the practice adopted by the Government of the United It is States is evidence of its existence, it is fully recognized. constantly exercised and has never in any way been restrained.
In 1879, in United States v. Crook, 5 Dill., 453, 464, the court, in passing upon the right of an Indian to forsake his tribal relations, took occasion to speak of the right of expatriation, which he denominated a "God-given right." In 1897, Jennes v. Landes, 84 Fed.,
73, 74, the statute was expressly referred to by the court, and an interpretation given of its meaning, Hanford, district judge, saying: "A change of allegiance from one government to another can
only be effected by the voluntary action of the subject, complying fully with the conditions of naturalization laws, so that there is
the government to which the
that
concurrent action and assent on the part of both the subject and new allegiance attaches. Authorities
entitled to great respect have been cited in the argument, holding it is also necessary to have assent on the part of the government
renounced.
In
my
opinion that rule no longer obtains in the United
States, since Congress, by the act of July 27, 1868, now reenacted in section 1999, Revised Statutes, has expressly declared it to be the policy of our Government that the right of expatriation is a natural
and inherent right of

the rights of
life,
all
people, indispensable to the enjoyment of
liberty,
and the pursuit
of happiness.
'
'
DIPLOMATIC AGENTS.
XIII.
39
DIPLOMATIC AGENTS.
1.
Commissioners and Special Envoys.
The expression "ambassadors and other public ministers," in the Constitution, must be understood as comprehending all officers having diplomatic functions, whatever their title or designation. The commissioner of the United States in China is a diplomatic officer by the law of nations, and a judicial officer by treaty and
statute.
(Cushing, At. Gen., 1855, 7 Op. 186.)

2.
Appointment.
"The
Constitution having declared that the President shall nomi-
nate and, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, the President desired my opinion whether the Senate has a right to negative
the grade he may think it expedient to use in a foreign mission as well as the person to be appointed. I think the Senate" has no right to negative the grade." (Opinion of Mr. Jefferson, Apr. 24, 1790,
7 Jeff.
Works, 465.) The President, under the Constitution, has power to appoint diplomatic agents of any rank, at any place, and at any time,
to
subject
ate.
the
constitutional
limitations
in
respect
to
the Sen-
The authority to make such appointments is not derived from, and cannot be limited by, any act of Congress, except in so far
as appropriations of money are required to provide for the expenses of this branch of the public service. During the early administra-
tions of the government, the appropriations made for the expenses of foreign intercourse were to be expended in the discretion of the
President, and from this general fund ministers
whom
the President
saw
Congress, in any view, cannot require that the President shall make removals or reappointments or new
fit
to
name were
paid.
a[)pointments of public ministers at a particular time, nor that he .shall appoint or maintain ministers of a prescribed rank, at particular courts. Tt was therefore held that where the act of ^larch 1,
1855 (10 Stat. 019), declared that from and after the end of the present fiscal ycai" the President shall appoint envoys, etc.. lliis was not to be construed to mean that the President was required to mak('
any such ai)pointments, but only
to determine
what should be the

shall be appointed.
salaries of tlie officers in case they
have been or
(Cushing, At. Gen., 1855, 7 Op. 186.)
40
3.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Classification of Ministers.
Rules of Congress of Vienna. For the sake of convenience and of diplouniformity in determining tlie relative rank and precedence and has State of adopted matic representatives, the Department in the found of the of Vienna, Congress prescribed the seven rules the and March supplementary or 9, 1815, protocol of the session of
1818. eighth rule of the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle of November 21, They are as follows: In order to prevent the inconveniences which have frequently occurred, and which might again arise, from claims of precedence among different diplomatic agents, the plenipotentiaries of the
powers who signed the Treaty of Paris have agreed on the following of articles, and they think it their duty to invite the plenipotentiaries other crowned heads to adopt the same regulations Article I. Diplomatic agents are divided into three classes That
: :
of ambassadors, legates, or nuncios; that of envoys, ministers, or other persons accredited to sovereigns; that of charges d'affaires accredited to, ministers for foreign affairs.
Art.
II.
Ambassadors, legates, or nuncios only have the represen-
tative character.
Art. III.
not,
Diplomatic agents on an extraordinary mission have on that account, any superiority of rank.
Diplomatic agents shall take precedence in their respec-
Art. IV.
tive classes according to the date of the official notification of their arrival. The present regulation shall not cause any innovation with
regard to the representative of the Pope. Art. V. A uniform mode shall be determined in each state for the reception of diplomatic agents of each class.
Art. VI.
Relations of consanguinity or of family alliance between
courts confer no precedence on their diplomatic agents. rule also applies to political alliances. Art. VII.
alternate precedence, the order which
The same
In acts or treaties between several powers which grant is to be observed in the
signatures shall be decided by lot between the ministers. Art. VIII. It is agreed that ministers resident accredited to them shall form, with respect to their precedence, an intermediate class
between ministers of the second class and charges d'affaires. The rules of the Congress of Vienna are understood to be accepted by all nations. .except the Porte, which has a system of its own, only differing from the Vienna rules by classing ministers resident and ministers plenipotentiary together.
.
.
DIPLOMATIC GRADES.
4.
41
Diplomatic Grades in the United States.

rules of the
The general
of precedence
Department of State
the envoys accredited to the United States, are as follows:
among
in treating questions Government of the
1.
The
rules of
Vienna
(as modified
by the Congress of Aix-la-
Chapelle) are followed, whereby four grades of diplomatic representation are recognized, to wit Ambassador, Minister Plenipotenti:
ary, ^linister Resident,
and Charge d 'Affaires.
In each of these grades individual precedence is determined 2. by the date of the envoy's presentation of his credentials. 3. The holding by the envoy of an additional consular office is entirely disregarded only the diplomatic rank he holds as chief of the mission, permanently or for the time being, is taken into account.
;
A charge d'affaires missi, that is, a person bearing a letter 4. addressed to the Secretary of State accrediting him as charge is looked upon as a permanent envoy of the 4th class, and as such
takes precedence over a charge d'affaires ad interim. 5. Any member of the regular diplomatic personnel of a mission become charge d'affaires ad interim upon presentation as such may
to the Secretary of State by the retiring envoy, or ex officio upon the death or disability of the regular head of the mission. consular not a not become officer, diplomatic appointment also, may holding
d'affaires missi
a charge d'affaires ad interim; he can only be made a charge by special credentials in that capacity. In neither ease would the fact of the charge's holding a coincident consular
affect his
appointment
6.
precedence as charge.
The same
representation. resident and consul general is not uncommon, but the supernumerary consular office neither adds to nor detracts from the diplomatic
rule holds as to the higher grades of diplomatic Thus, the title and combined office of minister
rank.
simply a minister resident for all purposes of diplomatic precedence. Only as to consular functions would his consular rank be considered in fixing his precedence among conofficer is
The
sular
7.
ol'licers.
The
at the
fact that a ciiief of a foreign mission in one
country
may
same time be accredited

tlie
in the
same or another diplomatic
capacity to
precedence
in either.
government of another country does not affect his For instance, the United States envoy extraor-
dinary and minister plenipotentiary to Ilayti is also accredited to the Doininiean Repul)Iic as charge d'affaires (missi). His a])solute
rank
in
lie
diplomatic body at Santo
Domingo
city
is
merely that
42
INTERNATIONAL LAW,
of charge d'affaires, while his relative precedence among the charges is understood to be fixed by the date of his reception by the Dominican minister of foreign affairs. (Mr. Hay, Sec. of State to Mr.
Sampson, min.
II.
22).
to Ecuador, No. 131, Feb. 17, 1900, MS. Inst. Ecuador, (See Mr. Poster, Sec. of State, to Mr. Heard, No. 151, Dip.
Series, Oct. 31, 1892,
MS.
Inst. Corea,
I,
414.)
5,
Grade of Diplomatic Representatives.

of the
United States are of the and third classes, as follows: the first, the second, the intermediate, Ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary. (a) {b) Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary, and special commissioners, when styled as having the rank of envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary.
The diplomatic representatives
(c)
Ministers resident.
These grades of representatives are accredited by the President. Charges d'affaires, commissioned by the President as such, (d) and accredited by the Secretary of State to the minister for foreign affairs by the government to which they are sent. In the absence of the head of the mission the secretary acts ex
officio
credence.
as charge d'affaires ad interim, and needs no special letter of In the absence, however, of a secretary and second secre-
tary, the Secretary of State may designate any competent person to act ad interim, in which case he is specifically accredited by letter to the minister for foreign affairs.
6.
Superadded Consular
is
Office.
envoy extraorminister plenipotentiary; resident, charge d'affaires, or secretary of legation, the diplomatic rank is regarded as superior to and independent of the consular rank. The officer will follow the Consular Kegulations in regard to his consular duties and official accounts, keeping correspondence in one capacity separate
"When the dinary and
office
of consul-general
added
to that of
minister
from correspondence
7.
in the other.
Credentials and Reception.
When
or
a foreign minister arrives at

courts,
other
he
obtains
London, Paris, St. Petersburg, an interview of the secretary of

to
state for foreign affairs,
and delivers
him
copy of his
letter of
credence.
him
of state afterwards, on a day fixed, presents to whom he delivers the original. On that day. to the sovereign,
The secretary
CREDENTIALS AND RECEPTION OF DIPLOMATIC AGENTS.
43
or as soon as convenient, he visits all the secretaries, or heads of the government. The foreign minister's wife, who has claims incident to the station
of her husband, makes a visit at the same time to the wives of the secretaries, or heads of the government.
foreign ministers leave the seat of government, to travel in the interior, they give notice of it to the secretary of state for foreign affairs. They likewise give notice of their return home.
When
The diplomatic agents who are accredited to the President usually transmit to the Department a copy of their letter of credence, with a note requesting the appointment of a time for them to present the original. copy of the remarks they may think proper to make on
the occasion, frequently accompanies their note asking for a presentation, and is submitted to the President in order that he may
prepare a suitable reply. to write out this answer.

ies the
It has not of late been deemed necessary The Secretary of State usually accompan-
diplomatic agent to the President on his first presentation, is not deemed necessary on subsequent occasions. As the presentation of an envoy's credentials, when they are addressed to the President by the chief of the foreign state which
but this
sends him,
simple.
an
office
performed in private audience, the ceremonial is the Upon receipt of the appointed envoy's note submitting letter of credence and requesting the assignment of his copy
is
day and hour for his reception, the President's directions in the premises are sought, and the Secretary of State informs the envoy of the time designated, adding that if he will visit the Department of State a few moments before the hour fixed, it will afford
of a
sent
him pleasure to accompany him him to the President.
to the Executive
Mansion and pre-
Upon
the envoy's responding to this invitation, the Secretary of
State accompanies him in person and presents him by name and title to the President, who receives him in one of the private reception rooms of the Executive Mansion. The envoy pronounces a written
address, of which a copy has previously been furnished to the Secretary of State, and delivers his sealed letter of credence, whereupon the President in turn reads the reply which has been prepared
After a few moments of informal conversation the withdraws. envoy The audience is entirely private, no one but the Secretary of No formalities of military parade accompany State being present. the envoy's visit cIiImt to tlu; Department of State or to the Executive Mansion.
in
advance.
44
8.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Secretaries of
is,
Embassy or Legation.
according to the admitted principles His personal privileges,
secretary of a mission
of international law, a "public minister."
immunities, domiciliary privileges, and exemptions are generally those of the diplomatic representative of whose official household he .forms a part.
As long as the head of the mission is present, the secretary is not recognized by any foreign government as being authorized to perform a single official act other than as directed by the head of the
mission.
Whilst in the
official
it is
and private intercourse between a minister
undoubtedly among the first of his duties to observe a frank, courteous, and kindly demeanor towards them, on the other hand, it is no less incumbent on the secretaries to fulfil with
his secretaries
and
alacrity and dispatch, in the best manner they are able, the general and occasional instructions of the minister touching the affairs of
the legation, and to maintain in their intercourse with him an unvarying due observance of all that deference which characterizes the
gentleman, and which
is
prescribed by the rules of good breeding.

self-
No
however, on their part, or any compromise of that respect which they owe to themselves, is expected.
servility,
9.
Right to Protection.
As in war, the bearers of flags of truce are sacred, or else wars would be interminable; so in peace, embassadors, public ministers, and consuls, charged with friendly national intercourse, are objects of especial respect and protection, each according to the rights be(President Filmore, annual meslonging to his rank and station.
sage, Dec. 2, 1851, H. Ex. Doc. 2, 32 Cong. 1 sess. 7.) (Mr. Webster, Sec. of State, to Mr. Calderon de la Barca, Span, min., Nov. 13, 1851, 6 Webster's Works, 507.)
The person of a public minister is sacred and inviolable. Wlioever any violence to him, not only affronts the sovereign he represents, but also hurts the common safety and well-being of nations he is guilty of a crime against the whole world The comites of a minister, or those of his train, partake also of his inviolability. The independency of a minister extends to all his
offers
;
household; these are so connected with him, that they enjoy his The secretary to the embassy has privileges and follow his fate. his commission from the sovereign himself; he is the most distinguished character in the suite of a public minister, and
is
in
some
CONSEILLER,
instances considered as a kind of public minister himself.
45
Chief Justice, Respublica
v.
De Longschamps, Court
Conseiller.
of
(McKean, Oyer and
Terminer
at Philadelphia,
1784 (1 Dallas, 111, 116).

10.
The title conseiller is understood to be a special designation applied to the secretary of an embassy or legation by the governments of certain countries only. Martens says: "Some governments give to the first secretaries of their higher missions the title of
embassy or of legation." (Guide Diplomatique, chap, In the last edition of the Almanach de Gotha, a semiofficial publication, the missions maintained at St. Petersburg by Germany, Austria, Belgium, China, France, and Turkey are accredited with
conseiller of
v.)
conseillers, the rest
having secretaries.
conseiller
The functions of
fact identical,
and secretary are understood
to be in
word
is
differing only in name, and although the French equivalent to our counsel or counsellor, no legal office or
is
character
supposed to be intended.
is
The
local counsel or lawofficer.
adviser of a mission
not a recognized diplomatic

11.
Attaches.
In the diplomatic list at "Washington, there appear, besides the heads of missions, the offices of "secretary" of embassy, or of
the case may be; "first secretary," "second secretary," "third secretary," and "secretary interpreter," (China); "counselor of legation and first secretary of embassy" (Gerlegation, as
many), "counselor of legation," and "chancellor"; "attache," "military attache," "naval attache," "interpreter attache," "technical attache," "commercial attache," "honorary attache," "financial
forestry."
attache," "student attache," and "expert for agriculture and In the list dated April, 1915, most of these titles appear,
and we
also find "legal counselor" and "commercial delegate." (In January, 1894, the Department of State dropped from the diplomatic list of officers bearing the title of "chancellor," but stated
were
names would be restored on the announcement that they it was thought that some other designation than "chancellor," which was thought to denote a purely clerical relation, would be desirable. (Memorandum, Aug. n, 1894, MS. Notes to France, X, 356).
that their
in fact diplomatic officers, although
12.
Military Attaches.
Each military attache is, in a sense, an aide-de-camp to the ambassador or minister to whose embassy or legation he is appointed.
46
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
will be obeyed, unless with orders instructions eontlict or given by the manifestly they Secretary of War. In the latter ease, the military attache will re-~
The orders of the ambassador or minister
spectfully notify the ambassador or minister of the circumstances which prevent a compliance with his orders, in which event the full
particulars of the case must be at once forwarded to the AdjutantGeneral, It is the earnest wish of the War Department that the
most harmonious relations should exist between the military attaches and their chiefs in the diplomatic service. Any military attache whose relations with the chief of the embassy or legation to which he A dignified is assigned are not most cordial will request a recall. appreciation of his own position and courteous respect for his diplomatic chief will be expected of each attache. (Mr. Sherman, Sec. of State to Mr. Hay, amb. to England, No. 259, October 14, 1897,
MS.
Inst.
Great Britain XXXII, 251).

13.
Naval Attaches.
The United States Navy Department desiring to establish reciprocity in the matter of visits by foreign naval attaches or by other persons to the Govermeut navy-yards and stations, as well as to the yards of private firms engaged in Government work, the Secretary
of the
Navy
requests
me
to
inform you of the adoption of the
fol-
lowing rules which correspond to the facilities afforded by the Government of France to United States naval attaches and other officials
in the
same
visits
direction.
by the naval attache a written request is to be made attache the to the Secretary of the Navy and presented by the by attache to the Office of Naval Intelligence for transmission to the
For
Bureau
of Navigation.
Subsequently, letters are to be prepared by
the Office of Naval Intelligence, according to departmental decision, as heretofore.
But commandants of yards and stations are to be directed not to show any new developments or special machinery until specifically authorized, and not to show any drawings or printed matter. For
such matter the attache
telligence;
is
to be referred to the Office of

is
Naval
In-
and the attache
to be
accompanied by an
officer
with
these restrictions in mind.
For visits by other persons, the request is to be made through the Department of State by the ambassador or charge d'affaires ad interim, and the scope of the visits to be' restricted by direction to
commandants, as
in the case of the
naval attache.
addressed, on the same day, to the
(A note was also German embassy.) This note.
SCIENTIFIC ATTACHES.
after stating the rules adopted
to the facilities afforded
47
by the United States corresponded German Government, read as follows: "For visits by naval attaches, and by all others as well, the requests are to be made through the Department of State by the ambassador or charge d'affaires ad interim. Subsequently letters are to be prepared by the office of Naval Intelligence according to the decision of the Navy Department, made known to the Bureau of
by the
Navigation.
Commandants
of stations are to be directed to afford
as liberal opportunities as the interests of the United States will admit." (Mr. Hay, Sec. of State, to Count Quadt, charge, No. 498, Nov. 20, 1900, MS. Notes to German Leg. XII. 513). It is the cus-
tom of the United States to designate as naval attaches officers whose services may be styled strictly naval rather than medical or
otherwise.
Sec. of
Navy, Dec.
(Mr. Frelinghuysen, Sec. of State, to Mr. Chandler, 27, 1884, 153 MS. Dom. Let. 516).
14.
Scientific Attaches.
is
The rank
:
of scientific attaches
set forth in the following corre-
spondence "Replying to your oral inquiry of the 29th ultimo, as to whether Mr. Stiles, the agricultural and scientific expert attached to the United States embassy in Berlin, has diplomatic rank, I beg to say that it is understood that the relation of Mr. Stiles to the embassy is similar to that of a military or naval attache, who, while he does not hold diplomatic rank in the sense of being in the line of representative succession, so as to act as charge d'affaires ad interim, is regarded as being attached to the mission. As an illustration of my
meaning,
of
I may refer to the case, as understood by the Department, Baron von Herman, the agricultural and forestal expert of the imperial German embassy. "While Baron von Herman does not, as
the Department
cession, his
is
name appears
advised, stand in the line of representative sucin the diplomatic list, and is certified to
the autliorities of this city as that of a member of the embassy." (Mr. Moore, Act. Sec. of State, to Freiherr Speck von Sternburg,
June
2,
1898,
MS. Notes
to
German Legation,
Local Counsel.
XII. 139).
15.
as counsel to an
The Department of State sees no objection to a person who acts embassy or legation so designating himself in his
general practice, provided that it be distinctly und(!rstood that his acts are not officially representative or in any way conclusive upon
48
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
the embassy or legation or upon the United States Government. (Mr. Rockhill, Assist. See. of State, to Mr. Coudert, June 17, 1896,
210 MS. Dom. Let. 666, inclosing copy of instruction to Mr. Eustis, amb. to France, No. 610, April 30, 1896.
16.
Claims.
Sections 5498, Rev. Stat., w^hich forbids any "person holding any place of trust or profit, or discharging any official function under, or in connection with, any Executive Department of the Government of the United States," to prosecute or aid or assist in prosecuting claims against the United States, would not subject to the penalties therein
prescribed a person who accepted an office or place while engaged in the prosecution of claims against the United States but would subject him to such penalties if, while holding such office or place, he should engage in the prosecution of claims against the United States before
the Spanish Treaty Claims Commission or other tribunal. Gen., Oct. 1, 1901, 23 Op. 533.)
17.
(Knox, At.
Diplomatic and Consular Functions.
Some foreign governments do not recognize the union of consular with diplomatic functions. Italy and Venezuela will only receive the appointee in one of his two capacities, but this does not prevent the requirement of a bond and submission to the responsibilities of an office whose duties he cannot discharge. The superadded title of (President consul-general should be abandoned at all missions. Rel. annual Dec. For. 1885.) Cleveland, message, 8, 1885,
is concerned, the diplomatic only recognized when he bears a special letter of credence addressed to the Secretary of State; and conversely a consular officer of the United States, even when left in custody of a legation, has no diplomatic rank, functions or im-
So far as the rule of
this
government
is
function of a consular officer
munities, unless he be
expressly accredited
to
the
minister for
foreign affairs.
18.
Duties of Diplomatic Agents.

is
The plain duty
of the diplomatic agents of the United States
scrupulously to abstain from interfering in the domestic politics of the countries where they reside. This duty is specially incumbent on those who are accredited to governments mutable in form and
in the persons by whom they are administered. By taking any open part ia the domestic affairs of such a foreign country they must, sooner or later, render themselves obnoxious to the executive
SPEECHES.
49
(Mr. authority, which can not fail to impair their usefulness. Buchanan, Sec. of State, to Mr. Shields, Aug. 7, 1848, MS. Inst. Venez.
I.
73.)
19.
Speeches.
standing instruction of this Department, the diplomatic and consular officers of the United States abroad have, for some time As a past, been prohibited from corresponding with newspapers. a similar to extend it advisable deemed is sequel to that regulation,
By
prohibition against their making addresses to the public anywhere, except upon festal occasions to which they may be invited in
may be the scene of their official duties. Even such occasions, however, the utmost caution must be observed upon In no event is a minister or in touching upon political matters. consul to make an address to the public, or which may be published, in any other country than that where he may officially reside. (Mr. Seward, Sec. of State, to Dip. and Consular Officers, circular,
the country which
Oct.
1,
1862,
MS.
Circulars,
I.
212.)
Public addresses by diplomatic officers of the United States are prohibited, "unless upon exceptional festal occasions, in the country Even upon such occasions any reference to of official residence.
political issues,
pending in the United States or elsewhere, should be (Instructions to Dip. Officers of the United carefully avoided." States (1897), Art. 69, p. 26.)
20.
Presents.
is
.presents by ministers of the United States expressly prohibited by the Constitution and even if it were not, while the United States have not adopted the custom of making such
The acceptance of
presents to the diplomatic agents of foreign powers, it can scarcely be consistent with the delicacy and reciprocity of intercourse between them, for the ministers of the United States to receive such
favors from foreign princes as the ministers of those princes never can receive from this government in return. The usage, exceptionable in itself, can be tolerated only by its reciprocity. It is expected by the President, that every offer of such present which may, in
future, be
made
to
any public minister or other
officer of this
gov-
but decisively, declined. (Mr. J. Q. Adams, Sec. of State, to Mr. Rush, minister at London, Nov. 6, 1817, House Report 302, 23 Cong. 1 sess. 3.)
ernment, abroad, will be respectfully,
50
INTERNATIONAL LAW,
XIV.
CONSULAR SERVICE.
1.
Classes
and
Titles.
The consular service

consuls,
of the Uuited States consists of consuls-
general, vice-consuls-general, deputy-consuls-general, consuls, vice-
deputy consuls, commercial agents, vice-commercial agents,
consular agents, consular clerks, interpreters, marshals, and clerks at consulates. The term "consular officer" includes consuls-general,
deputy consuls, vice-consuls, vice-comConsulsmercial agents, and consular agents, and none others. and pergeneral, consuls, and commercial agents are full, principal manent 'consular officers, as distinguished from subordinates and
consuls, commercial agents,
Vice-consuls or vice-commercial agent, when in charge, are acting consuls or commercial agents for the time being and are principal consular officers. "Vice-consular officers," or "substitute
substitutes.
consular officers," includes vice-consuls general, vice-consuls, and "Subordinate consular officers" includes vice-commercial agents.
deputy consuls-general, deputy consuls, and consular agents. sular Eegulations of the United States.)
2.
(Con-
Commercial Agents.
Commercial agents are by the laws of the United States full, prinand permanent consular officers. They differ froni the latter only in rank or grade. The title of the office, as representing a discipal
tinct grade in the consular service, is peculiar to the service of the United States. Commercial agents in the United States service
are to be distinguished from certain officers, described in international law by the same title, who are not usually regarded as The entitled to the full rank and privileges of a consular officer.
exigencies of the public service have necessitated the appointment
by the United States from time to time of commercial agents of this character, and the right to appoint them is at all time reserved but such appointments have usually been made to countries whose governments have not yet been recognized by the United States and to which it was desired to send a confidential agent whose recognition need not be asked from the local government. Prior to the act of August 1, 1856, which reorganized the consular service, and
;
raised commercial agents to the consular rank, the officers appointed by the United States with the title of commercial agent were usually
those
of
limited
powers.
(Consular Regulations
of
the United
States.)
CONSULAR SERVICE.
3.
51
Consuls.
consul
;
is
privilege against the laws of the country in which he resides. The question of the right of a consular officer, principal or subordinate, to exercise consular privileges at a particular place depends upon the scope of
his exequatur.
and
not a diplomatic officer; is entitled to no diplomatic is not exempt from criminal prosecution for offenses
Before an exequatur can be granted by the President recognizing a consul or vice-consul of any nation as entitled to exercise his official functions in this country, evidence should be laid before him that such officer is duly appointed, which could only be
done, consistently with the views just expressed, by producing a commission, either directly from his government or else from the
authorized agent in which latter case it should be accompanied by the instrument investing such agent with the necessary authority. This power of appointment is frequently conferred upon consuls;
general, with or without limitation or modification, but is not necessarily or uniformly attached to their office. In all cases of application for an exequatur for or in behalf of foreign consul, a commission emanating either from the head of his government or from a functionary
officers,
known to possess the power of appointing consular should be submitted to the President and recorded in the
State.
Meanwhile, provisional permission for the may be given, and information of the fact duly furnished to the collector of customs at the proper port. Consuls are indeed received by the government from acknowledged But the sovereign powers with whom they have no treaty. exequatur for a consul-general can obviously not be granted without recognizing the authority from which his appointment proceeds as
Department of
exercise of consular functions
"The consul," says Vattcl (book 2, chap. 2, 34), "is not a public minister; but as he is charged with a commission from his sovereign, and received in that quality by them where he resides, he should enjoy, to a certain extent, the protection of the law of
sovereign.
No person holding an office under the United States will be recognized as a consular officer of a foreign state. (Mr. Frelinghuy.sen, Sec. of State, to Mr. de Bille, INTarch 5, 1883.)
nations."
4.
Powers and Duties.
Consuls represent the individual subjects or citizens ol' their respective nations when there is.no other representation, and, when
duly recognized, are competent parties to assert or defend the rights of property of their fcllow-citizons or subjects in a court of admiralty
52
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
without special procuration; but they cannot receive actual restitution of property in controversy without a special authority. Various treaties have conferred upon foreign Consuls in the United States
power of determining disputes between masters and crews of the vessels of their nationality, and with the aid of the local authorWithities of arresting and returning deserters from such vessels.
the
out and independently of a treaty a Consul has no such judicial
power.
the Treaties
The act of apprehending and delivering the seamen under and the acts of Congress to enforce them are judicial
acts.
and not executive

5.
Shipment and Discharge of Seamen.
The act to enforce Treaty provisions respecting disputes between masters and crews was approved June 11, 1864. It is not to take effect as to the ships or vessels of any nation unless the President shall have been satisfied that similar provisions have been made by
the other contracting party for the execution of the Treaty, and On the 10th of shall have issued his proclamation to that effect.
February, 1870, proclamation was made under this act as to the Treaties with France, Prussia, and the other States of the North
German Union, and Italy; and on the 11th of May, 1872, as to the Treaty with Sweden and Norway. This statute authorizes any court
of record of the United States, or
any judge thereof, or any com-
missioner appointed under the laws of the United States to take bail or affidavits, or for other judicial purposes whatsoever, to receive the application of the consular officer, to issue process against the
person complained of, and if it shall appear, on his being returned before the magistrate, that he is not a citizen of the United States,
and
if a prima-facie ease shall be made out that the matter concerns only the internal order and discipline of the foreign vessel, and does not affect directly the laws of the United States or the
rights
and duties of any citizen, then the magistrate shall commit the seaman to prison to abide the lawful order or control of the
:
master provided the expenses of the proceeding shall be paid by the consular officer, and the seaman shall not be detained for more than two months after his arrest.
6.
Deserters.
The March
statute respecting the restoration of deserters was approved 2, 1829, and was entitled "An act to provide for the appre-
hension and delivery of deserters from certain foreign vessels in
JURISDICTION.
53
the ports of the United States." It provides "that on application of a consul or vice-consul of any foreign government, having a Treaty with the United States stipulating for the restoration of seamen
made in writing, stating that the person therein named has deserted from a vessel of any such government while in any port of the United States; and on proof, by the exhibition of the register of the vessel, ship's roll, or other official document, that the
deserting,
person
named belonged
it
at the time
of desertion to the
crew of
any court, judge, justice, or other magistrate having competent power, to issue warrants to cause the said person to be arrested for examination; and if, on examination,
said vessel,
shall be the
duty of
the facts stated are found to be true, the person arrested, not being a citizen of the United States, shall be delivered up to the said
consul or vice-consul to be sent back,"

7.
etc.
Jurisdiction.
Another series of Treaties grants to the consuls of the United States in the territories of certain Oriental powers exclusive jurisdiction over disputes between citizens of the United States, or over
United States, or both. The was approved on the 11th of August, 1848. Attorney-General Gushing gave an In 1860, a new statute was exhaustive opinion on this statute. in 1870. these various statutes, which amended Under was passed, the following is the present condition of the law and practice in this respect: The Consuls and Gommercial Agents of the United
offenses
first
committed by the
citizens of the
statute to affirm
and regulate
this jurisdiction
States at islands or in countries not inhabited by any civilized people, or recognized by any Treaty of the United States, are invested with
power
the debt or
in regard to civil rights where does not exceed $1,000 exclusive of costs, and damage also to issue warrants to arrest offenders, to arraign, try, and
to hear
and determine cases
convict them, and to punish them to the extent of $100 fine, or to The provisions of the imprisonment not to exceed sixty days. statute of 1860 apply directly to the consulates in Ghina, and Siam.
They apply in terms to Turkey, so far as they relate to crimes and offenses, and to civil cases, so far as the laws of Turkey permit. The authenticity of the Englih version of the Treaty of 1830 with Turkey, under which exterritorial rights had been claimed and allowed, has been recently questioned. The operation of the statute of 1860 is extended to l*crsia, Tripoli, Tunis, ]\Iorocco, and Muscat; to Egypt and Madagascar, and all other countries with which Treaties may hereafter be made. The jurisdiction is to be exercised
54
in
INTERNATIONAL IvAW.
conformity with
1st,
the laws of the United States; 2nd, with
hiw, including equity and admiralty; and, 3rd, with decrees and regulations, having the force of law, made by the Ministers of the United States in such country respectively, to supthe
common
ply defects and deficiencies in the laws of the United States, or the common law as above defined. This power of the Ministers to make
such laws and regulations
ment
is limited, by instructions from the Departof State, to acts necessary to organize and give efficiency to the courts created by the act.
The power of originating civil and criminal proceedings is vested by the statute in Consular officers exclusively. They can also, sitting alone, determine all criminal cases where the fine imposed does not exceed five hundred dollars, or the term of imprisonment does not exceed ninety days; and may impose fines to the extent
of fifty dollars, or imprisonment, not exceeding twenty-four hours, for contempt committed in the presence of the court, or for failure to obey a summons. They may also, when of opinion that legal in which assistance may be useful, or that a arise questions may
severer punishment is required, summon associates, not more than four in number, taken by lot from a list to be previously approved by the Minister, to sit with them on the trial, each of whom is to
enter
;
upon the record
his
judgment and opinion, and
to sign the
same but the Consul himself gives the judgment in the case, whether In trials for capital it accords with that of his associates or not.
who must all agree with the and the opinion must be approved by the Minister before there can be a conviction. They have exclusive jurisdiction in civil proceedings where the damage demanded does When the amount demanded not exceed five hundred dollars. exceeds five hundred dollars, or when the Consul thinks the case involves legal perplexities, and that assistance will be useful, he may summon to his aid not less than two nor more than three associates, to be selected from a list of persons nominated by the Consul, for the purposes of the act, to the Minister, and approved by him. They shall hear the case with him. The Consul, however, is to give the
offenses there
must be four
associates,
Consul, in order to convict,
judgment. If they agree or any of them, disagree, record and subscribed by then subject to appeal.
with him, the judgment
is final.
If they,
the opinions of all are to be noted on the them, and the judgment of the Consul is
ci
Such a Consul cannot, in a suit by of citizen United States, entertain a set-off further not a the person than to the extent of the claim asserted by the plaintiff, and cannot
render a judgment against a person of foreign birth not a citizen of
JUDICIAL POWERS.
the United States.
55
An
appeal
may
be taken in criminal cases from a
decision of a Consul acting alone, where the fine exceeds one hundred dollars, or the time of imprisonment for a misdemeanor exceeds
ninety days.
If associates sit
ings (except capital), case of disagreement

civil
with the Consul in criminal proceedan appeal can be taken to the Minister only in between him and one of his associates. In
proceedings, in cases arising before the 1st day of July, 1870, an appeal can only be taken to the Minister from cases in which associates sit with the Consul, and in which there is not an agreement
of opinion.
In Tunis, Morocco, and Tripoli, citizens of the United States committing murder or homicide upon a subject of those powers are to be tried by a mixed court, at which the Consul is to "assist." The undisputed portion of the fourth article of the Treaty of 1830 with
Ottoman Porte provides for the supervision of the American Dragoman (Interpreter) in the hearing of all litigations and disputes
the
arising between the subjects of the Sublime Porte and citizens of the United States. It is not in dispute that the usages observed towards
other Franks are to be observed toward citizens of the United States. These usages are believed to be the f olloAving 1. Turkish tribunals
:
for questions between subjects of the Porte and foreign Christians. 2. Consular Courts for the business of each nation of foreign
3. Trial of questions between foreign Christians of different nations in the Consular Court of the defendant's nation.
Christians.
4.
tribunals of Turkish magistrates and foreign Christians at "in part for cases between Turks and foreign Christians. 5, Finally, for causes between foreign Christians, the
Mixed
length substituted
substitution at length of
mixed tribunals
in place of the separate
courts; this arrangement introduced at
first
by the Legations of
Austria, Great Britain, France, and Russia, and then tacitly acceded to by the Legations of other foreign Christians. provision in a Treaty that a Consul may ex officio administer
estates of citizens of his nationality dying within his jurisdiction without legal heirs there, gives no right of reclamation against the United States for the value of the property of such a
upon the
decendent improperly administered on by a State Court, unless the Consul first exhausts his remedies at law to prevent such State
administration.
8.
Judicial Powers.
Judicial powers are not necessarily incident to the office of consul, although usually conferred in non-Christian countries. The Supreme
56
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Court of the United States has held that the treaties with the Ottoman Empire of 1830 and 1862 concede to the United States the
same privileges in this respect as are enjoyed by other Christian nations, which may be exercised by the consuls. In the revision of
the Statutes the acts to carry into effect treaty provisions with certain non-Christian countries appear to be given, but in the enumeration of consular officers, upon whom judicial duties are
devolved, consuls-general and vice-consuls were omitted, and this omission was rectified by an act of Congress approved February 1,
1876.
A
to
demand and
consul has no authority, since the passage of the act of 1872, receive from the master of a vessel the money and
effects of a deserter.
The consular
officers
named
in article 10 of the
treaty of 1828 with Prussia, have exclusive jurisdiction in a claim made by the crew against the vessel for the recovery of wages.
March 23, 1874, authorized the receive satisfactory information that the President, Ottoman government, or that of Egypt, had organized new tribunals likely to secure to citizens of the United States the same impartial
act
of
An
Congress
approved
when he should
justice enjoyed
under the exercise of judicial functions by diplomatic officers, pursuant to the act of June 22, 1860, to suspend the operation of such act and to accept for citizens of the United States the jurisdiction of such new tribunals. The Department of State having been informed of the organization of such tribunals in
and consular
Egypt, the President, upon March 27, 1876, issued a proclamation suspending, during the pleasure of the President, the operation of the act of June 22, 1860, within the dominions of the government of Egypt, so far as the jurisdiction of the new tribunals embraced matter cognizable by the minister, consuls, or other functionaries of the United States in said dominions, except as to cases in progress. The question of the judicial authority of consuls over persons serving on American vessels in China has been construed as authorizing consular officers to assume jurisdiction where offenses are committed on shore by foreigners serving on board American merchantvessels, when such foreigners are citizens or subjects of countries having no treaty engagements upon the subject Avith China, or when
being subjects or citizens of treaty-powers, their own consuls dePersons serving on board national cline to assume jurisdiction. vessels who have committed offenses on shore in China are held to be
subject to the jurisdiction of the consul of the country under whose sentence of imprisonment rendered by a flag they are serving.
consular court cannot be legally executed beyond the territorial
PRIVILEGES
AND IMMUNITIES. OF CONSULS.
57
Persons convicted at Smyrna or Conjurisdiction of the court. stantinople cannot, therefore, be brought to the United States for imconsul of the United States in China cannot enterprisonment.
tain a criminal charge against a citizen or subject of another power.
9.
Privileges
and Immunities.
Consuls are not public ministers. Whatever protection they in be entitled the to of their official duties, and may discharge whatever special privileges may be conferred upon them by the local laws and usages, or by international compact, they are not
by the general law of nations, to the peculiar immunities (Wheaton's Int. Law, Dana's ed. 249, p. 324.) Although consuls have no right to claim the privileges and immunities of diplomatic representatives, they are under the special protection of international law, and are regarded as the officers both of the state which appoints and the state which receives them. The extent of their authority is derived from their commissions and
entitled,
of ambassadors.
their exequaturs.
It
is
believed that the granting of the latter
instrument, without express restrictions, confers upon a consul all rights and privileges necessary to the performance of the duties of the consular office. Generally, a consul may claim for himself and
his office not only
by
such rights and privileges as have been conceded treaty, but also such as have the sanction of custom and local
and have been enjoyed by his predecessors or by consuls of other nations, unless a formal notice has been given that they will not be extended to him. (Consular Regulations of the United States,
laws,
1896, 72, p. 27.)
"The law
of nations does not of itself extend to consuls at
all.
They
are not of the diplomatic class of characters to which alone that law extends of right. Convention indeed may give it to them, and sometimes has done so; but in that case the convention can be
produced.
.. .Independently of (a special) law, consuls are to be considered as distinguished foreigners, dignified by a commission
from their sovereign, and especially recommended by him to the

respect of the nation with whom they reside. They are subject to the laAvs of the land indeed i)r(!cisely as otlier foreigners are, a convention where there is one making a j)art of the laws of the land; but
if, at any time, their conduct should render it necessary to assert the authority of the law over them, the rigor of those laws should be tempered by our respect for their sovereign, as far as the case
will admit.
This moderate and respectful treatment towards foreign
58
consuls
I ask
it is
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
my duty to recommend, and press on our citizens, because for their good, towards our own consuls, from the people with whom they reside." (Mr. Jefferson, Sec. For. Aff., to Mr.
it
Newton, Sept.
8,
1791, 4
MS. Am.
Let. 283.)
Consuls are undoubtedly entitled to great respect as bearing the commissions of their sovereign; but their duties are of a commercial nature and their public character subaltern neither their persons
;
nor their domiciles have heretofore been protected as have those of ambassadors and other public ministers. Instances are not in which some them have of been Avanting brought within the of our not courts. known that It is it has ever yet jurisdiction laid the foundation of any charge of a breach of privilege, or infringement of public law, on the part of any of the governments of Europe, whose commissions these consuls may respectively have borne. (Mr. ^Monroe, Sec. of State, to Mr. Harris, charge d'affaires at St. Petersburg (Petrograd) July 31, 1816, MS. Inst. United States
Ministers, VIII. 89.)
Where
a consul,
d'affaires, acquires diplomatic privileges,
by being appointed charge he becomes so invested as
charge d'affaires, not as consul.

10.
(Gushing, At. Gen., 1855, 7 Op. 342.)
Merchant Consuls.
A merchant consul, in all that concerns his trade, is liable in the same way as a native merchant. The character of consul does not give any protection to that of merchant when they are united in the same person. (Goppel v. Hall, 7 Wall. 542..) The U. S. Consular Regulations of 1896 (74, p. 29) provide that
the privileges of a consul
his official residence, are,
who engages
in business in the country of

restricted, If his
under international law, more
especially if he is a subject or citizen of the foreign state.
exequatur has been granted without limitations, he may claim the privileges and exemptions that are necessary to the performance of the duties of his office but in all that concerns his personal status
;
or his status as a merchant it is doubtful whether he can claim any right or privileges not conceded to other subjects or citizens of the state. He should, however, claim the same privileges and immunities
that are granted to other merchant consuls in the same country.
11.
Consular Treaty.
officers,
As a good example of the rights, privileges and duties of consular a few articles of the Consular Convention of 1910 betAveen the United States and Sweden may be cited:
CONSULAR TREATY.
"Article
consuls,
III.
59
Consuls-general, consuls, vice-consuls-general, vice-
deputy consuls-general, deputy consuls, and consular agents, citizens of the State by which they are appointed, shall be exempt from arrest except in the case of offenses which the local legislation qualifies as crimes and punishes as such; they shall be exempt from military billetings, service in the Regular Army or Navy, in the militia, or in the national guard they shall likewise be exempt from
all direct
taxes
national.
State, or municipal
imposed
upon
per-
sons, either in the nature of capitation tax or in respect to their property, unless such taxes become due on account of the possession
of real estate, or for interest on capital invested in the country where said officers exercise their functions, or for income from pensions of public and private nature enjoyed from said country. This exemption shall
not,
however, apply to consuls-general, consuls, vice-
consuls-general, vice-consuls, deputy consuls-general, deputy consuls, or consular agents engaged in any profession, business, or trade; but the said officers shall in such case be subject to the payment of
the same taxes that would be paid by any other foreigner under the like circumstances.
"Article IV.
When
in a civil case a court of one of the
two
countries shall desire to receive the judicial declaration or deposition of a consul-general, consul, vice-consul, or consular agent, who
is
engaged in no commercial business, it shall request him, in writing, to appear before it, and in case of his inability to do so it shall request him
is
a citizen of the State which appointed him, and
who
to give his testimony in writing or shall visit his residence or office to obtain it orally, and it shall be the duty of such officer to comply
with
with as little delay as possible but in all criminal contemplated by the sixth article of the amendments to the Constitution of the United States, whereby the right is secured to persons charged with crimes to obtain witnesses in their favor, the appearance in court of said consular officers shall be demanded, with
this request
;
cases,
all possible
regard to the consular dignity and to the duties of his office, and it shall be the duty of such officer to comply with said demand. A similar treatment shall also be extended to the consuls
of the United States in Sweden, in the like cases. "Article VT. The consular offices shall at all times be inviolable.
The
local authorities shall not,
under any pretext, invade them.
In
no case shall they examine, or seize the papers there deposited. In no case shall those offices be used as places of asylum. AVIicn a
engaged in other business, the papers relating to the consulate shall be kept separate. Nor shall consular officers be
consular officer
is
60
required to produce the
their contents.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
official
archives in court or to testify as to
Consuls-general, consuls, vice-consuls-general, viceconsuls, and consular agents shall have the right to address the authorities whether, in the United States, of the Union, the States, or
the municipalities, or in Sweden, of the State, the Provinces, or the commune, throughout the whole extent of their consular district in
"Article IX.
order to complain of any infraction of the treaties and conventions between the United States and Sweden, and for the purpose of
protecting the rights and interests of their countrymen. If the complaint should not be satisfactorily addressed, the consular officers aforesaid, in the absence of a diplomatic agent of their country,
may
apply directly to the Government of the country where they
exercise their functions.
Consuls-general, consuls, vice-consuls-general, viceconsuls, deputy consuls-general, deputy consuls, and consular agents of the respective countries may, as far as may be compatible with
"Article X.
country, take at their offices, their private residences, at the residence of the parties concerned, or on board ship, the depositions of the captains and crews of the vessels of
the laws of their
of passengers thereon, as well as the deposiof citizen or tions subject of their own country; drawn up, any all unilateral deeds, acts, and testaauthenticate attest, certify, and their countrymen, as well as all articles of mentary dispositions of
their
own
own country and
agreement or contracts
to
which one or more of their countrymen
is
or are party; draw up, attest, certify, and authenticate all deeds or written instruments which have for their object the conveyance or
encumbrance of real or personal property situated in the territory of the country by which said consular officers are appointed, and all unilateral acts, deeds, testamentary dispositions, as well as articles
of agreement or contracts, relating to property situated or business to be transacted in the territory of the nation by which the said
consular officers are appointed; even in cases where said unilateral

acts, deeds, testamentary dispositions, articles of agreement, or contracts are executed solely by citizens or subjects of the country within which said consular officers exercise their functions.
"All such instruments and documents tlius executed and all copies and translations thereof, when duly authenticated by such consul-general, consul, vice-consul-general, vice-consul, deputy consul-general, deputy consul, or consular agent under his official seal, shall be received as evidence in the United States and in Sweden as original documents or authenticated copies, as the case may be, and
CONSULAR TREATY.
shall
61
have the same force and effect as if drawn up by and executed before a notary or public officer duly authorized in the country by which said consular officer was appointed; provided, always, that they have been drawn and executed in conformity to the laws and
regulations of the country Avhere they are intended to take effect. "Article XI. The respective consuls-general, consuls, vice-consuls-
general, vice-consuls, deputy consuls-general, deputy consuls, and consular agents shall have exclusive charge of the internal order of the merchant vessels of their nation, and shall alone take cognizance of any dift'erences which may arise either at sea or in port,
officers, and crews, without exception, particularly in reference to the adjustment of wages and the execution of contracts. The local authorities shall not interfere, except when
between the captains,
the disorder that has arisen
is
of such a nature as to disturb tran-
quility and public order on shore or in the port, or when a person of the country or not belonging to the crew shall be concerned therein. In all other cases the aforesaid authorities shall confine
themselves to lending aid to the said consular officers, if they are requested by them to do so, in causing the arrest and imprisonment of any person whose name is inscribed on the crew list whenever,
for any cause, the said officers shall think proper. "Article XII. The respective consuls-general, consuls, vice-con-
deputy consuls-general, deputy consuls, and consular agents may cause to be arrested the officers, sailors, and all other persons making part of the crews in any manner whatever, of ships of war or merchant vessels of their nation, who may be guilty, or be accused of having deserted said ships and vessels, for the purpose of sending them on board or back to their country. To this end they shall address the competent local authorities of the respective countries, in writing, and shall make to them a written
suls-general, vice-consuls,
request for the deserters, supporting it by the exhibition of the register of the vessel and list of the crew, or by other official
documents, to show that the persons claimed belong to the said Upon such request thus supported, the delivery ship's company. of deserters can not be refused, unless it should be the to them
duly proved that they were citizens of the country where their extradition is demanded at the time of their being inscribed on the
crew
list.
for the pursuit, seizure,
All the necessary aid and protection shall be furnished and arrest of the deserters who shall even
be put and kept in the prisons of the country, at the request and expense of the consular officers, until there may be an opportunity for sending thorn away. If, however, such an opportunity should not
62
IljfTERNATIONAL LAW.
present itself within the space of two months, counting from the day of the arrest, the deserters shall be set at liberty, nor shall they be again arrested for the same cause.
"If the deserter has committed any misdemeanor, and the court having the right to take cognizance of the offense shall claim and exercise it, the delivery of the deserter shall be deferred until the decision of the court has been pronounced and executed.
"Article XIII.
of the United States
All proceedings relative to the salvage of vessels wrecked upon the coasts of Sweden and of
Swedish vessels wrecked upon the coasts of the United States, shall be directed by the consuls-general, consuls, vice-consuls-general, and vice-consuls of the two countries, respectively, and until their arrival by the respective consular agents, wherever an agency exists. In the places and ports where an agency does not exist, the local authorities until the arrival of the consular officer in whose district the wreck may have occurred, and who shall be immediately informed of the occurrence, shall take all necessary measures for the protection of persons and the preservation of wrecked property. The local authorities shall not otherwise interfere than for the maintenance of order, the protection of the interests of the salvors, if these do not belong to the crews that have been wrecked, and to carry into effect the arrangements made for the entry and exportation of the merchandise saved. It is understood that such merchandise is not to be subjected
to
in the country
any custom-house charges, unless it be intended for consumption where the wreck may have taken place.
intervention of the local authorities in these different cases
"The
no expense of any kind, except such as may be caused by the operations of salvage and the preservation of the goods saved, together with such as would be incurred under similar cirshall occasion
cumstances by vessels of the nation. "Article XIV. In case of the death of any citizen of Sweden in the United States or of any citizen of the United States in the Kingdom of Sweden without having in the country of his decease
any known heirs or testamentary executors by him appointed, the competent local authorities shall at once inform the nearest consular officer of the nation to which the deceased belongs of the circumstances, in order that the necessary information forwarded to parties interested.
may
be immediately
"In the event of any citizen of either of the two Contracting Parties dying without will or testament, in the territory of the other Contracting Party, the consul-general, consul, vice-consul-general, or
vice-consul of the nation to which the deceased
may
belong, or, in
CONSULS IN EASTERN COUNTRIES.
63
his absence, the representative of such consul-general, consul, viceconsul general, or vice-consul, shall, so far as the laws of each
trator
country will permit and pending the appointment of an adminisand until letters of administration have been granted, take charge of the property left by the deceased for the benefit of his lawful heirs and creditors, and, moreover, have the right to be
appointed as administrator of such estate. "It is understood that when, under the provisions of this
article,
vice-consul, or the or adminisor executor each is of as either, acting representative trator of the estate of one of his deceased nationals, said officer or
any consul-general, consul, vice-consul-general, or
matters connected with, relating to, or growing out of the settlement of such estates, be in such capacities as fully subject to the jurisdiction of the courts of the country wherein the estate is situated as if said officer or representative were a
his representative shall, in all
citizen of that
country and possessed of no representative capacity
whatsoever."
"The
other,
tives,
citizens of each of the Contracting Parties shall
to dispose of their personal
have power goods within the jurisdiction of the
by sale, donation, testament, or otherwise, and their representabeing citizens of the other Party, shall succeed to their personal goods, whether by testament or ab intestato, and thej' may in
accordance with and acting under the provisions of the laws of the
jurisdiction in which the property is found take possession thereof, either by themselves or others acting for them, and dispose of the same at their will, paying such dues only as the inhabitants of the
country wherein such goods are shall be subject to pay in like

cases.
As
the
two Contracting Parties
for the case of real estate, the citizens and subjects of shall be treated on the footing of the
most-favored nation."
12.
In Eastern Countries.
In non-Christian countries, the rights of exterritoriality have been largely preserved, and have generally been confirmod by treaties to
a great degree they enjoy tlie immunities of diplomatic representatives, together with certain prerogatives of jurisdiction, the right of worship, and, to some extent, the right of
officers.
consular
To
asylum. These immunities extend to exemption from both the civil and criminal jurisdiction of the country to which they are sent, and
protect the-ir househohls and the effects covered by the consular residence. Their personal property is exempt from taxation, though
64
it
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
may
be otherwise with real estate or movables not connected with
tions that arise
Generally, they are exempt from all personal imposifrom the character or quality of a subject or citizen of the country. (Consular Regulations of the United States, 1896,
the consulate.
75, p. 29.)
13.
In the Barbary States.
Consuls have diplomatic functions in the Barbary States. United States consul is accredited to the Sultan of Morocco.
The
His
predecessors were accredited in the same way, and the consuls at Tripoli, Tunis, and Egypt are respectively accredited to the heads
of the governments of those countries. (Mr. Seward, Sec. of State, to Mr. McMath, consul at Tangier, Dec. 30, 1868, Dip. Cor. 1868, II. In extreme cases, where the privileges of a consulate are in172.)
vaded, the flag of the United States may be struck by the consul, and all friendly intercourse with the authorities of the residence
suspended.
1852,
(Mr. Webster, Sec. of State, to Mr. McCauley, April 20,

Inst.
MS.
Barbary Powers, XIV.

Military
132.)
14.
Rank
of Consular Officers.
Generals in the Army. Captains in the

officers,
Consuls-General rank with Commodores in the Navy or Brigadier Consuls and Commercial Agents rank with
Navy or Colonels in the Army. Vice-Consular Deputy-Consular officers. Consular Clerks, and Consular Agents rank with Lieutenants in the Navy or Captains in the Army.
(Halleck, ch.
xi.,
sec. 7, cl. 2.)
15. It is the
Salutes.
duty of the Consul-General, Consul, or Commercial Agent
to accept the invitation and visit the flagship, and tender his official services to the commander. He is entitled once while the squadron
is
if
in port to a salute of nine guns if a Consul-General, of seven guns a Consul, or of five guns if a Commercial Agent, which may be
fired either while he is
on board (which
is
unu.sual) or while he
;
is
being conveyed from the vessel to the shore in the latter case he will face the vessel, and at the end of the salute acknowledge it by
raising his hat.
Vice-Consul-General, a Vice-Consul, or a Vice-
Commercial Agent, when in charge of the office and acting as ConsulGeneral, Consul, or Commercial Agent, is entitled to- the same
salute as the titular officer.
TREATIES.
65
XV.
TREATIES.
Treaties
may
ternational law has
be designated as primary sources from which indrawn its rules. Treaties may be defined as
compacts between independent nations, depending for the enforcement of their provisions on the honor and the interests of the governraents which are parties thereto.
Historical
1.
Development of Treaties.
in
International law developed, in the early days of medieval times, view of treaties of alliance and peace, which were probably the
only kinds of treaties concluded. Even Grotius, recognized as the father of international law, limited himself to the rights of war,
and only later writers recognized distinctions between state treaties and private treaties; the former guarding public rights and duties, and the latter according and protecting private interests.
Historical facts evince the necessity of concluding state treaties whereby relations among civilized nations are established. State
treaties, therefore, are the indication of the foreign relations of the
states,
and
in their binding force are akin to the contractual re-
lation of individuals,
modifying the actions of the contracting parties of the treaty with respect to one another. States, similar to individuals, must submit to a jurisdiction, as otherwise no relation
among them were possible. Originally state treaties aimed at mutual protection in times of war, prevention of wars, or promotion of commercial interests but at the present time they are expressions of the
;
international
duties.
communion
of the peoples
and the resulting
relative
2.
Oldest State Treaties.
An important example of a state treaty, designated as the oldest document of diplomacy, is the peace treaty between Rameses (Sesostris) II and the Khita ruler, which terminated the great Assyrian War. This treaty is remarkable, as it stipulates not only eternal peace under the protection of the respective state gods, but also an alliance against the foes of each contracting party. Commerce and industry of both jjooples were to be secured, and criminals taking refuge in the neigh])oring country were to be returned to their native land. This peace treaty was carved on a silver plate, and was negotiated 1300 B. C.
66
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Another important treaty

federation.
It
is
that concluded with the Latin Con-
was stipulated that peace should prevail between Romans and Latins as long as heaven and earth remained in their position. The treaty contained several provisions for defending mutual rights in case of war with a third party, a distribution of war booty, the forum for the adjudication of private disputes, and the regulation for awarding alternately command of the armies to the contracting powers in a war with a third power. The treaties were concluded with an oath and certain ceremonies, and were considered, as distinguished from formal contracts, as pacta.
No
of
treaties
were known
to the Islam, living

infidels.
making war against the
under the precept Merely a truce was recognized,
which, however, could extend over a long period. Not until the conquering fanatism subsided Were treaties, such as alliance, enacted between the Greek Emperor and the Sultan of Syria against
the Crusaders, between the Caliph of Egypt, in 1166, with the of Jerusalem, and, in 1191, between the latter and Saladin.
3.
King
Objects of Treaties.
stipulates the agreement to abstain from the to assistance enemy of the other contracting party. rendering There also appears a subsidy treaty (1101) between Henry I of
The most limited treaty
England and the Count of Flanders, the latter agreeing to furnish a certain number of men against the payment of a liquidated amount.
The most important object for which treaties are concluded is to secure concerted action for maintenance of the balance of power.
They have determined the status of and thereby preserved the balance
territories, the fate of dynasties,
of power which the Concert of Europe guards. Since the Westphalian Peace the general treaty system, which culminated in the preservation of the balance of power, was radically changed, and in order to arrive at an understanding of the development of the public law of Europe since that time, the various treaties subsequently concluded must be considered.
4.
Peace of Westphalia 1648.

the first exam-
A preliminary Congress held at Westphalia in 1641 is
ple of an international convention dealing with the regulation of general political questions and simultaneously with the internal affairs of
It agreed to congresses to be held at Miinster and single states. Osnabriick, in Westphalia, in July, 1643, at which representatives
TREATIES.
of Catholics
67
and Protestants were present, resulting in the establishment of religious equality of the Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed Churches in Germany. The tedious and turbulent negotiations reached their conclusion by the treaties concluded in 1648. To stay the progress of Germany towards national unity, three hundred and fifty German states were made independent of the Emperor, their federal chief, and the blow thus struck at the House of Austria as the temporal head of the Catholic body was made more effective by measures which paved the way for the growth of
Prussia, its Protestant rival, as the natural leader. From the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 to that of Utrecht, Louis XIV pursued the policy of triumphing over both branches of the
House
of Austria, and succeeded in this by an alliance with Sweden, the United Provinces, and the Protestant Princes of Germany.
5.
In the Treaties of Miinster and Osnabriick, Mazarin closed the Thirty Years' War, and in the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), ter-
minating the twenty years' war between France and Spain, the former received large additions of territory. A marriage contract was entered into between Louis XIV and Maria Theresa, who, in consideration of a dowry (which was never paid), renounced all her
rights to the Spanish
6.
Crown and
to the possessions incident thereto.
In the Peace of Utrecht (1713-1714) Philip was left in possession of the Spanish throne upon his renunciation of all rights to
of France, coupled with like renunciations by the Dukes of Berry and Orleans to the claims of that of Spain. It was then declared to be the inviolable law that the two crowns should never
the
Crown
Great Britain received from France, then, an express recognition of the Hanoverian succession, and through her Parliament consented to the expulsion of the pretender from her soil and to various other stipulations. It is peculiar that the Treaty of Utrecht stripped Spain of even more than was originally proposed to take from her. Thus Philip's possessions in Italy, the Spanish Netherlands, and the Island of Sardinia were ceded to Charles of Austria, who had then become Emperor,
be
united under the same head.
7.
The Peace of Carlowitz (1699).
The peace
of
Carlowitz,
after the anniliilation of the Turkish

sisted of treaties concluded
Army by
Prince Eugene, con-
Emperor, the
January 26th between the Sultan, the King of Poland, and Venice, stipulating inter alia the twenty-five years' truce with the Emperor and the surrender of suzerainty over Transylvania by the Sultan, acknowledging it to be
an Austrian province.
68
8.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
The Treaty of Nystadt. In the Treaty of Nystadt, concluded August 30, 1721, Sweden ceded to Russia Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermanland, Riga, Reval, and numerous other towns and ports. This treaty was followed by the Treaty of Breslau, June 11, 1742, and the definite Peace of Berlin, July 28th, between Frederick II and Maria Theresa, as a result of which Prussia obtained Upper and Lower Silesia and the country of Glatz. The Treaty of Dresden, December 25, 1745, confirming that of Breslau, acknowledged the Grand Duke of Tuscany, the husband of Maria Theresa, as Emperor.
of Aix-la-Chapelle (October 18, 1748) between and Holland Spain, Genoa, and Modena, Great Britain, France, accessories the war growing out of the Austrian succession, being was closed by a general restitution of conquests and a renewal of treaties placing the combatants in the status quo ante.
9.
The Peace
Under the (1772, 1793, and 1795.) a smaller state the seinternal discords of that endanger pretext entered the of of nations, 15, Treaty July neighboring 1772, curity into between Russia and Austria and Russia and Prussia wrested a
10.
The Partitions of Poland
territory with five million inhabitants from Poland and divided it among the contracting powers in proportions agreed upon. The
second partition appears in the form of treaties made between Russia and the King and Republic of Poland, July 13 and October 16, 1792, and of a treaty between Russia and Poland, September 25th of the same year. After the insurrection of 1784 had ended with the fall of Warsaw, the remainder of Poland was divided between Prussia, Austria, and Russia, who settled the boundaries of their respective acquisitions by a convention at St. Petersburg, on January 3 and
Prussia held the capital with the territory as far Niemen; Austria, Cracow, with the country between the Pilica, the Vistula, and the Bug; the rest was occupied by Russia.
October
as
25, 1795.
11. The First Peace of Paris and Congress of Vienna (1814). After the abdication of Napoleon on April 11, 1814, the First Peace of Paris was embodied in the treaties, on May 30th, between Louis XVIII and each of the four great powers, in which France restricted her suzerainty to the territory within her limits, adding
sessed in 1792.
and northern frontiers as posThe treaty is of importance, as it stipulates that all the powers engaged in the war should send plenipotentiaries to
slight sections of land to the eastern
Vienna, where, in general convention, the peace treaty should be concluded. On the 11th of June the Congress came to an end.
TREATIES.
69
having been in session for eleven days and having enacted rules of importance for the development of international law and having established a peace lasting uninterruptedly for forty years.
vital
12.
The Holy
Alliance, 1815.
The successful intervention of the allied powers in the affairs of France was responsible for the formation of the Holy Alliance at' Paris in September, 1815, guaranteeing mutual support and assistance to the contracting parties 'Austria, Prussia, and Russia, and
subsequently France.
The object of
this Alliance
the seat of representative governments in Europe, the liberty of the press. The effect of this Alliance
in suppressing the
was and
to abolish to destroy
itself felt
made
Neapolitan Revolution in 1820, in the invasion of Spain by France in 1823 to overthrow the Constitution of the Cortes, and in the restoration of absolutism in the person of Ferdinand VII. England held aloof from what was considered an ex-
treme and dangerous policy of intervention, and the Alliance received its check in the resistance offered by the United States against that policy of the new world as embodied in the IMonroe
Doctrine.
the dominion of the
In 1827 Great Britain, Russia, and France delivered Greece from Ottomon Porte, as evidenced by the treaty of
July 6th, resulting in a concerted action of the powers in destroying the Turkish fleet in the Bay of Navarino on the 20th of October. In 1830 the powers intervened for the purpose of opposing the Belgic revolution, whereby the Union of Belgium with Holland,
the request of the
established at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, was dissolved. At King of the Netherlands in the treaty of Novem-
ber, 1830, Holland was awarded all territory belonging to her prior to 1790. Belgium received the remainder, with the exception of the
Grand Duchy of Luxemburg. The perpetual neutrality of Belgium was finally established by the International Agreement of November
15, 1831.
13,
Crimean
War and
Treaty of Paris.
in
The Crimean
War
and the Treaty of Paris
185G resulted
in
the preservation of the balance of power in eastern Europe by providing the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Em-
captured territory to Russia, the placing of Moldavia and Wallnchia under the suzerainty of the Porte, the neutralization of the Pdack Sea, and the neutralization of the great
pire, the return of
70
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
rivers of Europe, not included in the Regulation of 1815, for the purpose of commerce. This treaty is of special significance, inasmuch as Turkey is admitted into the family of nations.
14.
Peace of Prague.
In the Peace of Prague (1866) Austria withdrew from the Confederation, enabling Prussia to form a new one in which she could be supreme. This League, known as the North German Confederation, encompassed the minor states, such as Hanover, Essen,
Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort, Schleswig-Holstein,
15.
and Lauenburg.
Franco-Prussian Treaty.
man
In the treaty between Prussia and France in 1871, the North GerConfederation finally triumphed over France and resulted in
the welding of Germany into a single state under a new constitution, awarding to the King of Prussia the title of German Emperor. By
the treaty concluded on May 10, 1870, at Frankfort, Alsace and Lorraine were ceded to Germany and a huge indemnity paid.
16.
Congress of Berlin.
The Treaty of San Stefano and the Congress of Berlin in 1878, terminating the war between Russia and 'Turkey, reduced the The territory of Bulgaria and divided this state into two parts.
part north of the Balkans constituted an autonomous principality under the suzerainty of the Sultan, while the part south of the Balkans was subjected to the direct authority of the Sultan but with
AusBosnia and Herzegovina; Montenegro and Roumania were recognized as independent nations, and Serbia also under certain conditions; concessions were made to Greece, awarding her Janina and Thessaly, while Cyprus passed to Great Britain.
tria received
17.
administrative autonomy and a Christian governor-general.
Conclusion of Treaties.
of 1815
The Viennese Congress
the domain of state treaties.
was responsible for extending While the right of concluding treaties
by the
chief executive and his plenipotentiaries is generally conceded, certain limitations are imported into this absolute power. The exercise of the treaty making power in states having a representative
constitution is frequently limited by legally prescribed formalities, and often prevents the executive from ratifying international obli-
TREATIES.
gations.
It
is
71
upon a contracting party to this study the constitution of the other contracting party. While checking of treaty making power maintains serious consequences from a political viewpoint, it is to be noted, as is the case in Great abBritain, that as a rule Parliament exercises good judgment and stains from asserting its rights whenever national security would be endangered. The competency and the manner of concluding treaties
therefore incumbent
usually regulated by the constitutions of the respective The most important ones will be briefly enumerated.
is
countries.
Germany.
The German Empire regulates, by Article 11 of the Constitution of April 16, 1871, the question of making treaties, by conceding to the King of Prussia, as the German Emperor, the right to represent the realm, to conclude peace, to enter into alliances, and to make other treaties with foreign powers, to appoint ambassadors, and to
receive the same.
To declare war, however,
is
assent of the Federal Council, unless an attack

tory.
is
contingent upon the made on the terri-
The treaties falling within jurisdiction of the Federal Legislature presuppose the consent of the Federal Council and necessiThe treaties requiring the consent tate the approval of the Diet.
of the Legislature inter alia include expansion of territory, and refis made to the treaty of 1871, incorporating Alsace-Lorraine by way of federal legislation. The indemnity paid by France in
erence
1871 was approved by a series of federal laws determining its mode of application for purposes of defense and amelioration of conditions of returned soldiers. The right of the composing states of the
German Empire
to conclude treaties
is,
of course, limited to matters
of a domestic nature.
Great Britain.
treaties in Eng-Iand is predicated on the princithat the act of the royal authority enunciated Blackstone, by ple with regard to foreign powers is the act of the whole nation. The will of the chief executive is exercised by the Secretary of Foreign Relations, who is responsible to the Crown. Treaties are concluded
The conclusion of
either
by the Secretary with the resident ambassadors, or by British ambassadors with the powers to which they are accredited. The King has the power to despatch ambassadors, to receive the same without distinction as to rank and title, to delegate his power to the viceroy and general governors, as is the case in India. lie is further authorized to conchide treaties and alliances with foreign states and
72
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
sovereigns, and as the King, according to tlie Constitution, is the highest authority, no other power in the realm has the right to
resist, or avoid treaties, subject, however, to the responsithe of participating ministers. bility The political importance of Parliament, to which the ministers
postpone,
are responsible, has gradually grown to such an extent that it exerThe King in Parliament cises an influence on the state treaties.
by
of the law has almost exclusively the of acquired right legislation, W'hilst the old right of decreeing by But the King in Council has suffered considerable restrictions.
this
modern development
is
even today Orders-in-Council are very frequent, and their influence enhanced by the fact that in these times the right of decreeing
the introduction of important rules
is
expressly reserved.
France.
Originally the right to make treaties by the King of France was modified by the national representatives designated as the General States (Etats Generaux). They took an active part in legislation,
imposing taxes, and had jurisdiction in certain kinds of litigation. These Etats Generaux appeared on the political stage for the first
time in the fourteenth century, and included the clergy, the nobility, and the citizenry. The first state treaty which received in France
the approval of the General States
in 1359,
is the one concluded in England according to which Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, and the whole west of France were ceded. In Article 2 of the law of July
President to conclude peace, alliance, and This article stipulates expressly defined. in substance that the President negotiates and ratifies treaties, that he informs the Chambers thereof as soon as the security of the state
18, 1875, the right of the
commercial treaties
is
permits, and that treaties of peace, commerce, and those bearing on the finances of the state and relating to persons and property rights of citizens in foreign countries are not final until voted upon by the
two Chambers.
No cession, exchange, and expansion of territory can take place unless authorized by law.
Belgium.
In Belgium the King has a right to conclude treaties, and only treaties of a certain nature require the approval of the Chambers. Among the latter are those of a commercial nature and those which
endanger the state and require for their validity the approval of the Chambers.
TREATIES.
73
Netherlands.
Tn a similar manner the conclusion of treaties in the Netherlands is authorized. The King has a right in general to conclude treaties, hut
approval of the General States is required before the King can ratify such treaties. These exceptional cases involve treaties effecting the exchange or cession of territory, or bearing
in certain cases the
(n
legal rights.
Spain.
limited.
In Spain the right of the King to conclude treaties is considerably The Spanish Constitution of i\Iarch 19, 1812, stipulates in
9,
Section 131, No.
that the Cortes are authorized to approve treaties
for offensive alliances, treaties for subsidies, and commercial treaties The Constitution of June 18, 1837, debefore their ratification. crees in Article 48, No. 3, that a special law must authorize the King
to ratify offensive alliance treaties, commercial treaties, and in general such treaties in which subsidies for foreign powers are agreed
upon.
Italy.
similar limitations.
The power of the King in Italy to conclude treaties is subject The Constitution requires that the King
to
is
authorized to conclude peace, alliance, commercial, or other treaties, and that the same must be submitted to the Chambers consistent
with the interest and security of the state. Treaties, however, which impose financial burden on the state or cause a change of territory
are effective only with the approval of the Chambers.
Switzerland.
The Revised Federal Constitution
May
29, 1874, bears
of the Swiss Federation of on the question of state treaties. While acknowl-
of the cantons, nevertheless the federal a authority occupies leading position and possesses important political powers. This Federation alone is authorized to declare war,
edging
the
sovereignty
to conclude peace, to
make
treaties
and
alliances,
a special custom
right to
ers
and commercial
treaties.
and to enter into The cantons have the
make treaties as regards intercourse with neighboring powand as regards the police of foreign countries; observing, how-
ever, the fact that such treaties should not interfere with the interest of the Federation.
74
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
United States.
The Constitution
of the United States, Article II, section
2,
clause
and 2, stipulates that "he (the President) shall have power, by make with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to Treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur." "A treaty duly ratified is as much a part of the supreme law of
the land as a statute.
The
if
later expression of the lawgivers will
replace preceding law

,jiot
an express repeal. where a later law entirely substitutes new provisions for the scheme of the earlier law, it is displaced by the later statute." (Knox,
At. Gen., Oct. 10, 1901, 23 Op. 545, afdrming 21 Op. 347.)
inconsistent or repugnant, even if there is While repeals by implication are not favored,
"A treaty, constitutionally concluded and ratified, abrogates all State laws inconsistent therewith. It is the supreme law of the land,
subject only to the provisions of the Constitution." (Davis, Notes, U. S. Treaty Volume 1776-1887.) The treaty entered into by President Washington November 19,
England may be recalled, which was accepted by the two-thirds majority of the Senate and was published and submitted to both Houses of the Congress. The request of the Lower House to submit the files was rejected by Washington, by virtue of the
1794, with
constitutional provision which vested the President and the Senate with treaty making powers. The House of Representatives agreed to the stipulations made by the President, but insisted that for such terms of treaties which could be executed only by way of legislation
the approval of Congress is necessary. In the treaty between the United States and Russia relating to the cession of Alaska, the President, with the approval of the Senbill for ate, assumed the obligation of the payment of $7,200,000. the appropriation of the money was introduced and approved with the express stipulation that the Lower House had no influence on
a state treaty in the absence of a violation of a constitutional provision.

18.
Kinds of Treaties.
In addition to state treaties, so-called "improper" treaties are in nor are supported by the respective states, but are merely the personal act of the highest ex-
known, which neither originate

ecutive.
An example of this type of agreement is the Concordats, concluded between the temporal head of a state and the Pope to bring about the settlement of personal differences.
TREATIES.
75
Other forms of improper treaties are those entered into by dethroned princes to effect their return to power, and similarly treaties concluded with ruling princes to maintain them in power. Finally, reference is made to treaties between the state and private persons
of
as regards public laws, such as often concluded with private persons European governments, especially England, as regards the sov-
ereignty of territory obtained by such private persons from African

rulers.
whether independent chiefs of savage whole or part of their states, with the sovereign rights which pertain to them, conformable with the traditional customs of the countr3^ From the fifteenth century to early in the nineteenth century the rules of international law were regarded as being, to some extent, an exclusive privilege of Christian people for the establishment of regular relations between them. Pagan peoples were not considered as participating in the political community established by international law between Christians, and it is only since 1856 that Turkey was admitted into the
It is of interest to consider
tribes can cede to private citizens the
family of nations. every human being of great human family.
This view, however, gradually vanished, as necessity must be considered a member of the
The conditions necessary to enable a state to exist as such and to enter into treaties are principally that a certain number of families having a fixed abode associate and submit themselves to a common
chief with the intention of providing for the safety of all. Accordingly tribes inhabiting certain territory and represented by a chief
executive constitute independent states. Inasmuch as these tribes are independent states, it follows that these states or their representatives
may make
international treaties of every kind.
History
abounds with examples of this kind, and reference is made repeatedly to the treaty between the English Puritans and the chief of
the Indians in 1620, to the treaty of the founders of the colony of New Hampshire concluded in 1639 with the Indians for the pur-
chase of land, and also to the treaties chiefs of the Indians.
made by William Penn with
19.
Treaties Concluded in Times of
War.
Among
the tn.-aties concluded in times of

treaties,
war may be mentioned
"contribution"
by which subjects of the enemy took over bonds and notes, which payments were to be made after a certain "Ransom" treaties, whereby on a stipulated ransom hosperiod.
76
tile
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
or neutral prizes were given up, were in vogue in the sevenWhile there are grounds for opposition against teenth century. treaties of the last kind concluded with the enemy, it is generally
understood that unless prohibited by law ransom treaties
may
be
employed with neutrals. Other treaties entered
into in times of
war include
treaties of
extradition as regards prisoners, treaties relating to the capitulation of troops, forts, and ships, and special importance is attached to
treaties of truce concluded normally for a certain period and based on the retention of the status quo of the positions occupied by both The subject of truce is further discussed elsewhere belligerents.
in this book.
20.
Treaties Concluded
by Whom.
According to the doctrines of international law, state treaties are

entered into exclusively by sovereign states, although semi-autonomous states can exercise the same prerogative. Treaties are con-
cluded by plenipotentiaries clothed with sufficient power, but, as indicated in the article on ratification, they must be finally ratified
by the chief executive of a state. In times of war superior officers of the army and navy have the right to conclude treaties which have
legal effect, even though special power by the state executive is not expressly conferred upon them. To this class belong especially
the treaties of truce.

21.
Form
of Treaty.
The opening clause of treaties always sets forth that they were concluded in the name of the Trinity. In the case of treaties concluded with pagan nations, no reference to the Divinity is made, but wherever possible, if the treaty does not refer to the Trinity, it
is
drawn
in the
name
22.
of God.
Enforcement of Treaties.
Treaties were originally provided with an oath to insure the execution thereof; subsequently even hostages were seized to guarantee the execution of treaties. The most common form of insuring the
enforcement of treaties
is the so-called "guaranty" treaty, which embodies the duty assumed by the contracting parties to take re-
course to armed forces in order to obtain the execution of the main

treaty.
Such
treaties are entered into to create neutral states, such
as Switzerland.
TREATIES.
23.
77
Interpretation of Treaties.
The interpretation of state treaties has received the attention of numerous writers, and the sum total of the varied and often contradicting opinions is that the construction of treaties should be equitable and not technical.
usual,
In his Commentaries Phillimore distinguishes between authentic, and doctrinal interpretation. Authentic interpretation, in a
word, is applicable to laws and not to treaties. Indirectly such interpretation may be applied to acts of the contracting parties which were precedent, concurrent, or subsequent to
strict sense of the
the conclusion of the treaty. The contracting parties may also agree on such authentic interpretation, which, as a matter of fact, however,
would merely constitute a new treaty. Usual interpretation has its foimdation in customs and precedents. This form of interpretation is rooted in the usual acceptance of terms and phrases familiar in
the intercourse of nations and employed in drawing up treaties, and extends to conclusions which are omitted. Doctrinal interpretation
resolves into grammatical and logical interpretation, a scientific construction of the terms of the treaty.
and
is
based on
Several writers call attention to the necessity of a thorough and competent knowledge of the language in which the treaty is drawn, and point out that the words must be construed in the sense in which
they are usually employed.
Above
all,
state treaties
must be construed
in
bona
fide
form, and
there can be no doubt that the civil rules of interpretation essentially apply to the construction of state treaties. Certain limitations, however, must be observed in this mode of construction, care being taken that the subject matters, objects, and effects in state treaties radically differ from those contained in private treaties.
tractor
In the case of obscure passages affecting the weal of the conand the people represented by him, a disadvantageous inter-
treaty
pretation cannot be insisted upon. The analogous application of a upon other than essentially indentical conditions can be
claimed at least when a contrary intention of the contracting parties cannot be established.
Phillimore finally suggests, in case of dispute, to take recourse to who are to construe expressions and phrases in the sense defined by international customs. Furthermore, the con.struction of
arbitrators
words should bo made grammatically, applying to the words tlic sense in which these words usually are employed. In case this interpretation does not suffice to obviate ob.scurities and ambiguities, log-
78
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
ical iDterpretation as dictated
by common reasoning must solve the
existing difficulties. In all such cases

parties
is
it is
obvious that the evincible intention of the
to be considered.
When
a thing
is
generally promised,
medium
quality
principle must be as little oppressive as possible. In the interpretation of treaties the following terms are employed Protocol signijSes a preliminary draft constituting the minutes of
:
to be assigned thereto in case of doubt, and the be recognized that duties, in case of doubt, should
is
the conference.
Paraie is employed as a term designating the initialing at the margin of a proposed treaty by the negotiators. Recez is a term applied to the act of a congress or diet to reduce
to writing the result of its deliberations.
action.
Declaration embodies the promulgation of rules of international As an example the Declaration of Paris may be cited, stating rules of maritime law.
Separate articles or clauses added to duly executed and ratified

treaties are incorporated in a separate instrument but construed in
conjunction with the treaty to which they refer. Concordat signifies a compact concluded by the Holy See. The Pope, although divested of territorial possessions or subjects, has
diplomatic representatives at many governments, and has frequently acted as mediator in international disputes. His official views are
published as decrees, encyclicals, pastorals, or constitutions.

24.
Ratification of Treaties.
force, carrying the effect of the treaty
Ratification imparts to a treaty its validity and has retroactive back to the day on which it
was signed by the
plenipotentiaries. Ratification is effected by the chief executives subsequent to having been entered into by the prop-
erly authorized plenipotentiaries. The conditions under which certain treaties may be ratified by the chief executive have been dis-
cussed in the articles relating to the Conclusion of Treaties, rendering further treatment of this subject superfluous.
25.
Abrogation of Treaties.
cir-
treaty
:
may
be modified or abrogated under the following
cumstances
(1)
(2)
When When
exist.
the parties mutually consent. continuance is conditioned
upon
terms
which no
longer
TREATIES.
(3) (4) (5) (6)
sible.
79
stipulation.
When When When When

When
its
either party refuses to

all
perform a material
the material stipulations have been performed. a party having the option elects to vpîthdraw. performance becomes physically or morally impos-
(7)
a state of things
one of
Digest,
tacit conditions,
II, 58,
which was the basis of the treaty, and no longer exists. (Wharton, Int. Law citing Whart. Com. Am. Law, Art. 161).
practice to insert in treaties a clause indicating the treaties may be terminated by notice of a certain
It is a
common
in
manner
which
duration given by one contracting party to the other. In the United States a question has arisen as to how this notice, when given by the President, should be authorized. Usually it has been given under
the authority of a joint resolution of Congress. According to the older rights of Avar, all state treaties not expressly concluded for the war were terminated by the same. The
conception of Bluntschli, that war merely interrupts the operation of most of the treaties, and that their validity is not dependent upon the continuance of the state of peace, responds to the international
legal views of to-day.
so far as the conditions of
merely eliminates the legal relation in this necessary, and some treaties perish when the premises have been destroyed. Recent examples of the abrogation of treaties are the termination of the treaties with Russia and Spain. In the former case the discrimination made by Russia against citizens of the United States
War
war make
of Jewish faith was the basis of a series of protests raised by the United States, and in view of the refusal of Russia to heed these
by a joint resolution approved December 21, 1911, the commerce and navigation between the United States and Russia, concluded on the 18th day of December, 1832, was termiprotests,
treaty of
nated.
The treaty of friendship and general relation with Spain, concluded July 3, 1902, and ratified April 14, 1903, has been abrogated, and in accordance with Article 30, notice has been given to terminate the treaty on May 8, 1919. Abrogation of a treaty means a
certain disruption of friendship between tAvo nations which naturally must influence their mutual trade interests. The status of com-
merce and the status of the citizens in the two affected countries would be treated, hoAvever, in accordance Avith international laAV. International laAv is a part of the laAvs of the United States and must be ascertained and administered by the courts of justice of approj)ri}ito jiirisdictioii
ns often ns questions
depending thereon are
80
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
duly presented for their adjudication. For this purpose, in the absence of a treaty and controlling executive or legislative act or
judicial decision, resort must be had to the customs and usages of civilized nations as evidenced in the works of jurists and commentators who have made themselves peculiarly well acquainted with the
subject.
treaties
Thus even without a treaty the interests of two states whose have been abrogated would be fully protected under the
well-established international rules.
XVI.
TREATIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

the 29th day of November, 1775, Congress appointed a "Committee of Secret Correspondence," whose duty it would be to cor-
On
respond with the friends of the colonies in other parts of the world. March 3, 1776, Silas Deane was instructed to go to France and enter into communication with M. de Vergennes, and to ascertain, if possible, whether, if the colonies should be forced to form themselves into an independent State, France would .... enter into any treaty or alliance with them for commerce or defence, or both. The instructions
inson, Robert Morris,
were signed by Dr. Franklin, Benjamin Harrison, John Dickand John Jay.
On the 17th day of September, 1776, Congress took into consideration the plan of treaties to be proposed to foreign nations, with the amendments agreed to by the Committee of the Whole, and adopted
a plan for the treaties to be proposed to the King of France. This remarkable state paper contains the germ of many of the provisions of subsequent treaties of the United States. In one respect it was many years in advance of provisions actually
incorporated into any Treaty. First it stipulated the status of the Dr. Franklin Silas Deane and citizens, and then the commerce.
Jefferson were originally selected by the Continental Congress to conclude Treaties with the European Powers. Thomas Jefferson had declined, and Arthur Lee was elected in his place. The commissioners concluded a Treaty of Alliance and a Treaty of Amity
Thomas
and Commerce with the King of France. Other Treaties followed with Netherlands in 1782, and with Sweden in 1783. Then the Treaty of Peace with Great Britain in 1783, to which the names of Adams,
Franklin, and Jay were attached under a special power. Then the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with Prussia in 1785, and in 1787 a Treaty of Peace and Friendship with Morocco, and of a Consular
Convention with France in 1788.
TREATIES.
81
All these Treaties secured the recognition of the Independence of the United States, and also regulated a commercial and political relation between the United States and other powers. The evils of
war were lessened by treaty arrangements,

tories of the other to close their business
that in case war should break out, time should be given to the citizens of each in the terri-
their properties, or that, should ditferences arise, resort should not be had to force until a friendly application should be made for an arrange-
and remove
ment.
was imposed upon private war by provisions forbidthe citizens of either Power to accept commissions or letters ding of marque from enemies of the other Power when at war; and the
restraint
acceptance of such commissions or letters was declared to be an act of piracy, which placed the offender beyond the claim of national
protection.
The rights of neutrals to maintain and carry on their commerce and trade on the high seas during time of war were fully recognized. For this purpose articles which were to be held to be contraband of war were expressly defined and limited and in the Treaty of 1785 with Prussia, which bears the signature of John Adams, Dr. Franklin, and Jefferson, it was even agreed that no articles should be deemed contraband, so as to induce confiscation, or condemnation, and a loss of property to individuals. It was further agreed that Free ships should make free goods; and that neutral goods found in an enemy's ship should not be confiscated if they had been put on board before the declaration of war, or within such short period
;
thereafter that an ignorance of the state of

implied. Precise rules were laid
war might
fairly be
down
to be observed in the visit of neutral
vessels on the high seas, and humane regulations were made respecting vessels on which articles contraband of war should be discovered.
the destruction of prisoners of war by sending them and inclement countries or by crowding them into close and noxious places," regulations were made for their treatment; and it was agreed that women and children, scholars, and cultivators, "all others whose occupations are for the common subsistence and benefit of mankind," should be allowed to continue their respective employments in time of war; that merchant and trading vessels employed in rendering the necessaries of human life more
into distant
"To prevent
easy to be obtained, should be allowed to pass unmolested in such time, and that no commissions should be granted to private armed
vessels.
82
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
The power of the new nation whose existence had been recognized by these Treaties, to regulate and control its commercial relations with Foreign Powers was uniformly asserted in this series of
Treaties. They placed each of the other Powers, in respect of commerce and navigation within each and every State, on the footing of the most favored nation and it was agreed with Prussia that the ports of each Power should be open to the other and that the duties, charges, and fees, to be imposed by each upon articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of the other, should be only such as should be paid by the most favored nation. In the articles affecting the relations between the United States and the several States, these early Treaties asserted the nationality of the United States in a no less marked manner. They prohibited the exaction in any State of the Droit d'Aubaine
; ;
or other similar duty. and to dispose of it
succeed to
it,
They allowed aliens to hold personal property by testament, donation, or otherwise, and to and they prohibited the exaction in such case by any
State of dues, except such as the inhabitants of the country were subject to. They allowed aliens, without obtaining letters of naturalization, to inherit real estate and things immovable in every State, but in such case the Prussian alien was required to sell the real estate and withdraw the proceeds, which he was to be permitted
to
do without molestation
and
in case of
withdrawal no droit de
detraction
was
to be exacted.
The right to aliens to frequent the coasts and countries of each and all the several States, and to reside there and to trade in all sorts of produce, manufactures, and merchandise was granted by the national government; and the States were prohibited from imposing upon such aliens any duties or charges to which the citizens of the most favored nation were not made subject. Resident aliens were also assured against State legislation to prevent the exercise of an entire and perfect liberty of conscience, and the performance of religious worship and, when dying, they were guaranteed the right of decent burial, and undisturbed rest for their bodies. The Consular Convention concluded with France by Jefferson maintained a yet wider supremacy for the national authority. It authorized French Consuls to administer, in certain cases, upon the
;
estates of their deceased

cise police
countrymen
in the several States
to exer-
over
all
the vessels of their nation in whatever American
port they might discharge their functions; to arrest the officers or crews of such vessels; to require the Courts to aid them in the arrest of deserters; and it even elevated them into judges, and
TREATIES.
83
authorized them to determine all differences and disputes arising between their countrymen in the United States.
The same statesmen contemplated at one time a postal convention between France and the United States. A scheme was submitted by the French Minister; after considering which Jay submitted a counter proposal. But nothing further appears to have been done. Had the scheme been carried out it would have anticipated by half a century the modern international postal conventions of the United
States.
The several Treaties and Conventions, thus negotiated, have served as the basis or model of many of the commercial and general conventions entered into by the United States since the adoption
of the Constitution.
The Treaty negotiated

tion of President
in
London, in 1794, during the administra-
Washington, and commonly known as Jay's Treaty, contained several new features, some of which have since been adopted in other Treaties.
This Treaty, the
first
concluded with a Foreign Power under the
new form
which form of government, to authorize aliens to hold and dispose of real estate in the several States. It aimed to establish, as far as the British monopoly of that day would permit, reciprocity in trade on the American continent; and it declared that by reciprocity it was "intended to render in a great degree the local advantages of each party common to both, and thereby to promote a disposition favorable to friendship and good neighborhood." It made reciprocal for the of and provisions equalization export duties. It proimport vided a mode for settling by arbitration any differences Avhich had arisen between the two powers; and it also declared that it was "unjast and impolitic that debts and engagements contracted and made by individuals, having confidence in each other, and in their
respective government, should ever be destroyed or impaired by national authority on account of national differences;" and it, therefore, provided that there should be no confiscation or sequestration of debts, in event of war between the parties. By it the parties
of government, recognized the right of the United States, had been inserted in the Treaties concluded under the old
agreed that an innocent neutral vessel, ai)proaching a blockaded port, without knowledge of the blockade, should be warned and turned away without detention, and without confiscation of the It required each party vessel, or of the cargo unless contraband.
to bring to the notice of the other
any causes of complaint
it
might
have before proceeding
to
the oxlrcinilics of reprisals or of war;
84
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
it
provisions to a limited extent, for the extradition of persons charged with the commission of crimes. The Treaty of 1795, concluded with Spain during the same administration, provided that the vessels or effects of citizens of either
and
made
Power should not be embargoed
or detained
by the other for any
purpose; that the courts of justice should be open alike to citizens of each Power; that seizures of the persons of citizens of one Power by the authorities of the other within its jurisdiction, were to be made and prosecuted under the ordinary forms of law, and that the
persons so arrested were to have the right to employ such advocates or attorneys as they pleased, who were to have the right of access to them, and of being present at all examinations and trials, all of which engagements have since been entered into with other Powers.
note were made.
During the administration of the elder Adams, two Treaties of The first, concluded with Prussia, in 1799, extended
the principal provisions in the Treaty of 1785 with that power, but, in doing it, several features of the early Treaty disappeared. The second was the Treaty concluded with Prance in 1800, which
put an end to a state of

States.
(^[uasi
war between Prance and
the United
The construction put by President Washington on the agreement

of guaranty contained in the 11th article of the Treaty of 1778 with Prance, together with the conclusion of the Treaty of 1794 with
England, had affected the relations of the two countries to such a degree that, in 1798, Congress had, by law, assumed to exonerate the nation from further obligation to observe the Treaties with France; and the Attorney-General of 1800 restored the good relations; but in the amendments on each side the old Treaties entirely
The subject will be further considered hereafter. This concluded during the administration of President although Treaty, was finally proclaimed by Jefferson after he became PresAdams,
disappeared.
ident.
By far the most important Treaty, in its results, concluded during the administration of President Jefferson, was the Treaty of 1803 with Prance, whereby Louisiana was annexed to the United States.
This was the
of the
first Treaty which extended the territorial dominion United States, and which provided for the admission of aliens "to the enjoyments of all i*ights, advantages, and the immunities of citizens of the United States." The subject of the Slave-Trade first appears in the Treaty of Peace with Great Britain, concluded in 1814, at Ghent, during the administration of President Madison. It was declared there that "the
TREATIES.
traffic
85
in slaves is irreconcilable with the principles of humanity and justice." John Quincy Adams, James A. Bayard, Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell, and Albert Gallatin subscribed this declaration on the part of the United States. At the close of the wars of Napoleon, the Treaty of 1795 with
Spain alone, of all of the commercial Treaties, survived. President Madison contemplated using the opportunity to mould all. the Treaties of this nature into a general system. Mr. Monroe, in an early stage of negotiations with Holland, for this purpose, informed the Dutch Minister at Washington that "the Treaties between the United States and some of the Powers of Europe having been annulled by causes proceeding from the state of Europe for some time past, and other Treaties having expired, the United States have now to form their system of commercial intercourse with every Power, as it were, at the same time." But the only general commercial Treaties which Monroe succeeded in concluding, either as Secretary of State under President Madison, or as President with
John Quincy Adams as Secretary of State, were the Treaty of 1815 with Great Britain, the limited arrangements made with France in 1822, and the Treaty with Colombia in 1824. In that Treaty with Great Britain, it was for the first time agreed that no higher or other duties or charges should be imposed in any of the ports of the United States on vessels of another Power than those payable in the same ports by vessels of the United States; that the same duties should be paid on the importation into the United States of any articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of a foreign Power, whether such importation should be made in vessels of the United States or in vessels of that Power, and that in all cases where drawbacks were or might be allowed upon the re-exportation of any goods the growth, produce, or manufacture of either country respectively, the amount of the drawback should be the same whether the goods should have been imported in American vessels or in vessels of the Foreign Power. How frequently these principles have since been recognized in Treaties of the United States, an examination of the Index following these Notes will show. The Convention with Colombia was the first of a long series of Treaties of Amity and Commerce with the several American States, of Spanisli or Portuguese origin. It contained, in addition to most of the liberal provisions already noted, an agreement wjiich has
since been incorporated into many other Treaties, that infractions of the Treaty by citizens of either party should not interrupt the harmony and good correspondence between the two nations.
86
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
The most important Treaty made during the administration of President j\lonroe was the Treaty for the acquisition of Florida, concluded with Spain in 1819. Another important Convention was concluded in 1818, in London, by Mr. Gallatin and Mr. Rush, for the purpose, among other things, of settling the disputes which had arisen after the Treaty of Ghent, respecting the fisheries. In this the United States "renounced forever any liberty heretofore
fish
enjoyed or claimed by the inhabitants thereof to take, dry, or cure on or within three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays, creeks, or harbors of His Britannic Majesty's Dominions in America not included in the above-mentioned limits," that is, the limits described
in the Treaty.
Many commercial
trations of President
Treaties were concluded during the adminisJackson and President Van Buren, through
which the principles, which had become part of the policy of the United States, were extended in every quarter of the globe. By the former administration also, long-pending differences with Prance were set at rest by a Convention signed July 4, 1831 and a Treaty was concluded with the Ottoman Porte, under which, for nearly forty years, it was not doubted that the citizens of the United States Avithin the dominions of the Porte enjoyed certain rights of exterriThe doubts which have since arisen will be considered toriality.
;
hereafter.
During the administration of President Tyler, Caleb Cushing as Plenipotentiary, negotiated a Treaty by which political relations were for the first time established between the United States and the Emperor of China. "All questions in regards to rights, whether of property or persons, arising between citizens of the United States in China, shall be subject to the jurisdiction and regulated by the authorities of their own Government." The same administration also brought to a close the long-pending disputes about the Northeastern Boundary, and by the same Treaty
made arrangements with Great Britain for the extradition of persons accused of crimes. With the exception of the clause in "Jay's Treaty," respecting murder and forgery, this is the first of a long The first international series of Treaties for a similar purpose.
postal arrangement also appears to have been concluded during this administration.
President Polk carried out with assiduity the policy of the nation by extending the number of its Treaties for the regulation of com-
merce and navigation, for the abolition of unjust taxes, and for the regulation of international postal relations, and he added to the
TREATIES.
87
national domain by the Treaty of Peace with Mexico, and concluded a treaty with Great Britain, which was intended on the part of the United States to be a final settlement of the disputed Northwestern
Boundary,
of
During President Taylor's short administration several Treaties commerce were entered into with other Powers. The Secretary
of State (acting as the Plenipotentiary of the United States) signed a Treaty with Great Britain (commonly known as the Clayton-
Bulwer Treaty)
in
which the United States agree not to obtain any
exclusive control over the Ship-canal which it was then supposed would soon be constructed through the territories of Nicaragua.
Ihe administration of President Fillmore furnished a form of a Consular Convention which has been adopted as the basis of all subsequent conventions of that nature. Its defects are noticed hereIt bore the signature of Edward Everett, then Secretary of after.
State.
The Crimean war, which took place during the administration of President Pierce, left its mark on the Treaties of the United States in agreements with Russia, the Two Sicilies, and Peru, respecting
the rights of neutrals at sea. Treaties of Commerce, Consular Conventions, and Extradition Treaties were negotiated and concluded
with various powers under the direction of "Wm. L. Marcy, as Secretary of State; a Treaty was concluded for reciprocal trade with
Canada, and for the enjoyment of the Canadian Fisheries; diplomatic intercourse was opened with Japan and Arizona was acquired by Treaty with Mexico.
;
President Buchanan released the commerce of the United States
from the Danish dues
at the Sound and Belts, made wider and relations with Japan, and he added to the broader the friendly for the number of the Treaties regulation respectively of commerce, of international of extradition, and postage.
Seward was the Secretary of State during the adminand of President Johnson. Under his direction of the Department of State, the Treaties of Commerce, and the Consular and Extradition Conventions were widely extended. A Treaty was entered into for the suppression of the Afri"William H.
istrations of President Lincoln
can Slavc-Trade, in which, for the first time since the adoption of the Constitution, it was agreed that an alien might sit as a judge in a court holding its sessions within the territories of the United States.
Several Treaties were
made securing the recognition of the right of expatriation and naturalization, and the protection of Trade-Marks
88
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
also
was
too,
made
the subject of a Treaty.
The
relations with China,
were
essentially modified.
During the administration of President Grant the Department of State, under the direction of Hamilton Fish, carried out the previous policy of the United States in new Treaties for regulating the commerce of the country, for the extradition of criminals, for the
naturalization of aliens, for the protection of trade-marks, for defining the powers and jurisdiction of Consuls, and for the protection of citizens in Foreign countries. The Treaty which has become known as the Treaty of Washington was signed in that city on the 8th day
May, 1871, by Mr. Fish, Mr. Justice Nelson, Robert C. Schenck, E. R. Hoar, and George H. Williams, as High Commissioners on the part of the United States, and by Earl de Grey and Ripon, Sir Stafof
ford Northeote, Sir
Edward Thornton,
Sir
John A. McDonald, and
Montague Bernard, as High Commissioners on the part of Great Britain. It provides for the adjustment of outstanding diiferences with Great Britain, which were many and grave, by a series of arbitrations.
The success, in the midst of great difficulties, which has attended the conduct of these international trials, may lead even persons who are not optimists, to hope that a way may be found
for the peaceful solution of many sorts of international differences, which have hitherto been left to be solved by the sword. The policy of the United States is well established to settle national disputes
and individual claims by arbitration when possible. (Treaties andConventions between the United States and other Powers, 17761887, pp. 1220-1227).
TREATIES, CONVENTIONS, INTERNATIONAL ACTS, PROTOCOLS and
AGREEMENTS
between the United States of America and Other Powers.

Signed
of
Subject
Proclaimed
July
1882
Amelioration of the Condition of

the
Wounded
of
in
Time
War.
.
August
22,
1854
26,
Bureau
Weights and Measures.
Protection of Industrial Property Protection of Submarine Cables... International Exchange of Docu.
20. 1875 March 20, 1883 March 14, 1884
May
September 27, 1878 June 11, 1887
May
22,
1885
15, 1889 15, 1889
ments Immediate Exchange
of
March Documents March
15, 15,
1886 1886
January January
Protocol Respecting Execution of Convention Relating to Protection of Submarine Cables Declaration Interpreting Convention Relating to Protection of Submarine Cables
May
21,
1886
December
1,
1886
May
1,
1888
TREATIES.
89
Subject
Signed
Proclaimed
Protocol Putting Convention Relating to Protection of Submarine Cables into Effect July 7, 1887 General Act for the Repression of the African Slave Trade July 2, 1890 Deposit of Ratifications February 2, 1892 Formation of an International Union for the Publication of Customs Tariffs Julv 5, 1890 Supplementary Industrial Property. April 15, 1891 Adoption by the United States of the Additional Articles of the Geneva Convention as a Modus Vivendi During the War with Spain May 13, 1898 Adhesion of the United States to the Convention Regulating the Importation of Liquors into Africa June 8, 1899 First Hague Peace Conference Conventions: Pacific Settlement of Disputes July 29, 1899 Launching Projectiles July 29, 1899
May
April
1,
1888 1892
2,
December
June
22,
17,
1S90
1892
February
6,
1901
November November
1,
1,
1901 1901
Adaption to Maritime Warfare of

the
Principles
of
the
Geneva
July July
29, 29,
Convention Laws and Customs of War on Land Additional Act for the Protection of Industrial Property Final Protocol Entered Into at the Conclusion of the Boxer Troubles in China in 1900 Convention Between the United States and Other Powers on and Artistic CopyLiterary
rights
1899 1899
14,
November
,
1, 1901 April 11, 1902
December
September
1900
August
25,
1902
7,
1901
Arbitration of Pecuniary Claims. International Sanitary Convention (Paris)

. .
January January
27,
30,
3,
1902 1902
1903
April
9,
March
24,
1908 1905
December
May
June
18,
15,
1907 1908 1907

29,
Repression
of
Trade
in
Women
White
May
18,
1904
21,
Exemption
of Hospital Ships from Payment of Dues International Institute of Agriculture
December
June
7,
1904
May
21,
1905
New Agreement Between

Certain Powers for the
January
1908
China and
Whangpu
September
. .
Conservancy
International Sanitaiy Convention (Central and South America)
27,
1905
October
14,
1905
March
March
1,
1909
General Act of the International Conference at Algeciras October IntfM-national Red Cross Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded of the in the Field
14, 1905
1.
1909
Armies
July
f),
1906
3,
August
1906
3,
1907
2,
Importation of Spirituous Liquors Into Africa
November
December
1907
90
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Subject
Signed
Proclaimed
1906
1907
Unification of the Pharmacopoeial
Potent Drugs
International
Office
November
of
29,
9,
Public
December
Health Second Hague

I.
November
February
February
17, 28, 28,
1908 1910 1910
Peace
Conference
Conventions, 1907: Pacific Settlement of International Disputes II. The Limitation of the Employment of Force for'the
October
18,
1907 1907
October
18,
III.
IV.
V.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XIII.
Recovery of Contract October Debts October Opening of Hostilities The Laws and Customs of October War on Land Rights and Duties of Neutrals in Land War October The Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines October Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War. October The Adoption of the Principles of the Geneva Contion to Naval War October Right of Capture in Naval War October Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval War .... October
.
18, 18,
1907 1907
February February
28, 28, 28, 28, 28,

28,
1910 1910
18,
18, 18, 18,
1907 1907 1907

1907
February February
February February February
1910
1910
1910
1910
18, 18, 18,
1907
28, 28,
1910 1910
1907
1907
February
February
28,
1910
XIV.
Declaration
Prohibiting the
Throwing of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons Final Act, Second Peace Conference Signatures and Reservations, Sec-
October October
October
18, 18,
1907 1907
February February
February
28,
1910
ond Peace Conference Conventions concluded at the Central American Peace Conference, 1907:
18, 1907
28,
1910
28,
1910
Preliminary Protocol General Treaty of Peace and Amity Additional Treaty of Peace and
December December
20, 20, 20,
1907 1907
Amity
Convention for Establishment of a
Central American Court of Justice Additional Protocol to the Convention for the Establishment of a Central American Court of Justice Extradition Convention Convention for the Establishment of an International Central
December December
1907
20,
1907
December December December December
20, 20,
1907 1907
American Bureau
Convention for the Establishment of a Central American Pedagogical Institute
20,
1907
20, 20, 20,
1907 1907 1907
Convention Concerning Future Central American Conference December Convention on Communications... December
TREATIES.
91
XVII.
MOST-FAVORED-NATION CLAUSE.
The most-favored-nation clause in treaties expresses protection against the wilful preference of the commercial interests of one nation over the other. It grants the same allowances and the same priviwhich have been conceded to other nations; in other words, means the expression of equality in international treatment. It concedes the same right to every favored nation. The most-favorednation clause binds both of the contracting parties. It must be so construed and has been so construed by all authorities.
leges
it
It is a well established fact that
according to international law,
means reciprocal
the most-favored-nation clause, This concessions.
clause ordinarily binds the high contracting parties to obtain and accord mutual rights such as conferred upon other favored nations, and also rights which will originate from subsequently concluded
treaties.
It
that in all our treaties
was wisely stated by Mr. Jefferson, Secretary of State, it would be best to have but a single article,
and that
is
the most-favored-nation clause, or, in diplomatic terms,
"gentis amicissimae":
"Indeed,
of
we
are infinitely better without such treaties
(i. e.
treaties
commerce) with any nation. We can not too distinctly detach ourselves from the European system, w^hich is essentially belligerent, nor too sedulously cultivate an American system, essentially pacific. But if we go into commercial treaties at all, they should be wdth all, at the same time, with whom we have important commercial relations Perhaps, with all of them, it would be best to have but
the single article gentis amicissimae, leaving everything else to the usages and courtesies of civilized nations." (Mr. Jefferson to President Madison, Mar. 23, 1815, 6 Jefferson's
Works,
453.)
XVIII.
MONROE DOCTRINE.
The remoteness
Washington not
of the
lished a natural division
to
American continent from Europe has estabbetween their interests. The doctrine of incur any entangling alliances was further
strengthened by the principles enunciated by President Monroe, to consider the extension of the system of European nations to the
92
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
American hemisphere as a danger to peace and* safety. He further emphasized that the American continent can not be considered subject for future colonization by any European power. These principles, collectively termed the Monroe Doctrine, grew
face of attempts by the Holy Alliance (see on Treaties) to restore the former colonies of Spain to her. The Monroe Doctrine has never been sanctioned by legislative action, nor has it been accepted as a rule of international law it is, however, strictly adhered to and has been recognized by all nations. The effects of the Doctrine have been generally construed that the active opposition of the United States would be encountered in case
article
;
into existence in the
attempts were made to interfere with the internal affairs of any American continents. The position which the United States occupies with respect to the other nations of the continent
state of the
has been properly termed a supervisory position with respect to the foreign relations of the same. There is hardly any doubt that the
government of the United States has never assumed any
right, or
attempts, to interfere with the domestic affairs of the countries belonging to the American continent.
made
XIX.
INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR THE PROTECTION OF

INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY.
Animated by the desire to assure a complete and effective protection of the industry and commerce of the natives of their respective states and to contribute towards the guaranty of the rights
of inventors
and
to the integrity of commercial transactions, a
num-
ber of European and Central American nations have formed by a Convention at Paris in March, 1883, a Union for the Protection of
Industrial Property. This Union has been joined later by a number of additional nations, the United States of America having become a
member
of Paris
sels
of this
Union on
May
30, 1887.
The
articles of the
Union
have been modified by a Convention at Brusin 3900 and again by another Convention at Washington in 1911.
of the
of 1883
The principal provision

trial
Union for the Protection of Indus-
Property states that the subjects or citizens of each of the contracting states will enjoy in all of the other states of the Union the advantages which the respective laws allow at any time to the natives
TREATIES.
93
marks and commercial names.
as regards patents of invention, designs, or industrial models, tradeThis object is furthered by the pro:
vision of Art. 4 of the Convention of Paris, prescribing as follows Whosoever has in regular form made an application Article 4.
for a patent of invention, or the registration of a design or industrial model, or of a manufacturing or trade mark, in one of the con-
tracting states, will enjoy a right of priority during the delays hereafter determined, for the purpose of making the application or registration in the other states, reserving
parties.
always the rights of third
Consequently the application subsequently made for a patent, or the said registrations, before the expiration of the delays, hereinafter mentioned, can not be invalidated by any facts that have taken
place in the interval, say, especially any other application or registration, by the publication of the invention or the working of the
same, by the selling of copies of the design or of the model, or of the trade mark.
The delays of priority mentioned above will be twelve months for patents of invention, four months for designs or industrial models and also for manufacturing and trade marks. Another important provision is that the introduction by the patentee into the country where the patent has been granted of articles manufactured in any of the states of the Union will not involve the
forfeiture of the patent. common belief that the grant of a patent in any one of the Union countries will assure grant of this patent either automatically
or as a matter of right in any one of the other erroneous.
Union countries
is
The United States of America is not a member of another Union which took its origin in 1891, at Madrid, and which concerns exclusively the registration of industrial and commercial trade marks. The United States of America also is not a member of a Union formed by a number of countries for the International Protection of
Literary Works, Artistic Works, Copyright Union.
etc.,
commonly designated
as the
The United States of America, however, is a member of a Union formed by American countries exclusively for the Protection of Trade Marks formed by a Congress at Buenos Aires in August, 1910. While the articles of this Convention of Buenos Aires have been ratified
by several governments the offices necessary for carrying out the provisions of this Convention have so far not been established. (B.
Singer's Patent and Trade
Mark Laws
of the
World,
p.
507-508),
94
INTEENATIONAL LAW.
PASSPORTS.
In
passport is the accepted international evidence of nationality. usual form, it certifies that the person described in it is a citizen or subject of the country by whose authority it is issued, and requests for him permission to come and go, as well as lawful aid
its
and protection.
Other documents, such as safe-conducts, letters of protection, and special passes for individuals, and even passes for vessels, are often referred to as passports, and not altogether inaccurately, since their object is to secure for the particular person or property freedom oi movement and lawful protection. But these documents are used
chiefly in war, and are granted on the strength of the personality rather than of the nationality of the individual, being issueci, according to the circumstances of the case, even to enemies.
The Attorney-General advised, in 1866, that the Secretary of State was not authorized to furnish the owners of an American merchant vessel with a safe-conduct to the American ministers and naval officers in the East. A special passport or protection paper was, however, issued by Mr. Blaine, in 1890, to an American vessel going on a long and hazardous voyage; and certificates of American character are given to American-owned but foreign-built vessels. Such
papers hardly fall within the provisions of the law relating to passThe terms of the law, obviously refer to certificates of naports.
tionality issued to individuals.
Passports are only granted to citizens of the United States. Applicants for passports are required to furnish the State De-
partment with proof of citizenship. All applications for passports must be accompanied by evidence
of citizenship.
1.
Authority to Issue.
this
"The passport provided by
Department
is
a certificate of
citizenship for identification and protection of an American citizen who is about to visit a foreign country. The paper submitted by you
is
from the fact
a certificate of citizenship for exactly the same purpose. Aside that, being to all intents and purposes a passport, it
cannot be lawfully issued by you, it is very objectionable in some of No person other than a chief officer of this Departits declarations. ment can with propriety certify officially that the bearer of the
certificate
has fully and satisfactorily "complied with the require-
PASSPORTS.
95
ments established by the Department of State of the United States, (Mr. Bayard, to entitle said bearer to a United States passport." Sec. of State, to Mr. Conoly, Feb. 24, 1886, 159 MS. Dom. Let. 147.)
2.
Foreign Countries,
Until the act of 1856 prohibiting a consular officer from issuing a passport in a country where there was a diplomatic agent, except during the latter 's absence, passports were granted by consuls as a regular part of their duties; but June 1, 1853, Secretary Marcy issued a circular ordering that whenever there was a legation and
consulate in the same place, the former only should issue passports
the consular regulations now in force went into a consul-general or, in his absence, a consul had authority to issue passports in colonies; but the regulations of 1896 prohibited, generally, consular officers from issuing passports, unless specifically authorized so to do by the Department (of State),
From
1856,
till
effect in 1896,
this prohibition not,
however, extending to the issuing of passports the temporary absence from a country of officer consular a during by More than forty consular officers the diplomatic representative. now have the specific authority required by the regulations.
The consular fee for issuing a passport is one dollar, payable in coin, and by act of Congress of June 30, 1864, an additional sum of $5.00 is imposed as an "internal revenue" fee, which, in the
opinion of this Department, is payable in the currency of the United States in coterminous British provinces. (Mr. Seward, Sec. of Sec. of to Mr. Jan. Fessendcn, Treas., State, 18, 1865, 67 MS. Dom.
Let. 575.)
A person who is entitled to receive a passport if temporarily abroad should apply to the diplomatic representative of the United States in the country where he happens to be or, in the absence of
;
a diplomatic representative, to the consul-general of the United States; or, in the absence of both, to the consul of the United
3.
Refusal of Passports.
who have
even to citizens of the United States, "may so far expatriated themselves as to have become bound in allegiance to other nations, or who in any other manner have
Passports
be refused
forfeited the protection of their own." The Secretary of State has the right in his discretion to refuse to
96
issue a passport,
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
and
will exercise this right
towards anyone who
he has reason to believe desires a passport to further an unlawful or
improper purpose. Sees. 4075 and 4076, Rev.
Stat.,
which confer on the Secretary of
State authority to issue passports to citizens of the United States, are not in terms mandatory, but authorize the exercise of discretion
in the discharge of the function so conferred.
As a general
American
prescribed; but
citizens
statement, passports are issued to all law-abiding who apply for them and comply with the rules
it
is
not obligatory to issue one to every citizen
and the rejection of an application is not to be construed as per se a denial by this Department or its agents of the American citizenship of a person whose application is so redesires
it,
who
jected.
(Mr. Hay, Sec. of State, to dip.

27, 1899, For. Rel. 1902, 1.)
&
cons, officers, circular,
March
XXI.
EXTRADITION.
Extradition is the surrender of persons charged with a crime by one foreign state to another, on its demand pursuant to treaty In the absence of treaty stipulations stipulations between them.
fugitives may or may not be surrendered according to the decision arrived at by the respective state in each individual case. While
is sanctioned as a matter of right, in practice on the doctrine of comity criminals are extradited, unless the ojffense committed is of a political nature, or the punishment according to the laws of the state having jurisdiction over the person, is out of proportion to the act committed.
refusal to surrender
A good example of extraditable crimes is given by the treaty between the United States and Spain, of 1904. Article II of that
treaty provides that persons shall be surrendered who are charged with or convicted of any of the following crimes 1. Murder, comprehending the crimes designated by the terms of parricide, assassination, manslaughter, when voluntary poisoning or 2. infanticide. Attempt to commit murder. 3. Rape, abortion, carnal knowledge of children under the age of twelve years. 4. Bigamy. 5. Arson. 6. Wilful and unlawful destruction or
:
obstruction of railroads, which endanger human life. 7. Crimes committed at sea (a) Piracy, as commonly known and defined
:
EXTRADITION.
97
by the laws
of nations, or by statute; (b) Wrongfully sinking or vessel at sea or attempting to do so; (c) Mutiny or a destroying conspiracy by two or more members of the crew, or other persons
on board of a vessel on the high
seas, for the
purpose of rebelling
against the authority of the Captain or Commander of such vessel, or by fraud or violence taking possession of such vessel; (d) Assault on board ships upon the high seas with intent to do bodily harm.
8.
Burglary, defined to be the act of breaking into
and entering the house of another in the night time with intent to commit a felony therein. 9. The act of breaking into and entering into the offices of the Government and public authorities, or
the offices of banks, banking houses, savings banks, trust companies, insurance companies, or other buildings not dwellings with intent to
commit a felony therein. 10. Robbery, defined to be the act of feloniously and forcibly taking from the person of another, goods or money by violence or by putting him in fear. 11. Forgery or the utterance of forged papers. 12. The forgery or falsification of the official acts of the Government or public authority, including Courts
of Justice, or the uttering or fraudulent use of any of the same. 13. The fabrication of counterfeit money, whether coin or paper, counterfeit titles or coupons of public debt, created by National,
State, Provincial, Territorial, Local or Municipal Governments, banknotes or other instruments of public credit, counterfeit seals, stamps, dies and marks of State or public administrations, and the utterance,
circulation or fraudulent use of the above mentioned objects. 14. Embezzlement or criminal malversation committed within the jurisdiction of one or the other party
by public
officers
or depositaries,
where the amount embezzled exceeds two hundred dollars (or Spanish equivalent). 15. Embezzlement by any person or persons hired,
salaried or employed, to the detriment of their employers or principals, when the crime or offence is punishable by imprisonment or
the
other corporeal punishment by the laws of both countries, and where amount embezzled exceeds two hundred dollars (or the Spanish
equivalent). Kidnapping of minors or adults, defined to be the abduction or detention of a person or persons, in order to exact money from them or their families, or for any other unlawful end.
17.
Larceny, defined to be the theft of
effects,
personal property, or
money, of the value of twenty-five dollars or more. 18. Obtaining money, valuable securities or other property by false pretences or receiving any money, valuable securities or other property knowing the same to have been unlaAvfully obtained, Avhere the amount of
money or the value
of the property so obtained or received exceeds
98
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
two hundred dollars (or Spanish equivalent). 19. Perjury or subornation of perjury. 20. Fraud or breach of trust by a bailee, banker, director or agent, factor trustee, executor, administrator, guardian, officer of any Company or Corporation, or by any one in any fiduciary the value of the property position, where the amount of money or
misappropriated exceeds two hundred dollars (or Spanish equiva21. Crimes and offences against the laws of both countries lent).
for the suppression of slavery and slave trading. 22. The extradition is also to take place for participation in any of the aforesaid crimes as an accessory before or after the fact, provided such participation be punishable tracting Parties.
by imprisonment by the laws of both Con-
Article III of the above mentioned treaty stipulates that the provisions of this Convention shall not import claim of extradition
for
any crime or offence, of a political character, nor for acts connected with such crimes or offences, except in so far as they shall constitute ordinary crimes or offences punishable by the laws of the
two Countries; and no person surrendered by or
to either of the
Contracting Parties in virtue of this convention shall be tried or punished for a political crime or offence, except they be ordinary crimes as above stated, nor for any act connected therewith, com-
An attempt, whether conmitted previously to the extradition. summated or not, against the life of the Sovereign or of the Head of any State, or against that of any member of his family, when such attempt comprises the act either of murder or assassination or
of poisoning, shall not be considered a political offence, or an act
connected with such an offence.
XXII.
ASYLUM.
fifteenth century, the houses
Soon after the establishment of embassies and legations in the and dwellings of ambassadors became a resort for persons fleeing either from persecution or from violence. The immunity which was allowed to an ambassador's house extended even to his servants. Vattel, who was not only a publicist, but
also a diplomatist, in his treatise, published in 1758, while inveighing against a minister's taking advantage of his immunities in order "to afford shelter and protection to the enemies of the prince and to
ASYLUM.
99
malefactors of every kind, and thus screen them from the punish-
ments which they have deserved," said:
"I grant, indeed, that when there is question only of certain ordinary transgressions, and these committed by persons who often prove to be rather unfortunate than criminal, or whose punishment is of no great importance to the peace of society, the house of an ambassador may well serve as an asylum for such offenders; and it is better that the sovereign should suffer them to escape, than expose the ambassador to frequent molestation under pretense of a search after them, and thus involve the state in any difficulty which might arise from such proceed' '
ings.
the eminent German publicist, in 1821, declared that stiU allowed for private crimes, though it was univer"asylum was admitted that sally persons accused of crimes of state might be
seized, if not given
De Martens,
up."
Rome
abolished the right of asylum in 1815.

1.
Asylum
in America.
In the United States, where the supremacy of the local law is rigorously maintained, diplomatic asylum has never existed. In an opinion given as early as 1794 the Attorney-General remarked that the house of a foreign minister could not be made an asylum for a
a prison for an innocent one; and the minister's house be exempt from the ordinary that, although of the in such jurisdiction country, yet, cases, "recourse would be
guilty, nor,
it
was apprehended,
had to the interposition of the extraordinary powers of the state." But, with the exception of the United States, it is believed that
examples of diplomatic asylum may be found in substantially all independent American states. In the countries that were formerly Spanish colonies, the practice may be said to have been inherited; and in some of them it has been so far extended as to include even persons resting under civil and commercial responsibilities. Bradford, At.-Gen., June 24, 1794, 1 Op. 47-48. Albertini, Derecho Diplomatic en sus Aplicaciones a las Republicas Sud-Americanas. 151-152.
Since the practice of asylum is not sanctioned by international law, it can be defended only on the ground of the consent of the state within whose jurisdiction it is souglit to be maintained. This
view has been accepted by the Government of the United States in its Instructions to Diplomatic Officers of the United States, which
read as follows
:
100
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Par. 49. Immujiity from local jurisdiction extends to a diplomatic representative's dwelling house and goods and the These can not be entered, searched, archives of the mission. or detained under process of local law or by the local authorities.
Par. 50. The privilege of immunity from local jurisdiction does not embrace the right of asylum for persons outside of a representative's diplomatic or personal household. Par. 51. In some countries, where frequent insurrections occur and consequent instability of government exists, the practice of extraterritorial asylum has become so firmly established that it is often invoked by unsuccessful insurgents and is practically recognized by the local government, to the extent even of respecting the premises of a consulate in which such fugitives may take refuge. This Government does not sanction the usage, and enjoins upon its representatives in such counWhile intries the avoidance of all pretexts for its exercise.
disposed to direct its representatives to deny temporary shelter to any person whose life may be threatened by mob violence, it deems it proper to instruct them that it will not countenance them in any attempt knowingly to harbor offenders against the laws from the pursuit of the legitimate agents of justice.
2.
Asylum
in Legations.
In December, 1898, Mr. Bridgman, the minister of the United
La Paz, drew up a set of rules which were accepted and signed by his Brazilian and French colleagues, in relation to the reception and treatment of refugees seeking asylum at the legations
States at
ica is," said
during the insurrection then existing. "The idea in South AmerMr. Bridgman, "deeply rooted, among the populace at least, that a foreign legation is legally a refuge for all sorts of criminals, who may remain in safety from lawful or unlawful pursuit."
The rules were as follows:
Every person asking asylum must be received first in the outer or waiting room of the legation, and there state his name, official capacity, if any, residence, and reason for demanding refuge also if his life is threatened by mob violence or is in
;
active danger
from any
attack.
If, according to the joint rules laid down by the committee composed of the Brazilian, American, and French ministers, he shall be adjudged eligible for protection, he must subscribe to the following rules in writing:
First. To agree that the authorities shall be at once notified of his place of refuge.
Second.
To hold no communication with any outside
per-
ASYLUM.
son,
101
except by permission of the
and
to receive no visitors
authority quoted above.

Third. To agree not to leave the legation without permission of the resident minister.
Fourth, To hold himself as virtually the prisoner-guest of the minister in whose legation he is.
To agree to peaceably yield himself to the proper Fifth. authorities when so demanded by them and requested b'y
his host.
Sixth. To quietly depart when so requested by the minister, should the authorities not demand his person after a reasonable time has elapsed,
Edwardo
C,
Lisboa,
George H. Bridgman.
de Contonly,
La
Paz, Bolivia,
3.
December
21, 1898.
Asylum
in Ships of
War.
It is generally stated that a ship of war is not subject to the local This exemption is by some writers jurisdiction in a foreign port. maintained to be so absolute as to amount to extraterritoriality.
But, whatever may be said as to the extraterritoriality of ships of war, it is doubtless a universal custom to accord them a general exemption from the local jurisdiction; and for the reason that such
an exemption is accorded, it is held that considerations of propriety and good faith require the commanders of such ships to abstain from abusing the hospitality of the port in which they may be by making their vessels an asylum for offenders against the law. The question whether this rule should be applied to slaves has given
rise to
much
discussion.
On December
of
5,
issued to the
commanders
:
Her Majesty's
1875, the British admiralty ships of war the follow-
ing instructions
Within the territorial waters of a foreign state, you are bound, by the comity of nations, while maintaining the proper exemption of your ship from local jurisdiction, not to allow her to become a shelter for those who would be chargeable with a violation of the law of the place. If, therefore, while your ship is within the territorial waters of a state where slavery
exists, a person professing or appearing seeks admission into your ship, you will his life would bo in manifest danijcr if on board. Should you, in order to save
to be a fugitive slave not admit him, unless he were not received
him from
this danger,
102
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
receive him, you ought not, after the danger is past, to permit him to continue on board but you will not entertain any demand for his surrender, or enter into examination as to his status.
;
One
of the results of the ease of the Salvadorean refugees
was that
the Secretary of the Navy, August 15, 1894, substituted for article 287 of the Navy Regulation of 1893 (see art. 288 of Regulations of
1896) the following paragraph:
The right of asylum for political or other refugees has no foundation in international law. In countries, however, where frequent insurrections occur, and constant instability of government exists, local usage sanctions the granting of asylum, but even in the waters of such countries officers should refuse
all
applications for asylum except when required by the interhumanity in extreme or exceptional cases, such as the pursuit of a refugee by a mob. Officers must not directly or
ests of
indirectly invite refugees to accept asylum.
4.
Merchant Vessels.
and
discipline
Apart from
acts affecting their internal order
and
not disturbing the peace of "the port, merchant vessels, as a rule, enjoy no exemption from the local jurisdiction. It is therefore generally laid
down
that they can not grant asylum.
"These principles were recently applied by the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Wildenhus. In that case a murder was committed on board of a Belgian vessel in the port of Jersey The Belgian Government claimed City, in the State of New Jersey. exclusive jurisdiction of the offense under its treaty with the United States. The Supreme Court did not admit this claim, but, holding that the treaty was merely declaratory of the law of nations, said: 'The principle which governs the whole matter is this: Disorders
which disturb only the peace of the ship or those on board are to be dealt with exclusively by the sovereignty of the home of the ship; but those which disturb the public peace may be suppressed, and if
need be the offenders punished by the proper authorities of the local jurisdiction. It may not be easy at all times to determine to which of
the two jurisdictions a particular act of disorder belongs. Much will undoubtedly depend on the attending circumstances of the particular case, but all must concede the felonious homicide is a subject for the
local jurisdiction,
and that
if
with the case in a regular

to
way
the proper authorities are proceeding the consul has no right to interfere
prevent
it.'
Wildenhus 's
case, 120, U. S., 1, 18.)
ARBITRATION.
"Sucli, then,
tions.
is
103
the general rule

it
In this relation
may
and sucli are its general limitabe observed that Calvo states the rule
as follows:
*To sum up, as regards merchant vessels, for all crimes or offenses committed by seamen, either on board or ashore, against foreigners, or in such a way as to disturb public order or to affect the interests of the country in whose waters the vessel is at anchor, as well as for matters in which the parties interested ask of their own accord the aid and support of the local authorities, the police of the country have an absolute right to pursue the guilty party even on board of the vessel to which
he belongs, if he has succeeded in taking refuge there, provided in this latter case they come to an understanding with
the consul of the nation interested.'
tional, 4th ed., section
(Calvo,
Le Droit interna-
471.)"
XXIII.
ARBITRATION.
Where
tion, it is the
the parties to a controversy agree to submit it to arbitrausual practice to draw up and sign a treaty, conven-
tion, or protocol, defining the question at issue
and the arbitrator's
powers, besides providing for the appointment of arbitrators and regulating to some extent their procedure. The agreement of two
nations to arbitrate a question "constitutes an obligation between them which neither is morally free to disregard on grounds of
(Mr. Gresham, See. of State, to Mr. Baker, Min. to Costa Kica, July 14, 1893, For. Rel. 1893, 202, 203.)
technical formality."
Mediation.
The settlement of disputes by means other than armed conflict was practised even in medieval times, and in modern times the settlement of disputes by mediation, increasing in importance and
to those rare cases
recognition, bids fair to relegate the employment of armed forces where the intervention of a disinterested power
could not be accepted to arrive at an adjustment of the existing differences. Mediation has proven of practical importance in settling
disputes whether exercised by a third power at the request of two contending parties, or whether volunteering its good offices and 'Hie mediator is an accepted by the parties to the dispute.
impartial adviser for both parties and his duty is to resort to all honorable means in adjusting controversies amicably. Recognizing
104
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
the importance of mediation
and desiring
to establish a firm basis to the
therefor the signatory powers at the

:
Hague Convention agreed
following rules "Article II. In case of serious disagreement or conflict, before an appeal of arms, the Signatory Powers agree to have recourse, as far as circumstances allow, to the good offices or mediation of one or
more friendly Powers.

"Article
ers
III.
Independently of
that one or
recommend
should, on their allow, offer their good offices or mediation to the States at variance. Powers, strangers to the dispute, have the right to offer good offices
this recourse, the Signatory Powmore Powers, strangers to the dispute, own initiative, and as far as circumstances may
cise of this right
or mediation, even during the course of hostilities. The exercan never be regarded by one or the other of the
parties in conflict as an unfriendly act.
The part of the mediator consists in reconciling the opposing claims and appeasing the feelings of resentment which may have arisen between the States at variance.
"Article IV.
"Article V. The functions of the mediator are at an end when once it is declared, either by one of the parties to the dispute, or by the mediator himself, that the means of reconciliation proposed by
him are not accepted. "Article VI. Good
offices and mediation, either at the request of the parties at variance, or on the initiative of Powers strangers to the dispute, have exclusively the character of advice and never
have binding force.

"Article VII. The acceptance of mediation can not, unless there be an agreement to the contrary, have the effect of interrupting, delaying, or hindering mobilization or other measures of preparation for war. If mediation occurs after the commencement of
hostilities it causes no interruption to the military operations in progress, unless there be an agreement to the contrary.
The Signatory Powers are agreed in recommendthe ing application, when circumstances allow, of special mediation in the following form In case of a serious difference endangering
"Article VIII.
:
the peace, the States at variance choose respectively a Power, to whom they intrust the mission of entering into direct communication with the Power chosen on the other side, with the object of preventing the rupture of pacific relations. For the period of this
mandate, the term of which, unless otherwise stipulated, cannot exceed thirty days, the States in conflict cease from all direct com-
ARBITRATION.
105
munication on the subject of the dispute, which is regarded as referred exclusively to the mediating Powers, who must use their In case of a definite rupture of pacific best efforts to settle it. Powers are these charged with the joint task of taking relations,
advantage of any opportunity to restore peace.

In differences of an international nature, involving "^'Article IX. neither honor nor vital interests, and arising from a difference of opinion on points of fact, the Signatory Powers recommend that the
parties, who have not been able to come to an agreement by means of diplomacy, should as far as circumstances allow, institute an
International Commission of Inquiry, to facilitate a solution of these by elucidating the facts by means of an impartial and conscientious investigation.
differences
stituted
The International Commission of Inquiry are conby special agreement between the parties in conflict. The Convention for an inquiry defines the facts to be examined and the
"Article X.
full extent of the
Commissioners' powers.
It settles the
procedure.
On
the inquiry both sides must be heard. The form and the periods to be observed, if not stated in the inquiry Convention, are decided
by the Commission
"Article
itself.
XI.
The
International
Commission
of
Inquiry
are
formed, unless otherwise stipulated, in the XXXII of the present convention.
manner
fixed
by
Article
"Article XII. The powers in dispute engage to supply the International Commission of Inquiry, as fully as they may think possible, with all means and facilities necessary to enable it to be
completely acquainted with and to accurately understand the facts

in question.
"Article XIII.
municates
its
The International Commission of Inquiry comReport to the conflicting Powers, signed by all the
members
of the Commission.
The report of the International Commission of limited to a statement of facts, and has in no way the Inquiry character of an arbital award. It leaves the conflicting Powers
is
"Article XIV.
freedom as to the effect to be given to this statement." (Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, The Hague, July 20, 1K99, 32 Slat. II. 1S75.)
entire
In accordance with the above humanitarian
rules
adopted at
The Hague Convention, the President of the United States offered his mediation to the warring powers by the following message, for-
106
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
warded August 5, 1914, to King George, Emperor William, President Poincare, Emperor Francis Joseph, and King Albert
:
"As official head of one of the powers signatory 'to The Hague convention, I feel it to be my privilege and my duty under article 3 of that convention to say to you in a spirit of most earnest friendship that I should welcome an opportunity to act in the interest of European peace, either now or any other time that might be thought more suitable, as an occasion to serve you and all concerned in a way that would afford me lasting cause for gratitude and happiness.
WOODROW
WILSON."
The President's message was replied to in a gracious and friendly manner by all belligerents, but his humanitarian offer was declined.
xxrv.
GOOD OFFICES.
Good offices are frequently used by diplomatic and consular representatives in assisting citizens or subjects of a third power when diplomatic relation has been broken off. The best expression we can
find on the duties of
good
offices is
the opinion given by the President
of the Swiss Confederation, the oldest
European
republic.
president of the Confederation has instructed the undersigned to convey to you his warmest thanks for the readiness with which you have been pleased to comply with our wishes in this
matter, and to avail himself, at the same time, of this occasion to express to you the thanks of the federal council for the valuable
services
tives to Swiss citizens.
"The
which have been rendered since 1871 by your representaThe undersigned assures you that the federal council fully appreciates the good will and the friendly sentiments which have been manifested by the United States Government in
this matter.
"With regard to the scope of the protection hereafter to be extended to our citizens by your representatives, I have, however, the
honor, in obedience to the instructions of the President of the Confederation, to remark that the views expressed by you on this
subject do not appear to accord in all respects with those of tne federal council, nor, as we think, with the position taken in relation to this matter by the United States Government in the year 1871.
"In the opinion
of the President of the Confederation, proteges
GOOD OFFICES.
107
should be treated in all respects as if they were citizens of the A Swiss, by placing himself under the proprotecting country. tection of the United States, becomes assimilated, in the opinion of the President of the Confederation, while he is under that protection,
to a citizen of the
United States
his character as a Swiss
is
for
the time being not to be consideretl, and, so far as the foreign state is concerned, he is covered by the United States flag. Diplomatic
protection, if it is to ditional or limited; it
have any real meaning, must not be conmust be more than unofficial mediation in
behalf of such claims for indemnity as be of no avail when most needed that
may
is
arise
otherwise
it
would
the
to say, at the time
when
violated rights of the protege are to be asserted.
"This view of the scope of the protection to be afforded by no means involves any direct intercourse of the federal council with the diplomatic or consular officers of the protecting state, and there
consequently seems to be no groimd for the assumption that those by protecting Swiss citizens assume the role of officers of the Swiss Confederation. It might rather be assumed that a contrary
officers
state of things took place, since a Swiss, who places himself under foreign protection, loses, to a certain extent, the outward characteristics of his nationality.
"The President of the Confederation does not, of course, absolutely decline to accept the view that we can not, by any means, claim the protection of our citizens by the representatives of the
United States as a right. He must, however, regard it as his duty to inform himself concerning the nature and scope of the protection of Swiss citizens which has been guaranteed to us." (Col. Prey, Swiss min., to Mr. Bayard, Sec. of State, Apr. 15, 1887, For. Rel.
1887, 1074.)
The answer of the United States Government

expressed in the following terms:
to
this
note
is
The practice as regards this question in the past appears to be based on a circular addressed to our foreign representative by this Department on the 15th of December, 1871, explanatory of one of
June, 1871, as follows:
"You are informed that you are not expected to become a diplomatic or consular officer of the Swiss Republic, which is prohibited
by the Constitution to officers of the United States who are citizens. The intention is that you should merely use your good offices in behalf of any Swiss in your vicinity who might request them in the
108
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
absence of a diplomatic or consular representative of Switzerland, and with the consent of the authorities where you reside.
' '
This was repeated in a circular issued by Mr. Secretary Evarts, dated the 28th of June, 1877, during the hostilities between Russia
and Turkey, as follows:

are consequently authorized to continue the exercise of your behalf of Swiss citizens under the limitations prescribed by my predecessor of June 16 and December 15, 1871."
"You
good
offices in
Another circular, dated March 17, 1882, authorized our diplomatic and consular agents to draw on this Department for any expense incurred in protecting Swdss citizens.
his
Thus, for instance, the Consul of Guayaquil was instructed to use good offices in behalf of Swiss citizens who were called on for
military service in Ecuador. (Mr. Freylinghuysen, See. of State, to Col. Frey. MS. Notes to Switz. I. 59.)
WAR.
PART
XXV.
II.
WAR.
War,
its
ternational law
causes and effects are pre-eminent in the subject of inand have been exhaustively dealt with by writers of
note and repute. The terrible effects which are brought about by the prosecution of war with the modern destructive implements
have been responsible for the generally accepted view that no sovereign should take resort to an armed conflict in settling disputes of a public or private nature unless the matter at issue is of such serious nature that, for want of a superior authority and the possibility of seeking redress thereby, this constitutes the
only
mode
of obtaining redress. The reasons for making war are distinguished as the right and the expediency to make war, the former constituting the causes and the latter the motives. Again, the causes of war
be distinguished as just and unjust, and similarly the motives The propriety are designated as either commendable or vicious. or absence of propriety in making war, the sufficiency or insuffi-
may
ciency of a cause for making war, are matters foreign to the scope In the of international law and as such cannot be dealt with. as a fact and interis war field of accepted investigation present
national law
is
concerned with the establishment of certain rules
whereby
the precepts of
humanity are furthered.

be avoided by bearing in mind the fact
Much
confusion
may
that by the term war is meant not the mere employment of force, but the existence of the legal condition of things in which rights are or may be prosecuted by force. Thus, if two nations declare
war one against the
other,
war
exists,
though no force whatever
the other hand, force may be may one nation against another, as in the case of reprisals, employed by and yet no state of war may arise. In such a case there may be
as yet have been employed.
On
said to be an act of war, but no state of war. The distinction is of the first importance, since, from the moment when a state of
war supervenes
third parties
become subject
to
the performance
110
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
of the duties of neutrality as well as to all the inconveniences that One of the most result from the exercise of belligerent rights. remarkable illustrations of the distinction here pointed out was
when the armed forces of Peking and occupied parts of the country without any resultant state of war. (Moore Dig., VII., p. 153.) Cicero says that war is a contest or contention carried on by force. But usage applies the term, not only to an action (a contest), but to a state or condition and thus we may say, war is the state of persons contending by force, as such. Hence we do not exclude private wars, which preceded public wars, and have the same origin The common use of the Môrd war allows us to as those. include private war, though used generally, it often means specificthe condition of things in China in 1900, the allies
marched
to
We do not say that war is a state of just contenbecause tion, precisely the point to be examined is, whether there be just war, and what war is just. (Grotius, Book I., Chap. 1,
ally public War.
Art.
2.)
Bynkershoek:
''War
deceit,
is
by way of force or (Book I., Chap. 1.)

Vattel:
between independent parties for the purpose of pursuing their right."

a contest
''The state of things in which a nation prosecutes its right by force." (Book III., Chap 1, Art. 1.) Wheaton: "A contest by force between independent sovereign
states."
Public war is' a state of armed hostility between sovereign nations or governments. It is a law and requisite of civilized existence that men live in political, continuous societies, forming organ-
whose constituents. bear, enjoy, advance and retrograde together, in peace and in war. (Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, General Orders, No. 100, April 24, 1863, Art. 20.)
ized units, called states or nations,
and
suffer,
XXVI.
POWER TO DECLARE WAR.

By
the the Constitution of the United States Congress alone has power to declare a national or foreign war. It can not declare
a State, or
war against
clause in the Constitution.
any number of States, by virtue of any The Constitution confers on the President the whole executive power. He is bound to take care that
CIVIL
WAR.
Ill
the laws be faithfully executed. He is Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States when called into the actual service of the United
States.
He
has no power to initiate or declare a war either against
a foreign nation or a domestic State. But by the acts of Congress of February 28, 1795, and 3d of March, 1807, he is authorized to
call out the militia and use the military and naval forces of the United States in case of invasion by foreign nations, and to suppress insurrection against the government of a State or of the
United States.
If a w'ar be made by invasion of a foreign nation, the President not only authorized but bound to resist force by force. He does not initiate the war, but is bound to accept the challenge without
is
waiting for any special legislative authority. And whether the hostile party be a foreign invader, or States organized in rebellion, it is none the less a war, although the declaration of it be "uniLord Stowell (1 Dodson, 247) observes, "It is not the lateral."
less a
war on
that account, for

It is so laid
on either
side.
war may exist without a declaration down by the best writers on the law
war by one country
only,
is
of nations.
declaration of
not a
mere challenge to be accepted or refused at pleasure (Grier, J.: The Prize Cases [1862], 2 Black, 668.)
by the other."
XXVII.
DECLARATION OF WAR.
1.
The Greeks.
The declaration of war was a condition precedent to the actual beginning of hostilities, as may be ascertained by the various writings of Greek and Roman authors. In declaring war, the Greeks were wont to send an envoy with instructions to obtain satisfaction, and particularly the writings
of
point to the fact that after the violation of the right of hospitality by the Tro.jans the Greeks despatched an envoy who was
salisfiiftion.
or,
f'oi-
Homer
to obtain
want of
sncli
siilisfaclion.
1o
declare
of
war upon
the
Trojans.
in
The Hellenes recognized a battling

in
is
right and wrong atic declaration of
carrying on war, and for this reason a system-
instances this rule
war was always adhered to, although was transgressed. To this the tendency
somo
trace-
112
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
able to justify war by inquiry at the oracle, from which spoke the old public conscience. Incidentally it may be remarked that state disputes were settled by decisions of arbitrators appointed or
agreed upon.
2.
The Romans.
The declaration of war pertained to the offices of the fetiales, and usually was made after justice had been withheld from the Romans for three and thirty days. The function and importance
of the fetiales can be best recognized by stating that they could be considered the diplomatic corps of the Roman administration, having also the quality and prerogatives of priests. They were the guardians
of the religion
and of the people
in international relations, defenders
of the rights of the people against disturbances of the peace by ambitious plans of war seeking generals, and protectors of the state order
against belligerent passions of the multitude.
The method of declaring war consisted in hurling the known symbol of war power of the people (a bloody spear) into the hostile territory and in simultaneously going through religious ceremonies determined to invoke the aid of the gods, who were symbolically
appealed to as witnesses to the act. Where obstacles prevented the execution of the formal procedure of declaring war, recourse was taken, in typical Roman spirit, to forcing upon a slave a certain territory which
in a sense,
was considered the land of the enemy and which,

Into this land, then, a blood rinsed
was
extraterritorial.
lance was hurled, and thereby the formal requirements for declaring war, according to the views of the Romans, were completely met.
With
culties
the expansion of the national frontiers, however, real
diffi-
were met with in the execution of the old symbolical procedure. It was a task of the fetiales to invent more facile forms which rather approached the modern practice. Thus the more convenient practice was adhered to of hurling a lance from a pillar near the Temple of Bellona toward the hostile state. In addition to this, hoAvever, an ambassador was despatched by the military commander of an adjacent province and thereby the enemy informed of the existence of a state of war.
3.
The Middle Ages.
The declaration of war observed in the Middle Ages did not greatly vary from the custom observed by the Greeks and Romans. While no religious meaning was attached to the declaration of
DECLARATION OF WAR.
113
war, a herald nevertheless was despatched to the enemy to acquaint them with the declaration of war and warn them of the impending hostilities. Even then the pereon of the herald was considered sacred and immune from attack, similar to ambassadors or military
persons entering into negotiations for obtaining an armistice or truce.

4.
Modem
Times.
sent against England withis well known that during
In 1588 the Invincible

out a declaration of war.
Armada was
Similarly
it
the Thirty Years' War Gustavus Adolphus attacked the German Empire, on a religious ground, without a declaration of war. Frederick the Great, in 1740, sent a declaration of war against
Maria Theresa of Austria, but before the ambassador arrived in Vienna his troops crossed the Silesian frontier and occupied the
territory.
The United States began w'ar with England in 1812 by seizing British vessels without previously declaring a state of war. In the Crimean War of 1854 the British Fleet entered the Black
Sea to compel the Russian warships to withdraw to SebastopoL This act was committed without a formal declaration of war.
In 1870 the French charge d'affaires at Berlin delivered a formal declaration of war to Prussia, the wording of which, in an English version, set forth "that the Government of His Imperial
Majesty considers itself from now on in a state of war with Prussia." Almost identical in wording was the declaration of war handed, in 1877, by the Government of Russia to the Turkish representative
in St. Petei'sburg.
It is universally
admitted that a formal declaration
is
not nec-
essary to constitute a state of war.
From
this principle,
is
an unnecessary and perhaps unwarranted inference

namely, that a nation
however, often drawn,
may lawfully or properly begin a war at under time and any circumstances, with or without notice, in any Such a theory would seem to be altodiscretion. its own absolute gether inadmissible. Although a contest by force between nations
may, no matter how it may have been begun, constitute a state of war, it by no means follows that nations, in precipitating such a condition of things, are not bound by any principles of honor
or good faith. If, for example, a nation, wishing to absorb another, or to seize a part of its territory, should, without warning or prior controversy, suddenly attack it, a state of war would undoubtedly
follow, but
it
foiild
not be said that
tlio
principles of honor
and
114
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
good faith enjoined by the law of nations had not been violated.
In other words, to admit that a state of war exists is by no means to justify the mode by which it was brought about or begun. Nor of a state war is the practice of fraud and deceit permitted by
supposed to be admissible in time of peace. "War between the United States and Spain existed on April 21, 1898, when diplomatic relations were broken off, and Spain, in a
communication
to the
United States minister at Madrid, accepted
the resolution of Congress for intervention in Cuba as a declaration of war, although the formal decree by Spain, and the declaration
of
war by Congress, were not made
until afterwards.
(The Pedro,
175, U. S. 354, 20 S. Ct. 138, affirming decree the
Buena Ventura,
87 Fed. Rep. 927.)
The wording of war declarations may be either a concise announcement that a state of war exists between two states or a statement of the casus belli. In the following a few examples of the war declarations which were transmitted between the main powers in the present conflict arc
offered.
5.
Austria-Hung'ary against Servia.
July
23, 1914.
"The royal government of Servia not having replied in a satisfactory manner to the note remitted to it by the Austro-Hungarian
minister in Belgrade, July 23, 1914, this imperial and royal government finds itself compelled to proceed itself to safeguard its rights and interests and to have recourse for this purpose to force of arms.
"Austria-Hungary considers itself therefore from this moment in a state of war with Servia." The declaration was signed by Count Berchtold, minister of foreign affairs of Austria-Hungary.
6.
Germany against
Aug.
1,
Russia.
1914.
"Since the beginning of the crisis the imperial government has endeavored to bring about a peaceful solution. In conformity with the wish expressed to him by his majesty the emperor of Russia, his majesty the emperor of Germany, in agreement with England, was endeavoring to act as mediator between the cabinets of Vienna
and
of
St.
Petersburg,
efforts,
when
his
proceeded
Russia, without waiting for the results to mobilize the whole of its land and
sea forces.
DECLARATION OF WAR.
115
"As
the result of this threatening step, for which no motive
was afforded by any military preparation on Germany's part, the German empire found itself face to face with a serious and imminent danger. If the imperial government had failed to parry this danger it would have compromised the security and even the existence of Germany. Consequently the German government found
itself
compelled to address the government of his majesty the emperor of all the Russias, and to insist on the cessation of the said military acts. Russia, having refused the satisfaction of this de-
mand, and having shown by this refusal that its action was directed against Germany, I have the honor to inform your excellency, by my government's command, as follows: "His majesty the emperor, my august sovereign, raises the gage in the empire's name and regards himself as in a state of war
against Russia."
The declaration was signed by

at St. Petersburg.
F. Pourtales,
German ambassador
7.
Germany
Aug.
against France.
3,
1914.
"The German
administrative and military authorities have ob-
served a certain number of acts of decided hostility committed on German territory by French military aviators. Several of
these last have openly violated the neutrality of Belgium, flying over the territory of this country. One tried to destroy constructions near Wessel;
others have been seen in the region of Eifel; another has dropped bombs on the railroad near Carlsruhe and
I
Nuremburg. "I am charged, and
have the honor to make known
to
your
excellency, that in the face of these aggressions the German empire considers itself in a state of war with France by fault of the
latter power.
the same time I have the honor to bring to the knowledge of your excellency that the German authorities will detain French merchant ships in German ports, but tbat they will release theui
"At
complete reciprocity is assured within forty-eight hours. "My diplomatic mission having thus ended, there remains for me only to beg your excellency kindly to supply me with my passif
ports and to take any measures which may be judged useful to assure mv rolui-n iulo r;r>rm;iiiy with the personnel of the embassy
116
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
as well as with the personnel of the Bavarian legation general consulate of Germany in Paris.
and
of the
"Kindly
accept,
monsieur
the
president,
the
expression
of
my
very high consideration."
was addressed to President Poincare and was Baron von signed by Schoen, German ambassador at Paris,
notification
8.
The
Great Britain against Germany,
Aug.
4,
1914.
"Owing to the summary rejection by the German government of the request made by his Britannic majesty's government that the neutrality of Belgium should be respected, his majesty's ambassador at Berlin has received his passports, and his majesty's government has declared to the German government that a state
of
p.
war
exists
between Great Britain and Germany from 11 o'clock
m,, Aug. 4."
9.
France against Germany.
Aug,
4,
1914.
:
Aug. 4 "The German ambassador has demanded his passports and diplomatic relations between France and Germany have been broken
off.
The French minister
of wâr issued the f olloAving note
War
is
declared."
10.
Austria-Hungary against Russia.
Aug.
6,
1914.
order of his government the undersigned ambassador of Austria-Hungary has the honor to notify his excellency the minister
"By
of foreign affairs of Russia the following:
"Seeing the menacing attitude taken by Russia in the conflict between the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and Servia and in presence of the fact that following this conflict Russia, according to a
communication from the cabinet of Berlin, has deemed it advisable to open hostilities against Germany, and that this latter consequently flnds herself in a state of war with the said power, AustriaHungary considers herself equally in a state of war with Russia
from the present moment." The declaration was signed by Count Szapary, Austro-Hungarian ambassador at St. Petersburg.
DECLARATION OF WAR.
11.
117
France and Great Britain against Austria-Hungary. Aug. 12, 1914.

:
Statement issued by British foreign office ''Diplomatic relations between France and Austria-Hungary being broken off (Aug. 10) the French government requested his majesty's government to communicate to the Austro-Hungarian ambassador in London the following declaration:
'Having declared war on Servia and thus taken the initiative in Europe the Austro-Hungarian government has placed itself without any provocation from France in a state of war with France, and after Germany had successively declared war against Eussia and France Austria-Hungary has interfered in the conflict by declaring war on Russia, who already was fighting on
in
hostilities
**
the side of France.
has sent troops over the
'According to information worthy of belief Austria-Hungary German frontier in such a manner as to a direct menace constitute against France. In face of these facts
"
the French government finds itself obliged to declare to the AustroHungarian government that it will take all measures permitted to
it
to reply to these acts
and menaces.'
this declaration, accordingly, to the Austro-
"In communicating
Hungarian ambassador in London his Britannic majesty's government has declared to his excellency that the rupture with France having been brought about in this way it feels itself obliged to announce that a state of war exists between Great Britain and Austria-Hungary as from midnight."
12.
United States against Germany.
(Public Resolution
No. 1 65th
First Session,
Congress.)
(S. J. Res. 1.)
Sixty-fifth Congress of the
United States of America
At the
Begun and held at the City of Washington on Monday, the second day of April, one thousand nine hundred and seventeen. Joint Resolution Declaring that a state of war exists between the Imperial German Government and the Government and the people of the United States and making provision to prosecute
the same.
Whereas
the Imperial
German Government has committed
re-
118
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
peated acts of war against the Government and the people of the United States of America Therefore be it
:
RESOLVED BY THE SENATE AND HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES OP THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED,
That the state of war between the United
States and the Imperial German Government which has thus been thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared and that
;
the President be, and he is hereby, authorized and directed to employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Imperial
German Government; and

mination
all
to bring the conflict to a successful ter-
of the resources of the country are hereby pledged the Congress of the United States.
by
CHAMP CLARK,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.
THOMAS
R.
MARSHALL,
Vice-President of the United States and
President of the Senate.
Approved, April
6,
1917.
WOODROW
13.
WILSON.
Great Britain ag-ainst Turkey. Nov. 5, 1914.
"Owing to man officers, a
committed by Turkish forces under Gerexists between Great Britain and Turkey from today and all proclamations and orders in council issued with reference to the state of war between Great Britain and Germany and Austria shall apply to the state of war between Great Britain and Turkey."
hostile acts
state of
war
The proclamation was signed by King George.

14.
France against Turkey. Nov. 5, 1914.
"The hostile acts of the Turkish fleet against a French steamer, causing the death of two Frenchmen and serious damage to the ship, not having been followed by the dismissal of the German
naval military missions, the measure whereby Turkey could disclaim responsibility, the government of this republic is obliged to
state that as a result of the action of the state of
war
exists
Ottoman government a between France and Turkey."
COMBATANTS AND NONCOMBATANTS.
119
XXVIII.
COMBATANTS AND NONCOMBATANTS.

The
lowing
status of combatants
article:
and noncombatants
is
defined in the fol-
57. So soon as a man is armed by a sovereign government and takes the soldier's oath of fidelity he is a belligerent; his killing, wounding, or other warlike acts are not individual crimes or
offenses. No belligerent has a right to declare that enemies of a certain class, color, or condition when properly organized as soldiers, will not be treated by him as public enemies. (Instructions for
the
Government
of
Armies of the United States
in the Field, General
Orders, No. 100, April 24, 1863.)

It is necessary, in order to place the members of an army under the protection of the law of nations, that it should be commissioned by a state. If war were to be waged by private parties, operating
according to the w'hims of individual leaders, every place that was seized would be sacked and outraged and war would be the pre;
tence to satiate private greed and spite. Hence, all civilized nations have agreed in the position that wâr to be a defence to an indict-
ment for homicide or other wrong, must be conducted by a belligerent state, and that it can not avail voluntary combatants not acting under the commission of a belligerent. But free-booters, or
detached bodies of volunteers, acting in subordination to a general system, if they "wear a distinctive uniform, are to be regarded as Mr. Field, in his proposed code, soldiers of a belligerent army. thus speaks The following persons, and no others, are deemed to be impressed with the military character: (1) Those who con' ' :
stitute a part of the military forces of the nation;
and
(2)
those
who
are connected Avith the
authority of the nation." Marion and Sumter in the American Revolution, they being treated
as belligerents by Lord Rawdon and Lord Cornwallis, who were in successive command of the British forces in South Carolina by
;
operations thereof, by the express This was accorded to the partisans of
Napoleon to the German independent volunteers in the later Napoleonic campaigns; and by tho Auslrians, at the time of the upnsiug of Italy, to the forces of Gariljaldi. (Lawrence's Wheaton's Elem. of Int. Law, 627, pt. iv. chap, ii. Art. 8; Dana's Wheaton, Art. 356; Int. Art. cited Droit. 560, Bluntschli, Codifie, by Field.) There must, however, be a military uniform, and this tost was insisted on by the Government of the United States in its articles
120
of
INTERNATIONAL, LAW.
issued in 1863, and by the German Government in its occuFrance in 1871. The same privileges attach to subsidiary-
war
pation in
forces,
camp followers, etc. But ununiformed predatory guerilla bands are regarded as outlaws, and may be punished by a belligerent as robbers and murderers.
(Halleck's Int. Law and Laws of War," 386, 387; Heffter, Droit Int., Art. 126; 3 Phillimore's Int. Law, Art. 96; Lieber's Instructions for the Government of Armies
of the United States, Art. iv.) they become part of its forces.
Field, etc.;
employed by the nation, (Halleck, 386, Art. 8; adopted by Com. Am. Wharton, Law, Art. 221.)
if
But
The following
100,
articles
forming part of the General Orders No.

24, 1863, are in point:
is
War
Department, April
The
citizen
or native of a hostile country
thus an enemy,
as one of the constituents of the hostile state or nation, and as such is subjected to the hardships of the war. (G, 0. 100, Art. 21.)
Nevertheless, as civilization has advanced during the last centuries, so has likewise steadily advanced, especially in war on land, the distinction between the private individual belonging to
a hostile country and the hostile country itself, with its men in arms. The principle has been more and more acknowledged that the
as
unarmed citizen is to be spared in person, property, and honor much as the exigencies of war will admit. (G. 0. 100, Art. 22.
j
off to distant parts,
Private citizens are no longer murdered, enslaved, or carried and the inoffensive individual is as little dis-
turbed in his private relations as the commander of the hostile troops can afford to grant in the overruling demands of a vigorous
war.
(G. 0. 100, Art. 23.)
in remote times was,
The almost universal rule
and continues
to be with barbarous armies, that the private individual of the hostile country is destined to suffer every privation of liberty and
protection,
and every disruption of family
ties.
Protection was,
(G.
0.
100,
and
still
is
with uncivilized people, the exception.
Art. 24.)
In modern regular wars of the Europeans and their descendants in other portions of the globe, protection of the inoffensive citizen of the hostile country is the rule privation and disturbance
;
of private relations are the exceptions.
(G. 0. 100, Art. 25.)
(See article
on Lenient Measures Accorded Noncombatants.)
By
the law of
war
either party to
it
may
receive
and
list
among
his troops such as quit the other, unless there has been a previous stipulation that they shall not be received. But when they (such
ENLISTMENT OF ALIENS.
121
refugees) have been received, a high moral faith and irrevocable honor, sanctioned by the usages of all nations, gives to them pro-
and security for all that they have or may exempt also from all reproach from the sovwhich their services have been rendered. to ereignty Nothing own can be taken from them, upon the claim as their that they imputation that they had forfeited or meant to relinquish it by the abandonment of their allegiance to the sovereignty which they had left. (Wayne, J., United States v. Reading, 18 How. 10.)
tection personally, They are possess.
XXIX.
ENLISTMENT OF ALIENS.
it
That the mere intention to become an American citizen, even though has been declared and the declaration has been recorded in the
competent courts, does not amount to a complete naturalization of
An alien is neither entitled to the declarent, is quite obvious. exercise the franchise of voting nor is he entitled to be elected to
offices
which are under the control
of the federal government.
The
declaration of intention does not confer citizenship in the United States. This has been recognized by a large number of decisions
of the federal courts and of state courts, as may be ascertained from the following quotations: Minneapolis v. Reum, 56 Fed. Rep. In re Moses, 83 Fed. Rep. 995 White v. White, 576, 6 C. C. A. 31
;
;
2 Met. (Ky.) 185; Dorsey v. Brigham, 177 111. 250, 52 N. E. 303, 42 L. R. A. 809. See Settegast v. Schrimpf, 35 Tex. 323.
In a letter directed by the late Mr. Buchanan, Secretary of State,

to the
American consul
at
Havana, July
26, 1848, the
Honorable
Secretary wrote:
to
"A
foreigner
citizen,
who has
declared his intention
become an American
is
without having carried that inten-
tion into effect,
not an American citizen."
Another Secretary of State, ]\Ir. Fish, writes concerning the declaration of intention, in a letter dated April 22nd, 1869, and directed to Mr. de Luna, as follows: "The mere declaration of an
make a person born abroad a citizen. He might mind before the arrival of the period for him to take the oath of allegiance, and the law of the United States provides
intention does not
his
change
for the intorval between the declaration of intention and the final act of naturalization, in order that the person who proposes to become naturalized should have leisure to deliberate on the im-
portance of the proceedings."
122
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
similar opinion
is
expressed in a letter addressed by Mr. Pre-
linghuysen, Secretary of State, to Mr. Dunne, under date of July mere declaration of intention to become 31, 1883, as follows: a citizen of the United States does not change the nationality of
"A
the party making such declaration; he remains until final naturalization a subject or citizen of his origin (sic). Consequently such declaration of intention would avail you nothing, for purpose of
protection in the country of origin."
The number
of similar expressions
from the
office
of the Secre-
tary of State could be enlarged considerably, and actions of the Department of State in refusing passports to aliens who had declared their intention to become citizens of the United States, and in referring these petitioners for passports to the representatives
own government, also are very numerous. It is not within the space of this work, however, to quote in toto the statements made by the Department of State with respect to the fact that a mere declaration of intention to become an American citizen does not alter the
of their
actual allegiance of the declarent, but that, to the contrary, the person declaring his intention remains, until the naturalization is
completed, a citizen of that country, or a subject of that government, to whom he owed allegiance at the time of the declaration. As the foregoing proves, in general, the contention of American
authorities that a declaration of intention does not alter the
citi-
zenship of the declarent, it would only remain to investigate whether an alien can be compelled to military service, no matter whether
he has declared his intention or whether he

intend to abandon his citizenship.
is
an
alien
who did not
That the duty of compulsory military service cannot be imposed on aliens has been the opinion of the Department of State since the very establishment of the government of the United States. In a letter directed on January 5, 1804, by Mr. Madison, Secretary of State, to Mr. Monroe, who was then Minister to England, the Honorable Secretary of State wrote as follows: "Citizens or subjects of one country residing in another, though bound by their temporary allegiance to many common duties, can never be
rightfully forced into military service, particularly external service, nor be restrained from leaving their residence when they please.
The law of nations protects them against both, and the violation of this law by the avowed impressment of American citizens residing in Great Britain may be pressed with the greater force on the British Government, as it is in direct inconsistency with her
ENLISTMENT OP ALIENS,
123
impressment of her own subjects, bound by much stronger ties to the United States, as above explained, as well as with the spirit of her commercial laws and policy, by which foreigners are invited to a residence. The liberation of the persons comprehended
by this article, therefore, can not be justly or honorablj^ refused, and the provision for their recompense and their return home is equally' due to the service rendered by and the wrong done to them."
retaries of State
This opinion has been consistently followed by the various Secwho succeeded Mr. ]\Iadison. So, for instance,
wrote Mr. Monroe, Secretary of State, on July 30, 1813, to Mr. Serurier, Minister of the United States to France, as follows: *'In reply to a complaint of the French minister, that a Mr. de Testaret, a French subject, while in Ohio on private business, had been enrolled in the militia and called on to perform military duty in defense of the country, as a citizen of the United States; and that a similar demand had been made on IMr. Dumas, another French subject, in IMissouri Territor}^, Mr. Monroe stated that he would immediately write to the governors of Ohio and Missouri and request
their attention to the subject."
In Parliamentary Papers No. 337, 1863, the follo-wing statement concerning the contention of the government of the United States is contained: "In 1863 certain able-bodied male persons of foreign
declared on oath their intention to become American were called citizens, upon for military duty by the United States. On this the British Government, suggested that British subjects who had merely declared their intention to become American citizens, but had not exercised any political franchise in consequence of such declaration, ought to be allowed a reasonable period of leaving the United States or of continuing residing therein with the annexed conditions. The United States Government thereupon
birth,
who had
allowed sixty-five days to such persons to exercise their opinion, and the British Government refused to interfere in behalf of
any intended
tunity."
citizens
who had
not availed themselves of the oppor-
In a letter addressed by Mr. Davis, Asst. Secretary of State, to the United States Consul at Demerara, on IMarch 7, 1873, the Secre"There is no treaty stipulation between the tary of State writes:
United States and Great Britain which exempts the citizens or subjects of either party from military dnty in the forces of the other either in peace or war. Consequently we can not claim such ex-
124
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
emption in Demerara as a matter of right. As a matter of comity and reciprocity, however, Ave certainly can claim them. During the late civil war in this country there were numerous instances where British subjects were drafted into the military service of the United States, but were subsequently discharged upon the application of the British minister here. The only cases in which a compliance with such an application was refused were the few in which persons of that nationality had voted in States where foreigners not fully
naturalized are allowed that privilege,"
In several instances where the right of compulsory military servimposed on aliens has been recognized by the government of the United States, this recognition was only based on the fact that
ice
the aliens, owing to their exercise of the franchise of voting on an
equal legal footing with born American citizens, had become American citizens in fact, although they had not been admitted to citizenship by a due authorization of law. In a letter addressed by Mr. Bayard, Secretary of State, to Mr. McLane, United States Minister to France, on February 15, 1888, the Secretary of State writes as "In our late civil war, when the Government of the follows:
United States was compelled to use every just effort to put down the insurrection by which its existence was assailed, and when in
the application of its conscription acts it many cases of aliens on its shores, there
was compelled
is
to consider
not a single instance in
which an alien was held to military duty when his Government called for his release." As, however, since the enactment of the present naturalization law the franchise of voting is conferred only upon completion of the naturalization, there can be no doubt that the opinion expressed in Parliamentary Papers No. 337, 1863, would be adhered to now by the present incumbent of the office of Secretary of State.
Under the law an alien who desires to become a citizen of the This United States must make a declaration under oath, etc. who have been all those to aliens is except requirement applicable honorably discharged from the military service of the United
States (See. 2166, Rev. Stat.)
;
but as none can be enlisted in the

of
1, 1894), the of Navy policy issue even the first
army who have not made a declaration (Act It is the this exception is now unimportant.
August
Department, however, not to enlist aliens. To paper to alien enemies during the war is not in accordance with the acts of 1798 and 1812.
The
Selective Service Regulations of the United States, published
ENLISTMENT OP ALIENS.
by the
office
125
15, 1918,
of the Provost
Marshal General August
under
Section 323, issued a form of affidavit for neutral declarants which provides that "a citizen or a subject of a country neutral in the present war who has declared his intention to become a citizen of the
liability to military service upon a declaration, in accordance with such regulations as the President may prescribe, Avithdrawing his intention to become a
United States shall be relieved from
his
making
United States, which shall operate and be held to cancel his declaration of intention to become an American citizen
citizen of the
and he
shall forever be debarred
from becoming a
citizen of the
United States."
According to Section 1171/^ of the Selective Service Regulations, the following amendment has been enacted regarding the classification of neutral declarants: "Any uninducted registrant, who is
who has
a citizen or subject of a country neutral in the present war, and declared his intention to become a citizen of the United
States but has not completed his citizenship, shall be relieved from liability to military service upon filing an affidavit with the local
board setting forth in such affidavit (Form 1041) that he withdraws become a citizen of the United States The such be induction of shall stayed by the any registrant involuntary
his intention to
Local Board until and including the date specified in the notice, and,
the required affidavit, the Local Board shall continue the stay of involuntary induction until such affidavit has been considered in accordance with the provisions
in the case of
files
any registrant who
of this section and Rule XII (I), section 79, and the registrant has been finally classified by the Local Board and by the District Board The date to be specified in each such notice if the case is appealed. shall be 20 days from the date on which the notice is mailed, exclusive of Sundays, legal holidays, and the day of mailing. After
the expiration of the 20-day period (unless the time is extended in the discretion of the Local Board), involuntary induction of any such registrant shall not be further stayed to permit him to make
the prescribed affidavit, but the privilege of
making such
affidavit
shall not subsequently be denied such registrant until the arrival of the day of his induction. If and when any such registrant shall
affidavit after the expiration of the 20-day period, the involuntary induction of such registrant shall be stayed until the
make such
been considered in accordance with the provisions of Rule XIT (I), section 79, and the registrant has and this section been finally classified by the Local Board and by the District Board
affidavit has
126
if
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
tlie
case
is
appealed.
Any
relieved
P.
from
0.
liability to military service shall
such registrant desiring to be so fill out in duplicate
M. G.
Form
1041, subscribe
and swear (or
affirm)
thereto
before any Federal or State officer duly authorized to administer oaths. He shall file such affidavit in duplicate with the Local Board,
at the laration of intention to
same time surrendering his duplicate original copy of his decbecome a citizen of the United States, if it is
in his possession. If the registrant has changed his name since his declaration of intention, the affidavit should state the registrant's
name
Board
appeared in his declaration of intention. The Local thereupon proceed to classify such registrant in accordance with section 79, Rule XII (1). If the registrant is entitled to classification in Class V (1), the Local Board shall make an approas it
shall
priate notation upon the registrant's Questionnaire and shall mail to the Bureau of Naturalization, Department of Labor, Washington,
D. C, one of the copies of P. M. G. 0. Form 1014 filed by the registrant and the duplicate original copy of registrant's declaration of intention, if surrendered. The Bureau of Naturalization will,
through the proper agencies, take appropriate action to have the declaration of intention canceled and to debar the registrant forever from becoming a citizen of the United States. Note. Before classifying a registrant in Class V (I), Local Boards are especially
enjoined to scrutinize carefully the claim of the registrant and to satisfy themselves that the registrant claiming such relief from liability to military service is not a citizen of the United States, and
is
a citizen or subject of a country neutral in the present war,"
XXX.
RECOGNITION OF BELLIGERENCY.
1.
Powers or
Rig-hts.
The occasion for the accordance of belligerent rights arises when a civil conflict exists within a foreign state. The reason which requires and can alone justify this step by the government of
is that its own rights and interests are so far affected as to require a definition of its own relations to the parties. Where a parent government is seeking to subdue an insurrection by
another country
municipal force, and the insurgents claim a political nationality and belligerent rights which the parent government does not concede,
RECOGNITION OF BELLIGERENCY.
127
a recognition by a foreign state of full belligerent rights, if not justified by necessity, is a gratuitous demonstration of moral support to the rebellion and of censure upon the parent government. But the situation of a foreign state with reference to the contest,
and the condition of

mine what
affairs
between the contending

It is
parties,
may
state,
be such as to justify this act.

state of affairs,
important, therefore, to deter-
and what relations of the foreign
justify the recognition. It is certain that the state of things
between the parent state and insurgents must amount, in fact, to a war, in the sense of international law that is, powers and rights of war must be in
actual exercise
nition
is
of a fact.
otherwise the recognition is falsified, for the recogThe tests to determine the question are various,
is
and far more decisive where there
maritime war and commercial
relations with foreigners. Among the tests are the existence of a de facto political organization of the insurgents sufficient in character,
among
population, and resources to constitute it, if left to itself, a state the nations, reasonably capable of discharging the duties of
in accordance with the rules
a state, the actual employment of military forces on each side, acting and customs of war, such as the use
of flags of truce, cartels, exchange of prisoners, and the treatment of captured insurgents by the parent state as prisoners of war, and, at sea, emploj^ment by the insurgents of commissioned cruisers,
and the exercise by the parent government of the rights of blockade of insurgent ports against neutral commerce, and of stopping and
searching neutral vessels at sea.
dition of things
is
If all these elements exist, the conAvar,
undoubtedly
and
it
may
be war before they
are all ripened into activity.

2.
Foreign States.
it is
As
to the relation of the foreign state to the contest, if

is
solely
to
on land, and the foreign state
not contiguous,
it
is difficult
imagine a call for the recognition. If, for instance, the United States should formally recognize belligerent rights in an insurgent community at the center of Europe, with no seaports, it would
require a hardly supposable necessity to make demonstration of moral sujjport. But a case
it
else
may
arise
than a mere where a
foreign state must decide whether to hold the parent state responsible for acts done by the insurgents, or to deal with the insurgents as a de facto government. (Mr. Canning to Lord Granville on the
Greek war, June
22, 182G.)
128
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
If the foreign state recognizes belligerency in the insurgents,
it
from responsibility for whatever may be done by the insurgents, or not done by the parent state where the insurgent power extends. (Mr. Adams to Mr. Seward, June 11, 1861,
releases the parent state
Dip. Corr., 105.)
make
In a contest wholly upon land a contiguous state may be obliged to the decision whether or not to regard it as a war, but, in prachas not been done by a general and prospective declaration, this tice,
but by actual treatment of cases as they
arise.
Where
the insurgents
and the parent state are maritime, and the foreign nation has extensive commercial relations and trade at the ports of both, and the foreign nation and either or both of the contending parties have considerable naval force, and the domestic contest must extend itself over
the sea, then the relations of the foreign state to the contest are far
different.
In such a state of things the liability to political complications,
and the questions of right and duty to be decided at once, usually away from home, by private citizens or naval officers, seem to require an authoritative and general decision as to the status of the
three parties involved. If the contest is a wâr, all foreign citizens and officers, w^hether executive or judicial, are to follow one line
of conduct, if
line.
it is
If it is
not a war, they are to follow a totally different a war the commissioned cruisers of both sides may
stop,
search,
vessel
and capture the foreign merchant vessel, and that must make no resistance and must submit to adjudication
;
by a prize court
if it is
not a
wâr, the cruisers of neither
party can
stop or search the foreign merchant vessel; and that vessel may resist all attempts in that direction, and the ships-of-war of the
foreign state
attack and capture any cruiser persisting in the attempt. If it is war, foreign nations must await the adjudication of prize tribunals, if it is not war, no such tribunal can be opened.
may
If it is
war, the parent state
may
institute a blockade jure
gentium
of the insurgent ports, which foreigners must respect; but if it is not a war, foreign nations having large commercial intercourse with
the country wall not respect a closing of insurgent ports by paper decrees only. If it is a war, the insurgent cruisers are to be treated by foreign citizens and officials, at sea and in port, as lawful belligerents
;
if it is
as such.
not a war, those cruisers are pirates, and may be treated If it is a war, the rules and risks respecting carrying con-
if it is traband, or dispatches, or military persons, come into play; The recognition of belligerent rights not war, they do not
SUSPENSION OF INTERCOURSE,
is
129
not solely to the advantage of the insurgents. They gain the great advantage of a recognized status, and the opportunity to employ commissioned cruisers at sea, and to exert all the powers known to maritime warfare, with the sanction of foreign nations. They can obtain abroad loans, military and naval materials, and enlist men, as against everything but neutrality laws; their flag and commissions are acknowledged, their revenue laws are respected, and they
acquire a quasi-political recognition. On the other hand, the parent government is relieved from responsibility for acts done in the
insurgent territory,
it
its blockade of its own ports is respected; and a exert against neutral commerce all the powers to acquires right of a party to a maritime war. (Note of Mr. Dana, Dana's Wheaton,
Art. 23, p. 34).
(See Lawrence, Principles of Int. Law, Art. 163).
XXXI.
SUSPENSION OF INTERCOURSE.
Every kind of trading or commercial dealing or intercourse, whether by transmission of money or of goods, or orders for the delivery of either between two countries at war, directly or
through the intervention of third persons or partnerships, or by contracts in any form looking to or involving such (Quoted in Montgomery v. United transmission, is prohibited. States, 15 Wall 395, from Kershaw v. Kelsey, 100 Mass. 561 United
indirectly, or
;
States V. Lapene, 17 Wall. 601).
The Government of the United States has power to permit limited commercial intercourse with an enemy in time of war, and to impose such conditions thereon as it sees fit; this poAver is incident to the power to declare war, and to carry it on to a successful termination.
And
alone, who is constitutionally of hostile invested with the entire charge operations, may exercise this power but whether so or not, there is no doubt that, with the
it
would seem that the President
concurrent authority of the Congress, he may exercise to his discretion. (Hamilton v. Dillin, 21 Wall. 73).
it
according
In war, all intercourse between the subjects and citizens of the belligerent countries is illegal, unless sanctioned by the authority of the government or in the exercise of the rights of humanity,
rrhe Julia (1814), 8 Cranch, 181). A non-resident alien need not expose himself or his property to the or dangers of a foreign war. lie may trade with both belligerents
130
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
commits no crime. His acts are lawSo long as he confines his trade to property not hostile or contraband, and violates no If he blockade, he is secure both in his person and his property. is neutral in fact as well as in name, he runs no risk. But so soon as he steps outside of actual neutrality, and adds materially to the
with either.
By
so doing he
ful in the sense that they are not prohibited.
warlike strength of one belligerent, he makes himself correspondingly the enemy of the other. To the extent of his acts of hostility and their legitimate consequences, he submits himself to the risk
of the war into whose presence he voluntarily comes. -If he breaks a blockade or engages in contraband trade, he subjects himself to the chances of the capture and confiscation of his offending property.
he thrusts himself inside the enemies' lines, and for the sake of gain acquired title to hostile property, he must take care that it is not lost to him by the fortune of war. While he may not have
If
committed a crime for which he can be personally punished, his may be treated by the adverse belligerent as an enemy property. He has the legal right to carry, to sell, and to buy
offending property
:
but the conciuering belligerent has a corresponding right to capture and condemn. He enters into a race of diligence with his adversary^ and takes the chances of success. The rights of the two are in laAv
equal.
V.
The one may hold if he can, and the other United States (1877), 97 U. S. 39, 63).
seize.
(Young
XXXII.
CONFISCATION.
the law of nations the debts, credits, and corporal property of an enemy, found in the country on the breaking out of war, are
By
confiscable.
(Cargo of ship Emulous,
1 Gallison, 562).
The humane maxims of the modern law of nations, which exempt private property of noncombatant enemies from capture as booty of war, found expression in the abandoned and captured property act of March 12, 1863. "No titles were divested in the insurgent
proceedings.
States unless in pursuance of a judgment rendered after due legal The government recognized to the fullest extent the
of the
humane maxims
modern law
of nations,
which exempt private
property of noncombatant enemies from capture as booty of war.' (Chase, C. J., United States v. Klein, 13 Wall. 128, 137. See, to same
general
effect,
Lamar
v.
Browne, 92 U.
S. 194).
confiscation!
131
In
Brown
it
v.
United States, 8 Cranch, 110, 122, 123, the court
was conceded that war gives to the sovereign full right to take the persons and confiscate the property of the enemy wherever found, and observed that the mitigations of this rigid rule, which the humane and Avise policy of modern times has introduced into practice, might more or less affect the exercise of this right,
said that
but could not impair the right itself. All property within enemj^ territory
just as all persons in the
is
in
law enemy property,
neutral territory are enemies. owning property within the enemy's lines holds it as enemy property, subject to the laws of war; and, if it is hostile property, subIt has never been doubted that arms and munitions however owned, may be seized by the conquering belligerent upon conquered territory. The reason is that, if left, they may, upon
same
ject to capture.
of war,
a reverse of the fortunes of war, help to strengthen the adversary.
To
cripple him, therefore, they

not,
may
be captured,
if
whether necessary or
alone
is
must be determined
b}'
necessary and the commanding

;
general, unless restrained

his superior.
V.
by the orders of his government, which The same rule applies to all hostile property.
United States (1877), 97 U. S. 39, 60). Every nation at war with another is justifiable, by the general and strict law of nations, to seize and confiscate all movable property of its enemy, (of any kind or nature whatsoever), wherever found,
(Young
whether within
its territory or not. (1796), 3 Ball. 199, 226).
(Chace,
J., in
Ware
v.
Hylton
The circumstance that a ship is found in the possession of the enemy affords prima facie evidence that it is his property. But if it was originally of a friendly or neutral character, and has not been changed by a sentence of condemnation, or by such possession as nations recognize as firm and effectual, it will be restored absolutely or conditionally, as such case requires.
9
(Schooner Adeline,
Cranch, 244).
A vessel and cargo whose papers, supported by the testimony, show that both belonged to a subject of the King of Spain, held lawful i)rize of war, having been captured by a United States cruiser (The while on a voyage from one port of the enemy to another.
Maria Dolores, 88 Fed. Rep. 548).
mail steam.ship carrying mail of the United States is not for (The Buena that reason exempt from capture as an enemy vessel.
Ventura (1898), 87 Fed. Rep.

U. S. 535).
927,
affirmod.
The Panama,
17(i
132
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
is
Pi'operty in transit from a belligerent to a neutral
subject to
capture and condemnation, if it has not vested at the time of the capture in the neutral consignees.
Neutrals who place their vessels under belligerent control, and engage them in belligerent trade; or permit them to be sent with contraband cargoes, under cover of false destination, to neutral
ports, while the real destination is to belligerent ports; impress upon them the character of the belligerent in whose service they are
employed, and the vessels

property.
(Chase, Ch.
J.,
may
The Hart,
be seized and condemned as enemy 3 Wall. 559).
XXXIII.
PUBLIC AND PRIVATE PROPERTY OF THE ENEMY.
A victorious army appropriates all public money, seizes all public movable property until further direction by its government, and sequesters for its own benefit or of that of its government all the revenues of real property belonging to the hostile government or nation. The title to such real property remains in abeyance during military occupation, and until the conquest is made complete. (6. 0.
100, Art. 31.)
1.
Rules Governing the Occupation of Hostile Territory.
The United States acknoAvledge and protect, in hostile countries occupied by them, religion and morality; strictly private property; the persons of the inhabitants, especially those of women; and the
Offenses to the contrary shall be rigorously punished. This rule does not interfere with the right of the victorious invader to tax the people or their property, to levy
sacredness of domestic relations.
forced loans, to billet soldiers, or to appropriate property, especially houses, lands, boats or ships, and churches, for temporary and military uses. (G. 0. 100, Art. 37.)
2.
Private Property.
Private property, unless forfeited by crimes or by offenses of the owner, can be seized only by way of military necessity, for the support or other benefit of the army or of the United States. If the owner has not fled, the commanding officer will cause receipts to be
given, which may serve the spoliated (G. 0. 100, Art. 38.)
owner
to obtain indemnity.
ENEMY PROPERTY.
3.
133
Salaries of Civil Officers.
The
salaries of civil officers of the hostile
in the invaded territory,
government who remain and continue the work of their office,
and can continue

the
war
such as judges, administrative or police

communal governments
it
according to the circumstances arising out of
paid from the public revenue of the invaded territory, until the military government has reason wholly or partially to discontinue it. Salaries or incomes connected
city or
are
officers, officers of
with purely honorary

4.
titles
are always stopped.
(G. O. 100, Art. 39.)
Municipal
Law
Suspended,
There exists no law or body of authoritative rules of action between hostile armies, except that branch of the law of nature and nations which is called the law and usages of war on land. All municipal law of the ground on which the armies stand, or of the countries to which they belong, is silent and of no effect between
armies in the
field.
(G. 0. 100, Art. 40, 41.)
5.
Punishment for Unauthorized Acts.
All wanton violence committed against persons in the invaded country, all destruction of property not commanded by the authorized officer, all robbery, all pillage or sacking, even after taking a place by main force, all rape, wounding, maiming, or killing of such inhabitants, are prohibited under the penalty of death, or such
other severe punishment as

the offense.
may seem adequate
for the gravity of
soldier, officer or private, in the act of
committing
such violence, and disobeying a- superior ordering him to abstain from it, may be lawfully killed on the spot by such superior. (G. 0.
100, Art. 44.)
6.
Captures and Booty.
All captures and booty belong, according to the modern law of Prize money, war, primarily to the government of the captor. whether on sea or land, can now only be claimed under local law.
Neither
officers
nor soldiers are allowed to make use of their
position or power in the hostile country for private gain, not even Offenses to the for commercial transactions otherwise legitimate.
contrary committed by commissioned officers will l)e punished with cashiering or such other punishment as the nature of the offense
may
require; if by soldiers, they shall lie punished according to the nature of the offense. (0. 0. 100, Art. 45, 46.)
134
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
7.
Crimes.
Crimes punishable by
ing, assaults,
rape, if
all penal codes, such as arson, murder, maimhighway robbery, theft, burglary, fraud, forgery, and committed by an American soldier in a hostile country
against
all
its
cases in
inhabitants, are not only punishable as at home, but in which death is not inflicted, the severer punishment shall
be preferred. (G. 0. 100, Art. 47.) (Gen. Ord. No. 100, War Dept., Apr. 24, 1863.)
XXXIV.
LICENSES. own
Licenses are sometimes granted by a belligerent State to its citizens, to those of the enemy, or to neutrals, to carry on a
trade which
is interdicted by the laws of war. Such documents must be respected by the officers and tribunals of the State under whose auth'ority they are issued, though they may be considered by the adverse belligerent as a ground of capture and confiscation.
They are
to
be construed fairly but

1.
strictly.
General and Special Licenses.
Licenses are general and special.
general license relaxes the
exercise of the rights of war, generally or partially, in relation to any community or individuals liable to be affected by their operation.
special license
is
one given to individuals for a particular
voyage for the importation or exportation of particular goods. Licenses to trade must, as a general rule, emanate from the supreme authority of the ^tate. But there are exceptions to this rule, growing out of the particular circumstances of the war in
particular places. Thus, the governor of a province, the general of an army, or the admiral of a fleet, may grant licenses to trade within
the limits of their

protection beyond
own commands.
But such
licenses afford
no
the limits of the authority of those
who
issue
them.
2.
Object of License.
license is a
to its
own
kind of safe-conduct, granted by a belligerent state subjects, to those of its enemy, or to neutrals, to carry
is
on a trade which
interdicted by the laws of war, and
it
operates
LICENSE.
135
as a dispensation from the penalties of those laws, with respect to the state granting it. and so far as its terms can be fairly construed to extend. The officers and tribunals of the state under whose
authority they are issued, are bound to respect such documents as lawful relaxations of the ordinary' state of war; but the adverse
belligerent may justly consider them as per se a ground of capture confiscation. Licenses are necessarily stricti' juris, and cannot be carried beyond the evident intention of those by whom they are
and
granted nevertheless, they are not construed with pedantic accuracy, nor will their fair effect be vitiated by every slight deviation
;
from their terms and conditions. Much, however, will depend upon the nature of the terms which are not complied with. Thus a vari^
ation in the quality or character of the goods will often lead to more dangerous consequences than an excess of quantity. Again, a
license to trade,
become dangerous
though safe in the hands of one person, might in those of another, so, also, with respect to the Such restriclimitations of time and place specified in a license. tions are often of material importance, and cannot be deviated from with safety. ... In the United States, as a general rule, licenses are issued under the authority of an act of Congress, but in special cases and for purposes immediately connected with the prosecution
may be granted by the authority of the President, Commander-in-Chief of the military and naval forces of the United States. (Halleck Int. Law. (4th ed., by Baker), II. 371-373).
of war, they
as
XXXV. PASSPORTS AND SAFE CONDUCTS.
A passport or safe conduct is a document granting persons or property a specified exemption for the time being from the operations of war. The term passport is applied to personal permission given to friends on ordinary occasions, both in peace and war,
to the
while the term safe conduct is usually given document authorizing an enemy or an alien to go into ])laces where they would otherwise be in danger or to carry on a trade forbidden by the laws of war. The word passport, however, is more generally applied to persons, and safe conduct to both persons and things. (See Halleck. Int. LaAv f4th ed., by Baker), IT. 3."iRto
;
go where they Avish
359).
General Scott, referring

(r;il
Congrea",
after
h\.<
approaching meeting of the new Fed^'1 cjipturc of the City of Mexico, ?ay^=:
lo
136
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
have seen and given safe conduct through this city to several of its members." He also gave Santa Anna's wife a passport to enable
her to follow her husband.
(Scott,
Autobiography,
II.
532, 537).
XXXVI.
CONTRIBUTIONS; REQUISITIONS; TOLLS; TAXES
In accordance with Article 48 of The
the
Laws and Customs
of "War on
Hague Convention respecting Land of 1899, the military occu-
pant of the occupied territory may levy tolls, taxes and dues, and he shall do so, as far as possible, in accordance with existing rules and the assessment in force, and will in consequence be bound to
defray the expenses of the administration of the occupied territory
on the same scale as that by which the legitimate Government was The occupant also has the right to make any requisition necessary for the support of his army. Thus, Bonaparte's armies entering Germany, Austria and Italy were supported by contributions and by taxes collected from the respective countries.
bound.
1.
Rules Governing- Levying of Taxes.
Article 51 of the
same Convention provides:
"No
tax shall be
collected except under a written order and on the responsibility of the commander-in-chief. This collection shall only take place, as
far as possible, in accordance with the rules in existence and the assessment of taxes in force. For every payment a receipt shall be given to the taxpayer."
(Special Message, Feb. 10, 1848, Richardson's IV. Messages, 571) said: "No principle is better established than that a nation at war has the right of shifting the burden off itself
President Polk
and imposing it on the enemy by exacting military contributions. The mode of making such exactions must be left to the discretion of the conqueror, but it should be exercised in a manner conformable to the rules of civilized warfare. The right to levy these contributions is essential to the successful prosecution of war in an enemy's country, and the practice of nation's has been in accordance with this It is as clearly necessary as the right to fight battles, and principle.
exercise is often essential to the subsistence of the army." During the occupation of Versailles by the Germans in 1870, the French mayor made frequent complaints to the Prussian Commandits
CONTRIBUTIONS.
ing General that
137
many
acts of violence
were committed by the
soldiers, such as breaking into private houses and plunderor ing destroying the furniture, especially the clocks. In the populous part of the town order Avas tolerably Avell maintained, but not These complaints do not appear to have so in the outskirts.
German
obtained any favorable results
(Delerot, Versailles).
Horse-
shoes were constantly the object of requisitions, and on the great lines of march blacksmiths were everywhere impressed into the
Prussian service.
where
the
Although, according to Bluntschli, invaders are entitled everyto claim from the invaded lodging, food, and drink, fuel,
and carriage, the Prussians did not, as a rule, call upon to provide clothing for them; a quantity of cloth was requisitioned at Elboeuf Louviers, and other towns boots and socks were sometimes requisitioned, and late in the campaign, horses were very frequently demanded. In theorj^, nothing was taken for which a receipt was not given, but this rule often broke down in practice. An idea got abroad that the Germans would, on the conclusion of peace, redeem the requisition papers. This supposition may have had its origin in the fact that during the invasion of 1792 the requisitions issued by the Duke of Brunswick were in the name of Louis XVI, and not, as during the above war, in that of German These officials alone generals, or of commanders of detached corps. to issue the requisitions (Edwards, Germans in right possessed
clothing,
enemy
France).
2.
Requisitions
Made by Germans
daily,
in Versailles.
in occupation
The
requisitions,
made
by the Germans, while
of Versailles, were as follows: 120,000 loaves of bread, 80,000 pounds of meat, 90,000 pounds of oats, 27,000 pounds of rice, 7,000 pounds of roasted coffee, 4,000 pounds of salt, 20,000 litres of wine,
and 500,000 cigars. Other requisitions were made as required. In theory none was to be made unless the demand was in writing, but the French complain that verbal requisitions were often made.
Further, they say that although every written demand should have l>orne the vise of the Gornuiii j2;cnoi'nl cominandino; the place, tho vi.se was not placed on by him l>ut al liis office, by undcr-oflicevs
These granted it to the first comer, and thereby a great disadvantage was caused to the invaded, for every refusal to comply with a requisition became, not a refusal to the bearer, but a
or soldiers.
refusal to the Commander-in-Chief
(Delerot,
Versailles).
Requisi-
138
tions
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
were
also levied
by the French troops on
their
own
country-
Edwards (Germans in France) gives an example of this. men, Five places in the Department of the Orne claimed 11,000 francs for requisitions levied on them by frances-tireurs in a regular manner and 16,000 francs for requisitions levied in an "irregular" manner.
3.
Conduct of the British in the He de
la Passe.
He de
In a march of twenty-two miles in an enemy's territory in the la Passe, the British, under Captain Willoughby, abstained
least article of property.
Even the sugar and and usually considered as legitimate objects of seizure, remained untouched; and the invaders, when they quitted the shore for their ship, left behind them not
coffee laid aside for exportation,
from pillaging the
merely a high character for gallantry but also for rigid adherence to promises (James, Nav. Hist,, vol. V. 278. Halleck, II. 88.)
XXXVII.
CONTRACTS.
The citizens of one belligerent state are incapable of contracting with the citizens of the other belligerent state.
between citizens William 5 Wall. (The Bagley, 377). An alien enemy is not permitted to sue. (Wilcox v. Henry, 1 Dall. 69 Matthews v, McStea, 91 U, S, 7 Sanderson v. Morgan, 39 N. Y. 231 Perkins v. Eogers, 35 Ind. 124 Rice v. Shook, 27 Ark. 137 Grinnan v. Edwards, 21 W. Va. 347 Haymond v. Camden, 22 W. Va. 180; Sturn v. Fleming, 22 W. Va. 404; Stephens v. Brown, 24 W, Va, 234).
is
The
effect of
war
to dissolve a partnership
of hostile nations.
This rule obviously does not operate as to alien enemies who are by treaty permitted to continue their residence and business, on condition of observing the laws.
The existence
of
war does not prevent
the citizens of one belliger-
ent poAver from taking proceedings for the protection of their own property, in their own courts, against the citizens of the other,
whenever the
is
latter
can be reached by process, and where an alien
enemy thus sued, he may defend himself in the action. (McVeigh V. United States, 11 Wall. 259 United States v. Shares of Stock, 5 Blatchf. 231 Lee v. Rogers, 2 Sawyer, 549 Seymour v. Bailey, 66
; ; ;
111.
288; Buford
v.
Speed, 11 Bush. 338).
INSURRECTION.
139
The right to sue revives after peace. (Hanger v. Abbott, 6 Wall. 532; Stiles v. Eastley, 51 111. 275. See, also, Wilcox v. Henry, 1
Dall. 68).
"The treaty of peace with Great Britain prevents the operation of the statute of limitations of Virginia on British debts which were
incurred before the treaty."
(Hopkirk
v. Bell, 3
Cranch, 454.)
XXXVHI.
INSURRECTION CIVIL
WARREBELLION.
and may be prosecuted on the same footing Government Avere foreign invaders W'henthe as those opposing course of ever the regular justice is interrupted by revolt, rebellion,
civil
war
exists
if
or insurrection, so that the courts cannot be kept open. Civil war begins by insurrection against the law^ful authority of the Government, and is never solemnly declared. When the parties in rebellion
occupy and hold in a hostile manner a certain portion of territory, have declared their independence and cast off their allegiance, have organized armies, and commenced hostilities against their former sovereign, the world acknowledges them as belligerents, and the
contest a war.
(The Prize Cases, 2 Black, 635.)
is
A civil war between the different members of the same society what Grotius calls a mixed war; it is, according to him, public on the side of the established government, and private on the part But the general usage of of the people resisting its authority.
nations regards such a war as entitling both the contending parties to all the rights of war as against each other, and even as respects
neutral nations.
374.)
(Wheaton, Dana's
edition. Part IV., Sec. 296, p.
Insurrection
is
ernment,
or
the rising of people in arms against their govportion of it, or against one or more of its laAvs,
or against an officer or officers of the government. It may be confined to mere armed resistance, or it may have greater ends in view. (G. 0. 100, Art. 149.)
1.
Civil
War.
war is war between two or more portions of a country or each state, contending for the mastery of the whole, and eacb claiming to be the legitimate government. The term is also someCivil
140
INTERNATIONAL, LAW.
times applied to war of rebellion, when the rebellious provinces or portion of the state are contiguous to those containing the seat oi government. (G. 0. 100, Art. 150.)
2.
Rebellion.
The term "rebellion" is applied to an insurrection of large extent, and is usually a war between the legitimate government of a country and portions of provinces of the same who seek to throw otf their allegiance to it and set up a government of their own.
When humanity
war toward
induces the adoption of the rules of regular
rebels, whether the adoption is partial or entire, it does in no way whatever imply a partial or complete acknowledgment of their government, if they have set up one, or of them, as an independent and sovereign power. Neutrals have no right to make the adoption of the rules of war by the assailed government toward rebels the ground of their own acknowledgment of the revolted people as an independent power. (G. 0. 100, Art. 151, 152.)
3.
Treatment of Rebels.
Treating captured rebels as prisoners of war, exchanging them, concluding of cartels, capitulations, or other warlike agreements with them; addressing officers of a rebel army by the rank they may have in the same; accepting flags of truce, or, on the other hand, proclaiming martial law in their territory, or levying wartaxes or forced loans, or doing any other act sanctioned or demanded by the law and usages of public war between sovereign belligeren^ts, neither proves nor establishes an acknowledgment of the rebellious
people, or of the government which they may have erected, as a public or sovereign power. Nor does the adoption of the rules of
rebels imply an engagement with them extending It is victory in the field that ends limits of these rules. the beyond the strife and settles the future relations between the contending
war toward
parties.
to the law Treating, in the field, the rebellious enemy according and usages of war has never prevented the legitimate government from trying the leaders of the rebellion or chief rebels for high are intreason, and from treating them accordingly, unless they
cluded in a general amnesty. All enemies in regular war are divided into two general classes that is to say, into combatants and noncombatants, or unarmed citizens of the hostile government.
(G. 0. 100, Art. 153, 154, 155.)
SPIES.
4.
141
Loyal and Disloyal Citizens.
The military commander of the legitimate government, in a war of rebellion, distinguishes between the lojâl citizen in the revolted portion of the country and the disloyal citizen. The disloyal citizens
may
further be classified into those citizens
known
it,
thize with the rebellion without positively aiding
to sympaand those who,
without taking up arms, give positive aid and comfort to the rebellious enemy without being bodily forced thereto. (G. 0. 100, Art. 155.)
Common justice and plain expediency require that the military commander protect the manifestly loyal citizens, in revolted territories, against the hardships of the war as much as the common misfortune of all war admits. (G. 0. 100, Art. 156.)
5.
Treatment Accorded
to Disloyal Citizens.
will throw the burden of the war, as much as within his power, on the disloyal citizens of the revolted portion or province, subjecting them to a stricter policy than the noncombatant enemies have to suffer in regular war, and if he deems it
The commander
lies
appropriate, or if his government demands of him that every citizen shall, by an oath of allegiance, or by some other manifest act, declare his fidelity to the legitimate government, he may expel,
transfer, imprison, or fine the revolted citizens who refuse to pledge themselves anew as citizens obedient to the law and loyal to the
government.
Whether
it
is
expedient to do
so,
and whether reliance can be
placed upon such oaths, the commander or his government has the
right to decide. Armed or unarmed resistance
by
citizens of the
United States
against the lawful movements of their troops is levying war against the United States and is therefore treason. (G. 0. 100, Art. 156, 157.)
(Gen. Ord.
War
Dept. 100, Apr. 24, 1863.)
XXXIX.
SPIES WAR-TRAITORS.
1.
Spies.
witli
in the
Spies, war-trailors, and war-rebels are dealt
following
false pre-
manner
as set forth in the general orders to the armies:

is a
"A
spy
person
who
secretly, in disguise or
under
142
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
with the intention of communicating
it
tense, seeks information
to
the enemy.
punishable with death by hanging by the neck, whether or not he succeeded in obtaining the information or in conis
it to the enemy. (G. 0. 100, Art. 88.) "If a citizen of the United States obtains information in a legitimate manner, and betrays it to the enemy, be he a military or civil
"The spy
veying
officer,
or a private citizen, he shall suffer death.
(G. 0. 100, Art. 89.)
2.
War-Traitors.
in a place or district
under the law of war, or a war-traitor, is a person under martial law who, unauthorized by the military commander, gives information of any kind to the enemy,
traitor
"A
or holds intercourse with him.
(G. 0. 100, Art. 90.)
consists in betraying to the
always severely punished. If his offense enemy anything concerning the condition, safety, operations, or plans of the troops holding or occuping the place or district, his punishment is death. (G. 0. 100, Art. 91.) "If the citizen or subject of a country or place invaded or conquered gives information to his own government, from which he is
is
"The
war-traitor
separated by the hostile army, or to the army of his government, he is a war-traitor, and death is the penalty of his offense. (G. 0. 400,
Art. 92.)
"All unauthorized or secret communication with the enemy considered treasonable by the law of war.
visitors in the
is
"Foreign residents in an invaded or occupied territory or foreign same can claim no immunity from this law. They may communicate with foreign parts or with the inhabitants of the hostile country, so far as the militar}' authority permits, but no further. Instant expulsion from the occupied territory would be
the very least punishment for the infraction of this rule. Art. 98.)
(G. 0. 100,
"All armies in the field stand in need of guides, and impress them if they can not obtain them otherwise. (G. 0. 100, Art. 93.)
"No
is
person having been forced by the enemy to serve as guide punishable for having done so. (G. 0. 100, Art. 94.)
district voluntarily serves
"If a citizen of a hostile and invaded
as a guide to the enemy, or offers to do so, he is (G. 0. 100, Art. 95.) traitor, and shall suffer death.
deemed a war-
SPIES.
143
"A
citizen serving voluntarily as a guide against his
own country
the law of
commits treason, and will be dealt with according

his country.
to
(G. 0. 100, Art. 96.)

is
"Guides,
tionally,
when it may be put
to death.
clearly proved that they have misled inten(G. 0. 100, Art. 97.)
"The law of war, like the criminal law regarding other offenses, makes no difference on account of the difference of sexes, concerning the spy, the war-traitor, or the war-rebel.
to the
"Spies, war-traitors, and war-rebels are not exchanged according common law of war. The exchange of such persons would
require a special cartel, authorized by the government, or, at a great distance from it, by the chief commander of the army in the field.
(See article on cartels).
"A
successful spy or war-traitor,
safely
returned to his
own
army, and afterwards captured as an enemy, is not subject to punishment for his acts as a spy or Avar-traitor, but he may be held in
closer
custody
as
person
individually
dangerous.
(G.
0.
100,
Art. 104.)
"Article 88, defining the term spy and vstipulating liis punishment, 'A spy is a person who secretly, in disguise or under reads as follows
:
it
communicating enemy. The spy is punishable with death by hanging by the neck, M-hether or not he succeed in obtaining the information or in conveying it to the enemy.' Bluntschli, while embodying this
to the
false pretense, seeks information with the intention of
rule in his tentative code,
comments (Droit
Int. Condifie, sec. 628)
on
'The penalty should not, hoAvever, be applied except in the more dangerous cases; it would in most cases be out of all proportion with the crime. The usage has become less barbarous,
it
thus:
and
it suffices the more frequently to condemn them (spies) to close confinement or other analogous penalties.' He further says, speak-
ing of the German mihtary regulations of 1870, and apparently on the authority of Rolin Jaequemyns: 'The menace of death is often not avoidable, but should not however be applied except in
cases
where the culpal)iHty

3.
is
i-cnlly
grave.'
Punishment Commensurate with Danger.

citntioiis
it
"From (hoc
iiiiiy
ho inferred Bluntschli holds that the
severity of the j>unishment in each particular case should depend upon the resultant danger, a tost which a military tribunal may
naturally be presumed to apply to the facts upon which
it
reaches
144
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
It
a decision.
does not appear practicable to draw a line between the more dangerous and less dangerous cases, and our own Regulations of 1863 do not attempt it." (Mr. Gresbam, Sec. of State, Denby, min. to China, No. 1033, March 21, 1895, MS. Inst.
to Mr.
China, V. 162.)
4.
When Not
An
Considered Spies.
"Article
XXIX.
individual can only be considered a spy
if, acting clandestinely, or on false pretences, he obtains, or seeks to obtain information in the zone of operations of a belligerent, with
the intention of communicating it to the hostile party. '^Thus, soldiers not in disguise who have penetrated into the zone
of operations of a hostile army to obtain information are not considered spies. Similarly, the following are not considered spies
:
Soldiers or civilians, carrying out their mission openly, charged with the delivery of despatches destined either for their own army or for
that of the enemy. To this class belong likewise individuals sent in balloons to deliver despatches, and generally to maintain communication between the various parts of an army or a territory.
"Article
XXX. A
trial.
spy taken in the act can not be punished
without previous
"Article
he belongs,
spy who, after rejoining the army to which subsequently captured by the enemy, is treated as a of war, and incurs no responsibility for his previous acts prisoner of espionage." (Convention respecting the Laws and Customs of AVar on Land, The Hague, July 29, 1899, 32 Stat. II. 1818, 1819.)
is 5.
XXXI.
Deserters.
Deseiterf from the American Army, having entered the service of the enemy, suffer death if they fall again into the hands of the United States, whether by capture, or being delivered up to the
from the enemy, having taken United States, is captured by the enemy, and punished by them with death or otherwise, it is not a breach against the law and usages of war, requiring redress or retaliation. (War Dept. Gen. Order No. 100, 1863, Art. 48.)
American Army; and

service in the
if
a deserter
Army
of the
GUERRILLAS AND GUERRILLA WARFARE.

from the
Whenever an individual or bands of men, without any authority state, carry on war against the public enemy, such acts con-
GUERRILLAS.
145
state
Acting under no authority from the and acknowledging no superior who would be responsible for
stitute guerrilla warfare.
acts, the guerrillas are
their
not treated as soldiers, but as outlaws, and whenever captured do not enjoy the privileges of prisoners of war, but are punished in accordance with the acts committed. The
taking of property and the killing of soldiers by guerrillas are respectively treated as robbery and murder and are dealt with accordingly. The absence of authority and distinctive signs of their
is responsible for the treatment accorded to them and the hostile attitude which the leading military powers assume toward them.
status no doubt
after capture,
1.
Punishment of
Guerrillas.
early example for the treatment of guerrillas is given in the Thirty Years' War, when Gustavus Adolphus, in return for the acts
of South
An
German peasants who mutilated
soldiers,
burnt their
vil-
and whenever possible executed the perpetrators During the French expeditions in Spain, Napoleon emulated the example set by Gustavus Adolphus and dealt sternly and swiftly with any guerrillas who were harassing his outposts or killed sentinels. In the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the Prussians required each French franc-tireur to wear a uniform or distinctive marks of such uniforms to be recognizable at a reasonable distance. The compliance with these requirements immediately places the guerrillas in the status of soldiers to whom the privileges and immunities as laid down by the laws of civilized warfare must
lages
acts.
of these
be accorded.
Conditions Governing- Recognition of Military Status.
of recognizing bands of
2.
men as part of the military careful and considerable received organization was and iittcntion by the leading powers finally brou2;ht to a in 1874 and ratified at the at solution at the Convention Bnissels
The question
of the state has
First
Hague Convention
in 1809.
rule that the laws, rip;hts
armies, but also to militia certain rcquiromonts whereby their status

distance.
It is laid down as an established and duties of war do apply not only to and volunteer corps provided they meet
men rommnndod by
may be recognized at a the conditions prerequisite to entitle a band of to bo rccognizod a.s a military orG;iiniz;ition arc, thnt llioy be
Among
a
porsnn rosponsihle for the nets of his subordinates,
146
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
that they have a fixed definitive einbleni recognizable at a distance, that they carry arms openly and that they conduct their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war.
3.
Levies en Masse.
The Hague Convention also settled the question of levies en masse, where the population of a territory which has not "been occupied by the enemy spontaneously takes up arms on the enemy's
invading troops, without, however, having organize themselves in accordance with the conditions It was definitely settled stipulated to be recognized as soldiers.
approach
time to
to resist the
that
upon approach of the enemy
levies en
masse shall be regarded
as belligerents provided they carry on their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war,
4.
Guerrillas
and Levies en Masse Distinguished.

is
The
distinction
which
made between
guerrillas
and
levies en
masse is thought to be obvious. The guerrillas are not acting under the authority of the state, and even in case the state should connive at their acts no protection could be accorded to the guerrillas by the state in case they are dealt with in accordance with
the other hand, levies en masse are bodies of men acting under and by virtue of orders received from the public authorities to ward off the danger of the approach of an enemy, and in view of these circumstances, if captured, they are entitled
their status.
On
to the prerogatives
and
benefits of prisoners of war.
XL.
PROHIBITED
1.
WAR
MEASURES.
Prohibited Acts of Belligerents.
According to the Hague Convention the following acts are prohibited

(a.)
:
To employ poison or poison weapons; To kill or wound treacherously individuals belonging to (b.) the hostile nation or army; To kill or wound an enemy who, having laid down his (c.) or having no longer means of defence, has surrendered at arms,
discretion
;
PROHIBITED
(d.)
(e.)
WAR MEASURES.
Avill
147
To declare that no quarter

To employ arms,
;
be given;
projectiles, or material calculated to cause
unnecessary suffering
(f.)
of a flag of truce, of the national or of the military insignia and uniform of the enemy, as well as the distinctive badges of the Geneva Convention;
flag,
To make improper use
(g.)
To
destro}'
or seize
the
enemy's property, unless such
destruction or seizure be imperatively of war;

(h.)
demanded by
the necessities
of
Law
(i.)
To declare abolished, suspended, or inadmissible in a Court the rights and actions of the nationals of the hostile party
;
To attack or bombard^ by whatever means, towns, villages, dwellings, or buildings which are undefended. In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be taken to
spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art, science, or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals, and
places where the sick and wounded are collected, provided that It is they are not being used at the time for military purposes. the duty of the besieged to indicate the presence of such buildings or places
by
distinctive
and
visible signs,
which
shall be notified to
the
enemy beforehand.
belligerent
is
likewise forbidden to compel nationals of the
party to take part in the operations of war directed against their own country, even if they were in the belligerent's service
hostile
commencement of the war. war and the employment of measures necessary for obtaining information about the enemy and the country are conbefore the
Ruses of
sidered permissible.
The
officer in
command
mencing bombardment, to warn the authorities.

taken by assault,
2.
is
of an attacking force must, before comexcept in cases of assault, do all in his power
The
pillage of a
prohibited.
(Hague
or place, even when Convention, Articles 23-28.)
town
Prohibition Affecting Aerial Warfare.
The plenipotentiaries at the Peace Conference at The Hague, "duly autliorized to that effect by their Governments, inspired by
expression in the declaration of St. 20th November (11th December), 18G8, declare Petersburg of the that: The Contracting Powers agree to prohibit, for a term of five
the sentiments which found
years, the launching of projectiles
and explosives from balloons.
148
or by other
tion
is
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
new methods of similar nature. The present Declaraonly binding on the Contracting Powers in case of war between two or more of them. It shall cease to be binding from the time Avhen, in a war between the Contracting Powers, one of
the belligerents
is
joined by a non-Contracting Power."

Prohibition Affecting
3.
Land War.
was adopted by The Hague Conference prohibiting expand or flatten easily in the human body, as illustrated by certain given details of construction. This, for technical reasons, stated in a separate report, the American delegates did not sign. It was signed by fifteen delegations, as follows
declaration
the use of bullets which
:
Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Greece, Mexico, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Persia, Roumania, Russia, Siam, Spain, Sweden and Norway, and Turkey. (For. Rel. 1899, 513, 520.)
xLi.
PRISONERS OF WAR.
1.
Treatment of Prisoners of War.

are in the
Prisoners of
war
power
of the hostile Grovernment,
but not of the individuals or corps They must All their personal belongings, except arms, They may be horses, and military papers, remain their property.
be humanely treated.
who capture them.
interned in a town, fortress, camp, or other place, and bound not to go beyond certain fixed limits; but they cannot be confined except as an indispensable measure of safety and only while the circumstances which necessitate the measure continue to
exist.
(H.
C,
Art.
4, 5.)
2.
Maintenance and Discipline of Prisoners of War.
is
into whose hands prisoners of war have fallen charged with their maintenance. In the absence of a special agreement between the belligerents, prisoners of war shall be treated as regards board, lodging, and clothing on the same footing as the troops of the Government who captured them. They shall be sub-
The Government
ject to the laws, regulations,
and orders in force in the army of the

are.
State in whose
fies
power they
Any
act of insubordination justi-
the adoption towards them of such measures of severity as may be considered necessary. Escaped prisoners who are retaken before
PRISONERS OF WAR,
149
being able to rejoin their

occupied by the
own army
or before leaving the territory
army which captured them are liable to disciplinary Prisoners punishment. who, after succeeding in escaping, are again taken prisoners, are not liable to any punishment on account of the previous flight. Every prisoner of war is bound to give, if he is questioned on the subject, his true name and rank, and if he infringes this rule, he is liable to have the advantages given to
prisoners of his class curtailed.
3.
(H. C, Art.
7, 8, 9.)
Right to Services of Prisoners.
their
The State may utilize the labor of prisoners of war according to rank and aptitude, officers excepted. The tasks shall not be excessive and shall have no connection with the operations of the
war. Prisoners may be authorized to work for the public service, for private persons, or on their own account. Work done for the State is paid at the rates in force for work of a similar kind done by
soldiers of the national army, or, if there are
none in
force, at a
is
rate according to the
work executed.
When
the
work
for other
branches of the public service or for private persons the conditions are settled in agreement with the military authorities. The wages
of the prisoners shall go towards improving their position, and the balance shall be paid them on their release, after deducting the cost
of their maintenance.
(H. C, Art.
4.
6.)
Parole.
Prisoners of
war may be
set at liberty
on parole
if
the laws of
their country allow, and, in such cases, they are bound, on their
personal honor, scrupulously to fulfil, both towards their own Government and the Government by whom they were made prisoners, the engagements they have contracted. In such cases their own
Government is bound neither to require of nor accept from them any service incompatible with the parole given. They cannot be
compelled to accept their liberty on parole; similarly the hostile Government is not obliged to accede to the request of the prisoner
to be set at liberty
on parole.
If they are liberated
on parole and
recaptured bearing arms against the Government to
whom they had pledged their honour, or against the allies of that Government, they forfeit their right to be treated as prisoners of war, and can be brought before the Courts. (See Art. on Parole.)
150
5.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Status of Non-combatants Attached to Armies.
Individuals who follow an array without directly belonging to it, such as newspaper correspondents and reporters, sutlers and contractors, who fall into the enemy's hands and whom the latter thinks
expedient to detain, are entitled to be treated as prisoners of war, provided they are in possession of a certificate from the military
authorities of the
army which they were accompanying.
(H.
C,
Art. 13.)
Relief societies for prisoners of war, which are properly conand with the
stituted in accordance with the laws of their country
from the
object of serving as the channel for charitable effort shall receive belligerents, for themselves and their duly accredited
agents, every facility for the efficient performance of their humane task within the bounds imposed by military necessities and adminis-
Agents of these societies may be admitted to the places of internment for the purpose of distributing relief,
trative regulations.
as also to the halting places of repatriated prisoners, if furnished with a personal permit by the military authorities, and on giving
an undertaking in writing to comply with all measures of order and (H. C, Art. 15.) police which the latter may issue.
6.
Information Agencies for Prisoners of War.
An
when
inquiry
mencement
office for prisoners of war is instituted on the comof hostilities in each of the belligerent States, and, necessary, in neutral countries which have received belliger-
ents in their territory. It is the function of this office to reply to It receives from the various all inquiries about the prisoners.
information respecting internments and transfers, releases on parole, exchanges, escapes, admissions into hospitals, deaths, as well as other information necessary to enable
services
concerned
full
out and keep up to date an individual return for each prisoner of war. The office must state in this return the regimental number, name and surname, age, place of origin, rank, unit, wounds, date and place of capture, internment, wounding, and death, as well as any obseiwations of a special character. The individual
it
to
make
return shall be sent to the Government of the other belligerent after the conclusion of peace. It is likewise the function of the inquiry
and collect all objects of personal use, valuables, on the field of battle or left by prisoners who have found letters, etc., been released on parole, or exchanged, or who have escaped, or died
office to
receive
PRISONERS OF WAR.
in hospitals or ambulances,
151
to those concerned.
and
to
forward them
(H. C, Art. 14.)
Inquiry officers enjoy the privilege of free postage. Letters, money orders, and valuables, as well as parcels by post, intended for prisoners of war, or dispatched by them, shall be exempt from all postal
and destination, as well as in the countries they pass through. Presents and relief in kind for prisoners of war shall be admitted free of all import or other duties, as
duties in the countries of origin
well as of paj-ments for carriage Art. 16.)
7.
by the State railways.
(H. C,
Payment and
of
Liberties Granted to Prisoners of
War.
taken prisoners shall receive the same rate of pay as corresponding rank in the country where they are detained, the amount to be ultimately refunded by their own Government. Prisoners of war shall enjoy complete liberty in the exercise of their religion, including attendance at the services of
Officers
officers
whatever Church they may belong to, on the sole condition that they comply with the measures of order and police issued by the military authorities. The wills of prisoners of war are received or draAvn up in the same way as for soldiers of the national army. The
same rules
shall be observed regarding death certificates as well as
for the burial of prisoners of war, due regard being paid to their
grade and rank. After the conclusion of peace, the repatriation of prisoners of
war
shall be carried out as quickly as possible.
(H. C, Art. 17, 18,
in, 20;
Second Hague Convention, 1907.)

8.
Alien.
subject of a foreign power, acting under a commission from the hostile government, should be treated as an enemy and confined as a prisoner of war. (Lee, At. Gen. 1798, 1 Op. 84.)
9.
Reports on Prisoners.
In response to an inquiry prompted by the United States, the British consul at Santiago telegraphed that he had seen Constructor Tlobson and the seven seamen of the Merrimac in barracks near the town. They were supplied with as good food as the general scarcity
permitted. Lieutenant Ilobson expressed satisfaction at everything, and he was well lodged. The lodging provided for the seamen was not so good. In case of an attack by land it was quite possible that
the prisoners
would be exposed, as would bo everybody
else.
(For.
Rel. 1898, 981.)
152
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
After the outbreak of war between Russia and Japan, the Russian Government, through the French minister at Tokio, requested the Japanese Government to furnish regularly a list of the Russian
prisoners of
war who might
fall into
the hands of the Japanese
army, and, in case of the death of such prisoners, to inform the French legation or consulates of the fact. The Japanese Government
promised
to furnish the desired information
every ten days, so far
as practicable, provided that the Russian
Government would give
to the United States embassy or consulates in Russia similar information concerning Japanese prisoners. This arrangement was mutu(For. Rel. 1904, 716, 719.) ally agreed upon.
XLII.
PAROLE.
war may be released from captivity by exchange, under certain circumstances, also by parole. The term "Parole" designates the pledge of individual good faith and honor
Prisoners of
and,
to do, or to omit doing, certain acts after he
shall
who
gives his parole
partially, from the power of the captor. The parole applies chiefly to prisoners of war whom the captor allows to return to their country, or to live in greater freedom
have been dismissed, wholly or
within the captor's country or territory, on conditions stated in the parole. The pledge of the parole is always an individual, but not a
private act. Release of prisoners of war by exchange is the general rule; release by parole is the exception. (G. 0. 100, Art. 119-125.)
1.
Manner
of Giving Paroles.
paroles are given and received there must be an exchange two written documents, in which the name and rank of the paroled individuals are accurately and truthfully stated. Commissioned officers only are allowed to give their parole, and they can
of
When
only with the permission of their superior, as long as a superior in rank is within reach. No noncommissioned officer or
give
it
private can give his parole except through an officer. Individual paroles not given through an officer are not only void, but subject the individuals giving them to the punishment of death as deserters.
The only admissible exception is where individuals, properly separated from their commands, have suffered long confinement without the possibility of being paroled through an officer. If the govern-
GENEVA CONVENTION.
153
inent does not approve of the parole, the paroled officer must return into captivity, and should the enemy refuse to receive him, he is
free of his parole.
No paroling on the battlefield; no paroling of entire bodies of troops after a battle and no dismissal of large numbers of prisoners, with a general declaration that they are paroled, is permitted, or of any value. In capitulations for the surrender of strong places or fortified camps the commanding officer, in cases of urgent neces;
sity,
may
agree that the troops under his
command
shall not fight
again during the war, unless exchanged.

2.
(G. 0. 100, Art. 125-129.)
Obligation of Parole and Punishment for Transgression.
in the parole is not to serve during the unless exchanged. This pledge refers only to the existing war, in active service the field, against the paroling belligerent or hi^ These cases of breaking allies actively engaged in the same war.
The usual pledge given
the parole are patent acts, and can be visited with the punishment of death; but the pledge does not refer to internal service, such
as recruiting or drilling the recruits, fortifying places not besieged,
quelling civil commotions, fighting against belligerents unconnected with the paroling belligerents, or to civil or diplomatic service for which the paroled officer may be employed. (G. 0. 100, Art. 130.)
Breaking the parole is punished with death when the person breaking the parole is captured again. Accurate lists, therefore, of the paroled persons must be kept by the belligerents. (G. 0. 100,
Art. 124.)
declare, by a general order, whether and on what conditions it will allow it. Such order is communicated to the enemy. No prisoner of war can be forced by the hostile government to parole himself, and no governwill allow paroling,
A belligerent government may
it
ment
officers, if it
obliged to parole prisoners of war, or to parole all captured paroles any. As the pledging of the parole is an individual act, so is paroling, on the other hand, an act of choice on the
is
part of the belligerent.
(G. 0. 100, Art. 132, 133.)
XLIII.
GENEVA CONVENTION,
(Red
Cross.)
1864.
Amelioration of the Condition of the
Wounded
22,
in
Time of War.
Concluded at General, Switzerland, August
18G4; ratificati<ns
154
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
;
exchanged by original signatories June 22, 1865 adhesion declared by the President March 1, 1882 accession advised by the Senate IMarch 16, 1882 adhesion accepted by the Swiss Confederation June
; ;
9,
1882; proclaimed July 26, 1882.
(The President's ratification of the act of accession, as transmitted to Berne and exchanged for the ratifications of the other signatory and adhesory powers, embraces the French text of the con-
vention of August 22, 1864, and the additional articles of October

20, 1868.
poses, the standard one. mation of the President.
The French text is, therefore, for all international purThe text printed here is from the proclaStates has been communicated:
13,
The adhesion of the following Sweden and Norway, December

1865;
;
1864; Greece, January 5-17,
Great Britain, February 18, 1865; Mecklenburg-Schwerin, March 9, 1865 Turkey, July 5, 1865 Wiirttemberg, June 2, 1866 Hesse, June 22, 1866; Bavaria, June 30, 1866; Austria, July 21, 1866 Portugal, August 9, 1866 Saxony, October 25, 1866 Russia,
; ;
;
May
18-30,
10-22, 1867: Persia, December
5, 1874; Roumania, November December 30, 1874; Montenegro, November 1874; Salvador,
;
17-29, 1875
Servia,
March
;
24,
1876 Bolivia, October

;
16,
1879
Chile,
November
15,
;
1879
Argentine Republic, November
April 22, 1880
Bulgaria,
May
25, 1879 June 1884 11, 1886 27, Japan,

;
Peru,
Kongo
Free State, January 25, 1889; Venezuela, August 2, 1894; Uruguay, June 20, 1900; Korea, January 8, 1903; Guatemala, April 13, 1903; China, June 29, 1904 Mexico, June 24, 1905 Colombia, June 7, 1906 and Brazil, January 26, 1907 Paraguay, Cuba, Dominican Republic, minister at Swiss the WashingHaiti: Notice of adhesion given by
;
the date of the respective adhesions not given. Panama, notice of adhesion given by Swiss minister at Washington August 5, 1907; Ecuador adhered August 3, 1907.)
ton on July
15,
1907
1.
Ambulances and Hospitals.

hospitals shall be acknowl-
Article
I.
Ambulances and military
edged to be neuter, and, as such, shall be protected and respected by belligerents so long as any sick or wounded may be therein. Such neutrality shall cease if the ambulances or hospitals should
be held by a military force. Persons employed in hospitals and ambulances, comthe staff for superintendence, medical service, administraprising
Art. II.
GENERAL CONVENTION.
155
tion, transport of wounded, as well as chaplains, shall participate in the benefit of neutrality, whilst so employed, and so long as there
remain any wounded
to bring in or to succor.
The persons designated in the preceding article may Art. III. even after occupation by the enemy, continue to fulfill their duties in the hospital or ambulance which they serve, or may withdraw in order to rejoin the corps to which they belong. Under such circumstances, when these persons shall cease from their functions, they shall be delivered by the occupying army to the outposts of the
enemy.
Art. IV.
As
the equipment of military hospitals remains sub-
ject to the laws of war, persons attached to such hospitals

in
can not,
withdrawing, carry away any Under the same circumstances an ambulance shall, on property. the contrary, retain its equipment.
Art. V.
articles but such as are their private
Inhabitants of the country

shall be respected,
wounded
and
shall
who may bring help to the remain free. The generals
of the belligerent Powers shall make it their care to inform the inhabitants of the appeal addressed to their humanity, and of the neutrality which will be the consequence of it. Any wounded man
entertained and taken care of in a house shall be considered as a

protection thereto.
Any
inhabitant
who
shall
have entertained
wounded men
in his
house shall be exempted from the quartering of
troops, as well as
from a part of the contributions of war Avhich
may
be imposed.
2.
Treatment of Sick Soldiers Irrespective of Nationality.
Art. VI.
Wounded
of, to
or
sick
soldiers
shall
be
entertained
and
taken care
in-chief shall
whatever nation they may belong. Commandersto deliver immediately to the outposts of the enemy soldiers wlio liave been wounded in an engagement when circumstances permit this to be done, and with tlie consent
have the power
of botli j)arties.
Those who are recognized, after their wounds are healed, as incapable of serving, shall be sent back to their country. The others may also be sent back, on condition of not again bearing
arms during the eDntinnanee

witli
of
tlie
war.
1
the {persons iiiider wliosr directions
Evacuations, together hey take jilaco, shall hv
protected by an absolute neutrality.
156
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
3.
Emblem.
and uniform flag shall be adopted for It must, on every occasion, and evacuations. hospitals, ambulances, An arm-badge (brassard) be accompanied by the national flag.
Art. VII.
distinctive
shall also be allowed for individuals neutralized, but the delivery
thereof shall be left to military authority. The flag and the armbadge shall bear a red cross on a white ground.
Art. VIII.
The
details of execution of the present convention
shall be regulated
by the commanders-in-chief
of belligerent armies,
according to the instructions of their respective governments, and in conformity with the general principles laid down in this convention.
Art. IX.
The high contracting Powers have agreed
to
communi-
cate the present convention to
those Governments which have not
found it convenient to send plenipotentiaries to the International Conference at Geneva, with an invitation to accede thereto. The
protocol
is for that purpose left open. Convention for the amelioration of the condition of the wounded
in the field, signed at
Geneva, Aug.
22, 1864.
4.
Articles Concerning
Naval Forces.
The boats which, at their own risk and peril, during an engagement pick up the shipwrecked or wounded, or which, having picked them up, convey them on board a neutral or hospital ship, shall enjoy, until the accomplishment of their mission,
Art. VI.
after
and
character of neutrality, so far as the circumstances of the engagement and the position of the ships engaged will permit. The appreciation of these circumstances is entrusted to the humanThe wrecked and wounded thus picked ity of all the combatants.
the
up and saved must not serve again during the continuance

war.
Art. VII.
of the
staff of any capon tured vessel are declared neutral, and, leaving the ship, may which are their private remove the articles and surgical instruments
The
religious, medical,
and hospital
property.
Art. VIII.
The
fulfil
continue to
designated in the preceding article must their functions in the captured ship, assisting in
staff'
;
wounded made by the victorious party they will then be at liberty to return to their country, in conformity with the second paragraph of the first additional article.
the removal of the
GENEVA CONVENTION,
157
The
to the
stipulations of the second additional article are applicable
pay and allowance of the staff. Art. IX. The military hospital ships remain under martial law in all that concerns their stores; they become the property of the captor, but the latter must not divert them from their special appropriation during the continuance of the war. (The vessels not equipped for fighting, which, during peace, the government shall have officially declared to be intended to serve
as floating hospital ships, shall, however, enjoy during the war complete neutrality, both as regards stores, and also as regards their staff, provided their equipment is exclusively appropriated to the special service on which they are employed).
5.
Merchant
to
Vessels.
whatever nation she may belong, Any merchantman, with removal of sick and wounded, is protected charged exclusively but the mere noted on the ship's books, of the fact, by neutrality, vessel having been visited by an enemy's cruiser, renders the sick and wounded incapable of serving during the continuance of the war. The cruiser shall even have the right of putting on board an officer in order to accompany the convoy, and thus verify the good
Art. X.
faith of the operation.
If the
protect
fiscated
it,
merchant ship also carries a cargo, her neutrality will still provided that such cargo is not of a nature to be conby the belligerents.
The belligerents retain the right to interdict neutralized vessels from all communication, and from any course which they may deem
In urgent cases prejudicial to the secrecy of their operations. commanders-ininto between be entered conventions may special
chief, in order to neutralize
temporarily and in a special manner the
vessels intended for the removal of the sick
and wounded.
Art. XI.
to
Wounded
whatever nation they may belong,
or sick sailors and soldiers, when embarked, shall be protected and taken
care of by their captors. Their return to their own country is subject to the provisions of Article VI. of the Convention, and of the additional Article V.
distinctive flag to be used with the national flag, in order to indicate any vcs.sel or boat which may claim the benefits of neutrality, in virtue of the principles of this Convention, is a white flag with a red cross. The belligerents may exercise in this deem necessary. respect any mode of verification which they may
Art. XII.
The
158
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Military hospital ships shall be distinguished by being painted white outside, with green strake.
6.
Hospital Ships.
Art. Xlll. The hospital ships which are equipped at the expense of the aid societies, reco'gnized by the governments signing this Convention, and which are furnished with a couiniission emanating
from the sovereign, who shall have given express authority for their being fitted out, and with a certificate from the proper naval authority that they have been placed under his control during their fitting out and on their final departure, and that they were then appropriated solely to the purpose of their mission, shall be considered neutral as wêll as the whole of their staff. They shall be recognized and protected by the belligerents.
They shall make themselves known by hoisting, together with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross. The distinctive mark of their staff, while performing their duties, shall be an armlet
of the
same
colors.
The outer painting of these hospital ships
shall
be white, with red strake.
These ships shall bear aid aud assistance to the wounded and wrecked belligerents, without distinction of nationality. They must take care not to interfere in any way with the movements of the combatants. During and after the battle they must do their duty at their own risk and peril. The belligerents shall have the right of controlling and visiting
them
them; they will be at liberty to refuse their assistance, to order to depart, and to detain them if the exigencies of the case
require such a step.
The wounded and w^recked picked up by these ships can not be reclaimed by either of the combatants, and they will be required not to serve during the continuance of the war.
Art.
XIV.
In naval wars any strong presumption that either
belligerent takes advantage of the benefits of neutrality, with any other view than the interest of the sick and wounded, gives to the
other belligerent, until proof to the contrary, the right of suspending the Convention as regards such belligerent. Should this presumption become a certainty, notice may be given to such belligerent that the Convention is suspended with regard to
him during the

tion.)
-whole continuance of the war.
(Geneva Conven-
EXCHANGE OF PRISONERS.
159
XLIV.
CARTEL.
1.
Exchange
of Prisoners.
state to leave to each prisoner,
It
was formerly the practice for the
during the war, the care of redeeming himself, and the a lawful right to demand a ransom for the release of his had captor The present usage of civilized nations is, however, to prisoners. exchange prisoners of war or to release them on their parole or
at least
honor not to serve against the captor again for a definite period, during the war, or till properly exchanged. An agreement betwêen belligerents for the exchange (and formerly for the ransom) of prisoners of war is called a cartel, and a vessel commissioned for the exchange of prisoners of war or to carry proposals from one belligerent to the other under a flag of truce is sometimes called a
of cartel ship.
word
(Halleck, Int. Law (4th ed. by Baker), II 362). As to the disability of an alien enemy to sue on a ransom bill, see
Anthon vs. Fisher, 2 Douglas, 649. See, however, Lawrence's Wheaton (1863), 695; I Pistoye et Duverdy, 280.) "105. Exchanges of prisoners take place ^number for number rank for rank wounded for wounded with added condition for added condition such, for instance, as not to serA'e for a certain
period.
"106.
of inferior
In exchanging prisoners of war, such numbers of persons rank may be substituted as an equivalent for one of
superior rank as may be agreed upon by cartel, which requires the sanction of the government, or of the commander of the army in the
field.
prisoner of war is in honor bound truly to state to the captor his rank; and he is not to assume a lower rank than belongs to him, in order to cause a more advantageous exchange, nor a
"107.
higher rank, for the purpose of obtaining better treatment. "Offenses to the contrary have been justly punished by the commanders of released prisoners, and may be good cause for refusing to release such prisoners.
"108. The .surplus number of prisoners of war remaining after an exchange has taken place is sometimes released either for tlie payment of a stipulated sum of money, or, in urgent cases, of provision, clothing, or other necessaries.
"Such arrangement,
est authority.
bowevei'. requires
tlu'
siiiiclioti
of the high-
160
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
of prisoners of war is an act of convenience no general cartel has been concluded, it can not be demanded by either of them. No belligerent is obliged to
"109.
The exchange
If
to both belligerents.
exchange prisoners of war.
"A
cartel
is
voidable as soon as either party has violated

of prisoners. shall be
it.
"110.
No exchange
officers,
made except
after comlist
plete capture,
and after an accurate account of them, and a

has been taken."
of
the captured
Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States

in the Field, General Orders, No. 100, Apr. 24, 1863, Eebellion, Official Records, series 3, III. 159.
2.
War
of the
Hobson's Heroic Act.
"The next
act in the
war
thrilled not alone the hearts of our
countrymen but the world by its exceptional heroism. On the night of June 3d, Lieutenant Hobson, aided by seven devoted volunteers, blocked the narrow outlet from Santiago Harbor by sinking the collier Merrimac in the channel, under a fierce fire from the shore
batteries, escaping with their lives as by a miracle, but falling into the hands of the Spaniards. It is a most gratifying incident of the war that the bravery of this little band of heroes was cordially
appreciated by the Spanish admiral,
who
sent a flag of truce to
notify Admiral Sampson of their safety and to compliment them on their daring act. They were subsequently exchanged July 7th." (President McKinley, annual message, Dec. 5, 1898, For. Rel. 1898,
lix.)
XLV.
DECEIT.
Permissible and Prohibited Acts.
Deceit against an enemy is as a rule permitted; but it is clearly understood that this does not embrace the abuse of signs which are
employed in special eases
to prevent the
exercise of force or to
"Thus information must not be sursecure immunity from it. the shelter of a flag of truce, and the under obtained reptitiously bearer of a misused flag may be treated by the enemy as a spy;
buildings not used as hospitals must not be marked with a hospital the provisions of the Geneva Conflag and persons not covered by
;
SIEGES
AND BOMB.VRDMENTS.
161
vention must not be protected by its cross. A curious arbitrary rule affects one class of stratagems by forbidding certain permitted means of deception from the moment at which they cease to deceive.
It is
in
it
perfectly legitimate to use the distinctive emblems of an enemy order to escape from him or to draw his forces into action but is held that soldiers clothed in the uniforms of their enemy must
;
put on a conspicuous mark by which they can be recognized before attacking, and that a vessel using the enemy's flag must hoist its own flag before firing with shot or shell." (Hall, Int. Law 5th ed.
537-539, citing Ortolan, Liv. III. chap. I.; Pistoye et Duverdy, 231-234; Blunt^cbli, Art. 565; The Peacock, 4 Rob. 187.)
101.
I.
means
While deception in war is admitted as a just and necessary and is consistent with honorable warfare, the common law of war allows even capital punishment for clandestine
of hostility,
or treacherous attempts to injure an enemy, because they are so
dangerous, and
for the
it is
so difficult to
guard against them.
(Instructions
Government of Armies
of the United States in the Field,
Official
General Orders, No. 100, April 24, 1863, Records, series 3, III. 159.)
Article
War
of the Rebellion,
necessary to obtain
Ruses of war and the employment of methods information about the enemy and the country, allowable. are considered (Convention respecting the Laws and The Customs of War on Land, Hague, July 29, 1899, 32 Stat. II.
XXIV.
1818.)
XLVI.
SIEGES AND BOMBARDMENTS.

rules governing sieges and bombardments are laid down in the general orders for the Armies and in several articles adopted
The
by the Hague Convention. Commanders, whenever admissible, inform the enemy of their intention to bombard a place, so that the noncombatants, and espebe removed before the bomcially the women and children, may bardment commences. But it is no infraction of the common law
of
war
to omit thus to inform the
enemy.
Surprise
may
be a neces-
(G. 0. 100, Art. 19.) sity. It is customary to designate by certain flags (usually yellow) so that the besieging the hospitals in places which are shelled,
enemy may avoid
firing
on them.
The same has been done
in bat-
162
ties
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
hospitals are situated within the field of the engagement. 0. 100, Art. 115.) (G.
when
Honorable belligerents often request that the hospitals within the

territory of the
An
ties
enemy may be designated, so that they may be spared. honorable belligerent allows himself to be guided by flags or
signals of protection as
much
as the contingencies
and the
necessi-
of the fight will permit.
(G. 0. 100, Art. 116.)

faith, of
It is justly considered to deceive the
an act of bad
enemy by
flags of protection.
infamy or fiendishness, Such act of bad faith

flags.
may
be good cause for refusing to respect such
(G. 0. 100,
Art. 117.)
The besieging
to
belligerent
designate of art, scientific museums, astronomical observatories, or precious libraries, so that their destruction may be avoided as much as possible.
the
has sometimes requested the besieged works of collections containing buildings
(G. 0. 100, Art. 118.)
(Gen. Ord. No. 100,

Article
War
Dept., Apr. 24, 1863.)

all
necessary steps should be taken to spare as far as possible edifices devoted to religion, art, science,
XXVII.
In sieges and bombardments

charity, hospitals,
and
and places where the sick
and wounded are
collected,
provided they are not used at the same
time for military purposes. The besieged should indicate these buildings or places by some to particular and visible signs, which should previously be notified
the assailants.
War
(Convention respecting the Laws and Customs of on Land, The Hague, July 29, 1899, 32 Stat. II. 1818.)
XLVII.
REPRISALS.
nation and nation in Reprisals, says Vattel, are used between order to do themselves justice when they can not otherwise obtain If a nation has taken possession of what belongs to another; it. if it refuses to pay a debt or repair an injury, or to make a just
satisfaction, the latter
may
seize
what belongs
obtains full
;
to the former,
and
apply
is
it to its
own advantage,
till it
payment
for what
or keep it as a pledge due, together with interest and damages The effects satisfaction. made has nation ample till the offending of is while there obtaining any hope thus seized are preserved,
RETORSION OR RETALIATION.
satisfaction or justice.
confiscated,
163
As soon as that hope disappears they are and then the reprisals are accomplished. If the two nations, upon this ground of quarrel, come to an open rupture, satisfaction is considered as refused from the moment that the war is declared, or hostilities commenced; and then, also, the elfects seized may be confiscated. These remarks are more partieularh'
applicable to general reprisals, although, even then, sequestration sometimes immediately follows the seizure. "Where such extreme
measures are resorted to it is not easy to distinguish between them and actual hostilities. But in special reprisals, made for the indemnification of injuries upon individuals, and limited to particular places and things, immediate confiscation is more frequently resorted to. Thus, Cromwell having made a demand on Cardinal Mazarin, during the minority of Louis XIV. for indemnity to a Quaker, whose vessel had been illegally seized and confiscated on the coast of France, and receiving no reply within the three days specified in the demand, dispatched two ships-of-war to make prize of French vessels in the channel. The vessels were seized and sold, the Quaker
paid out of the proceeds the value of his loss, and the French ambas* sador apprised that the residue was at his service. This substantial
had been robbed at sea or despoiled of his property, for the king to issue a commission, under the great seal, to inquire into the robbery, and to punish the offenders, or to give damages in the ease of fraud in the mercantile contract. This commission proceeded in conformity with the three laws i. e., the law of custom of England, the Merchant Law and the IMaritime Law. 50 Eliz. 3 par. 2 Dors. 24 de
act of justice caused neither reclamation nor war. It was an ancient custom in England, when a merchant
audiend. et terminand. mercatoribus super mare dcpraedatis. Pat. 6 E. i. m. 24 Dors., the case of Will, de Dunstaple, a citizen, of Winton. Pat. 32 Eliz, 1 m. 4 pro "Willielmo Perin et Domengo Perez
mercatoribus.
XTjVITI.
RETORSION OR RETALIATION.
Retorsion and reprisal bear about the same relation to arbilration and war, as the personally abating a nuisance does to a suil
for its removal.
tect themselves
individuals have a right to i)r()done them by removing the causr injustice nations this right is more between in that and of offence; disputes
States as well
;is
when
is
1C4
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
largely extended than in disputes between individuals, is to be explained by the fact that in disputes between nations there are not the modes of redress by litigation which exist in suits between
''Retorsion" and "reprisal" are often used eonvertibly; though the difference is that "retorsion" is retaliation in kind, while "reprisal" is seizing or arresting the goods or trade of subjects of such state as set-off for the injuries received. Under
individuals.
this
head
fall
embargoes, and what are called pacific blockades
(blocus pacifique), by the former of which trade is forbidden with the offending state; by the latter of which a port belonging to
the offending state is closed to foreign trade. These acts approach in character to war, to which they generally lead; yet technically they are not war, and there are cases where the remedy has been
applied without war resulting.
(Wharton, Com. Am. Law.

to
s 206.)
The Chinese Government having persistently refused
pay a
claim for personal injuries to a citizen of the United States which it admitted to be due, the United States minister at China was, in 1855, instructed, at his discretion, "to resort to the measure of
withholding duties to the amount thereof." (Mr. Marcy, Secy. of State, to Mr. Parker, Oct. 5, 1855, MS. Inst. China, I., 127.)
"Anticipating that an attempt may possibly be made by the Canadian authorities in the coming season to repeat their unneighborly acts toward our fishermen, I recommend you to confer upon the executive the power to suspend, by proclamation, the operation of the laws authorizing the transit of goods, wares, and merchandise in bond and further, across the territory of the United States to Canada
;
should such an extreme measure become necessary, to suspend the operation of any laws whereby the vessels of the Dominion of Canada are permitted to enter the waters of the United States."
(President Grant, annual message, Dec.
5,
1870, For. Rel. 1870, 11.)
XLIX.
DEVASTATION.
The measure
to
strict necessities of war.
devastation is to be found in the The right being thus narrowed, it is easy distinguish between three groups of cases, in one of which devasof permissible
is
always permitted, while in a second it is always forbidden, and in a third it is permitted in certain circumstances. To the
tation
CONQUEST.
first
165
group belong those eases in which destruction is a necessary concomitant of ordinary military action, as when houses are razed or trees cut down to strengthen a defensive position, when the suburbs of a fortified town are demolished to facilitate the attack or defence of the place, or when a village is fired to cover the retreat of an army. Destruction, on the other hand, is always illegitimate when no military end is served, as is the case when churches
or public buildings, not militarily used and so situated or marked that they can be distinguished, are subjected to bombardment in common with the houses of a besieged town. Finally, all devastation is permissible when really necessary for the preservation of the force committing it from destruction or surrender; it would even be impossible to deny to an invader the right to cut the dykes
from such a fate; but when, as in the is extensive in scale and lasting in that the necessity should be modern would demand opinion effect, extreme and patent. (Hall, Int. Law (5th ed.) p. 535, citing Manof Holland to save himself
case supposed, the devastation
ning, ch. Art. 663;
V.
Heffter, Art. 125; Calvo, Art. 1919.)
Twise, War, Art. 65;
Bluntschli,
CONQUEST.
Conquest gives only an inchoate right, which does not become perfect till confirmed by the treaty of peace, and by a renunciation or abandonment by the former proprietor. (Opinion of Mr. Jefferson, Sec. of State, to the President, Mar. 18, 1792, Am. State Papers, For Rel. I., 252; 7 Jefferson's Works, 572.)
The broad and extreme rights of conquest which have often been asserted by writers were in reality qualified by the doctrine of postliminium. Under this doctrine, which is analogous to the jus
of the Roman law, where territory occupied by the comes enemy again during the war into the power of the titular
postliminii
sovereign, the legal state of things existing prior to the hostile occupation is re-established. The same doctrine is applied to property susceptible of appropriation, Avhich, after being captured by the enemy, is recaptured before the iiiomcnt ;it Mliich it so liecomes
the property of the captor that third parties can receive from a transfer of it.
him
166
INTERN ATIONAI, LAW.
As a general rule, the right of postliminium in the case of occupied territory goes no further than to revive the exercise of rights from the moment at which it comes into operation, so that it does not, as a rule, invalidate acts of the invader which he was
competent to perform, such as judicial or administrative acts not of a political complexion, and acts done by private persons under the sanction of municipal law. "When an invader exceeds his legal power, as where, supposing himself to have effected a permanent conquest, he assumed to alienate the domains of the state or the landed property of the sovereignty, his acts are null and against
a legitimate government. In the case of captured vessels
486-495.)
it is
usual to return the captured

(Hall, Int.
property to the owner on payment of salvage.

ed.]
Law
[5tli
LI.
POSTLIMINY.
from the Roman law, and regulated times by statute or treaty, or by the usage of civilized nations, has been rested by eminent jurists upon the duty of the sovereign to protect his citizens and subjects and their property against warlike or violent acts of the enemy. (Vattel's Law of
postliminii, derived
in
The jus
modem
Nations,
Arts.
lib. 3, c. 14,
Art. 204;
Halleck's International Law,
c.
35,
1, 2.)
"He is under no such obligation to protect them against unwise bargains, or against sales made for inadequate consideration, or by an agent or custodian in excess of his real authority. The jus postliminii attaches to property taken by the enemy with
the strong
to
hand against the
will of its
owner
or custodian,
and not
property obtained by the enemy by negotiation or purchase." (Oakes v. United States [1899] 174 U. S. 778, 792-793.)
Droit D'Aubaine.
In medieval times the "Droit d'aubaine" obtained, according to which property held by foreigners reverted to the state irrespective of whether the property was real or personal and irrespective of whether the deceased died intestate or left a will. This barbarous The practice, however, gave Avay to the more enlightened laws.
practice of levying a tax upon property acquired or devise has also been definitely abolished.
by succession
MILITARY JURISDICTION.
LII.
167
1.
Military Jurisdiction Based on Statute and
Common Law.
Military jurisdiction is of two kinds: First, that which is conferred and defined by statute; second, that which is derived from the common law of war. Military offenses under the statute law
must be tried in the manner therein directed but military offenses which do not come within the statute must be tried and punished under the common law of war. The character of the courts which
;
exercise these jurisdictions depends upon the local laws of each particular country. In the armies of the United States the first is exercised by courts-martial, while cases which do not come within
the "Rules
statute on courts-martial, are tried
100, Art. 13.)
2.
and Articles of War," or the jurisdiction conferred by by militaiy commissions. (G. 0.
Humanitarian Aspects of
Law
all
of
War.
The law
of
war does not only disclaim
cruelty and bad faith
concerning engagements concluded with the enemy during the war, but also the breaking of stipulations solemnly contracted by the belligerents in time of peace, and avowedly intended to remain
in force in case of
It disthe contracting powers. claims all extortions and other transactions for individual gain;
all
war between
acts of private revenge, or connivance at such acts.
Offenses
so if
to the contrary shall be severely punished,
and especially
committed by
officers.
3.
Scope of Military Necessity.
of
Military necessity admits of all direct destruction of life or limb armed enemies, and of other persons whose destruction is inci-
dentally unavoidable in the armed contests of the war; it allows of the capturing of every armed enemj^ and every enemy of im-
portance to the hostile government, or of peculiar danger to the captor; it allows of all destruction of property, and obstruction of the ways and channels of traffic, travel, or coinmmiication, and
williholding of sustenance or means of life fi-oiii Ihc enemy; of the api)roj)riati<>n of whatever an enemy's conntry affords nec-^
of
all
cssary for the subsistence and safety of the army, and of such deception as does not involve the breaking of good faith either positively pledged, regarding agreements entered into during the war,
168
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
or supposed by the modern law of war to exist. Men who take up arms against one another in public war do not cease on this account to be moral beings, responsible to one another and to God.
(G. 0. 100, Arts. 11, 15.)
4.
Notices of Bombardment.
Commanders, whenever admissible, inform the enemy of their bombard a place, so that the noncombatants, and espethe women and children, may be removed before the bomcially bardment commences. But it is no infraction of the common law of war to omit thus to inform the enemy. Surprise may be a
intention to
necessity.
When a commander of a besieged place expels the noncombatants, in order to lessen the number of those who consume his stock of provisions, it is lawful, though an extreme measure, to drive them back, so as to hasten on the surrender. (G. 0. 100,
Arts. 18, 19.)
5.
Citizens of Hostile
is
Country Considered Enemies.
armed hostility between sovereign nations law and requisite of civilized existence that men live in political, continuous societies, forming organized units, called states or nations, whose constituents bear, enjoy, and suffer, advance and retrograde together in peace and in war. The citizen or native of a hostile country is thus an enemy, as one of the constituents of the hostile state or nation, and as such is subjected to
Public
a state of
It is a
war
or governments.
the hardships of the war.
(G. 0. 100, Arts. 20, 21.)
6.
Lenient Measures Accorded to Noncombatants.

in the article on combatants
As emphasized
it
is
and noncombatants,
in a
make war conducted on land between the private individual of a hostile country and the latter with its men in arms. It is generally acknowlthe result of higher civilization to
distinctions especially
edged that the rules of civilized warfare prescribe sparing of personal property and honor of noncombatants in hostile countries, consistent,
of course, with the expediencies
and exigencies of war. It has been relegated to the ranks of barbarism to murder, enslave, or deport to distant parts, private citizens who have given no cause for complaint and have sedulously endeavored to retain their status as noncombatants.
acts of treacherv or
In cases where the civil population does not commit any vandalism and where no interference is estab-
169
listed by the private citizen in matters affecting the war or the political relations of the country, the inoffensive individual is not
distuibed in his private relations and

in unmolested
is
free to go about his business
manner, subject, however, to the demands and requirements of the hostile troops whose considerations are preeminent.
7.
Temporary Allegiance of Hostile

generals
Citizens.
Commanding
may
cause the magistrates and civil officers
of the hostile country to take the oath of temporary allegiance or an oath of fidelity to their own victorious government or rulers,
and they may expel every one who declines to do so. But whether they do so or not, the people and their civil officers owe strict obedience to them as long as they hold sway over the district or country, at the peril af their lives. The law of war can no more wholly dispense with retaliation than can the law of nations, of which it is a branch. Yet civilized nations acknowledge retaliation
as the sternest feature of the Avar.
his
A reckless
enemy often
leaves to
opponent no other means of securing himself against the repetition of barbarous outrage. Retaliation will, therefore, never be resorted to as a measure of mere revenge, but only as a means of protective retribution, and moreover, cautiously and unavoidably;
that is to say, retaliation shall only be resorted to after careful inquiry into the real occurrence, and the character of the misdeeds that may demand retribution. Unjust or inconsiderate retaliation
removes the belligerents farther and farther from the mitigating rules of regular war, and by rapid steps leads them nearer to the internecine wars of savages. (G. 0. 100, Arts. 26, 27, 28.)
8.
War
Means
to
an End.
nations, and
Ever
since the formation
and coexistence of modern
ever since wars have become great national wars, war has come to be acknowledged not to be its own end, but the means to obtain
great ends of state, or to consist in defense against wrong;
and
no conventional restriction of the modes adopted to injure the enemy is any longer admitted; but the law of war imposes many limitations and restrictions on principles of justice, faith, and honor.
Modern times
at one
are distinguished from earlier ages by the existence, and the same time, of many nations and great governments
related to one another in close intercourse.
Peace
is
their noniuil
condition;
war
is
the exception.
The
ultimate object of all
modern
170
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
is
war
a renewed state of peace.

it is
The more vigorously wars are

Sharp wars are
brief.
pui-sued, the better 100, Arts. 29, 30.)
for humanity.
(G. 0.
(War
Dept. Gen. Ord. 100, Apr. 24, 1863.)
LIII.
MARTIAL LAW.
place, district, or country occupied by an enemy stands, in consequence of the occupation, under the Martial Law of the in-
vading or occupying army, whether any proclamation declaring Martial Law, or any public warning to the inhabitants, has been issued or not. Martial Law is the immediate and direct effect and
consequence of occupation or conquest.
The presence
100, Art. 1.)
of a hostile
army proclaims
its
Martial Law.
(G. 0.
1. Objects of Martial Law. does not cease during the hostile occupation, except by special proclamation, ordered by the commander in chief, or by special mention in the treaty of peace concluding the war, when
Martial
Law
the occupation of a place or territory continues beyond the conclusion of peace as one of the conditions of the same. (G. 0. 100,
Art. 2.)
Martial Law in a hostile country consists in the suspension, by the occupying military authority, of the criminal and civil law, and of the domestic administration and government in the occupied
place or territory, and in the substitution of military rule and force for the same, as well as in the dictation of general laws, as far as the military necessity requires this suspension, substitution, or
dictation.
tion of all civil
The commander of the forces may proclaim that the administraand penal law shall continue either wholly or in
by the military
(G. 0. 100, Art. 3.)
2.
part, as in times of peace, unless otherwise ordered
authority.
Scope of Martial Law.
Martial Law is simply military authority exercised in accordance with the laws and usages of war. Military oppression is not Martial Law; it is the abuse of the power which that law confers. As Martial Law is executed by military force, it is incumbent upon those who administer it to be strictly guided by the principles of virtues adorning a soldier even more justice, honor, and humanity
MAETIAL LAW.
171
his
than other men, for the very reason that he possesses the power of arms against the unarmed. (G. 0. 100, Art. 4.)
It should be less stringent in places
and countries
fully occupied
and fairly conquered. Much greater severity may be exercised in and places or regions where actual hostilities exist, or are expected must be prepared for. Its most complete sway is allowed even in the commander's own country when face to face with the enemy, because of the absolute necessities of the case, and of the paramount
duty to defend the country against invasion. To save the country is paramount to all other considerations.
(G. 0. 100, Art. 5.)
All civil and penal law shall continue to take its usual course in the enemy's places and territories under Martial Law.
extends to property, and to persons, whether they are subjects of the enemy or aliens to that government. Martial law affects chiefly the police and collection of public revenue and taxes, whether imposed by the expelled government
It
or by the invader, and refers mainly to the support and efficiency of the army, its safety, and the safety of its operations. (G. 0. 100,
Arts.
6,
10.)
(War Dept. Gen. Ord. No. 100, Apr. 24, 1863.) "As to the remark which had been made about him (the Duke He conof Wellington), he would say a word in explanation.
tended that martial law was neither more nor less than the will of the general who commands the army. In fact, martial law meant
no law at
to lay
all.
and commanded that
Therefore the general who declared martial law. it should be carried into execution, was bound
down
which
distinctly the rules

his will
and regulations and
limits accord-
ing to
was
to be carried out.
other country, carried on martial law; had governed a large proportion of the population of a country by But then, what did he do? He declared that the his own will.
he had, in anthat was to say, that he
Now
country should be governed according to its own national laws, and he carried into execution that will. He governed the country strictly by the laws of the country; and he governed it with sucli
moderation,
at first
had
under
his
ing their direction."
who saj'', that political servants and judges had been expelled, afterwards consented to act direction. The judges sat in the courts of law, conductjudicial business and administering the law under his
he must
fled or
(Speech of the Duke of Wellington, Debate on Affairs in Ceylon. House of Lords, April 1, 1851, Hansard, 3d Series, CXV. 880.)
172
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
LIV.
FLAGS OF TRUCE.
For the purpose of communicating between enemy forces in posion the march, or in action, use is made of flags of truce. If the flag proceeds from the enemy's lines during a battle, the ranks which it leaves must halt and cease their fire. When the
tion, or
bearer displays his

either to
flag,
advance or to
he will be signaled by the opposing force, retire; if the former, the forces he ap-
proaches will cease firing; if the latter, he must instantly retire, (Halleck, Int. Law lince, if he should not, he may be fired upon.
^4th ed.,
304.)
by Baker],
II,
369-570, citing Scott, Military Dictionary,
The
War
Dept. Gen. Ord. No. 100, 1863, deal with this subject
Inviolability of Flag- Bearer.
as follows:
1.
A person is regarded as bearing a flag of truce who has been authorized bj^ one of the belligerents to enter into communication
with the other, and
who advances
bearing a white
flag.
He
has a
right to inviolability, as well as the trumpeter, bugler or
drummer,
The the flag-bearer and interpreter who may accompany him. commander to whom a flag of truce is sent is not in all cases obliged
the necessary steps to prevent the envoy taking advantage of his mission to obtain information. In case of abuse, he has the right to detain the envoy temporarily.
to receive
it.
He may
take
all
2.
Hostilities
May Be
Suspended.
during an engagehe can be admitted a rare as ment, very exception only. It is no breach of good faith to retain such flag of truce, if admitted during
If the bearer of a flag of truce offer himself
the engagement. Firing is not required to cease on the appearance of a flag of truce in battle. If the bearer of a flag of truce, presenting himself during an engagement, is killed or wounded, it
turnishes no ground of complaint whatever.

3.
Abuse of Flags of Truce.
If it be discovered, and fairly proved, that a flag of truce has been abused for surreptitiously obtaining military knowledge, the
bearer of the flag thus abusing his sacred character is deemed a spy. So sacred is the character of a flag of truce, and so necessary
FLAGS OF TRUCE,
is its
173
sacredness, that while its abuse is an especially heinous offense, great caution is requisite, on the other hand, in convicting the bearer of a flag of truce as a spy.
4.
Buildings Protected Against Firing.
It is customary to designate by certain flags (usually yellow) the hospitals in places which are shelled, so that the besieging
enemy may avoid firing on them. The same has been done in battles, when hospitals are situated within the field of the engagement. Honorable belligerents often request that the hospitals within the territory of the enemy may be designated, so that they may be spared. (G. 0. 100, Arts. 115, 116.)
An honorable belligerent allows himself to be guided by flags or signals of protection as much as the contingencies and the necessiIt is justly considered an act of bad ties of the fight will permit.
infamy or fiendishness, to deceive the enemy by flags of protection. Such act of bad faith may be good cause for refusing
faith, of
to respect such flags.
(G. 0. 100, Arts. 116, 117.)
The besieging belligerent has sometimes requested the besieged to designate the buildings containing collections of works of art,
scientific
museums, astronomical observatories, or precious
libraries
so that their destruction
may
be avoided as
much
as possible.
(G. 0.
100, Art. 118.)
report having been received in Washington, that President Balmaceda, of Chile, had threatened to shoot envoys of the Congressional party if they should be found within his jui'isdiction. the American minister at Santiago was instructed by telegraph,
May
they should come within such jurisdiction, on an mediation or on an invitation of the mediators offer of relying minister American was one), he would "insist that whom the (of under any circumstances they should have ordinary treatment of
14, 1891, that, if
flag of truce."
(For. Rel. 1891, 123.)

S.
5.
Regulations Issued by U.
Navy Department.
The following Avere among the regulations issued by the Navy Department of the United States, August 7, 1876, for the government of all persons attached to that service, and are still recognized
by that nation:
'Section
I.
Chapter XXI.
1.
flag of truce
it
is,
in its nature, of
in-
a sacred character, and the use of
to obtain
knowledge or
174
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
formation surreptitiously against the interests or wishes of an enemy is to abuse it, and will subject the bearer to punishment as a spy. 2. The senior officer present is alone authorized to despatch,
or to admit communication by, a flag of truce a vessel in a position to discover the approach of such a flag is to communicate the fact
;
promptly.
Flags of truce should never be permitted to approach The firing of a sufficiently near to acquire useful information. gun, by the flag or senior officer's ship, is generally understood as 4. On the water, a flag of a warning not to approach nearer. truce should be met at a suitable distance, by a boat or vessel from
3.
the senior oflScer's vessel, in charge of a commissioned officer, having a white flag plainly displayed from the time of leaving until her
In despatching a flag of truce the same precautions are 5. When a flag of truce is admitted, the ensign is to be and a white flag at the fore on board the hoisted, always vessel of the senior oifleer present, when no engagement is in
return.
to be observed.
and kept flying until the flag of truce from the enemy has returned within his lines. 6. A flag of truce cannot insist on
progress,
being admitted, and should rarely be used, during an engagement; if then admitted, there is no breach of faith in retaining it. Firing
not necessarily to cease on the appearance of a flag of truce during an engagement, and should any person connected with it be killed, no complaint can be made. If, however, the white flag should be exhibited as a token of submission, firing is to cease. 7. An attacking force should avoid firing on hospitals, whenever they are designated by flags or other symbols, understood. It is an
is
act of bad faith, amounting to infamy, to hoist the hospital protective flag over any other building, unless the attacking force
should request or consent that it might be used, in order to spare edifices dedicated to science or literature, or containing works
of art.
LV.
TRUCE AND ARMISTICE.

If the suspension of hostilities is for a more considerable length of time or for a more general purpose, it is called a truce or armistice.
partial truce a suspension as is limited to particular places or to particular force, forces by which of hostilities between a town or fortress and the
Such suspension
is
either partial or general.
it is
invested, or
between two
hostile armies or fleets.
But
a general
175
truce or armistice applies to the general operations of war, and whether it be for a longer or shorter time extends to all the forces
and restrains the state of war from producleaving the contending parties and the question between them in the same situation in which it found them.
of the belligerent states
ing
its
proper
effects,
Such a truce has sometimes been called a temporary peace, though

in
such case the word peace
is
used only in opposition to acts of
war and not
in opposition to a state of war.
Such a general
sus-
pension of hostilities throughout the nation can be made only by the sovereignty of the state, either directly or by authority especially
delegated.
(Halleek, Int.
1.
Law
[4th ed.,
by Baker],
II. 346.)
Truce and
Its Effect.
it is
truce, or suspension of arms, does not terminate the war, but one of the commercia belli which suspends its operations. These conventions rest upon the obligation of good faith, and as they
"A
lead to pacific negotiations, and are necessary to control hostilities, and promote the cause of humanity, they are sacredly observed by civilized nations.
''A particular truce
is
only a partial cessation of

it.
hostilities, as
between a town and an army besieging

applies to the operations of the war,
indefinite period of time,
it
But
if
it
and
a general truce be for a long or
amounts
to a
leaves the state of the contending parties, them, remaining in the same situation as
temporary peace, which and the questions between it found them." (Abdy's
Kent, 377.)
2.
Time Limits of Truce.
"The agreement
ment
for an armistice should contain a clear announce-
when it begins and ends. As a rule the terms of these instruments are precise, but in default of definite stipulations on various points we may extract a certain amount
of the exact time
of guidance
lay
down
from the general rules of international law. They that as soon as an armistice is concluded it should be
and add that
if
notified to all concerned,
no
definite time has been
fixed for the suspension of hostilities, they cease immediately after the notification." (Lawrence, Principles of International Law,
455.)
"If there is one rule of the law of war more clear and peremptory than another, it is that compacts between enemies, such as truces and capitulations,' shall be faithfully adhered to; and their non-
176
INTERNATIONAL LAW,
is
denounced by being manifestly at variance with the and duty, not only of the immediate parties, but of all mankind. (Mr. Webster, Sec. of State, to Mr. Thompson, Apr. 5, 1842, 6 Webster's Works, 438.)
observance
true interest
3.
Rules Governing- a Truce.
"This I shall add by the way, that truces, and such like agreements, do immediately oblige both parties consenting from the time
they are concluded; but the subjects on both sides then begin to be bound, when the truce receives the form of law, that is, when it has been solemnly notified, which being done, it immediately begins to have the power to bind the subjects. But that power, if
the publication is made only in one place, shall not at that instant extend itself throughout the whole dominion but upon a convenient time allowed, to give notice in every place. And if any thing in
;
meantime be done by the subjects contrary to the truce, they it. The contracting parties, however, are not the less bound to repair those damages." (Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Paeis, Book III., cap. XXI. ss. V.)
the
shall not be punishable for
In Dana's Wheaton 402-403, the following rules respecting a

truce are described:
all
''A suspension of hostilities binds the contracting parties, and acting immediately under their direction, from the time it is
concluded, but must be duly promulgated in order to have a force of legal obligation with regard to the other subjects of the belligerent states, so that if, before such notification, they have committed any act of hostility, they are not personally responsible,
niiless
gence.
its
their ignorance be imputable to their own fault or negliBut as the supreme power of the state is bound to fulfill
own engagements,
or those
made by
is
its
implied, the government of the captor
authority, express or bound, in the case of a
suspension of hostilities by sea, to restore all prizes made in contravention of the armistice. To prevent the disputes and difficulties arising from such questions, it is usual to stipulate in the convention
which hostilities are to and distance of places.
of armistice, as in treaties of peace, a prospective period within cease, with a due regard to the situation
"Besides the general maxims applicable to the interpretation of all international compacts, there are some rules peculiarly appliThe first cable to conventions for the suspension of hostilities.

of these
177
Vattel,
is
party
peculiar rules, as may do within his
laid
down by
territory,
that
each
own
or
within
the limits
prescribed by the armistice, whatever he could do in time of peace. Thus either of the belligerent parties may levy and march troops, collect provisions and other munitions of war, receive re-enforce-
ments from his
allies,
or repair the fortifications of a place not that neither party can take advantage of
actually besieged.
"The second
rule
is,
the truce to execute, without peril to himself, what the continuance Such an act of hostilities might have disabled him from doing. would be a fraudulent violation of the armistice. For example
:
In the case of a truce between the
commander
of a fortified
town
it, neither party is at liberty to continue for attack or defence, or to erect new either constructed works, Nor can the garrison avail itself fortifications for such purposes.
and the army besieging
truce to introduce provisions through the passages or in any other

of the
or succors into the
town,
array would have been competent to tilities not been interrupted by the armistice.
manner which the besieging obstruct and prevent, had hos-
by Vattel, is rather a corollary from the a than distinct rules principle capable of any separate preceding
"The
third rule stated
application. As the truce merely suspends hostilities without terminating the war, all things are to remain in their antecedent state in the places, the possession of which Avas specially contested at
the time of the conclusion of the armistice.
"It
is
obviou.s that the contracting parties
pact, derogate in
may, by express comfrom these general conand every respect any
ditions."
Articles 135-147 of the Instructions to
clearly describe the scope, purpose
Armies in the field, 1863, and rules relating to armistice,
truce and capitulation
"An
sible
its
the agreed
is binding upon the belligerents from the day of commencement, but the officers of the armies are responfrom the day only when they receive official information of
armistice
existence.
armistice is the cessation of active hostilities for a period It must be agreed upon in writing, agreed between belligerents. and duly ratified by the highest authorities of the contending parties. If an armistice be declared without conditions it extends no
An
further than to require a total cessation of hostilities along the
178
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
front of both belligerents. If conditions be agreed upon, they should be clearly expressed, and must be rigidly adhered to by both parties. If either party violates any express condition, the armistice may be declared null and void by the other.
An armistice may be general, and valid for all points and lines of the belligerents; or special that is, referring to certain troops or certain localities only. An armistice may be concluded for a
definite time
erent
may
resume
or for an indefinite time, during which either bellighostilities on giving the notice agreed upon to
the other.
4.
Conditions Controlling an Armistice.

belligerent to
The motives which induce the one or the other

conclude an armistice, whether
it
be expected to be preliminary to a treaty of peace, or to prepare during the armistice for a more vigorous prosecution of the war, does in no way affect the character
of the armistice itself.
have the right to conclude armistices binding on the district over which their command extends, but such
Commanding
is
officers
armistice
and ceases
tice is
so soon as
subject to the ratification of the superior authority, it is made known to the enemy that the armis-
not ratified, even if a certain time for the elapsing between giving notice of cessation and the resumption of hostilities should
have been stipulated for. It is incumbent upon the contracting parties of an armistice to stipulate what intercourse of persons or traffic between the inhabitants of the territories
occupied by the hostile armies shall be If nothing is stipulated the intercourse remains allowed, if any. suspended, as during actual hostilities. An armistice is not a partial or a temporary peace; it is only the suspension of military operations to the extent agreed upon by the parties.
When
the
an armistice
is
it
army besieging it, or subject that the besieger must cease all extension, perfection, attacks from as so much as by works his advance of attacking main force. But as there is a difference of opinion among martial whether the besieged have a right to repair breaches or
jurists,
concluded between a fortified place and is agreed by all the authorities on this
to erect
this
an armistice, between the point should be determined by express agreement
new works
of defense within the place during
parties.
179
When an armistice is clearly broken by one of the parties, the other party is released from all obligation to observe it. Prisoners taken in the act of breaking an armistice must be treated
as prisoners of war, the officer alone being responsible who gives the order for such a violation of an armistice. The highest authority
of the belligerent aggrieved
may demand
redress for the infraction
of an armistice.
tentiaries are
Belligerents sometimes conclude an armistice while their plenipomet to discuss the conditions of a treaty of peace, but
plenipotentiaries
latter case the
may meet without a preliminary armistice; war is carried on without any abatement.
in the
In order to acquaint the reader with all the laws affecting armistices, truces and in general with the suspension of military operations the articles adopted
by the Hague Convention July
29, 1899,
are cited:
Article XXXVI. An armistice suspends militarj^ operations by mutual agreement between the belligerent parties. If its duration is not fixed, the belligerent parties can resume operations at any time,
provided always the enemy is warned within the time agreed upon, in accordance with the terms of the armistice.
Article
XXXVII.
An
armistice
may
be general or
local.
The
first suspends all military operations of the belligerent States, the second, only those between certain factions of the belligerent armies and in a fixed radius.
Article
in
XXXVIII.
An
armistice must be notified officially, and
good time, to the competent authorities and the troops. Hostilities are suspended immediately after the notification, or at a fixed
date.
Contracting Parties to settle, in the terms of the armistice, what communications may be held, on the theatre of war, witli the population and with each other.
Article
It is for the
XXXIX.
Article
XL.
Any
serious violation of the armistice
parties gives the other party the right to denounce it, in case or urgency, to recommence hostilities at once.
by one of the and even,
violation of the terms of the armistice by private Article XLI. individuals acting on their own initiative, only confers the right of indemnity for the losses sustained.
180
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
LVI.
SPONSIONS.
Sponsions may be defined as agreements entered into by officers without authority or in excess of authority conferred upon them. There are certain compacts or conventions relating to the pacific
intercourse
special authority vested but in the exercise of a general implied
in virtue of
which may be concluded, not by the State in its agents, power incidental to their official stations, such as the official acts of generals, and admirals suspending hostilities within the limits of their respective comof belligerent nations
any
mands, truces, capitulations, cartels for the exchange of prisonransom of captured property, etc. ers, special licenses to trade, Such compacts do not, in general, require the ratification of the supreme power of the State, unless such ratification be expressly reserved in the act itself. But sometimes compacts or engagements of this kind are made by officers without proper authority, or exceeding the limits of the authority under which they purport to be made: as, for example, a truce for the suspension of arms be-
yond the
limits of the
command
of the general
who makes
it.
Sponsions Require Ratification.

acts are called sponsions, or treaties sub spe rati, and must be confirmed by express or tacit ratification to make them binding. The
Such
given in positive terms and with the usual forms; the latter is implied, from the fact of acting under the agreement as Mere silence is not sufficient, though if bound by its stipulations'. good faith requires that the party w^ho refuses its ratification should
former
is
notify the other without
undue delay
and
if,
in the meantime, the
ratifying party, acting in good faith upon the supposition of the due authority of the agent, should have totally or partially performed his part of the agreement, he is entitled to be indemnified
or replaced in his former position. The convention concluded at Closter-Seven
during the Seven
Years' War, between the

British forces in Hanover,
Duke
of Cumberland,
commander
of the
and Marshal Kichelieu, commanding the French army, for a suspension of arms in the North of Germany, kind recorded in is one of the most remarkable treaties of this which discussions the from not does It appear, modern history. that there on this occasion, Governments two the took place between of true the to as them between principles was any disagreement
SPONSIONS.
181
if
international law applicable to such transactions. The conduct, not the language, of both parties implies a mutual admission that
the convention
was
the ordinary powers of military
of a nature to require ratification, as exceeding commanders in respect to mere
The same remark may be applied to the convention signed at El Arish, in 1800, for the evacuation of Egypt by the French army although the position of the two Governments, as to the convention of Closter-Seven, was reversed in that of El
military capitulations.
;
Arish, the British
Government refusing
in
the
first
instance to
permit the execution of the latter treaty, upon the ground of the defect in Sir Sidney Smith's powers, and, after the battle of
Heliopolis, insisting
upon its being performed by the French when circumstances had varied and rendered its execution no longer
and interest. Lawrence (Wheaton, p. The 688) says: capitulation of Closter-Seven, in 1757, whicli rendered Marshal Richelieu master of the States of the King of England in Germany, and of those of his allies, gave him, moreover, the facility of sending new succours to the Empress Queen and to
consistent with their policy
the Elector of Saxony, as well as of attacking the King of Prussia in the Duchy of Magdeburg. But the King of England, in his quality of Elector of Hanover, refused to ratify the capitulation,
which was thus annulled, and the Hanoverians, who had promised no longer to bear arms, resumed them two months afterwards. The motives assigned for the refusal of the capitulations were 1st. That the army which had capitulated belonged to the Elector, and that it was resuming active service as the army of the King of Great Britain. concluded without 2. That the capitulation had been as well on the of the Duke of Cumberland as of the powers, part Marshal Richelieu. The refusal of the British Admiral, Lord Keith, to recognize the convention of El Arish, already in part executed y France, was based on the orders of his Government, forbidding him to consent to any capitulation with the French army, except on their laying down their arms and becoming prisoners of war, and delivering up their ships in Alexandria. After the rupture of the armistice, which was followed by the battle of Heliopolis and the reconquest of Egypt by Kleber, when the condition of the French
: I
array was entirely changed, England offered, in vain, to ratify the convention, which, thoup:h actually negotiated by Sir Sidney Smith and containing stipulations on the part of England, essential
to the evacuation,
was only signed by the plenipotentiaries

Vizier.
of Kleber
and of the Grand
182
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
LVII.
SUSPENSION OF ARMS.
Belligerent slates and their armies and fleets often have occasion during the continuance of war to enter into agreements of various
kinds for the general or partial suspension of hostilities. All such agreements are included under the general name of compacts and
conventions.
If the cessation of hostilities
is
only for a very short
time, or at a particular place, or for a temporary purpose, such a^; a parley, a conference, the removal of the Avounded, or the burial of the dead, it is called a suspension of arms. Such a compact may
be formed between tbe immediate commanders of the opposing forces, and is obligatory on all persons under their respective com-
mands.
Even commanders
of detachments
may
enter into such
a compact. But it binds in such a case only the detachment itself, and can not affect the operation of the other troops. (Halleck, Int.
Law
[4th ed.,
by Baker],
II. 346.)
is
noted example of the suspension of arms
the capitulation of
Cuba. After a truce to allow of the removal of noncombatants protracted negotiations continued from July 3d until July 15th, when, under menace of immediate assault, the preliminaries of surrender were agreed upon. On the 17th General Shafter occupied the city. The
capitulation embraced the entire eastern end of Cuba. of Spanish soldiers surrendering was 22,000, all of
The number whom were
subsequently conveyed to Spain at the charge of the United States.

(President McKinley, Annual Message, Dec.
5,
1898, For. Rel. 1898,
LXI.)
LVIII.
CAPITULATIONS.
Capitulations are agreements entered into by a commanding officer for the surrender of his army, or by the governor of a town, or a
fortress, or particular district of country, to
surrender
it
into the
hands of the enemy. Capitulations usually contain stipulations with respect to the inhabitants of the place which is surrendered, the security of their religion, property, privileges, and franchises, and also with respect to the troops or garrison, either allowing them to march out with their arms and baggage, with the honors of war, or requiring them to lay down their arms and surrender as
CAPITULATIONS.
prisoners of war.
183
all the
The general phrase "with
honors of war,"
is usually construed to include the right to march, with colors displayed, drums beating, etc. It is proper, however, that such mat-
ters should be precisely stated in the articles of capitulation.

it
As
an example of courtesy between belligerents, may that in 1802, on Captain Garden, of the British ship "Macedonia," presenting his s"word to Commodore Decatur, of the American ship
the
be mentioned
"United States," that officer declared he could never take the sword of a man who had so nobly defended the honor of it.
1.
Authority to
to
Make
Capitulations.
capitulations falls within the scope of the commander of the military or naval of chief the general powers of the or town, fortress, or district of country included in the forces, The power of the general or admiral to enter into an capitulation.
The authority
make
ordinary capitulation, the same as in the case of a truce,

' ' ' '
is
neces' '
sarily implied in his office. So The governor of a town, says Rutherford, is or district of country. the commander of the garrison, that is, of an army employed for
of the chief officer of a tow^n, fortress,
the particular purpose of defending the town. The nature, therefore, of his trust implies, that his compacts about surrendering
.
the
town
wall bind himself
when he might have defended
and the garrison. If he surrenders it it, or upon worse terms than he
might have made, he is accountable to his own State for his misconduct; but the abuse of his power does not affect any compact which he makes, in consequence of that pow'er,"
2.
Limitations of Authority.
But if unusual and extraordinary stipulations are inserted in the capitulation which are not within the ordinary and implied powers of the officer making it, they are not binding either upon the State or
upon the
For example, if the general should stipulate that never bear arms against the same enemy, or, if the governor of a place should agree to cede it to the enemy as a conquest, such agreements, not coming within his implied powers, would be null and void, unless special authority to that effect had been
troops.
his troops shall
given to him, or his acts should subsequently receive the sanction of his government. (Ilalleck, Int. Law, 4th Ed. by Baker, II. 354-456.)
3.
Terms
of Surrender.
tliat he proof Northern Virginia
In April, 18G5, General Grant wrote to General lice
posed to receive the surrender of the
Army
184
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
viz.
:
on the following terms,
1,
That
rolls of all the officers
and
men were
to be
made
in duplicate, one
copy to be given to an
officer
of the selection of the former, the other to be retained by whomsoever the latter might appoint. 2. That the officers give their individual paroles not to take arms against the Government of the
United States until properly exchanged, and each commander of a company or regiment to sign a like parole for his men. The arms, artillery and public property to be packed and stacked, and turned over to the officers appointed by the former to receive them. That this docs not include the side arms of the officers, nor their private horses or baggage. 3. That, this being done, each officer and man shall be allowed to return to his home, and shall not be disturbed
by the United States authority so long as they observe their paroles and the laws in force where they reside. General Lee accepted these terms on the same day, and the other rebel armies subsequently surrendered on substantially the same terms.
4.
Capitulations Strictly Observed.
Capitulations agreed on between the Contracting Parties must When once be in accordance with the rules of military honor. the both observed be must parties. by scrupulously settled, they
capitulation entered into by a belligerent in regard to the surrender of one of its possessions binds its allies.
LIX.
END OF WAR.
War
terminates with the exchange and ratification of the treaty
of peace. After peace is conclusively established, accredited ministers are delegated to the governments, consuls are appointed by the respective governments, and thereby both governments fully
resume the relations which had been interrupted by the war.

is
Each
carried out, prisoners of war are article of the treaty of peace released and return to their homes, the seizure of properties and all
other exigencies are arranged according to the stipulations of the treaty of peace. For instance, the Treaty of Paris of 1898, which is still in force, provides in Article I, that Spain relinquish all claim
of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. By Article II, Spain cedes to the United States the island of Porto Rico, and other islands which
END OF WAR,
tlieu
185
were under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies, and the Guam in the Marianas or Ladrones. By Article III, Spain cedes to the United States the Philippine Islands, etc. The United
island of
States
will
pay
to
Spain
the
sum
of
twenty
million
dollars
within three months after the exchange of the ratifications of the and VI define the evacuation of territory and the treaty. Articles
mutual exchange of prisoners of war.

for
By
Article VII,
all
claims
indemnity, national or individual, are mutually relinquished. Article IX defines the status of Spanish subjects and natives residing in the territory ceded by Spain, and Article secures free exercise
of
their
religion.
Article
XIV
concedes to
Spain the power to
establish consular officers in the ceded territories.
sent to
Following the exchange and ratification of this treaty, Spain Washington the Duke of Arcos, as Minister, with Juan Riano, as secretary (Juan Riano, the eminent diplomat, is now the Spanish Ambassador in the United States), while the United States appointed
Bellamy Storer as diplomatic representative in Spain. The Treaty of Peace was then followed by a Treaty of Friendship and General Relations, concluded in 1902, Article I of which reads as follows: "There shall be a firm and inviolable peace and sincere friendship between the United States and its citizens on the one part, and His Catholic Majesty and the Spanish Nation on the other part, without exception of persons or places under their respective dominion."
PART
LX.
III.
THE TERM "HIGH SEAS."

The term "high seas," as used by legislative bodies, the courts, and text writers, has been construed to express a widely different As used to define the jurisdiction of admiralty courts, meaning.
it
mark.
mean the waters of the ocean exterior to low-water As used in international law, to fix the limits of the open great highocean, upon which all people possess common rights, the of the so much held mean has been to it of only nations," way
is
held to
' '
ocean as is exterior to a line running parallel with the shore and some distance therefrom, commonly such distance as can be defended by artillery upon the shore, and therefore a cannon shot or a marine
(Second court of league (three nautical or four .statute miles). commissioners of Alabama claims. Stetson, v. United States, No. 3993,
class 1,
Moore,
Int.,
Arbitrations, IV. 4332, 4335).
LXI.
THE MARGINAL
"Our
jurisdiction
SEA.
least
has been fixed
(at
for
the
purpose of
regulating the conduct of the government in regard to any events arising out of the present European war) to extend three geographical miles (or nearly three and a half English miles) from our shores with the exception of any waters or bays which are so land;
locked as to be unquestionably within the jurisdiction of the United (Mr. Pickering, Sec. of States, be their extent what they may."
State, to the Lieut. Let. 281.)
Governor of Virginia, Sept.
2,
1796, 9
MS. Dom.
Agreement with Great Britain, Adopting With Certain Modifications, The Rules and Method of Procedure Recommended in the Award of September 7, 1910, of the North Atlantic Coast Fisheries Arbitration, states the following: "In case of bays the 3 marine miles are to be measured from a straight line drawn
Article II of the
THE MARGINAL
across the
SEA.
187
body of water at the place where it ceases to have the configuration and characteristics of a bay. At all other places the 3 marine miles are to be measured following the sinuosities of the coast. And whereas the Tribunal made certain recommendations for the determination of the limits of the bays enumerated in the award
;
agreed that the recommendations, in so far Now, therefore, as the same relate to bays contiguous to the territory of the Dominion
it
is
of the Special of Canada, to which Question In every wit: to are hereby adopted, cable,
specifically
provided for, the limits miles seaward from a straight line across the bay in the part nearest the entrance at the first point where the width does not exceed ten
miles."
Agreement is applibay not hereinafter of exclusion shall be drawn three
bays,
The exclusive jurisdiction of a nation extends to the ports, harbors, mouths of rivers, and adjacent parts of sea inclosed by head-
lands; and, also, to the distance of a marine league, or as far as a cannon-shot will reach from the shore along all its coasts. Within
these limits the
sovereign of the mainland
may
arrest,
by due
process of law, alleged offenders on board of foreign merchant ships. 37 (:\rr. Buchanan, Sec. of State, to Mr. Jordan, Jan. 23, 1839,
MS. Dom.
Let. 98.)
In a series of resolutions adopted by the Institut de Droit International, at Paris, in 1894, it was laid down (art. 5) that all ships
without distinction have the right of innocent passage through the

territorial sea, subject to the right of belligerents to regulate and for puposes of defense even to bar such passage, and subject also to
nationalities.
the right of neutrals to regulate the passage of ships of war of all The following resolutions were passed governing the
jurisdiction over passing vessels:
Crimes and offences, committed on foreign ships passmg waters by persons on board such ships against through on board, are, as such, outside the jurisdiction or also persons things of the bordering state, unless they involve a violation of the rights or interests of the bordering state or of its inhabitants who are neither members of the crew or passengers. Art. 7. Ships traversing territorial waters must conform to special regulations of the bordering state in the interest or for the security of navigation and mari"Art.
6.
territorial
time police.
Art,
8.
Ships of
all nationalities,
by the fact of being
in territorial waters, unless
only passing through, are subject to the
The bordering state may conjurisdiction of the bordering state. tinue on the high sons n pursuit begun in territorial waters, to arrest
188
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
of
and try a ship which has committed a violation

limits of those wâters.
law within the
fact shall be
bears.
made
In case of capture on the high seas, the known without delay to the state whose flag she
territorial
is interrupted the moment the ship enters the waters of her own or of a third country. The right to a third pursuit ceases when the vessel enters a port of her own or of of those and war of of situation The Art. 9. ships particular power. assimilated to them is reserved." (Institut de Droit International,
The pursuit
Annuaire, (1894-95), XIII. 329.)
LXII.
NEUTRALIZATION OF CANALS AND WATERWAYS.

Article 26 of the regulations for free navigation of rivers, forming Annex XVI. to the Vienna Congress treaty of June 9, 1815,
provides: "If it should happen (which God forbid) that war should break out among any of the States of the Eliine, the collection of
the customs shall continue uninterrupted, without any obstacle being thrown in the way by either party. The vessels and persons employed by the customhouse shall enjoy all the rights of neutrality.
shall be placed over the offices and chests belonging to the customs." (Hertslet, Map of Europe by Treaty, I. 86.)
guard
The act for the navigation of the Danube, made in 1865 by the European commission, and confirmed by the conference of the powers at Paris in the following year declares that the staff, and
works of the commission are to enjoy the
Article VII. of the treaty of
benefit of neutrality.
13, 1871, it is
By
provided that aU the wôrks and establishments created by the commission "shall continue to enjoy the same neutrality which has hitherto
protected them."
(Holland, Studies in Int. Law, 273; Hertslet,
III.
London
of
March
Map
of
Europe by Treaty,
it
1922.)
In order to increase the guaranties of the free navigation of the
Danube,
was provided by Article
LII. of the treaty of Berlin of
July 13, 1878, that "all the fortresses and fortifications existing on the course of the river from the Iron Gates to its mouth 'should'
be razed and no
vision
new ones erected." By Articles was made for continuing the European
to exercise its functions
LIII.
and LIV. procommission, which

(Moore,
Int.
was thenceforth
plete
"as far as Galatz in com-
independence
of
the
territorial
authorities."
Arbitrations, V., 4853.)
NEUTRALIZATION OP CANALS AND WATERWAYS.

1.
189
Clayton-Bill wer Treaty.
During President Taylor's short administration (1850) the Secretary of State (acting as the Plenipotentiary of the United States)
signed a Treaty with Great Britain (commonly known as the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty) in which the United States agreed not to obtain any exclusive control over the ship-canal which it was then supposed would soon be constructed through the territories of Nicaragua; not to erect or maintain any fortifications commanding the same, or in the vicinity thereof; and not to occupy or fortify, or colonize, or assume, or exercise, any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa An Rica, the Mosquito Coast, or any part of Central America. of in this nature was one a new the of the engagement history United States. (Treaties and Convention between the United States
and other Powers,
p. 1226.)
2.
Suez Canal.
November 30, 1854, the Viceroy of Egypt granted to M. Ferdinand de Lesseps a concession for cuttiug through the Isthmus of Suez a canal fit for ocean navigation. By Article I. of the concession M. de
name
Lesseps undertook to form a company for that purpose, under the of the Universal Company of the Suez Maritime Canal. By
Article VI.
it was provided that the rate of passage should be agreed on between the company and the Viceroy of Egypt and collected by the agents of the company, that they should "be always the same for all nations," and that "no special advantage" should ever be given to the exclusive profit of any of them." (Brit. &
For. State Pap. 970, 971.)
By a convention of August 6, 1860, between the Egyptian Government and the company, 177,642 shares were assigned to the Viceroy. It is stated that 207,111 shares were taken in France, and a few In 1875, the British Government in Austria and the Netherlands. bought from the Khedive of Egypt 176,602 shares, which were all
that then
remained
in
his
possession,
paying therefor 4,000,000

(Blue Book, Egypt, No.
1,
pounds
sterling, less the proportionate value of the 1,040 shares, the
difference between 177,642

1876, 7.) By Article
and 176,602.
I. of the convention of January 30, 1866, between the Egyptian Government and the company, it was agreed that the Egyptian Government should occupy, within the perimeter of the lands reserved as dependencies of the maritime canal, any strategic position or point which it should deem necessary to the defence of
190
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
the country, such occupation not to be made an obstacle to navigaThis provision is repeated tion. (56 Brit. & For. State Pap. 274.)
by Article X. of the convention between Egypt and the company, (56 Brit. & For. State Pap. signed at Cairo, February 22, 1866. 277.) By Article XVII. of the same convention all prior acts, concessions, conventions, and statutes not inconsistent therewith were" continued in force. The Sultan of Turkey, by a firman of March 19,
1866, confirmed the convention of February 22, 1866. For. State Pap. 293.)
3.
(56 Brit.
&
London Conference
of 1885.
In 1885 representatives of the Great Powers,
who had met
in
London
consider the financial condition of Egypt, adopted a declaration in which it was stated that their governments had
to
March
agreed to appoint a commission of delegates to meet at Paris, 30, 1885, for the purpose of drawing up a convention guaranteeing at all times and for all powers the freedom of the Suez Canal. The commission met, (Holland, Studies in Int. Law, 287.) but separated June 13, without coming to any conclusion. October
21, 1887, Lord Salisbury instructed the British embassy at Paris to lay before the French Government proposals for a convention following in the main the draft which was under discussion in
1885 and presenting on certain points alternative suggestions. Lord Salisbury remarked, however, that no instrument to which Great Britain and France might set their signatures could have any
practical value till it had received the "assent of the suzerain and of the other powers concerned." He also stated that it was his duty to renew the words of a reservation made without opposition
on any side by Sir Julian Pauncefote at the close of the sittings of the commission of 1885, as follows: "The British delegates, in presenting this draft of a treaty as the definitive regulation intended to
guarantee the free use of the Suez Canal, think it their duty to formulate a general reservation as to the application of these provisions, in so far as they may not be compatible with the transitory
and exceptional condition of things actually existing in Egypt and may limit the freedom of action of their Government during the period of the occupation of Egypt by the forces of Her Britannic Majesty." (Blue Book, Egypt, No. 1, 1888, 35, 36.)
4.
Paris Conference of 1887.
draft of a convention
was signed by representatives

October 24, 1887, subject
of France
and Great Britain
at Paris,
to
the eon-
NEUTRALIZATION OF CANALS AND WATERWAYS.
191
Paris in 1885.
currence of the other powers represented on the commission at This draft (Blue Book, Egypt, No. 1, 1888, 45.)
was communicated to those powers by the Fi'ench Government. At the same time Lord Salisbury sent out for communication to the powers two circulars, one of which enclosed a copy of his instructions
to the British
reservation
made by
1,
embassy at Paris of October 21, 1887, containing the Sir Julian Pauucefote in 1885. (Blue Book,
it
Egypt, No.
1888, 48. Doc. No. 53.)
approval of tlje powers, October 29, 1888, the signatory powers being Great Britian, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Spain, France, Italy, the Netherlands,,
Russia,
The draft having received the was formally signed at Constantinople,
and Turkey.
The
ratifications
were deposited at Constanti-
of nople, October 22, 1888. This convention, after reciting the wish the powers to establish ''a definite system destined to guarantee at all times, and for all the Powers, the free use of the Suez Maritime
Canal, and thus to complete the system under which the navigation of this Canal has been placed by the Firman of His Imperial Majesty
the Sultan, dated the 22nd February, 1866 (2 Zilkade, 1282), and sanctioning the Concessions of His Highness the Khedive," provides seventeen articles, of which the most important provisions are
as follows
:
Article
I.
The Suez Maritime Canal
shall
always be free and
open, in time of war as in time of peace, to every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag. Consequently, the
High Contracting Parties agree not
in
any way
to interfere with
the free use of the Canal, in time of war as in time of peace. The Canal shall never be subjected to the exercise of the right of
blockade.
Parties, recognizing that the indispensable to the Maritime Canal, take note of the engagement of His Highness the Khedive towards the Universal Suez Canal Company as regards the Fresh-Water Canal;
Article
II.
The High Contracting

is
Fre.sh- Water
Canal
which engagements are stipulated in a Convention bearing date the 18th March, 1863, containing an expose and four Articles. They undertake not to interfere in any way with the security of that Canal and its branches, the working of which shall not be exposed
to
any attempt at obstruction.

Article III.
The High Contracting Parties likewise undertake
to
respect the plant, establishments, buildings, and works of the Maritime Canal and of the Fresh-Water Canal.
192
Article IV.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
The Maritime Canal remaining open in time of war as a free passage, even to the ships of war of belligerents, according to the terms of Article 1. of the present Treaty, the High Contracting l-'arties agree that no right of war, no act of hostility, nor any act
having for its object to obstruct the free navigation of the Canal, shall be committed in the Canal and its ports of access, as well as within a radius of three marine miles from those ports, even though the Ottoman Empire should be one of the belligerent Powers. Vessels of war of belligerents shall not revictual or take in stores in the Canal and its ports of access, except in so far as may be
transit of the aforesaid vessels through the with the least possible delay, in accordance Canal with the Regulations in force, and without any other intermission than that resulting from the necessities of the service. Their stay at Port Said and in the roadstead of Suez shall not exceed twenty-four hours, except in case of distress. In such case they shall be bound to leave as soon as possible. An interval of twenty-four hours shall always elapse between the sailing of a belligerent ship from one
strictly necessary.
The
shall be effected
of the ports of access

hostile
and the departure
of a ship belonging to the
Power.
Article V. In time of war belligerent Powers shall not disembark nor embark within the Canal and its ports of access either troops, But in case of an accidental munitions, or materials of war. hindrance in the Canal, men may be embarked or disembarked at the ports of access by detachments not exceeding 1,000 men, with
a corresponding amount of
Article VI.
war
material.
all respects, to
rules as the vessels of
Prizes shall be subjected, in war of belligerents.
the same
Article VII.
The Powers
shall not
keep any vessel of war
in
(including Lake Timsah and the Bitter Lakes). Nevertheless, they may station vessels of war in the ports of access of Port Said and Suez, the number of which shall not exceed two for each Power. This right shall not be exercised by
the waters of the Canal
belligerents.
Article VIII.
The agents
in
Egypt
of the Signatory
Powers
of
the recent Treaty shall be charged to watch over its execution They shall especially demand the suppression of any work or the dispersion of any assemblage on either bank of the Canal, the object
or effect of which might be to interfere with the liberty and the entire security of the navigation. (Pari. Pap. Comm. No. 2, 1889, 4.)
NEUTRALIZATION OP CANALS AND WATERWAYS.

5.
193
Gorinth Canal.
24, 1893.
The Coriuth Caual was opened August
It is
about six
kilometers .long. It is wholly within the territory of Greece and forms part of its territorial waters. The rights of property, sovThe caual is not ereignty, and jurisdiction all belong to Greece.
directly connected with the great navigation of the Mediterranean. The Suez Canal is of general interest, the Corinth of secondary
interest.
It facilitates the relations of the
Adriatic with Eastern
Greece, the Bosphorus, Asia Minor, and the Black Sea. The Suez Canal unites all Europe, both Central and Western India, the Indian Ocean, the Far East, East Africa, and Australia. (Bonfils,
Manuel de Droit International

6.
Public, 1894, 274.)
Kiel Canal.
maritime canal unites the Bay of Kiel to the mouth of the Its construction was due, not to individual initiative, but to the German Empire, the reasons being strategic rather than commercial. Its object was to establish easier communication between
Elbe.
the two the
German arsenals of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel, and to enable German fleets to avoid the Danish Sound and Belts and escape a
passage under the
The commerce of Hamburg fire of Danish guns. and of Bremen with the Baltic will, however, derive advantage from The canal, which is the opening of this way of communication.
about 98 kilometers long,
is
not international.
Property, sovereignty,
jurisdiction, administration
and management all belong to the German Empire. (Bonfils, Manuel de Droit International Public, 1894, 274, citing Fleury, Canaux maritimes. Revue des deux mondes, Nov.
15, 1893.)
July 38, 1901, Mr. White, American ambassador at Berlin, reported that in accordance with a request made by the embassy "permission" had been granted to the U. S. S. "Enterprise" to pass through
the Kaiser
Wilhelm (Kiel) canal en route to the North Sea, the request having been made by the embassy at the instance of the commander of the ship. The embassy subsequently reported, on information furnished by the American consular agent at Kiel that the eanal dues paid by the "Enterprise" amount to 400 marks and those by the U. S. S. "Buffalo" to 900 marks, which, considering the saving in time and coal, would apparently indicate that it was less expensive for the ships to go through the canal than to round the
Danish peninsula.
(Mr. White, amb. at Berlin, to Mr. Hay, Sec.
194
I
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
of State, July 18, 1901; Mr. Jackson, charge at Berlin, to Mr. Sec. of State, Oct. 19, 1901; For. Rel. 1901, 184.)
7.
Hay,
Panama
Canal.
28, 1902, Congress authorized the President the the New Panama Canal Company and to of to acquire rights enter into a treaty with Colombia for the building of the canal across the Isthmus of Panama; and it also authorized him, in the
By
tile
act of
June
event of failure to secure such a treaty after the lapse of a reasonable time, to. enter into negotiations for the conclusion of a treaty for the construction of a canal by the way of Nicaragua. At the conclusion of a treaty with Colombia and the subsequent revolution on the Isthmus of Panama, after the failure of the Colombian Congress to
ratify the treaty, November 18, 190,3, at Washington with the Republic of
convention was signed Panama. This convention

a
was duly ratified and the ratifications were exchanged at WashBy this agreement the United ington, February 26, 1904. States guarantees the independence of the Republic of Panama,
while the latter grants to the United States in perpetuity for the construction, operation, and protection of the canal, a zone ten miles wide, extending the distance of five miles on either side of
in the
the middle line of the route of the proposed canal. This zone begins Caribbean Sea three marine miles from mean low-water
mark, and extends across the Isthmus of Panama, into the Pacific Ocean to a distance of three marine miles from mean low-water mark but the cities of Panama and Colon and the adjacent harbors are not included in the grant. Within this zone, and also within the limits of all auxiliary lands and waters which may be necessary and
;
convenient for the construction, operation, and protection of the canal or of any auxiliary works, the Republic of Panama grants to the United States all the rights, power, and authority which the
latter
would possess and exercise
if it
were the sovereign of the
territory, "to the entire exclusion of the exercise by the Republic of Panama of any such sovereign rights, power or authority." By an
order of June 24, 1904, the President of the United States declared the canal zone of the Isthmus of Panama to be open to the commerce
Ancon and Crystobal as ports of As to sanitary con(For. Rel. 1904, 8, 543, 585. entry therein. ditions of the Isthmus of Panama, see For. Rel. 1904, 552. As to the
of friendly nations, and established
transfer of the canal zone to the United States, see For. Rel. 1904, 582. As to the payment of the canal indemnity, see For. Rel. 1904,
C51.)
MERCHANT
VESSELS.
'
19^
LXIII.
MERCHANT VESSELS.
A vessel on the high seas, beyond the distance of a marine league from the shore (3 miles), is regarded as part of the territory of the nation to which she belongs, and subjected exclusively to the But if she be forced within another jurisdiction of that nation.
jurisdiction by stress of weather, or other necessity, she does not In this cease to be within the jurisdiction of her own country.
however, such jurisdiction is not exclusive to all purposes. acts done by her while thus lying in port, and for all contracts entered into by her master and owners while in port, she and they must be answerable to the laws of the place. Furthercase,
For any unlaAvful
more, by the comity of the law of nations, and especially by the present practice, merchant vessels entering ports of other nations are presumed to be allowêd to bring with them, for their protection and government, the jurisdiction and laws of their own country.
1.
Extraterritorial Right.
to its private or
This Government does not apply the doctrine of extraterritoriality merchant ships in foreign ports, except in cases where it has been conceded by treaty or established usage, and it
it
has been so conceded in criminal cases to American merchant vessels in British ports. While each country can
does not pretend that
unquestionably exercise jurisdiction in its own ports over the private or merchant vessels of the other, it is presumed there is a mutual
disposition on both sides not to exert it in a way which will interfere with the proper discipline of the ships of either nation. If every complaint of any individual of the crew of a vessel against the
officers for ill-treatment is to
shore,
and these
officers
be taken up by the civil authorities on prosecuted as criminals, commercial inter-
course will be subject to very great annoyance and serious detriment. (Îr. ]\Iarcy, Sec. of State, to Mr, Crampton, Brit, min.,
April 19, 1856, MS. Notes to Gt. Brit. VII. 524.) The local port authority has jurisdiction of acts committed on
board of a foreign merchant ship Avhile in port, provided those acts affect the peace of the port, but not otherwise; and its jurisdiction does not extend to acts internal to the ship, or occurring on the
high seas.
The local authority has right to enter on board a foreign merchant-man in port for the purpose of inquiry universally, but for
the purpose of arrest only in matters within its ascertained jurisdiction. (Gushing, At. Gen. 1856, 8 Op. 73.)
196
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
is
"There
no doubt of the jurisdiction of our
to interfere in the
way
of prevention or of
officers and tribunals punishment in breaches
of the peace occurring in American waters upon foreign vessels. There is no reason why our police, civil or naval, should hesitate to board a British vessel for the purpose of quelling a mutiny, attended with assaults upon the officers or violent resistance to tlie
exercise of their legitimate authority
or subjecting refractory seadifficulty,
men
to temporary confinement.
The
however,
is
supposed
where seamen simply refuse to work, and where confinement of them would reduce the vessel to a floating jail, withThe remedy that is supposed to be out the power of motion. wanted is a compulsion upon the men to do their duty; in other
to arise in cases
words, to enforce a specific obligation of their contract. No ofGcer or tribunal of the United States has the capacity to apply such a remedy, except in execution of a treaty of convention, which seems
necessary as the basis of laws of Congress regulating the mode of treaty is also necessary to justify the detention here proceeding.
seaman upon the order of his consul, or otherwise than as a criminal offender. For any intervention beyond the limit thus indicated an agreement between the two Governments would seem to be requisite. I have to remark, however, that the question which I have discussed is purely a legal one, upon which I ought to
of a foreign
reserve myself for consultation "with the Attorney-General." (Mr. Brit, to Sir F. Sec, of Mar. State, Bruce, min.. 16, 1866, Seward, Dip. Cor. 1866, I. 231.)
law on the subject of private vessels So far as regards acts done at sea before her arrival in port, and acts done on board in port, by members of the crew to one another, and so far as regards the general regulation of the rights and duties of those belonging on board, the vessel is exempt from local jurisdiction; but, if the acts done on board affect the peace of the country in
state of international
The
in foreign ports.... may be said to be this:
whose port she
lies, or the persons or property of its subjects, to The local authorities have that extent that state has jurisdiction. a right to visit all such vessels, to ascertain the nature of any alleged
Of course, no exemption is ever claimed for the to property or persons in port, or for acts vessel done by injuries of her company not done on board the vessel, or for their personal
occurrence on board.
contracts or civil obligations or duties relating to persons not of the
ship's
company.
(Dana's Wheaton,
95,
note 59.)
MERCHANT
2.
VESSELS.
197
Papers of Ships.
The following list, extracted from the "Manual of Naval Prize Law," compiled by Sir Godfrey Lushington, K. C. B., specifies what
are the various papers in addition to the custom house clearance, the manifest of cargo, and the bills of lading which may usually,
although, not necessarily, be found on board the vessels of the prinAustria Scontrino ministeriale (certifcipal Maritime States, viz.
:
icate of registry).
Patent sovrana (royal license). Giornale di

Scartafaceio, giornale Charter party, if vessel
is
n.ivi-
gazione (official log-book). cotidiano (ship's log-book).
di navigazione
chartered.
Ruolo dell'equipaggio (list of crew). Bill of health. Denmark Royal passport, in Latin, with translation (available only for tae voyage for which it is issued, unless renewed by attestation) Certificate of ownership. Build brief. Admeasurement brief. Burgher brief (certificate that the master is a Danish subject). Charter Finland Materbref party (if vessel is chartered). Muster roll.
.
(certificate of
measurement).
Belbref (certificate of build).
Jour-
nalen (ship's log-book). Charter party (if vessel is chartered). Folkpass (crew list). France L'acte de francisation (i. e. certificate of Le conge (sailing license). Le journal timbre nationality).
(stamped log-book signed by consul on clearance of vessel). Le journal du bord (ship's log-book). National flag. Charter party (if vessel is chartered). Le role d 'equipage (list of crew). Bill of health. Germany Messbrief (certificate of measurement). Beil-
brief
(builder's
certificate).
(ship's log-book).
rolle
(muster
roll).
See-pass (sailing license). Journal Charter party (if vessel is chartered). MusterGreat Britain Certificate of registry. Official
log-book. Ship's log-book. National flag and code of signals. Code of signals and numeral flags. Charter party (if vessel is chartered)_. Shipping articles. Muster roll. Bill of Health. Holland Meetbrief
(certificate of tonnage).
Bijlbrief (certificate of ownership).
Zee-
(sailing license). Journal (ship's log-book). National flag. Charter party (if vessel is chartered). Monster-rol (muster roll). Bill of health. Scontrino ministeriale (certificate of regisItaly
brief
try).
ficial
Patente sovrana (royal license). Giornale di navigazione (oflog-book). Scartafaceio, giornale di navigazione cotidiano (ship's log-book). Charter party (if vessel is chartered). Ruolo dell'
Clist
equipaggio
of crew).
Bill of health.
Norway
Biilbrev
(certif-
icate of buikl).
Maalebrev
(certificate
of measurement).
Nation-
alitetsbreviis (certificate of nationality). Journale (ship's log-book). Charter party (if the vessel is chartered). Muster roll or mand-.
198
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
skabsliste, or volkelist (list of crew). Vessels purchased by Norwegian subjects in foreign ports are permitted for two years to sail with-
Russia L'aete de construction ou out a biilbrev or maalebrev. d'acquisition du navire (builder's certificate). La patente portant authorisation d'arborer le pavilion marchand russe (certificate of
nationality). Journal du capitaine (ship's log-book). Charter party Spain ^La (if vessel is chartered). Le role d 'equipage (crew list).
patente real (royal license). El diario de navegacion (ship's logbook). National flag. Charter party (if vessel is chartered). El rol passport from the chief (list of crew). Bill of health. Sweden
magistrate or commissioner of customs.

icate).
Bilbref (builder's certifMatebref (certificate of measurement). Pribref (certificate
of registry).
is
Journalen (ship's log-book). Charter party (if vessel chartered). Folkpass or sjemansrubla (muster roll). Vessels purchased by Swedish subjects in foreign ports are permitted, on application to the Board of United States a fribref.
certificate of ownership.
Commerce, Certificate
to sail for one year without
of registry.
Sea
flag.
letter,
or
Ship's log-book.
National
Charter
party
(if
the vessel
is
chartered).
Bill of health.
(Halleck's Int.
Shipping articles. Muster roll. Law, 4th Ed. by Baker, Vol. II, pp.
117-119.)
LXIV.
SHIPS OF WAR.
.being the property of the state and armed by it Their commanders and for its defense, are an emanation of it. officers are also functionaries of the country, delegates of its sovereignty, agents of its executive power, and, up to a certain point,
Ships of war,.
On board of a ship of war, everything is of its judicial power. subject to the rules and codes of the country to which the ship
belongs,
it is
partakes fully of the independence of the sovereignty which has authorized it and of which
and
it is
for that reason that
it
A
1.
the delegation. difference so marked in
its
character and objects as that of

as its consequences:
ships of
war and
:
ships of
commerce brings
That the manner and means of proving their nationality are That the privileges and immunities of each are also
dif-
different
2.
ferent ....
Armed and
authorized by the government of an independent
SHIPS OF WAR.
199
power, commanded by officers, public functionaries, who represent, with the whole crew, the public force, ships of war are, in their personification, like an emanation of the state and a continuation
From this it follows that no individual foreign government has the right to interfere in what goes on on board and still less to penetrate there by main force.
of its territory.
to the
1.
Extraterritoriality.
theoretically, this collection
It is usual to describe,
of circum-
stances by the axiom that the ship of war is a portion of the territory of the nation to which it belongs, enjoying, in consequence,
all
thart
the immunities attached to territorial independence. It is this we are wont to express by the word extraterritoriality, the
actual meaning of which is not truly applicable, but peculiarly describes the conjunction of privileges, immunities, and rights. To justify the use of this expression, it suffices to consider that every ship is a floating habitation, bearing a population placed under the protection and submitted to the laws and government of the state. In the special case of a ship of war, we can add that it is a military place, a mobile fortress which contains a fraction of the
state to
which it belongs, governed by the functionaries, the military and administrative agents, delegated by the same state
It is a
constant rule that, for ships of war, the principle of extraterritoriality is always absolute even in the ports and territorial waters of another country, and that such ships remain, as to their
and exterior control, subject only to the laws of the state which they belong. With the state in whose waters they may happen to be, they simply maintain international relations, through
interior
to
the intermediary of the competent functionaries of the locality It is no less certain that the local sovereign may forbid the entrance and mooring of a ship of war and may also exercise
surveillance over the ship when he has reason to think its presence dangerous, or when some legitimate precaution requires or justifies such a measure. In such case, in order to avoid all difficulty, explfinations ought to be given to the
government
to
which the ship
belongs.
2.
Limitations of Exemption from Jurisdiction.
Moreover, the immunity of ships of war does not exempt them from responsibility for acts of aggression, of violence or of disf'onrtesy which thoy may commit in the waters of a foreign nation.
Tliat
nation always reserves the
right
of legitimate self-defense
200
against such acts.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Such ships are not exemp't from the observance of sanitary regulations of the ports which they may wish to enter; ....The public and official character of ships of war imposes on them the obligation to be first in giving an example of the most
scrupulous respect for the ordinances of maritime police, the rules of the port, and all provisions for the common interest, (Testa, Le
p.
Droit Public International Maritime, traduct, par Boutiron, 1886, 83 et seq.)
(International Law, vol. 1, sec. 341), after stating that ships of war enjoy the privilege of extraterritoriality, says that this privilege "is extended, by the reason of the thing, to boats,
Phillimore
tenders, and all appurtenances of a ship of war, but it does not cover offenses against the territorial law committed upon shore, though the commanders of vessels are entitled to be apprised of the circum-
stances attending
their crew,
' '
and causes justifying the arrest
of
any one of
through the agency of diplomatic or consular ministers, the administration of justice." ship of war when in a foreign friendly port is ordinarily exempt
and
to secure to them,
from the jurisdiction of such port." (Mr. Randolph, Sec. of State, to Mr. Hammond, Brit, min., July 23, 1794, 7 MS. Dom. Let. 55.)
"Foreign armed vessels, adopting the character of merchant ships by carrying merchandise, rend themselves subject to the revenue
laws."
(Wirt, At.-Gen. 1820, 1 Op. 337.)
Ships of war enjoy full rights of extraterritoriality in foreign ports and territorial waters. Therefore a ship of war, or any prize of hers, in command of a public officer, possesses, in the ports of the United States, the right
of extraterritoriality and is exempt from the local jurisdiction. prisoner of war on board such a foreign ship of war, or of her
prize,
can not be released by habeas corpus issuing from courts
"So long as they (the prisoners) remained on board that ship, they were in the territory and jurisdiction of her sovereign. There, the neutral has no right
of the United States or of a particular State.
to
meddle with them.
' '
Should they be taken on shore, they become
subject to the local jurisdiction, or not, according as it may be agreed between the political authorities of the belligerent and neutral
power.
1856, 7 Op. 122, 131,
(Opinions of Gushing, At.-Gen., April 28, 1855, and Sept. and 8 Op. 73.)
6,
"During the war in which Russia was a party on the one side, and England, France and other powers on the other, questions relating to this subject arose, some of which were referred by my
SHIPS OP WAR.
201
predecessor, Mr. William L. Marcy, to Caleb Gushing, esq., then Attorney-General. An elaborate opinion on the latter relative to
One of its belligerent asylum, bears date the 28th of April, 1855. conclusions is that a foreign ship of war, or any prize of hers in
command of a public officer, possesses in the ports of the United States the rights of extraterritoriality, and is not subject to local This view was repeated in another opinion of Mr. jurisdiction.
which declared that ships of and territorial waters." (Mr. Evarts, Sec. of State, to Mr. Gomacho, Venezuelan min., Dec. 9, 1880, MS. Notes to Venez., I. 210.)
Gushing of the
8tli
of September, 1856,
war enjoy the
full rights of extraterritoriality in foreign ports
3.
Supplies Free of Duty.
The privilege granted to foreign men-of-war under section 2982, Revised Statutes, of purchasing supplies from the public warehouses duty free when that privilege is reciprocated in the ports of the nation to which the vessel belongs, is limited to purchasing in the bonded warehouses supplies deposited therein pending withdrawal for consumption. The duty referred to from which the supplies so purchased shall be free is the import duty. (Griggs,
1901, 23 Op. 418.) a vessel of war belonging to a friendly foreign nation can not set up extraterritoriality when unofficially on shore in a port in whose harbor their vessel is temporarily moored. (Mr.
At.-Gen.,
March
9,
The
officers of
Randolph, Sec. of State, to Mr.

Let. 55.)
4.
Hammond, July
Asylum.
23, 1794, 7
MS. Dom.
man-of-war is not bound to Though on give up anyone board, yet "any person. .. .attached to such a
the
of a foreign
commander
man-of-Avar, charged with an offence on shore, is liable to arrest therefor in the country where the offence may have been com-
mitted."
(Mr. Fish, Sec. of State, to 92 MS. Dom. Let. 322.) 1872,
Gommodore
Gase, Jan. 27,
LXV.
NATIONALITY OF VESSELS.
1.
Evidence of the
Flag-.
which declare such vessels entitled to the protection of the authorities and flag of the United
regulations, article 93,
States, recognize the rights of these vessels to carry
it.
The Treasury
202
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
2.
Flags.
The word "flag," when used either in public or private international law, in maritime subjects, designates the nationality of the vessel, arising from ownership, and the "law of the flag" is that which ascertains when a transaction is governed by the law of where the owner of the vessel resides, under which the the
country master holds his authority to bind the vessel or
its OAvner,
or which
to others. governs the internal discipline of a ship or its liability in some with used at been have looseness, also times, Expressions the maritime law, in which a vessel is spoken of as having a in rem, indepersonality ol its own, in reference to its liability are used Such of its owners. that of by way of expressions pendently
illustration,
not of definition, and in this respect a vessel does not from other kinds of property; even real estate may in the same manner be considered as offending or guilty as well as
differ
indebted.
These expressions are used, however, with regard to an entirely A vessel as a subject of nationality is not considered a personality any more than any other chattel, and can not have any other nationality impressed on it except that arising from
different subject.
The place in which a vessel is built does not give it more than the place of origin affects that of its any nationality the residence of the owner which stamps alike the is It cargo.
ownership.
vessel
and its cargo with its national character. national flag is prima facie evidence, on the high seas, that the nationality of the ship carrying it corresponds to that of the It is true that when there is probably ground to believe that flag.
the flag is assumed for piratical purposes, this will excuse the arrest and search of the vessel. But unless there be such probable cause the vessel must be assumed by foreign cruisers to be entitled
to
carry the flag she
flies.
"Maritime nations are free

recognize the nationality
to fix the conditions

in
of foreign vessels
on which they will water dependent
upon
territory but the mutual interests of nations require that those conditions should not be of such a nature as to interfere
their
;
own
with freedom of commerce and of navigation.

cases the vessel should be furnished with proof of its nationality by means of authentic documents, or of certain distinc-
"In
all
tive signs
it
which enable one to

is
tell
at first sight to
what nation
belongs.
"The
flag
the visible sign of the national character of a ship.
NATIONALITY OF VESSELS.
203
its
Each
state has its
own
colors,
under which
its
nationals sail and
which can not be used without
permission.
"The assumption
zation
is
of the flag of a foreign state without its authoriconsidered as a violation of international law, as a device
both fraudulent and injurious to the honor of such state. Both the state whose flag is wrongfully used and that in regard to which the use of the false flag is made have the right to demand the punish-
ment of the guilty persons and, according them themselves.

3.
to circumstances, to punish
Proof of Nationality.
''The flag alone does not suffice to prove the nationality of the In ship it offers too great facilities for abuse and usurpations. order to have a more certain means of control, maritime nations have
;
agreed that every merchant ship must be provided with papers or sea letters, which the captain is bound to produce whenever it is legitimately required. The ship's papers most usually consist of an
act indicating the signal of the ship, its dimensions, its name, the the act authorizing the vessel to bear details of its construction
;
the national flag; a crew list mentioning the names of the sailors; and a bill of sale or of property
and nationality and a passport

I.)
or patent of navigation."
(Calvo, Droit Int. [5th ed.],
4.
Registry.
"Registered vessels, which by sale (this is understood to mean a voluntary sale made by the American owner) become the property of foreigners, can never afterwards be registered, even tho' they
should be again transferred to their former owners, or any other American citizen. This is expressly prohibited by the act of 27th of But registered vessels which, having been seized or June, 1797.
captured and condemned, become the property of foreigners, are not in those cases absolutely disqualified from being registered anew, the .act declaring that if the owner or owners, at the time of seizure
.
or capture, shall regain a property in such vessels, by purchase or otherwise, they shall not be debarred from claiming and receiving new registers for the same, as they might or could have done if that
act had not been passed." (Circular of the Comptroller of the Treasury, Sept. 10, 1803, transmitted by Mr. Madison, Sec. of State, to U. S. consuls and commercial agents, Oct. 1, 1803, 1 MS. Desp, to
Consuls, 185, 180.)
204
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
contract in fraud of the positive laws and public policy of the United States, which excludes an alien from having any interest in an American registered vessel, by way of trust, confidence, or
(Duncansons v. McLure [1804], otherwise, will not be enforced. 308 overruling Murgatroyd Dallas supreme court of Pennsylvania, 4
;
V.
Crawford, 3 Dallas, 491.)
The benefit owner during
of the registry of an Ameri-can vessel is lost to the his residence in a foreign country, but upon his return to this country the disability ceases; nor does the fact that
during the foreign residence of the owner the vessel carried a foreign flag work any divestiture of title, nor render the disability
perpetual.
(Wirt, At.-Gen. [1821], 1 Op. 523.)
The certificate of a vessel's registry and proof that she carried the American flag establish a prima facie case of proper registry under the laws of the United States and of the nationality of the vessel and her owners. (St. Clair v. United States [1894], 154 U. S. 134,
151.)
Under section 4132, Revised demned and sold as prize of war to an American registry, and this
the United States.
Statutes,
to
vessel
lawfully
con-
an American
is
citizen is entitled
right
reversal of the decree of condemnation
not lost by the subsequent by the Supreme Court of
(Griggs, At.-Gen. [Feb. 17, 1900], 23 Op. 29, distinguishing this case from that involved in the opinion of December 14, 1840, 3 Op. 606.)
"While the navigation laws give such commercial

vessels built in the
privileges to
United States, they in no
way
forbid citizens of
the United States to
own
protection of the United built vessels if they are owned by citizens of the United States."
vessels built in other countries, nor is the States in any way denied to such foreign-
LXVI.
SALUTES BETWEEN SHIPS AND FORTS.

Vessels of war, in entering foreign ports, or in passing foreign forts, batteries, or garrisons, salute first, without reference to the relative rank of the officers of the ships and forts. Such salutes are
always to be returned gun for gun.

to the flag, and, consequently,
is
This salute
international.
a compliment The same rule holds

is
with respect to the interchange of compliments and
visits
with the
SALUTES BETWEEN SHIPS AND FORTS.

authorities on shore
;
205
first
the compliment or visit being
made from
the vessel, without regard to relative rank, even if it were possible to fix any relative rank for officers so different in their nature and
character.
The
rule,
making such compliments
international, avoids
any necessity of attempting such assimilation.

1.
Vessels Carrying Sovereigns.
apparent exception is made to this rule in the case of vessels carrying persons of sovereign rank or members of the royal family. In such cases, the forts, batteries, and garrisons, always salute first. But such salutes are intended expressly for the persons carried, and not for the vessel carrying them, and, consequently, the vessel It is customary, however, for such does not return the salute. salute the fort or garrison in the afterward if foreign, to vessel, of which salute usual manner, course, to be returned gun for gun. is, in of Where vessels war, foreign ports, land or receive on board their
An
sovereigns, or officers of their own government, the salutes to be given and ceremonies to be observed are to be determined by
own
their
own laws and
compliments
to be paid
The same remark applies to the regulations. on such occasions by other ships in port, and
by the military establishments on shore, each being governed by their own laws and regulations. Every country determines for itself the -salutes to be paid to its own authorities, and it will hardly be
expected that any higher compliment will be paid to those of other countries of the same rank. All such matters, however, should be
regulated by previous arrangement, and in cases of differences which cannot be accommodated, the party dissenting will take no part in the ceremonies.
2.
Salutes Between Ships of
War.
salutes
Ship or ships of war of one country, meeting in port, exchange gun for gun. The last arrival salutes first. Salutes are not to be exchanged where the regulations of the place do not permit them.
3.
Visits.
With respect the commander
to
the
ceremony
of visit,
of the vessel in port shall first
courtesy requires that send a message of
compliment and inquiry to the commander of a vessel coming into port, and such message of compliment is to be immediately returned by the new comer; after which the visits of ceremony are to be exchanged, the lowest in rank visiting first. Since March 12, 1877,
206
the
British
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Government having communicated with the various maritime Powers on the subject, the following procedure, in which the maritime Powers generally concur, has been observed in all ports whatsoever by the commanding officers of the ships of the
several maritime Powers, viz.
:
Preliminary Visits.
The
flag or other officer in
command
of one
or more ships of war in port, whatever may be his rank, will, upon the arrival of any ship or ships of war of another nationality, send an
officer to
such arriving ship, or in ease of a
fleet
or squadron, to
the ship of the officer in chief

courtesies.
command
to
of
it,
to offer the
this visit
customary
paid will
The captain of the ship
which
is
send an
officer to
Official Visit.
other officer
of
twenty-four hours of arrival the flag or in chief command of the arriving ship or ships will visit
Within
return
it.
the officer in chief
command
of the fleet or squadron or single ship
(as the case may be) of another nationality, present at the port, if he be his equal in grade, and the visit will be returned within twenty-four hours of being paid. In the case of officers of
war
different grades, the inferior will, in such cases, pay the first visit, the same limits of time being observed as to the visit and its return.
4.
Grades.
The grades are admiral, vice-admiral, rear-admiral, commodore (now obsolete), captain, commander, lieutenant or other command:
ing
officer.
Officers of superior grades will return calls as follows: All flag officers, including commodores, will return the visits of captains
and those of grades superior to captains. They will send their flag captains or commanders to return the visits of commanders, lieutenCaptains and officers of a ants, and other officers in command. lower grade will return the call of commanders and officers of inferior rank in command. In the case of a fleet or squadron arriving or being in port, and after the interchange of visits between the senior officers shall have taken place, the captains or other officers
in
command
of the several ships of
war
captains or other officers in wil] return the visits.

5.
command
arriving will call upon the of the ships of war in port, who
Celebration of Fetes.
Vessels of
war
in foreign ports celebrate their
to the regulation of their
own Government.
own fetes according Courtesy also requires
S.VLUTES.
207
them to take part in the national fetes of the place, by joining in the public demonstrations of joy or grief. The same mark of respect is shown to vessels of a third Power which celebrate fetes in foreign ports. But if such celebrations are of a character to offend or wound
the feelings of their
they are anchored as public rejoicings for a victory gained ships of war will remain as silent spectators, or leave the ports, according to circumstances of the case. In public ceremonies upon land,
ihe
own countrymen,
or the nation in whose waters
commandants of
vessels or fleets usually land with the officers
of their staff, and receive a place of honor, according to the hierarchy of rank, precedence being determined by grade, and, if equal, by date of arrival. In case of disputes as to rank, it is proper for
the contestants to
withdraw and become mere spectators of the
ceremonies.
6.
U. S. Regailations Regarding Salutes.
By
1905,
it is
the Regulations for the ordered:
Navy
of the United States,
June
30,
59. When the president of a foreign republic or a foreign sovereign visits a ship of the navy, the same honors as those prescribed for the reception of the President of the United States shall be
shall
extended, except that the national ensign of the country represented be displayed at the main during the entire visit, and the
national air of that country played
by the band.
60. When any member of the royal family visits a ship of the Navy, the honors prescribed for the President shall be extended, except that the national flag shall be displayed only during the
salute.
Whenever a ship of the navy falls in with a friendly foreign war flying the standard or flag of a president of a republic, sovereign, or member of a royal family, or passes near such standard
61.
ship of or flag,
if
flying elsewhere than
from a ship of war, a national salute
shall be fired
and the
flag of the nation of the president, sovereign,
or prince displayed at the main during the salute.

117. When a ship of the navy enters a port of any foreign nation where there is a fort or battery displaying the national flag, or where a commissioned ship of war of that nation is lying, she shall
fire
believe that the salute cannot be returned
a salute of twenty-one guns unless the captain has reason to and in this case he shall
;
immediately take steps to ascertain the local regulations or customs. This salute shall be the first fired after entering the fort. The ensign
208
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
salute.
of the nation saluted shall be displayed at the main during the In case two or more ships enter in company only the senior
shall salute.
118 (1). When a ship of the navy falls in at sea with a friendly foreign ship of war flying the flag or pennant of a flag officer or commodore she shall exchange salutes with such ship of war in the
same manner as when meeting similar ships of the United except that the salute will be returned gun for gun.
States,
In port, if several flag officers are to be saluted, the salutes (2) shall be fired in the order of their grade; if of the same grade,
priority shall be given, first, to the nationality of the port, and, second, to the length of service of the flag officers in their respective
commands. As between flag officers of the same grade, the last comer will salute first. These salutes shall be fired as soon as possible after the usual boarding visits have been made.
first official visit of a foreign naval a member of the diplomatic corps, or other distinguished official to a ship of the navy, he is to receive the same honors as an official of the United States of the same grade or rank. A foreign official not thus provided for, when visiting a ship of the navy, may be saluted either at his reception or departure with the number of guns he would be entitled to receive if visiting a ship of
119.
On
the occasion of the

officer,
or military
his
own
nation, or the
number prescribed by the
senior
officer, not,
however, to exceed nineteen. No personal flag of any foreign official shall be saluted except as prescribed in articles 61 and 118, unless assurance is received that the salute will be returned.
any nation, or of any any nation, not formally recognized by the Government of the United States.
official of
120.
No
salute shall be fired in honor of
Officers and men of the navy shall extend to foreign ofwhen passing near ships of the navy with the insigna of their rank flying, or when met ashore or afloat, the personal salutes and
121.
ficials,
other marks of respect due to similar

122.
officials of
the United States.
ship of the navy shall lower her sails or dip her ensign unless in return for such compliments.
123. as a
No
National airs of foreign states shall be played by the band

colors, the national air of the port,
compliment as follows: In the morning, after (a)
followed by the national airs of the ships of order of rank (see art. 118).
war present
in the
SALUTES.
(b)
209
When
aboard, at
which time
passing or being passed by a foreign ship of war close officers and men on deck in sight shall salute
and sentries present arms.
upon entering a foreign the same from a ship of war of a foreign nation, the ensign of the foreign nation shall be displayed at the main.
141 (b)
port, or
When
firing a national salute
when returning
On all occasions of celebrating foreign national anniversaries (c) or festivals, when salutes are fired, the ensign of the nation celebrating the day shall be displayed at the main during the salute and for
such further time as the ships of such nation present may remain dressed, and in the case of an anniversary of the nation in whose
waters the ship
until sunset.
is
lying,
where no ships of that nation are present,
While saluting the flag or broad pennant of a foreign flag commodore, or returning a foreign salute to a flag officer or commodore of the United States, the ensign of the foreign nation
(d)
officer or
shall be displayed at the fore.

(e) During personal salutes fired in honor of foreign naval, military, diplomatic, and consular officials, while visiting ships of the navy, or other foreigners of distinction not provided for in section 1, the ensign of the foreign nation to which the visitor belongs
shall be displayed at the fore.
LXVII.
PRIVATEERS OR LETTERS OF MARQUE.

armed vessel or privateer is a vessel owned and ofby private persons, but acting under a commission from the State, usually called letters of marque. It answers to a company on land raised and commanded by private persons, but acting under rules from the supreme authority, rather than to one raised and acting without license, which would resemble a privateer withprivate
ficered
out commission.
(It is
it
equipped not so much to

to
figlit
an enemy's
;
war
its
ship, to
which
would be unequal, as
value to the state commissioning it is The commission, on both elements, alone gives a right to the thing private captured, and insures good treatment from the enemy, vessel levying war without such license, although not engaged in a
plunder his commerce thus mainly incidental.)
210
piratical act,
fnt.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
would fare hardly
in the
enemy's hands.
(Wooley's
Law,
127.)
The term "letter of marque," though originally indicating the commission issued to a privateer, came in the course of time to be applied almost exclusively to a trading vessel that was authorized to make reprisals, whether in peace or in war. The term "privateer" was reserved for a vessel which, although privately fitted out, was
employed solely as a cruiser. Hamilton, therefore, in his circular of August 4, 1793, said: "The term privateer is understood not to extend to vessels ai'med for merchandise and war, commonly called
with us letters of marque, nor, of course, to vessels of war in the immediate service of the government of either of the powers at
war."
(Am. State Papers, For.
Rel.
I.
140.)
Swift, a privateer is defined to be an to one or more private individuals, licensed
By
armed vessel, belonging by Government to take
In Wilhelm's Military Dictionary (Phil. 1881), the name "partisan" is stated to be given to "small corps detached from the main body of an army, and acting independently against the enemy. In partisan warfare much liberty is allowed to
prizes
from an enemy.
partisans."
But
if so in
military,
why
not in naval warfare?
The
objection is to the plunder of private property on the high seas, against which the United States have always remonstrated, not to the particular agency employed. In McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary, London, 1882, privateers are defined to be "ships of war
by private individuals to annoy and plunder the enemy. But before commencing their operations, it is indispensable that they obtain letters of marque and reprisal from the government whose subjects they are, authorizing them to commit hostilities, and that they conform strictly to the rules laid down for the regulation
fitted out
of their conduct.
unless
empowered
All private individuals attacking others at sea, by letters of marque, are to be considered pi-
rates."
(Wharton, Com. Am. Law 201, note; citing Butler-Johnstone, Handbook of Maritime Rights [London, 1876], 12.)
LXVIII.
BLOCKADE IN TIME OF WAR.
A blockade must not extend beyond the ports and coasts belonging to or occupied by the enemy. In accordance with the Declaration of Paris of 1856, a blockade, in order to be binding, must be effective,
BLOCKADE IN TIME OF WAR.
211
that
A
is to say, it must be maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the enemy coastline. The question whether
is a question of fact. not regarded as raised if the blockading force is blocktemporarily withdrawn on account of stress of weather. ade must be applied impartially to the ships of all nations.
a blockade
is
effective
is
blockade
In circumstances of distress, acknowledged by an officer of the blockading force, a neutral vessel may enter a place under blockade and subsequently leave it, provided that she has neither discharged nor shipped any cargo there. The Commander of a blockading force may give permission to a warship to enter, and subsequently to leave, a blockaded port.
1.
Declaration of Blockade.
is
declaration of blockade
made
either
its
or by the naval authorities acting in date when the blockade begins; (2)
coastline
sels
name.
by the blockading Power It specifies (1) The
under blockade;
out.
(3)
The geographical limits of the The period within which neutral vesnotified (1)
may come
is
To neutral Powers, by
the blockading Power by means of a communication addressed to the Government direct, or to their representatives accredited to it;
(2)
To the
local authorities,
by the
officer
commanding
the blockad-
The local authorities will, in turn, inform the foreign ing force. consular officers at the port or on the coastline under blockade as
soon as possible.
The voluntary raising of a blockade,
as also
any
restriction in the limits of a blockade, must be notified in a like manner as the declaration of a blockade. The rules as to declaration
and notification of blockade apply to cases where the limits of a blockade are extended, or where a blockade is re-established after having been raised.
2.
Liability of Neutral Vessels.
capture for breach of blockade on her or presumptive, of the blockactual contingent knowledge, ade. A vessel which has broken blockade outwards, or which has attempted to break blockade inwards, is liable to capture so long
is
The
liability of a neutral vessel to
ns she
is
pursued by a ship of the blockading force. If the pursuit abandoned, or if the blockade is raised, her capture can no longer
is
bo effected. In case of breach of blockade by a neutral vessel, failing proof to
212
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
the contrary, knowledge of the blockade is presumed if the vessel left a neutral port subsequently to the notification of the blockade to the Power to which such port belongs, provided that such notification was made in sufficient time. If a vessel approaching a block-
aded port has no knowledge, actual or presumptive, of the blockade, the notification must be made to the vessel itself by an officer of one
This notification should be of the ships of the blockading force. entered in the vessel's logbook, and must state the day and hour, and
the geographical position of the vessel at the time. If, through the negligence of the officer commanding the blockading force, no
declaration of blockade has been notified to the local authorities, or, if in the declaration, as notified, no period has been mentioned within
which neutral vessels may come out, a neutral vessel coming out of the blockaded port must be allowed to pass free.
Neutral vessels may not be captured for breach of blockade except within the area of operations of the warships detailed to render the blockade effective. The blockading forces must not bar access
to neutral ports or coasts.
Whatever may be the
ulterior destina-
tion of
a vessel or of her cargo, she cannot be captured for breach of blockade, if, at the moment, she is on her way to a non-blockaded port. A vessel found guilty of breach of blockade is liable to condemnation.
The cargo
is
also
condemned, unless
it is
proved that
at the time of the shipment of the goods the shipper neither nor could have known of the intention to break the blockade.
knew
(In-
ternational Naval Conference.)
3.
Blockading' Operations.
When a government decides to undertake blockading operations against some part of the enemy coast it details a certain number of warships to take part in the blockade and intrusts the command to
an officer whose duty is to use them for the purpose of making the blockade effective. The commander of the naval force thus formed
posts the ships at his disposal according to the line of the coast and the geographical position of the blockaded places and instructs each ship as to the part which she has to play, and especially as to the zone which she is to watch. All the zones watched taken
together, and so organized as to make the blockade effective, form the area of operations of the blockading naval force.
The area
wide, but as
of operations of a blockading naval force may be rather it depends on the number of ships contributing to the
effectiveness of the blockade
and
is
always limited by the con-
CONTRABAND OP WAR.
dition that
it
213
should be effective,
vessels sail
where merchant
blockaded ports, which circumstances
it will never reach distant seas which are perhaps making for the but whose destination is contingent on the changes
may produce
in
the blockade during their
of the area of operations joined with voyage. that of effectiveness, as we have tried to define it that is to say, including the zone of operations of the blockading forces allows
To sum up, the idea
the belligerent effectively to exercise the right of blockade, which he admittedly possesses, and, on the other hand, saves neutrals from exposure to the drawbacks of blockade at a great distance, while it leaves
them
free to run the risk
approaching
Cases
points to
which they knowingly incur by which access is forbidden by the belligerent.
occur in which a single ship will be enough to keep for instance, at the entrance of a port or at the mouth of a river with a small estuary, so long as circumstances allow the blockading ship to stay near enough to the entrance.
may
a blockade effective
In that case the area of operations is itself near the coast. But on the other hand, if circumstances force her to remain far off, one ship may not be enough to secure effectiveness, and to maintain this
she will then have to be supported by others. From this cause the area of operations becomes wider and extends farther from the
coast.
It
may
therefore vary with circumstances and with the
num-
ber of blockading ships, but it will always be limited by the condition that effectiveness must be assured.
It
in definite figures
does not seem possible to fix the limits of the area of operations any more than to fix beforehand and definitely the
of ships necessary to assure the effectiveness of any blockade.
number
These points must be settled according to circumstances in each particular case of a blockade. This might perhaps be done at the time of making the declaration.
LXIX.
CONTRABAND OF WAR.
The following articles may, without notice, be treated as contraband of war, under the name of absolute contraband. These articles have been agreed upon by the International Naval Congress, London, 1909.
214
1.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Absolute Contraband.
1) Arms of ail kinds, including their distinctive component parts.
arms lor sporting purposes, and 2j l^rojectiles, charges, and carcomponent

parts. 3)
tridges of all kinds,
and
their distinctive
Pow-
der and explosives specially prepared lor use in war. 4) Gunmountings, limber boxes, limbers, military Avagons, held forges, and
their distinctive
component parts, o) Clothing and equipment of a 6) All kinds of harness of a disdistinctively military character, 7) Saddle, draught, and pack anitinctively military character.
ti)
mals suitable for use in war.

their
Articles of
camp equipment, and
component parts. 9) Armor plates. 10) Warships, including boats, and their distinctive component parts of such a nature that they can only be used on a vessel of war. 11) Implements and apparatus designed exclusively for the manufacture of munitions of war, for the manufacture or repair of arms, or war material for use on land or sea.
distinctive
Articles exclusively used for war may be added to the list of absolute contraband by a declaration, which must be notified. Such notification must be addressed to the Governments of other Powers,
or to their representatives accredited to the Power making the notification made after the outbreak of hostilities is addressed only to neutral Powers.
declaration.
2.
Conditional Contraband.
The following articles, susceptible of use in war as well as for purposes of peace, may, without notice, be treated as contraband of war, under the name of conditional contraband
:
1) Foodstufiis. 2) Forage and grain, suitable for feeding animals. 3) Clothing, fabrics for clothing, and boots and shoes, suitable for use in war. 4) Gold and silver in coin or bullion; paper money. 5) Vehicles of all kinds available for use in war, and their com-
ponent parts.
6) Vessels, craft, and boats of all kinds; floating docks, parts of docks and their component parts. 7) Railway material, both fixed and rolling stock, and material for telegraphs, wireless telegraphs, and telephones. 8) Balloons and flying ma-
chines and their distinctive component parts, together with accessories and articles recognizable as intended for use in connection
with balloons and flying machines. 9) Fuel; lubricants. 10) Powder and explosives not specially prepared for use in war. 11) Barbed wire and implements for fixing and cutting the same.
CONTRABAND OF WAR.
12) Horseshoes
215
and shoeing materials. 13) Harness and saddlery. Field 14) glasses, telescopes, chronometers, and all kinds of nautical instruments.
3.
Articles
Adapted
to
Form Contraband.
Articles susceptible of use in war as well as for purposes of peace, other than those enumerated in list given above, may be added to the list of conditional contraband by a declaration which must be
notified to the
Governments
it is
tives accredited to the
Power making the
of other Powers, or to the representadeclaration. If a Power
waives, so far as
concerned, the right to treat as contraband of
war an
comprised in any of the classes enumerated in the preceding paragraphs, such intention shall be announced by a declaration, which must be notified to the Governments of other Powers
article
in the
use in
manner just indicated. Articles which are not war may not be declared contraband of war.
4.
susceptible of
Articles
Not Contraband.
The following may not be declared contraband of war: 1) Raw cotton, wool, silk, jute, flax, hemp, and other raw materials of the textile industries, and yarns of the same. 2) Oil seeds and nuts, and lacs; hops. 4) Raw hides and copra. 3) Rubber, resins, gums, and artificial Natural manures, includhorns, bones and ivory. 5) for and agricultural purposes. 6) IMetallic phosphates ing nitrates
ores.
slates,
7) Earths, clays, lime, chalk, stone, including marble, bricks,
Chinaware and glass. 9) Paper and papermaking materials. 10) Soap, paint and colours, including articles exclusively used in their manufacture, and varnish. 11) Bleaching powder, soda ash, caustic soda, salt cake, ammonia, sulphate of amand
tiles.
8)
monia, and sulphate of copper. 12) Agricultural, mining, textile, and printing machinery. 13) Precious and semi-precious stones, 14) Clocks and watches, other pearls, mother-of-pearl, and coral. and Fashion than chronometers. 15) fancy goods. 16) Feathers of Articles of household furniture and bristles. all kinds, hairs, 17)
and decoration
5.
office furnitiire
and
requisites.
Additional Articles Not Contraband.
Likewise the following may not be treated as contraband of war: Articles serving exclusively to aid the sick and wounded. They can, however in case of urgent military necessity and subject to the payment of compensation, be requisitioned, if their destination is
1)
216
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
that specified in the following paragraph: 2) Articles intended for the use of the vessel in which they are found, as well as those intended for the use of the crew and passengers during the voyage.
6.
Absolute Contraband Liable to Capture.

is
Absolute contraband
liable to capture if it is
shown
to be des-
tined to territory belonging to or occupied by the enemy, or to the armed forces of the enemy. It is immaterial whether the carriage
of the goods is direct or entails transshipment or a subsequent transport by land. Proof of the destination specified in the foregoing
is
complete in the following cases:

in
mented for discharge
1) When the goods are docuan enemy port, or for delivery to the armed
forces of the enemy. 2) When the vessel is to call at enemy ports only, or when she is to touch at an enemy port or meet the armed
forces of the
enemy before reaching the neutral port

documented.
Vessel Carrying Contraband.
for which the
goods
in question are
7.
Where a vessel is carrying absolute contraband, her papers are conclusive proof as to the voyage on which she is engaged, unless she is found clearly out of the course indicated by her papers and
tional contraband
unable to give adequate reasons to justify such deviation. Condiis liable to capture if it is shown to be destined
for the use of the
armed forces or
of a
government department of
enemy State, unless in this latter case the circumstances show that the goods cannot in fact be used for the purposes of the war The destination referred to is presumed to exist if the "in progress.
the
lished in the
goods are consigned to enemy authorities, or to a contractor estabenemy country who, as a matter of common knowledge, articles of this kind to the enemy. A similar presumption supplies
arises if the goods are consigned to a fortified place belonging to the enemy, or other place serving as a base for the armed forces of the enemy. No such presumption, however, arises in the case of a merchant vessel bound for one of these places if it is sought to prove
that she herself
is
contraband.
tions do not arise, the destination presumptions may be rebutted.

8.
In cases where the above presumpis presumed to be innocent. These
Vessel Carrying Conditional Contraband.
Conditional contraband is not liable to capture, except when found on board a vessel bound for territory belonging to or occu-
VISIT
AND SEARCH.
217
pied by the enemy, or for the armed forces of the enemy, and when not to be discharged in an intervening neutral port. The ship's papers are conclusive proof both as to the voyage on which the vesit is
sel is
she
is
engaged and as to the port of discharge of the goods, unless found clearly out of the course indicated by her papers, and
unable to give adequate reasons to justify such deviation. Notwithstanding these provisions, conditional contraband, if shown to have
the destination referred to in the preceding paragraph, is liable to capture in cases where the enemy country has no seaport.
LXX.
VISIT
''The sea
is
AND SEARCH.
no nation has an exclusive propThe Resolution, Federal Court of Apis
open
to all nations;
(Case of erty in the sea." 2 peals, 1781, Dallas, 19, 22.)
To detain for examination

on the ocean.
a right which a belligerent
may
ex-
ercise over every vessel, not a national vessel, that
he meets with
(The Eleanor, 1871, 2 Wheat. 345.)

1.
Definition.
"What is this right of search? Is it a substantive and independent right wantonly, and in the pride of power, to vex and harass neutral commerce, because there is a capacity to do so? or to indulge the idle and mischievous curiosity of looking into neutral trade? or the assumption of a right to control it? If it be such a substantive and independent right, it would be better that cargoes should be inspected in port before the sailing of the vessel, or that
But this is not its charbelligerent licenses should be procured. acter. .It (the right of search) has been truly denominated a right growing out of, and ancillary to the greater right of capture. Where
.
.
this greater right
may be legally exercised without search, the right of search can never rise or come into question." (Marshall, Ch.
The Nereide, 1815,
2.
J.,
9 Cranch, 388, 427.)
Right Exercised by Cruiser.
cruiser of one nation has a right to know the national character of any strange ship he may meet at sea, but this right is not a perfect one, and the violation of it can not be punished by capture
218
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
and condemnation, nor even by detention. The party making the inquiry must put up his ov/n colors, or in some other way make
himself fully known, before he can lawfully demand such knowledge from the other vessel. If this be refused, the inquiring vessel
may may
a blank shot, and, in case of further delay, a shotted gun be fired across the bows of the delinquent, by way -of positive
fire
summons.
commander
Any measures beyond the summoning shot, which the of an armed ship may take for the purpose of ascertain-
ing the nationality of another vessel, must be at his peril; for the right of a ship to pass unmolested depends upon her actual char-
and not upon that which was erroneously attributed to her, even though her own conduct may have caused the mistake. The latter may affect the amount of reparation, but not the lawfulness of the act. The right of a public ship to hail or speak with a stranger must be exercised within the same limits as that of any other authorized armed vessel. When a vessel thus interrogated answers
acter,
either in words or by hoisting her flag, the response for true, and she must be allowed to keep her way. of inquiring can be exercised only on the high seas,
to time of peace.
must be taken But this right and is limited
(Black, At. Gen., 1860, 9 Op. 455.)

3.
Duties of Merchant Vessels.
The captain of a merchant steamer when brought to by a man-ofwar is not privileged from sending his papers on board, if so required, by the fact that he has a Government mail in his charge. On the contrary, he is bound by that circumstance to strict performance of neutral duties and to special respect for belligerent
rights.
(The Peterhoff, 5 Wall.
28.)
"13. This right should be exercised with tact and consideration, and in strict conformity with treaty provisions, wherever they exist. The following directions are given, subject to any special treaty After firing a blank charge, and causing the vessel stipulations: to lie to, the cruiser should send a small boat, no larger than a whaleboat, with an officer to conduct the search. There may be arms in the boat, but the men should not wear them on their persons. The officer wearing only his side arms, and accompanied on board by not more than two men of his boat's crew, unarmed, should first examine the vessel's papers to ascertain her nationality and her ports of departure and destination. If she is neutral, and trading between
neutral ports, the examination goes no further. If she is neutral, and bound to an enemy's port not blockaded, the papers which indi-
VISIT
AND
SEx\JlCH,
219
If these
cate the character of her cargo should be examined.
show
contraband of war, the vessel should be seized; if not, she should be set free, unless, by reason of strong grounds of suspicion, a further search should seem to be requisite." (U. S. Instructions to Blockading Vessels and Cruisers, General Orders, No. 492, June
20, 1898, For. Rel. 1898, 781.)
4.
Mail Steamers and Mails.
of 1848
In the postal treaty between the United States and Great Britain it was provided that in case of war between the two nations
the mail packets should be unmolested for six weeks after notice by either Government that the mail service was to be discontinued, in
which case they should have safe conduct to return.
(9 Stat. 969.)
"The
chant vessel, a chant vessels.
Trent, though she carried mails, was a contract, or mercommon carrigr for hire. Maritime law knows only
of war, revenue vessels, and merwithin the latter class. Whatever disputes have existed concerning a right of visitation or search in time of peace, none, it is supposed, has existed in modern times about the right of a belligerent in time of war to capture contraband in neutral and even friendly merchant vessels, and of the right of visitation and search in order to determine whether they are neutral and
three classes of vessels,
vessels
falls
The Trent
are
documented as such according to the law of nations." (Mr. Seward to Lord Lyons, Dec. 26, 1861, 55 Br. & For. State Papers
"Fourthly.
627, 631.)
That, to avoid difficulty and error in relation to papers which strictly belong to the captured vessel, and mails that are carried, or parcels under official seals, you will, in the words of
the law, 'preserve all the papers and writings found on board and transmit the whole of the originals unmutilated to the judge of the district to which such prize is ordered to proceed;' but official seals,
or locks, or fastenings of foreign authorities, are in no ease, nor on any pretext, to be broken, or parcels covered by them read by any
naval authorities, but
all
bags or other things covering such parcels,
and duly seized and fastened by foreign authorities, will be, in the fliscrotion of the United States officer to whom they may come, delivered to the consul, commanding naval officer, or legation of the foreign government, to be opened, upon the understanding that whatever is contral)an(l or important as evidence concerning the character of a captured vessel will be remitted to the prize court, or
to the
Secretary of State at Washington, or such sealed bag or
220
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
parcels may be at once forwarded to this Department, to the end that the proper authorities of the foreign government may receive
the same without delay." (Instructions issued by the Secretary of the Navy, Aug. 18, 1862, the naval officers of the United States,
Official
1,
Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, Ser.
I.,
vol.
pp. 417, 418.)

5.
Resistance to Search.
"A
persistent resistance
by a neutral
vessel to submit to a search
renders
it confiscable, according to the settled determinations of the English Admiralty. It would be much to be regretted if any of our vessels should be condemned for this cause, unless under circum-
stances which compromitted their neutrality." (Mr. Marcy, Sec. of State, to Mr. Buchanan, min. to England, April 13, 1854, H. Ex.
Doc. 103, 33 Cong. 1
sess. 12, 13.)
visit, destroying her or fraudulent attempting to escape, should papers, papers, presenting Instructions to Blockading S. be sent in for adjudication." (U. Vessels and Cruisers, General Orders, No. 492, June 20, 1898, For.
"A
vessel
under any circumstances resisting
Rel. 1898, 780.)
Irrespective of the character of the cargo, or her purported destination, a neutral vessel should be seized if she
' '
14.
"(1)
Attempts to avoid search by escape; but

Resists search with violence.
this
must be
clearly evident.
"(2)
"(3)
"(4)
Presents fraudulent papers.

Is
not supplied with the necessary papers to establish the
objects of search.
"(5)
Destroys, defaces, or conceals papers.

generally to be expected on board of a vessel are:
"The papers
"
(1)
"(2) "(3) "(4) "(5) "(6) "(7)

C
The register. The crew. list. The log book.
A A
bill
of health.
charter party.
Invoices.
Bills of lading."
Instructions to U. S. Blockading Vessels and Cruisers, General Orders, No. 492, June 20, 1898, For. Rel. 1898, 781.)
TRANSFER OP FLAG.
Stockton, in his Naval
221
War Code, art. 23, gave the following as the "papers generally expected to be on board of a vessel:" (1) Register, (2) crew and passenger list, (3) log book, (4) bill of
health,
is
(5)
manifest of cargo, (6) charter-party,

bills of lading.
if
the vessel
chartered, (7) invoices and

certificate
"A
under the authority of the United States must be
taken by foreign powers as genuine, and can be impeached by them only by application to the Government of the United States." (Wharton, Int. Law Digest, Art. 409, quoted in The Conrad, 1902,
37 Ct. CI. 459.)
The act of Congress of July 9, 1798, 1 Stat. 578, which authorized merchant vessels to carry arms for protection, could not change the rule of international law which gave a belligerent the right of search, nor save a vessel from lawful confiscation for resisting such
right.
It
The Jane (1901), 37 Ct. CI. 24. was held in this case that where an American vessel attempted flight from an unknown vessel, but, after discovering that the latter was a French cruiser, hove to, and, after being fired into with ball and musketry, returned the fire, it was resistance to
search.
belligerent cruiser encounters a
merchant vessel and summons
her to stop in order that she may be searched, but the vessel does not stop and tries to avoid the search by flight. The belligerent cruiser
may employ
force to stop the merchant vessel, and if the latter is or sunk, she has no right to complain, as she failed to damaged with an obligation imposed upon her by the law of nations. comply
Resistance to the legitimate exercise of the "right of visit, search, or seizure renders the vessel in all cases liable to confiscation. The
is liable to the same treatment as the cargo of an enemy vessel. Merchandise belonging to the captain or to the owners of the ship is regarded as enemy merchandise.
cargo
LXXI.
TRANSFER OF FLAG.
Article 55 of the International Naval Conference, London, 1909,
states:
"The transfer of an enemy vessel to a neutrnl flng, cfTected before the outbreak of hostilities, is valid, unless it is proved that such transfer was made in order to evade the consequences
222
to
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
which an enemy vessel, as such, is exposed. There is, however, a presumption, if the bill of sale is not on board a vessel which has lost her belligerent nationality less than sixty days before the outbreak of hostilities, that the transfer is void. This
presumption
may
be rebutted.
was effected more than thirty days before the outbreak of hostilities, there is an absolute presumption that it is valid if it is unconditional, complete, and in conformity with the laws of the countries concerned, and if its effect is such that neither the control of, nor the profits arising from the employment of, the vessel remain in the same hands as before the transfer. If, however, the vessel lost her belligerent nationality less than sixty days before the outbreak of hostilities and if the bill of sale is not on board, the capture of the vessel gives no
Where
the transfer
right to damages."
1.
Time
in
Which
to Effect Transfer.
of flag
There are thus established three periods under which transfer is considered, (1) during war, when burden of proof of the validity of the transfer rests upon the vender; (2) a period of 30 days before the war, during which it is necessary for the captor to prove that the transfer is made to evade the consequences of war; and 3) the period prior to 30 days, when, regardless of whether
or
not
the
transfer
is
made
to escape the consequences of war,
necessary for the captor to establish that the transfer itself is irregular, or not in fact a transfer. It is also necessary that in order
it is
to
60 days before the board.
have advantages of these provisions, a vessel transferred within war shall have the papers relating to the sale on
2.
Valid and Invalid Transfer.
transfer effected before the outbreak of
war
is
valid
if it is
absolute, complete, bona fide, and conforms to the legislation of the States interested, and if it has for its effect that neither the control of the ship,
nor the profits arising from its use, remain longer in the same hands as before the transfer. If the captor can establish that the above conditions have not been fulfilled, the transfer is presumed to have intervened with the intention to evade the consequences of war, and
is null.
LXXII.
CAPTURE.
Articles 37-44 inclusive of the International Naval Conference,
London, 1909, state:
CAPTURE.
1.
223
Vessel Carrying Contraband.
A vessel carrying goods liable to capture as absolute or conditional contraband may be captured on the high seas or in the territorial waters of the belligerents throughout the whole of her voyage, even if she is to touch at a port of call before reaching the hostile destination. A vessel may not be captured on the ground that she has carried contraband on a previous occasion of fact at an end.
2.
if
such carriage
is
in point
Condemnation of
Vessels.
Contraband goods are liable to condemnation. A vessel carrying contraband may be condemned if the contraband, reckoned either by value, weight, volume, or freight, forms more than half the cargo. If a vessel carrying contraband is released, she may be condemned to pay the costs and expenses incurred by the captor in respect
of the proceedings in the national prize court and the custody of the ship and cargo during the proceedings. Goods which belong to the owner of the contraband and are on board the same vessel are
liable to
condemnation.
3.
Vessel
Unaware
of
War.
If a vessel is
encountered at sea while unaware of the outbreak
of hostilities or of the declaration of contraband
which applies
to
her cargo, the contraband cannot be condemned except on payment

of compensation; the vessel herself and the remainder of the cargo are not liable to condemnation or to the costs and expenses referred
The same rule applies if the master, after becoming above. aware of the outbreak of hostilities, or of the declaration of contraband, has had no opportunity of discharging the contraband. A vessel is deemed to be aware of the existence of a state of war, or
to
of a declaration of contraband,
to the notification to the
if
Power
she left a neutral port subsequently to which such port belongs of the
outbreak of hostilities or of the declaration of contraband respectively, provided that such notification was made in sufficient time.
vessel
if
is
also
left
war
she
deemed to be aware of the existence of a state of an enemy port after the outbreak of hostilities.
4.
Delivery of Contraband.
vessel
contraband, and which
which has been stopped on the ground that she is carrying is not liable to condemnation on account
224
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
of the proportion of contraband on board, may, when the circumstances permit, be allowed to continue her voyage if the master
is
hand over the contraband to the belligerent warship. The delivery of the contraband must be entered by the captor on the logbook of the vessel stopped and the master must give the captor duly certified copies of all relevant papers. The captor is at liberty to destroy the contraband that has been handed over to him under these conditions.
willing to
5.
Indemnity.
vessel the o-vvner or the captain
Prize courts have recognized that in case of unjust seizure of the is entitled to receive indemnity for
the loss, inconvenience, and delay which he has suffered. The captor has a right to demand that the owner of the vessel clearly show that the vessel is innocent. If the papers are irregular, if the vessel is far out of its course and near a blockaded port, she is open to susThe belligerent is justified in taking the vessel to a prize picion.
court, but
condemnation by the court might not be
justified.
LXXIII.
PRIZE COURTS.
law and practice of nations, the seat of of prize-courts is located in the belligerent counjudicial authority are dependent, in a measure, upon the laws and institry, and they tutions of the particular States by which they are established. In
According
to the present
this respect
they are ex parte tribunals. But the subjects of their adjudication are, without distinction, matters relating to the citizens
and property of their own States, of neutrals, and of the belligerent country; and the law itself, by which their decisions should be governed, has no locality, and it is the duty of such a court to determine questions which come before it exactly as it would determine them by sitting in the neutral or belligerent country, the rights of whose
citizens are to be adjudicated upon. In theory, therefore, such courts are regarded as international tribunals. But the practice has not
at all times corresponded with this theory, and, on this account,
it
is necessary to rigidly investigate the principles upon which these adjudications are founded, and the reasonings by which they are
this caution in their use, the books of Admiralty an instructive source of information respecting become reports may
supported.
With
CONVOY.
225
the i^ractical rules of international law. It is also necessary to continually bear in mind the distinction between cases decided upon
law and institutions, and those decided upon general princiwhich should govern the intercourse of independent States. Moreover, in maritime States, a court will feel, though perhaps unlocal
ples
consciously, the influence of a national bias in favour of the captor.
(Halleck, Int. Law,
^'ol. I,
pp. 62-63.)
International Prize Court Convention.
The International Prize Court Convention was signed at The Hague October 18, 1907, and was animated by the desire to settle in an equitable manner the dili'erences which sometimes arise in the course of a naval war in connection with the decisions of National
Prize Courts.
tions in the
If these
Courts are to continue to exercise their funclegislation, it is desir-
manner determined by national
an appeal should be provided under conditions conciliating, as far as possible, the public and private interests
able that in certain cases
involved in matters of prize.
LXXTV.
CONVOY.
1.
Exemption from Search.

Naval Congress (February
Articles 61
and 62
of the International
26, 1909) state:
Neutral vessels under national convoy are exempt from search.
The commander of a convoy gives, in writing, at the request of the commander of a belligerent warship, all information as to the character of the vessels and their cargoes, which could be obtained by If the commander of the belligerent warship has reason search. to suspect that the confidence of the commander of the convoy has been abused, he communicates his suspicions to him. In such a case it is for the commander of the convoy alone to investigate the matter. He must record the result of such investigation in a report, of which a copy is handed to the officer of the warship. If, in the opinion of the commander of the convoy, the facts shown in the report justify the capture of one or more vessels, the protection of tlie convoy must be withdrawn from such vessels. The effect of a convoy is to remove the vessel under escort from the belligerent right of visit and search, and the convoying officer
226
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
must assume the responsibility for all the vessels under his control. The belligerent war vessel approaching a convoy is entitled to obtain information regarding the vessel under convoy, and the convoying officer must be prepared to furnish all the necessary inforThe commander of the belligerent may have reason to mation. believe that the convoying officer has been deceived, and may request investigation.
tion,
If the
convoying
he
may inform
the
commander
officer accedes to investigaof the belligerent of the result
of his investigation, and if he finds that the vessel which he has escorted in good faith has deceived him, he must withdraw his protection immediately.
2.
Neutral Convoy.
"Merchant vessels sailing under military convoy of an allied or neutral power are not subjected to examination, provided the commander of the convoy furnishes a certificate as to the number of
vessels being convoyed, their nationality, and the destination of the cargoes, and also as to the fact that there is no contraband of war
on the vessels. The stoppage and examination of these vessels is permitted only in the following cases: (1) When the commander of the convoy refuses to give the certificate mentioned; (2) when he declares that one or another vessel does not belong to the number of those sailing under his convoy, and (3) when it becomes evident that a vessel being convoyed is preparing to commit an act constituting a breach of neutrality." (Russian Regulations on
Maritime Prize, March

3.
27, 1895, Art. 6, For. Rel. 1904, 736.)
Belligerent Convoy.
under belligerent or neutral convoy is of itself and the ship and cargo if caught in delicto are justly confiscable; and further, that if resistance be necessary,
act of sailing
a violation of neutrality
;
"The
my opinion it ance of the convoy

as in
fleet.
is
is
...
am
not, to perfect the offence, still that the resistto all purposes the resistance of the associated unable to perceive any solid foundation on
which to rest a distinction between the resistance of a neutral and of an enemy master. "I can not bring my mind to believe that a neutral can charter an armed enemy ship, and victual and man her with an enemy crew, with the avowed knowledge and necessary intent that she should resist every enemy; that he can take on board hostile shipthat he can be ments of freight, commissions and profits;
.
. .
.
NEUTRALITY.
227
the entire projector aud eonductor of the voyage, and cooperate in all the plans of the owner to render resistance to search secure
aud
effectual
and that
yet, notAvithstanding all this conduct,
laAv of
may shelter his property from confiscation, claim the privileges of an inoffensive neutral." (Story, J.,
nations he
by the and The
Xereide, 9 Craneh, 388, 445, 453, 454, dissenting opinion.) neutral vessel, though liable to capture without search when sailing under belligerent convoy, is not liable to capture or con-
demnation for sailing under such convoy after she has, voluntarily or involuntarily, separated from it. (The Galen, 1901, 37 Ct. CI. 89.)
LXXV.
NEUTRALITY.
to abstain
common friends of belligerents, and are in duty bound from such acts and conducts as might make them parties The foregoing, however, is subject to a prior to an existing war. treaty of alliance, either of a defensive or of an offensive nature, which may force a nation into the ranks of belligerents, terminating
Neutrals are
thereby
its pacific status.
of neutrality is of comparatively recent date, as in ancient times the principles of neutrality were not recognized. A distinction must be made between neutrality on land and that on
sea, the latter
The history
coming into existence by virtue of the commerce caron by the Mediterranean cities, which embodied their usages and customs in the code termed Consolato del i\lare, referred to in the chapter on The Development of International Law, exempting the property of friends from confiscation even when found on enemy
ried
vessels. Subsequently the Declaration of Paris (1856) established the exemption of neutral goods under the flag of a hostile power with the exception of contraband. The United States has in sub-
stance adopted this policy, declaring that enemy property receives no protection from a neutral flag and neutral property assumes no
hostile character
when transported under a belligerent flag, but in each case the ownersliip of the property is controlling. It is a conceded riglit of neutral states to impose upon belligerent
vessels within thoir jurisdiction certain regulations and rules necessary for the maintenance of the state of neutrality. The restriction imposed upon belligerent vessels, however, does not exclude the
right of hosi)ita]ity in emergency cases, such as to escape the dangers of an attack or of a slorrn, or to take on supplies sufficient to
228
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
its home port. The presence of a in a neutral vessel cannot be utilized to carry on port belligerent hostile acts or to strengthen its armament or crew.
insure the return of the vessel to
It is also the
duty of a neutral government not to supply one or
the other of the belligerents with belligerent vessels, either by an express act of the government or by conniving at this violation of
The duties of neutral governments were formulated in this respect in a series of communications passing between the United States and British Governments during the The three primary rules emphasized were 3'ears 1871-1874.
the accepted rules of neutrality.
:
To use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, armequipping within its jurisdiction of any vessel which it has reasonable ground to believe is intended to cruise or carry on war against a Power with which it is at peace, and also to use like diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such vessel having been specially adapted, in whole or in part, within such jurisdiction, to warlike use. "Secondly. Not to permit or suffer either belligerent to make use of its ports or waters as the base of naval operations against the other, or for the purpose of the renewal or augmentation of military supplies or arms, or the recruitment of men. "Thirdly. To exercise due diligence in its waters, and as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the foregoing obligations and duties."
"First.
ing, or
The development of the laws of neutrality on land is even of more recent date. Its growth dates from the middle of the seventeenth century. The distinguishing feature of neutrality on land as compared with neutrality on sea is the fact that armed bodies of men entering neutral territory are immediately disarmed and interned, and the failure of the exercise of this duty entails the attack
of the neutral state
by the other
belligerent.
The present conception

is
of the rights
and duties
of a neutral state
clearly defined in the American Neutrality Proclamation, issued under date of August 4, 1914. The proclamation issued by President
Woodrow Wilson
trality,
is
a masterly disquisition on the subject of neu-
and
is
set forth in
haec verba
1.
American Neutrality Proclamation.

Issued Aug.
4,
1914.
By
the President of the United States of America

:
A Procla-
mation
NEUTR.VLITY,
229
Whereas, a state of war unhappily exists between AustriaTTungary and Servia, and between Germany and Russia, and between Germany and France and whereas the United States is on terms of friendship and amity with the contending powers and with the persons inhabiting their several dominions; And, whereas, there are citizens of the United States residing within the territories or dominions of each of the said belligerents and carrying on commerce, trade or other business or
;
pursuits therein;
And, whereas, there are subjects of each of the said belligerents residing within the territory or jurisdiction of the United States and carrying on commerce, trade or other business or
pursuits therein;
And, whereas, the laws and treaties of the United States, without interfering with the free expression of opinion and sympathy or with the commercial manufacture or sale of arms or munitions of war, nevertheless impose upon all persons who may be within their territory and jurisdiction the duty of an impartial neutrality during the existence of the contest; And, whereas, it is the duty of a neutral government not to permit or suffer the making of its waters subservient to the purposes of war; Now, therefore, I, Woodrow Wilson, president of the United States of America, in order to preserve the neutrality of the United States and of its citizens and of persons within its territory and jurisrliction, and to enforce its laws and treaties, and in order that all persons, being warned of the general tenor of the laws and treaties of the United States in this behalf, and of the law of nations, may thus be prevented from any violation of the same, do hereby declare and proclaim that by certain provisions of the act approved on the 4th day of March, A. D. 1909, commonly known as the penal code of the United States, the following acts are forbidden to be done, under severe penalties, Avithin the territory and jurisdiction of the United States,
to-wit
:
"1. Accepting and exercising a commission to serve either of the said belligerents by land or by sea against the other belligerents.
"2. Enlisting or entering into the service of either of the said belligerents as a soldier, or as a marine, or seaman on board of any vessel of war, letter of marque, or privateer.
"3. Hiring or retaining another person to enlist or enter himself in the service of either of the said belligerents as a Kf)ldirr, or ns a ninrine, or seamnn on bnnrd nf any vessel of war, letter of marque, or privateer.
"4. TTiring another person to go boy*ii(1 the limits or jurisdiction of the TTnilerl Sfjitos wifb intent to be enlisted a'; aforesaid.
230
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
t(i '5. Hiring another person to go beyond the limits of the United States with intent to be entered into service as aforesaid. (<t '6. Retaining another person to go beyond the limits of the United States with intent to be enlisted as aforesaid.
*'7. Retaining another person to go beyond the limits of the United States with intent to be entered into service as aforesaid. (But the said act is not to be construed to extend to a citizen or subject of either belligerent who, being transiently within the United States, shall, on board of any vessel of war, which, at the time of its arrival within the United States, was fitted and equipped as such vessel of war, enlist or enter himself or hire or retain another subject or citizen of the same belligerent, who is transiently within the United States, to enlist or enter himself to serve such belligerent on board such vessel of war, if the United States shall then be at peace with such
belligerent.)
**8. Fitting out and arming, or attempting to fit out and arm, or procuring to be fitted out and armed, or knowingly being concerned in the furnishing, fitting out or arming of any ship or vessel with intent that such ship or vessel shall be employed in the service of either of the said belligerents.
"9. Issuing or delivering a commission within the territory or jurisdiction of the United States for any ship or vessel to the intent that she may be employed as aforesaid.
_
"10. Increasing or augmenting, or procuring to be increased or augmented, or knowingly being concerned in increasing or augmenting the force of any ship of war, cruiser or other armed vessel, which at the time of her arrival within the United States was a ship of war, cruiser or armed vessel in the service of either, of the said belligerents, or belonging to the subjects of either by adding to the number of guns of such vessels or by changing those on board of her for guns of a larger caliber, or by the addition thereto of any equipment solely applicable to war.
"11. Beginning or setting on foot or providing or preparing the means for any military expedition or enterprise to be carried on from the territory or jurisdiction of the United States against the territories or dominions of either of the said belligerents."
And I do hereby further declare and proclaim that any frequenting and use of the waters within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States by the armed vessels of a belligerwhether public ships or privateers, for the purpose of preparing for hostile operations, or as posts of observation upon
ent,
the ships of war or privateers or merchant vessels of a belligerent lying within or being about to enter the jurisdiction of the United States, must be regarded as unfriendly and offensive and in violation of that neutrality which it is the determination of this government to observe.
NEUTRALITY.
231
And to the end that the hazard and inconvenience of such apprehended practices may be avoided, I further proclaim and declare that from and after the 5th day of August inst., and during the continuance of the present hostilities betwe*" i Austria-Hungary and Servia, and Germany and Russia, and Germany and France, no ship of war or privateer of any belligerent shall be permitted to make use of any port, harbor, roadstead or Avaters subject to the jurisdiction of the United States from which a vessel of an opposing belligerent (whether the same shall be a sliij of war, a privateer or a merchant ship) shall have previously departed, until after the expiration of at least twenty-four hours from the departure of such last mentioned vessel beyond the jurisdiction of the United States.
If any ship of war or privateer of a belligerent shall, after the time this notification takes effect, enter any port, harbor, roadstead or waters of the United States, such vessel shall be required to dejârt and to put to sea within twenty-four hours after her entrance into such port, harbor, roadstead, or waters, except in case of stress of weather or of her requiring provisions, or things necessary for the subsistence of her crew, or for repairs in any of which eases the authorities of the port or of the nearest port (as the case may be) shall require her to put to sea as soon as possible after the expiration of such period of twenty-four hours, without permitting her to take in supplies beyond what may be necessary for her immediate use, and no such vessel which may have been permitted to remain within the waters of the United States for the purpose of repair shall continue within such port, harbor, roadstead, or waters for a longer period than tweuty-four hours after her necessary repairs shall have been completed, unless within such twentyfour hours a vessel, whether ship of war, privateer, or merchant ship of an opposing belligerent, shall have departed therefrom, in which case the time limit for the departure of such ship of war or privateer shall be extended so far as may be necessary to secure an interval of not less than twenty-four hours between such departures and that of any ship of war, privateer, or merchant ship of an opposing belligerent which may have previously quit the same port, harbor, roadstead or waters. No ship of Avar or privateer of a belligerent shall be detained in any port, harbor, roadstead or Avaters of the United States more than tAventy-four hours, by reason of the successive departures from such port, harlior, roadstead. or Avaters of more than one vessel of an opposing belligerent. But if there be several vessels of opposing belligerents in the same port, harbor, roadstead or Avaters. the order of their departure therefrom shall be so arranged as to afford the opportunity of leaAîng alt'TTiately to the vessels of the opposing belligerents and to cause the least detention consistent Avith the objects of this
;
proclamation.
No
ship of
war
or privateer of a belligerent shall be permit-
232
ted, while in
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
any port, harbor, roadstead or waters within the jurisdiction of the United States, to take in any supplies except provisions and such other things as may be requisite for the subsistence of her crew and except so much coal only as may be sufficient to carry such vessel, if without any sail poAver, to the nearest port of her own country, or, in case the vessel is rigged to go under sail, and may also be propelled by steam power, then with half the quantity of coal which she would be entitled to receive, if dependent upon steam alone, and no coal shall be again supplied to any such ship of war or privateer in the same or any other port, harbor, roadstead, or waters of the United States, without special permission, until after the expiration of three months from the time when such coal may have been last supplied to her within the waters of the United States, unless such ship of war or privateer shall, since last thus supplied, have entered a port of the government to which she
belongs. And I do further declare and proclaim that the statutes and the treaties of the United States and the law of nations alike require that no person, within the territory and jurisdiction of the United States, shall take part, directly or indirectly, in the said wars, but shall remain at peace with all of the said belligerents, and shall maintain a strict and impartial neutrality. And I do hereby enjoin all citizens of the United States, and all persons residing or being within the territory or the jurisdiction of the United States, to observe the laws thereof, and to commit no act contrary to the provisions of the said statutes or treaties or in violation of the law of nations in that behalf. And I do hereby warn all citizens of the United States, and all persons residing or being within the territory or the jurisdiction of the United States, to observe the laws thereof, and to commit no act contrary to the provisions of the said statutes or treaties or in violation of the law of nations in that behalf. And I hereby warn all citizens of the United States and all persons residing or being within its territory or jurisdiction that, while the free and full expression of sympathies in public and private is not restricted by the laws of the United States, military forces in aid of a belligerent cannot lawfully be originated or organized within its jurisdiction, and that, while all persons may lawfully and without restriction, by reason of the aforesaid state of war, manufacture and sell within the United States arms and munitions of war and other articles ordinarily known as contraband of war, yet they cannot carry such articles on the high seas for the use or services of a belligerent, nor can they transport soldiers and officers of a belligerent or attempt to break any blockade which may be lawfully established and maintained during the said wars without incurring the risk of hostile capture and the penalties denounced by the law of the nations in that behalf. And I do hereby give notice that all citizens of the -United
NEUTRALITY.
States and others
2'^'-i
who may
claim the protection of this govern-
ment %vho may misconduct themselves in the premises will do so at their peril, and that they can in nowise obtain any protection from the government of the United States against the
consequences of their misconduct. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. Done at the city of "Washington this 4th day of August, in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and fourteen and of the independence of the United States of America the one hundred and thirty-eighth. The proclamation was subsequently extended so as to apply to Great Britain and the other belligerent nations.
2.
Comment by
Officers
Forbidden.
letter to the
secretaries of
Aug. 6 President Wilson addressed the following war and of the navy:
"I write to suggest that you request and advise all officers of the service, whether active or retired, to refrain from public comment of any kind upon the military or political situation on the other side of the water. I would be obliged if you would them know that the request and advice comes from me. It me highly unwise and improper that officers of the arni}^ of the United States should make any public utterances to which any color of political or military criticism can be given where other nations are involved."
let
seems to navy and
3.
Appeal to Americans.
to the
Aug. 18 President Wilson addressed the following appeal people of the United States
:
"My
man
in
Fellow Countrymen: I suppose that every thoughtful America has asked himself during the last troubled
weeks what influence the European war may exert upon the I take the liberty of addressing a few words to you in order to point out that it is entirely within our own choice what its effects upon us will be and to urge very earnestly upon you the sort of speech and conduct which will best safeguard the nation against distress and disaster. The effect of the war upon the United States will depend upon what American citizens say or do. Every man who really loves America will act and speak in the true spirit of neutrality, which is the spirit of impartiality and fairness and friendliness to all concerned. The spirit of the nation in this critical matter will be determined largely by what individuals and society and those gathered in public meeting do and say, upon what newspapers and magazines contain, upon what our ministers utter in their pulpits and men proclaim as their opinions on the streets.
United States, and
234
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
The people of the United States are drawn from many nations, and chiefly from the nations now at war. It is natural and inevitable that there should be the utmost variety of sympathy and desire among them with regard to the issues and circumstances of the conflict. Some will wish one nation, others another, to
succeed in the momentous struggle. It will be easy to excite passion and difficult to allay it. Those responsible for exciting it will assume a heavy responsibility; responsibility for no less a thing than that the people of the United States, whose love of their country and whose loyalty to its government should
think
as Americans all, bound in honor and aflêction to of her and her interests, may be divided in camps of hostile opinions, hot against each other, involved in the war itself in impulse and opinion, if not in action. Such divisions among us would be fatal to our peace of mind and might seriously stand in the way of the proper performance of our duty as the one great nation at peace, the one people holding itself ready to play a part of impartial mediation and speak the counsels of peace and accommodation, not as a partisan, but as a friend.
unite
them
first
my fellow countrymen, to speak a solof warning to you against that deepest, most subtle, most essential breach of neutrality which may spring out of The United partisanship, out of passionately taking sides. States must be neutral in fact as well as in name during these must be impartial in days that are to try men's souls. thought as well as in action, must put a curb upon our sentiments as well as upon every transaction that might be construed as a preference of one party to the struggle before another.
I venture, therefore,
emn word
We
My thought is of America. I am speaking, I feel sure, the earnest wish and purpose of every thoughtful American that this great country of ours, Avhich is, of course, the first in our thoughts and in our hearts, should show herself in this time of peculiar trial a nation fit beyond others to exhibit the fine poise of undisturbed judgment, the dignity of self-control, the efficiency of dispassionate action, a nation that neither sits in judgment upon others nor is disturbed in her own counsels and which keeps herself fit and free to do what is honest and disinterested and truly serviceable for the peace of the world.
Shall we not resolve to put upon ourselves the restraint which will bring to our people the happiness and the great and lasting influence for peace we covet for them?"
4.
Angary.
The right of angary is a right exercised by a belligerent to appropriate for hostile purposes property belonging to a neutral counThis right frefpiently Avas applied in previous times to some try.
extent, and
it is still
exercised by taking into possession neutral mer-
UNNEUTRAL
SERVICE.
235
chant ships lying in the ports of the belligerent country and using
of soldiers, ammunitions, or, in general, of war. implements The right of angary, although seldom practised, has never been disputed and is a recognized prerogative of a belligerent power.
them for the transport
War in 1870, the Prussian Government under the right of angary seized a number of British vessels at the mouth of the Seine and sunk the same for the purpose of blockading the
In the Franco-Prussian
gun boats in the river impossible. 1 1 of course, conceded that any act on the part of a belligerent power which diverts neutral property for its own purposes involves an obligation toward the neutral, and at the conclusion of peace it
is,
river so as to render egress of
customary to grant restitution by way of indemnities. The right is still prevalent with respect to telegraphs, telephones, and rolling stock, and is incorporated in the regulations respecting the laws and customs of war on land, as laid down in the Second Hague Convention of October 18, 1907, as follows:
is
of angary
"Article LIII. An army of occupation can only take possession of cash, funds, and realizable securities which are strictly the property of the State, depots of arms, means of transport, stores and supplies, and, generally, all movable property belonging to the State
which may be used for military operations. All appliances, whether on land, at sea, or in the air, adapted for the transmission of news,
or for the transport of persons or things, exclusive of cases governed by naval law, depots of arms, and, generallj^, all kinds of ammunition of war, may be seized, even if they belong to private individuals, but
is
must be restored and compensation
fixed
when peace
made."
"Article LIV. Submarine cables connecting an occupied territory with a neutral territory shall not be seized or destroyed except in the case of absolute necessity. They must likewise be restored and
compensation fixed when peace
is
made."
LXXVI.
UNNEUTRAL SERVICE.
A
neutral vessel will be
condemned and
will, in a
general way,
receive the
same treatment
as a neutral vessel liable to
condemna-
tion for carriage of contraband: If she is on a voyage specially undertaken with a view to the 1) transport of individual passengers who are embodied in the armed
236
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
forces of the enemy, or with a view to the transmission of intelligence in the interest of the enemy. 2) If, to the knowledge of either the owner, the charterer, or the master, she is transporting a military detachment of the enemy, or one or more persons who, in the
course of the voyage, directly assist the operations of the enemy. In the cases specilied under the above heads, goods belonging to the owner of the vessel are likewise liable to condemnation. These
provisions do not apply if the vessel is encountered at sea while unaware of the outbreak of hostilities, or if the master, after becom-
ing aware of the outbreak of hostilities, has had no opportunity of disembarking the passengers. The vessel is deemed to be aware of the existence of a state of war if she left an enemy port subsequently
to the
outbreak of hostilities to the Power to which such port be-
longs, provided that such notification was made in sufficient time. neutral vessel will be condemned and, in a general- way, receive the same treatment as would be applicable to her if she were an
enemy merchant
tilities; 2)
vessel:
is
1)
If she takes a direct part in the hos-
under the orders or control of an agent placed on board by the enemy Government; 3) If she is in the exclusive emploj'ment of the enemy Government; 4) If she is exclusively engaged at the time either in the transport of enemy troops or in the transmission of intelligence in the interest of the enemy. In the cases just enumerated, goods belonging to the owner of the vessel are likewise liable to condemnation. Any individual embodied in the armed forces of the enemy who is found on board a neutral merchant vessel, may be made a prisoner of war, even though there be no ground for the capture of the vessel. (International Naval Conference 1909, Art. 45-46.)
If she
LXXVII.
HYDROAEROPLANES.
The question whether war vessels is answered
ambassador
hereinafter:
1.
or not hydroaeroplanes
in the correspondence
may
be considered
between the German

of State as set out
at
Washington and the Secretary
Noncontraband Character.
Imperial German Embassy, "Washington, Jan. 19, 1915. Mr. Secretary of State: It has come to my knowledge that a number of hydroaeroplanes have been ordered in the United States
HYDROAEROPLANES.
23Y
for belligerent states from the Curtiss plant at Hammondsport, N. Y., and that a part of them has already been delivered.
An
to
airship
named America was

five
England and
more hydroaeroplanes
delivered in October of last year of the same type have

of the
been delivered since.
I.
England has also ordered twenty-four hydroaeroplanes N. model (70 horsepower) from Curtiss.
Curtiss
is
also building for
England twelve hydroaeroplanes of the
model of 160 horsepower.

Russia has also recently ordered a number of hydroaeroplanes model from Curtiss. How many is not yet known.
of the
The motors for the aeroplanes are built by Curtiss himself at Hammondsport, partly by the Herschell Spillman Motor factory at North Tonawanda, N. Y. The wings are made at the Curtiss plant, the minor parts by
the Autocrat j\Ianufacturing Co.
The Tonawanda Boat company furnishes the boat part. There is no doubt that hydroaeroplanes must be regarded as war vessels whose delivery to belligerent states by neutrals should be stopped under article 8 of the thirteenth convention of the second Hague conference of Oct. 18, 1907. Hydroaeroplanes are not mentioned by name in the convention simply because there was none in
1907 at the time of the conference.
On the supposition that hydroaeroplanes are delivered to belligerents against the wishes of the government of the United States, I have the honor to bring the foregoing to your excellency's kind
knowledge.
Accept,
etc.,
J.
BERNSTORFF.
THE SECRETARY OF STATE TO THE GER:\IAN AMBASSADOR.

Department of
State,
Washington, Jan.
29, 1915.
Excellency: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your excellency's note of the 19th instant, and in reply have to inform you that the statements contained in yrtur excellency's note have
received ray careful consideration in view of the earnest purpose
of this
government
to
perform every duty which
is
imposed upon
it
as a neutral by treaty stipulation and international law.
238
2.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Hydroaeroplanes are Not War Vessels. The essential statement in your note, which implies an obligation on the part of this government to interfere in the sale and delivery
of hydroaeroplanes to belligerent powers, is: "There is no doubt that hydroaeroplanes
must be regarded as
war vessels whose delivery to belligerent states by neutrals should be stopped under article 8 of the thirteenth convention of the second
Hague conference of Oct. 18, 1907." As to this assertion of the character of hydroaeroplanes I submit the following comments: The fact that a hydroaeroplane is fitted with apparatus to rise from and alight upon the sea does not in my opinion give it the character of a vessel any more than the wheels attached to an aeroplane fitting it to rise from and alight
Both air are and the the hydroaeroplanes essentially aeroplane craft; as an aid in military operations they can only be used in the air; the fact that one starts its flight from the surface of the sea and the other from the land is a mere incident which in no way affects
upon laud give the
latter the character of a land vehicle.
their aerial character.
In view of these facts I must dissent from your excellency's assertion that "there is no doubt that hydroaeroplanes must be regarded ,as war vessels," and consequently I do not regard the
obligations imposed by treaty or by the accepted rules of international law applicable to air craft of any sort. In this connection I further call to your excellency's attention
that according to the latest advices received by this department the German imperial government include "balloons and flying machines
and their component parts" in the list of conditional contraband, and that in the imperial prize ordinance, drafted Sept. 30, 1909, and issued in the Reichsgesetzblatt on Aug. 3 1914, appear as conditional contraband "airships and flying machines" (article 23, It thus appears that the imperial government have section 8). retain air craft of all descriptions in the class of still and placed conditional contraband, for which no special treatment involving
neutral duty is, so far as I am advised, provided by any treaty to which the United States is a signatory or adhering power.
views of this department the provisions of convention 13 Hague conference do not apply to hydroaeroplanes I do not consider it necessary to discuss the question as to whether those provisions are in force during the present war.
in the
As
of the second
Accept,
etc.,
W.
J.
BRYAN.
LANDING OF SUBMARINE CABLES.
239
LXXVIII.
LANDING OF SUBMARINE CABLES.

In 1869 a concession was granted by the French Government to a company which proposed to lay a cable from the shores of France to the United States. One of the provisions of this concession gave
to the
company
for a long period the exclusive right of telegraphic
communication by submarine cable between France and the United States. President Grant resisted the landing of the cable unless this offensive monopoly feature should be abandoned. The French exclusive the renounced company accordingly privilege, and the President's objection was withdrawn. The cable was laid in July, 1869 it ran from Brest, France,to St. Pierre, a French island off the southern coast of Newfoundland, thence to Duxbury, IMass., and was known as the "First French Cable." It soon passed, however,
;
into the
control of the
Anglo-American Company, controlling the

(Senate Doc.
cables connecting Great Britain Avith this continent.
No. 122, pp. 63, 71.)

1.
Cables Under Control of Government.
In a note respecting this cable, dated July 10, 1869 and addressed to the French and British ministers, Mr. Fish said "It is not doubted
:
Government that the complete control of the whole subject, both of the permission and the regulation of this mode of foreign intercourse, is with the Government of the United States, and that, however suitable certain legislation on the part of a State of the
by
this
in respect to its proprietary rights, in aid of such entire the question of the allowance or prohibition of enterprise, means of such foreign intercourse, commercial and political, and of
Union may becoinc.
the terms and conditions and

the
its
allowance,
is
under the control of

p. 65.)
Government
of
tlu-
United States.
(Sec. Doc. No. 122,
In his annual message of December, 1875, President Grant recounts hjs action respecting the Fi'ench cable of 1869, and .says "The right to control the conditions for the laying of a cable wilhin the
:
jurisdictional waters of the United States, to connect our shores with those of any foreign state, pertains exclusively to the Govern-
ment of
tlie
United
Stat(!s,
under sufh limitations and conditions as
Congress may impose. In the absence of legislation by Congress, I was unwilling, on the one hand, to yifld to a foreign state the right to say that its grantees might land on our shores while it denied
240
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
;
a similar right to our people to land on its shore and, on the other hand, I was reluctant to deny to the great interests of the world and
communication as were proto the landing of the resistance I therefore withheld any posed. feature of the cable, on condition that the offensive monopoly
of civilization the facilities of such
concession be abandoned, and that the right of any cable which may be established by authority of this Government to land upon French territory and to connect with French land lines, and enjoy all the necessary facilities or privileges incident to the use thereof upon
as favorable terms as
any other company, be conceded."
(Senate
Doc. No. 122,

2.
p. 70.)
Conditions Affecting the Laying of Cables.

18, 1889,
On October
Paris a
the Compagnie Francaise
du Telegraphe de
applied for permission to lay a cable from San United States to this request, Mr. Blain replied on to the Domingo December 21, 1889, as follows: "While the authority of the President
;
New York
to
grant the permission you desire must be accepted subject, of course, to the future ratification by Congress, yet there are certain conditions which he regards as absolutely essential before such provisional permission can be accorded." These conditions are as follows:
That neither the company, its successors or assigns, nor any which it connects, shall receive from any foreign government exclusive privileges which would prevent the establishment and operation of a cable of an American company in the jurisdiction of such foreign government. (2) That the company shall not consolidate or amalgamate with any other line or combine therewith for the purpose of regulating rates. (3) That the charges to the Government of the United States shall not be greater than those to any other government, and the general charges shall be reasonable. (4) That the Government of the United States shall be entitled to the same or similar privileges as may by law, regulation,
(1)
cable with
or agreement be granted to any other government. (5) That a citizen of the United States shall stand on the same footing as
shall
regards privileges with citizens of San Domingo. (6) That messages have precedence in the following order (a) Government mes:
messages to the Government; (b) telegraphic business; (c) general business. (7) That the line shall be kept open for daily business, and all messages, in the above order, be transmitted according to the time of receipt.
official
sages and
SUBMxVKINE CABU
3.
3.
241
Protection of Submarine Cables.
A
in
Convention for Protection of Submarine Cables was concluded
188-1,
by
all
the
principal
countries.
It
consists
of seventeen
provide the following: (Article I.) The to all (Artilegally established submarine cables. protection applies cle II.) The breaking or injury of submarine cables shall be a punishable offense, if done wilfully or through negligence. (Article III.)
articles which, in substance,
Cables should be placed upon suitable conditions of safety, as far as If by laying or repairing a cable, the (Article IV.) possible. owner injures another cable, he shall be responsible for the damage.
(Article V.)
bles
Vessels engaged in laying or repairing submarine ca-
must observe the rules concerning signals that have been or shall be adopted by common consent, by the High Contracting Parties, with a view to preventing collisions at sea. When a vessel engaged
in repairing a cable carries the said signals, other vessels that see
or are able to see those signals shall withdraw or keep at a distance of at least one nautical mile from such vessel, in order not
its operations. Fishing gear and nets shall be kept distance. Nevertheless, a period of twenty-four hours shall be allowed to fishing vessels that perceive or are able to per-
to interfere
with
at the
same
ceive a telegraph ship carrying the said signals, in order that they may be enabled to obey the notice thus given, and no obstacle shall be
The placed in the way of their operations during such period. of shall finished as be operations telegraph ships speedily as see or Vessels that are able to see buoys (Article VI.) possible. to show of when the cables the latter are designed being position
out of order, or are broken, shall keep at a distance of one quarter of a nautical mile at least from such buoys. Fishing nets and gear shall be kept at the same distance. (Article VII.) Owners of ships who can prove sacrifice of an anchor, a net, or
laid, are
any other finishing implement, in order to avoid injuring a cable, shall bo indemnified by its owner. The owner of the ship should whenever prepare possible, immediately after the accident, a suitable testimony with his crew as witnesses and should make his The courts competent (Article VIII.) report as soon as possible.
to take cognizance of infractions of this convention shall be those
of the country to whicli the guilty vessel belongs.

4.
Cutting of Cables.
siibmnrino o.ablos
During the war with Spain, officers of the United States cut owned by neutrals, as a military necessity. Under
242
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
the provision of Article XV, that "It is understood that the stipulations of this Convention shall in no Avise affect the liberty of action
of belligerents" this action
was warranted.
of the In order to avoid any misinterpretation of this Article British for the issued Lord Lyons, acting Government, Convention,
XV
the following statement: "Her Majesty's Government understands Article in this sense, that, in time of war, a belligerent, a signaof the convention, shall be free to act in regard to submarine tory
XV
cables as
if the convention did not exist." (Submarine Telegraphic Cables in their International Relations, by George Grafton Wilson,
Naval
War
College, Aug. 1901, 13.)
LXXIX.
AUTOMATIC SUBMARINE CONTACT MINES, AND

TORPEDOES.
The first five articles of The Hague Convention concluded in 1907 regarding the laying of contact mines read as follows
:
"Article
I.
It is
forbidden
tact mines, except less one hour at
when they
1. To lay unanchored automatic conare so constructed as to become harm-
most after the person who laid them ceases to To lay anchored automatic contact mines which do not become harmless as soon as they have broken loose from their 3. To use torpedoes which do not become harmless when moorings they have missed their mark.
control them;
2,
;
"Article
the coast
II.
It is
forbidden to lay automatic contact mines
off
and ports of the enemy, with the commercial shipping.

"Article
III.
sole object of intercepting
When
anchored automatic contact mines are em-
ployed, every possible precaution must be taken for the security of peaceful shipping. The belligerents undertake to do their utmost
to
render these mines harmless within a limited time, and, should they cease to be under surveillance, to notify the danger zones as soon as military exigencies permit, by a notice addressed to ship
owners, Avhich must also be communicated to the Governments through the diplomatic channel.
Neutral Powers which lay automatic contact mines off their coasts must observe the same rules and take the same The neutral Power precautions as are imposed on belligerents.
"Article IV.
SUBMARINES.
243
must inform ship-owners, by a notice issued in advance, where Tiiis notice must be automatic contact mines have been laid. communicated at onae to the Governments through the diplomatic
channel.
"Article V. At the close of the war, the Contracting Powers undertake to do their utmost to remove the mines which they had As regards anchored laid, each Power removing its own mines. automatic contact mines laid by one of the belligerents off the
coast of the
other, their position
must be
notified to
the other
party by the Power which laid them, and each PoAver must proceed with the least possible delay to remove the mines in its own
waters.
' '
SUBMARINES.
The outbreak
of the
World War
in
1914 has brought to the
forefront an engine of war which prior thereto was relegated to the rank of an experimental device of destruction. Although the sub-
marine had
l)eeii
I'ecognized as a possible
means
of unobservedly
reaching a position immune from the attack of besieging men-ofwar, its radius of operation and general construction were not brought to that degree of perfection in whieli it could be employed
as a reliable engine of war. Soon after the world conflagration
in August, 1914, Germany introduced the submarine campaign, which has played a conspicuous part not only as to its effectiveness, but also, in a diplomatic
sense,
the
by the manner in which the submarine is employed. Due to modern improvements installed by Germany, the submarine, as a fighting engine, became almost equal, in length as well as in armament, to the regular marine cruiser. The exploits of the submai'ine
"Deutscliland."
tliat
llie
wliicli
ci-ossed
the
ocean
several
h;is
times,
establisliiHl
radius of action of
siibinai-iiii's
increased
bo3'ond the most sanguine expectalions of technicians. The employment of submarines was mainlj^ directed as a retaliatory measure against the rules and actions of Great Britain to
prevent any commerce being carried on between neutral countries and Germany. A blockade had been installed against Germany, which was effectively maintained and shut her out of the world's
market except as
countries.
is
to
her
intercourse
with
neighboring
a
neutral
Gei-many,
as a
in retaliation, declared
war
/one, or Avhat
allies.
known
"paper" blockade, against England and her
244
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
The controversies which have arisen between Germany and the United States as to the gross violations of the neutral trade effected b}^ the ruthless employment of the submarine warfare, are contained in a series of diplomatic notes and conferences which, in part, are reproduced in the following as far as the salient features of
laws expressed therein are concerned, so that the student may have a clear understanding by what laws submarine warfare is governed.
1.
Restraint on Commerce.
German Navy under date

decreed
in the
In a Proclamation issued by the Chief of the Admiral Staff of the of February 4, 1915, a war zone was
waters surrounding Great Britain and Ireland under
the following terms:

1. The waters surrounding Great Britain and Ireland, inincluding the whole English channel, are hereby declared to be war zone. On and after the 18th of February, 1915, every enemy merchant ship found in the said war zone will be destroyed without its being always possible to avert the dangers threatening the crews and passengers on that account.
Even neutral ships are exposed to danger in the war zone, view of the misuse of neutral flags ordered on January 31 by the British government and of the accidents of naval war. it cannot always be avoided to strike even neutral ships in
2.
as in
attacks that are directed at

3.
enemy
ships.
Northward navigation around the Shetland islands in the eastern waters of the North sea and in a strip of not less than
thirty miles width along the Netherlands coast
Berlin, Feb.
4,
is
in
no danger.
1915.
VON POHL,
Chief of the Admiral Staff of the Navy.
To this a memorial was attached, explaining -the reasons which prompted the German Government to undertake such a step, and emphasizing inter alia that "In addition, they (the British Government) have, in fact, obliterated the distinction between absolute and conditional contraband by confiscating all articles of conditional contraband destined for Germany, whatever may be the port where these articles are to be unloaded, and without regard to whether they are destined for uses of war or peace. They have not even
hesitated to violate the declaration of Paris, since their naval forces have captured, on neutral ships, German propertj'^ which was not con-
traband of war.
Furthermore, they have gone further than their
SUBMARINES.
245
own
ous
orders respecting the declaration of
London and caused numer-
subjects capable of bearing arms to be taken from neutral ships and made prisoners of war. Finally, they have declared the North sea in its whole extent to be the seat of war,
German
thereby rendering difiicult and extremely dangerous, if not impossible, all navigation on the high seas between Scotland and Norway, so that they have in a way established a blockade of neutral coasts
is contrary to the elementary principles of geninternational law. erally accepted Clearly all these measures are of a strike to not the German part plan only military operations but also the economic system of Germany, and in the end to deliver the
and
ports,
which
German people to reduction by famine by intercepting legitimate neutral commerce by methods contrary to international law."
v.'hole
The German Government concludes
its
note by a general warn-
ing to neutral powers in the following manner:
"Neutral powers are accordingly forewarned not to continue to intrust their crews, passengers or merchandise to such vessels. Their attention is furthermore called to the fact that it is of urgency to recommend to their own vessels to steer clear of these waters. It is true that the German navy has received instructions to abstain from all violence against neutral vessels recognizable as such; but in view of the hazards of war and of the misuse of the neutral flag ordered by the British government, it will not always be possible to prevent a neutral vessel from becoming the victim of an attack intended to be directed against a vessel of the enemy. It is expressly declared that navigation in the waters north of the Shetland Islands is outside the danger zone, as well as navigation in the eastern part of the North sea and in a zone thirty miles wide along the Dutch coast."
This communication elicited a reply from the United States Government in the note addressed by Secretary of State Bryan under date of February 10, 1915, and forwarded to the United States Ambassador, James W. Gerard, at Berlin. In pointing out the grave possibilities which would follow the wake of such a course, the rules of international marine law, as adopted and recognized by
civilized nations, arc laid
down
in the
following terms:
of course not necessary to remind the German governtlie sole right of a bflligerent in dealing with neutral vessels on the high seas is limited to visit and search, unless a blockade is proclaimed and effectively maintained, which this
"It
is
ment that
government does not understand to be proposed in this case. To .declare or exercise a right to attack and destroy any vessel ontoring a prescribed area of the high seas without first certainly
!24(i
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
detenniiiing its belligerent nationality and the contraband character of its cargo would be an act so unprecedented in naval warfare that this government is reluctant to believe that the imperial government of Germany in this case contemplates it as possible. The suspicion that enemy ships are using neutral flags improperly can create no just presumption that all ships traversing a prescribed area are subject to the same suspicion. It is to determine exactly such questions that this government understands the right of visit and search to have been recognized."
This being the law of nations, a mere supposition on the part of submarine commanders is not sufficient to justify any act jeopardizing the lives of neutral citizens as set forth in the following:
"If the commanders of German vessels of war should act upon the presumption that the flag of the United States was not being used in good faith and should destroy on the high seas an American vessel or the lives of American citizens, it would be difficult for the government of the United States to view the act in any other light than as an indefensible violation of neutral rights which it would be very hard indeed to reconcile with the friendly relations now so happily subsisting between the two &^ governments."
2.
U.
S.
Proposal for the Conduct of Submarine Warfare.

of State at
The Department
Washington
finally
adopted under
date of February 20, 1915, a series of proposals which were submitted to the governments of Great Britain and Germany, and
which
set forth certain rules to
be observed in the prosecution of
the war:
Germany and Great

1.
Britain to agree
That neither will sow any floating mines, whether upon the high seas or in territorial waters that neither will plant on the high seas anchored mines except within cannon range of harbors for defensive purposes only, and that all mines shall bear the stamp of the government planting them and be so constructed as to become harmless if separated from their moor;
ings.
2.
sels of
That neither will use submarines to attack merchant vesany nationality except to enforce the right of visit and
search.
3. That each will require their respective merchant vessels not to use neutral flags for the purpose of disguise or ruse de
guerre.
Germany
That
to agree:
all importations of food or foodstuffs from the United States (and from such other neutral countries as may ask it)
SUBMARINES.
247
into Germany shall be consigned to agencies to be designated by the United States government that these American agencies shall have entire charge and control without interference on the part of the Gei-man government of the receipt and distribution of such importations, and shall distribute them solely to retail dealers bearing licenses from the German government entitling them to receive and furnish such food and foodstuffs to non-combatants only; that any violation of the terms of the retailers licenses shall work a forfeiture of their rights to receive such food and foodstuff's for this i)urpose, and that such food and foodstuff's will not be requisitioned by the German government for any purpose whatsoever or be diverted to the use of the armed forces of Germany.
;
'
Great Britain to agree
That food and foodstuff's will not be placed upon the absolute contraband list and that shipments of such commodities will not be interferred with or detained by British authorities if consigned to agencies designated by the United States govern-
ment
in
to licensed
Germany for the receipt ancl distribution of such cargoes German retailers for distribution solely to the non-
combatant population. In submitting this proposed basis of agreement this government does not wish to be understood as admitting or denying any belligerent or neutral right established by the principles of international law, but would consider the agreement, if acceptable to the interested powers, a modus vivendi based upon expediency rather than legal right and as not binding upon the United States either in its present form or in a modified form until accepted by this government.
3.
Reply of the British Government.
tive
The British Government pointed out that, inasmuch as an effecblockade was eff'ected, the position assumed by the British Government was not reprehensible, in view of the absence of the sacrifice
of
human lives. "The British

trolling
fleet
has instituted a blockade,
eff'ectively
con-
by cruiser 'cordon' all passage to and from Germany by sea. The dift'erence between the two policies is, however, that while our object is the same as that of Germany, we propose to attain it willioiit sacrificing neutral ships or non-combatant lives or inflicting upon neutrals the damage that must be entailed when a vessel and its cargo are sunk without notice, examination or T must omi)hasi/,e again tliat this nieasnrc is a naliiral and trial.
necessary consc(|U('iice of the niipi-cccdented inclliods, i'('i)ugnan1 to all law and morality, whieli have been described above, which Germany began to adopt at the very outset of the war, and 1h<'
effects of
wliif'h
liavr licon
constantly acrnmulating.
"
248
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Subsequently thereto an order in council was communicated to

the
American Ambassador
at
London elucidating the
steps to be
taken to restrict the commerce of Germany,

4.
Reply of the U.
S.
Department of
State,
March
30, 1915.
A note was despatched to the British Government contesting that an effective blockade was not maintained in view of the fact that the Scandinavian and Danish ports were ,open to American trade.
"The government of the United States assumes with the greater confidence that his majesty's government will thus adjust their practice to the recognized rules of international law, because it is manifest that the British government have adopted an extraordinary method of 'stopping cargoes destined for or coming from the enemy's territory,' which, owing to the existence of unusual conditions in modern warfare at sea, it will be difficult to restrict to the limits which have been heretofore required by the law of nations. Though the area of operations is confined to 'European waters, including the Mediterranean,' so great an area of the high seas is covered and the cordon of ships is so distant from the territory affected that neutral vessels must necessarily pass through the blockading force in order to reach important neutral ports which Great Britain as a belligerent has not the legal right to blockade, and which, therefore, it is presumed she has no intention of claiming to blockade. The Scandinavian and Danish ports, for example, are open to American trade. They are also free, so far as the actual enforcement of the order in council is concerned, to carry on trade with German Baltic ports, although it is an essential element of blockade that it bear with equal severity upon all neutrals."
5. Reply of the British Government, July 24, 1915. The opinion entertained by the British Government is expressed in a note pointing out the precedent set by the United States in the Civil War.
be noted in this connection that at the time of States found themselves under the necessity of declaring a blockade of some 3,000 miles of coast line, a military operation for which the number of vessels available was at first very small. It was vital to the cause of the United States in that great struggle that they should be able to cut off the trade of the southern states. The confederate armies were dependent on supplies from over seas, and those supplies could not be obtained without exporting the cotton wherewith to pay for them. To cut off this trade the United States could only rely upon a blockade. The difficulties con"7. It the civil
may
war the United
SUBMARINES AND ARMED MERCHANTMEN.

fronting- the federal
249
government were in part due to the fact that neighboring neutral territory afforded convenient centers from which contraband could be introduced into the territory of
their enemies and from which blockade running could be facilitated. Your excellency will no doubt remember how, in order to meet this new difficulty, the old principles relating to contraband and blockade were developed and the doctrine of con-
tinuous voyage was applied and enforced under which goods destined for the enemy territory were intercepted before thej^ reached the neutral ports from which they were to be re-exported."
The German Ambassador, after the sinking of the Lusitania, informed the Secretary of State of the rules which henceforth were
to
guide the treatment of liners by the submarines, to-wit:
"Liners will not be sunk by our submarines without warning to the lives of noncombatants, provided that the liners do not try to escape or offer resistance. "Although I know that you do "not wish to discuss the Lusitania question till the Arabic incident has been definitely and satisfactorily settled, I desire to inform you of the above because this policy of my government was decided on before the Arabic
and without safety
incident occurred.
' '
LXXXI.

Department of State was directed to an on the 25tli of August, 1915, according to occurring which an English merchant vessel fired on a German submarine Three in the Irish Sea without a challenge of any kind. on a sublater an steamer fired German English passenger days marine in Bristol Channel after having been summoned to stop. The conclusion was drawn that British merchant vessels attacking German submarines are subject to destruction irrespective of the presence of neutral citizens. These incidents led to the issuance
of the
The attention
incident
of a
memorandum by
the
German Government, pointing out
that
the submarines had orders to conduct cruiser warfare against enemy mercliant vessels, in accordance with general principles of internalional law.
The United Sfafcs Department of State in a letter to the British Ambassador dated January 18, 1916, laid down the general rules
of iTilf'TTintional law affecting submarine warfaT'c:
1.
A non-combntant has a right to traverse the high seas merohant vessel entitled to fly a belligerent fiag and
in to
250
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
rely uiôn the observance of the rules of international law and principles of humanity if the vessel is approached by a naval vessel of another belligerent.
2.
merchant vessel of enemy nationality should not be

vessel,
at-
tacked Avithout being ordered to stop.

3.
An enemy merchant
when ordered
to
do so by a
belligerent submarine, should immediately stop.

4. Such vessel should not be attacked after being ordered to stop unless it attempts to fee or to resist, and in case it ceases to flee or resist the attack should discontinue.
'
5. In the event that it is impossible to place a prize crew on board of an enemy merchant vessel or convoy it into port, the vessel may be sunk, provided the crew and passengers have been removed to a place of safety. In complying with the foregoing propositions, which, in my
which
opinion, embody the principal rules the strict observance of will insure the life of a non-combatant on a merchant vessel which is intercepted by a submarine, I am not unmindful of the obstacles which would be met by undersea craft as commerce destroyers. Prior to the year 1915 belligerent operations against enemy commerce on the high seas had been conducted with cruisers Under these conditions internacarrying heavy armaments. tional law appeared to permit a merchant vessel to carry an armament for defensive purposes without losing its character as This right seems to have been a private commercial vessel. predicated on the superior defensive strength of ships of war, and the limitation of armament to have been dependent on the fact that it could not be used effectively in offense against enemy naval vessels, while it could defend the merchantmen against the generally inferior armament of piratical ships and
privateers.
1.
Submarines as Affecting Armament of Merchantmen.
The use of the submarine, however, has changed these relations. Comparison of the defensive strength of a cruiser and a submarine shows that the latter, relying for protection on its power
to
almost defenseless in point of construction. ship carrying a small caliber gun would be able to use it effectively for offense against a submarine. Moreover, pirates and sea rovers have been sAvept from the main trade channels of the seas, and privateering has been abolished. Consequently, the placing of guns on merchantmen, at the present day of submarine warfare, can be explained only on the ground of a purpose to render merchantmen superior in force to submarines and to prevent warning and visit and search by them. Any armament, therefore, on a merchant vessel would seem to have the character of an offensive armament.
submerge,
is
Even a merchant

2.
251
Duties Imposed
Upon Submarines.
If a submarine is required to stop and search a merchant vessel on the high seas and, in ease it is found that she is of enemy character and that conditions necessitate her destruction, to remove to a place of safety all persons on board, it would not seem just or reasonable that the submarine should be compelled, while complying with these requirements, to expose
itself to almost certain destruction by the guns on board the merchant vessel. It would therefore appear to be a reasonable and reciprocally just arrangement if it could be agreed by the opposing belligerents that submarines should be caused to adhere strictly to the rules of international law in the matter of stopping and searching merchant vessels, determining their belligerent nationality, and removing the crews and passengers to places of safety before sinking the vessels as prizes of war, and that merchant vessels of belligerent nationality should be prohibited and prevented from carrying any armament whatsoever. In presenting -this formula as a basis for conditional declarations by the belligerent governments, I do so in the full conviction that your government will consider primarily the humane purpose of saving the lives of innocent people rather than the insistence upon a doubtful legal right which may
be denied on account of
new
conditions.
A memorandum was issued by the Imperial German Government under date of February 10, 1916, relating to the treatment of armed merchantmen in view of the fact that British merchantmen were generally armed.
Even Ijcfore the outbreak of the ])iTsent war the Britisli government had given English shipping companies the opportunity to arm their merchant vessels with guns. On March 26, 1913, Winston Churchill, then first lord of the admiralty, made the declaration in the British parliament that the admiralty had called upon the shipowners to arm a number of first-class liners for protection against danger menaced in certain cases by fast auxiliary cruisers of other powers; the liners were not, however, to assume the character of auxiliary cruisers themselves. The government desired to place at the disposal of the shipowners the necessary guns, sufficient ammunition and suitable personnel for the training of the gun crews.
3.
Laws Relating
to Status of
Armed Merchant
Vessels.
The Department of State at Washington, in a memorandum dated 25, 1916, laid down tlie 1;i\v relating 1o Ihc slalns of an armed merchant vessel, which is a masterful disquisition on the sub.March
j(;ct aiid
is
reproduced
in liarc
ver])a
252
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
I.
The status of an armed merchant vessel of a belligerent is to be considered from two points of viqw First, from that of a neutral when the vessel enters its ports; and, second, from that of an enemy when the vessel is on the high seas.
:
First
1.
An
Armed Merchant
Vessel in Neutral Ports.
necessary for a neutral government to determine the status of an armed merchant vessel of belligerent nationality which enters its jurisdiction, in order that the government may protect itself from responsibility for the destruction of life and property by permitting its ports to be used as bases of hostile
It is
operations by belligerent warships.

belligerent
commission or orders issued by a government and directing it under penality to conduct aggressive operations, or if it is conclusively shown to have conducted such operations, it should be regarded and
2.
If the vessel carries a
treated as a warship.
3. If sufficient evidence is wanting, a neutral government, in order to safeguard itself from liability for failure to preserve its neutrality, may reasonably presume from the facts the status of an armed merchant vessel which frequents its waters. There is no settled rule of international law as to the sufficiency of evidence to establish such a presumption. As a result a neutral government must decide for itself the sufficiency of the evidence which it requires to determine the character of the vessel. For the guidance of its port officers and other officials a neutral government may therefore declare a standard of evidence, but such standard may be changed on account of the general conditions of naval warfare or modified on account of the circumstances of a particular case. These changes and modifications may be made at any time during the progress of the war. since the determination of the status of an armed merchant vessel in neutral waters may affect the liability of a neutral
government.
Second
1.
An Armed Merchant Vessel on the High
Seas.
necessary for a belligerent warship to determine the armed merchant vessel of an enemy encountered seas, since the rights of life and property of belligerents and neutrals on board the vessel may be impaired if its status is that of an enemy warship.
It is
status of an on the high
2. The determination of warlike character must rest in no case upon presumption but upon conclusive evidence, because the responsibility for the destruction of life and property depends on the actual facts of the case and cannot be avoided or lessened by a standard of evidence which a belligerent may announce as creating a resumption of hostile character. On
SUBMxVRlNES AND ^VRMED MERCHANTMEN.
253
the other hand, to safeguard himself from possible liability for unwarranted destruction of life and property the belligerent should, in the absence of conclusive evidence, act on the presumption that an armed merchantman is of peaceful character.
presumption based solely on the presence of an armavessel of an enemy is not a sufficient reason for a belligerent to declare it to be a warship and proceed to attack it without regard to the rights of the persons on board. Conclusive evidence of a purpose to use the armament for Consequently an armament which a aggression is essential. neutral government, seeking to perform its neutral duties, may presume to be intended for aggression, might in fact on the high seas be used solely for protection. A neutral government has no opportunity to determine the purpose of an armament on a merchant vessel unless there is evidence in the ship's papers or other proof as to its previous use, so that the government is justified in substituting an arbitrary rule of presumption in On the other arriving at the status of the merchant vessel. hand, a belligerent warship can on the high seas test by actual experience, the purpose of an armament on an enemy merchant vessel, and so determine by direct evidence the status of the
3.
ment on a merchant
vessel.
The status of an armed merchant vessel as a warship in neutral waters may be determined, in the absence of documen tary proof or conclusive evidence of previous aggressive conduct, by presumption derived from all the circumstances of the
case.
The status of such vessel as a warship on the high seas must be determined only upon conclusive evidence of aggressive purpose, in the absence of which it is to be presumed that the vessel has a private and peaceable character, and it shoidd be so treated by an enemy warship. In brief, a neutral government may proceed upon the presumption that an armed merchant vessel of belligerent nationality is armed for aggression, while a belligerent should proceed on the presumption that the vessel is armed for protection. Both of these presumptions may be overcome by evidence the first by secondary or collateral evidence, since the fact to be established is negative in character; the second by primary and direct evidence, since the fact to be established is positive in
character.
n.
4.
Relations of Bellig-erents and Neutrals as Affected by Status of Armed Merchant Vessels.
The character of the evidenr-e upon which the status of an armed merchant vessel of bolliger(>nt nationality is to be determined when visiting neutral waters and when traversing
254
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
the high seas having been stated, it is important to consider the rights and duties of neutrals and belligerents as affected by the status of armed merchant vessels in neutral ports and on the
high seas.
First
The JRelations of Belligerents and Neutrals as Affected

of
by the Status
Armed Merchant
Vessels in Neutral Ports.
1. It appears to be the established rule of international law that warships of a belligerent may enter neutral ports and accept limited hospitality there upon conditions that they leave, as a rule, within twenty-four hours after their arrival.
2. Belligerent warships are also entitled to take on fuel once in three months in ports of a neutral country.
3. As a mode of enforcing these rules a neutral has the right to cause belligerent warships failing to comply with them, together with their officers and crews, to be interned during the remainder of the war. 4. Merchantmen of belligerent nationality armed only for purposes of protection against the enemy are entitled to enter and leave neutral ports without hindrance in the course of legiti-
mate trade.
5. Armed merchantmen of belligerent nationality under a commission or orders of their government to use, under penalty,
their
armament for aggressive purposes, or merchantmen which, without such commission or orders, have used their armaments for aggressive purposes, are not entitled to the same hospitality in neutral ports as peaceable armed merchantmen.
Second The Relations of Belligerents and Neutrals as Affected by the Status of Armed Merchant Vessels on the High Seas. 1. Innocent neutral property on the high seas cannot legally be confiscated, but is subject to inspection by a belligerent. Resistance to inspection removes this immunity and subjects the property to condemnation by a prize court, which is charged with the preservation of the legal rights of the owners of
neutral property.
2. Neutral property engaged in contraband trade, breach of blockade, or unneutral service obtains the character of enemy property and is subject to seizure by a belligerent and con-
demnation by a prize court. When hostile and innocent property is mixed, as in the 3. case of a neutral ship carrying a cargo which is entirely or partly contraband, this fact can only be determined by inSuch innocent property may be of uncertain charspection. acter, as it has been frequently held that it is more or less contaminated by association with hostile property. For example, under the declaration of London (which, so far as the
provisions covering this subject are concerned, has been adopted
SUBMARINES AND AKilED MERCUANTMEN.
255
all the belligerents), the presence of a cargo which in bulk or value consists of 50 per cent contraband articles impress the ship Avith enemy character and subjects it to seizure and condemnation by a prize court.
by
4. Enemy property, including ships and cargoes, is always Any enemy property subject to seizure and condemnation. taken by a belligerent on the high seas is a total loss to the owners. There is no redress in a prize court. The only means of avoiding loss is by flight or successful resistance. Enemy merchant ships have, therefore, the right to arm for the purpose of
self-protection.
5.
A
it
belligerent warship
its
mission or orders of
titling
to
is any vessel which, under comgovernment imposing penalties or enprize money, is armed for the purpose of seeking
and capturing or destroying enemy property or hostile neutral property on the seas. The size of the vessel, strength of armament, and its defensive or offensive force are immaterial.
incidental to the right of all vessels on the high seas for the purpose of determining the hostile or innocent character of the vessels and their cargoes. If the hostile character of the property is known, however, the belligerent warship may seize the property- without exercising the right of visit and search Avliich is solely for the purpose of obtaining knowledge as to the character of the property. The attacking vessel must display its colors before exercising belligerent rights.
6.
belligerent
Mârship
has,
seizure, the right to visit
and search
7. When a belligerent warship meets a merchantman on the high seas which is known to be enemy OAvned and attempts to capture the vessel, the latter may exercise its right to selfprotection either by flight or by resistance. The right to capture and the right to prevent capture are recognized as equally
justifiable.
The exercise of the right to capture is limited, neverby certain accepted rules of conduct based on tlie principles of humanity and regard for innocent property, even if there is definite knowledge that some of the property, cargo as well as the vessel, is of enemy character. As a consequence of these limitations, it has become the established practice for warships to give merchant vessels an opportunity to surrender or submit to visit and search ])efore attempting to seize them by force. Tlio observance of this rule of naval warfare tends to prevent the loss of life of non-combatants and the destruction of innoeont nentral property which would result from
8.
theless,
sudden attack.
0.
If,
however.
l)efore a
summons
to surrender
is
given, a
merchantman of belligerent nationality, aware of the approach of an enemy warship, uses its armament to keep the enemy at
a distance, or after
it
has been
summoned
to siirreiidor
if
resists
256
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
or flees, the warship render.
10.
may
properly exercise force- to compel surfinally surrenders,
If the
merchantman
the belligerent
warship may release it or take it into custody. In the case of an enemy merchantman it may be sunk, but only if it is impossible to take it into port, and provided always that the persons on board are put in a place of safety. In the case of a neutral merchantman the right to sink it in any circumstance
is
doubtful.
11.
merchantman
entitled to exercise the right of self-
protection may do so when certain of attack by an enemy warship, otherwise the exercise of the right would be so reThere is a distinct differstricted as to render it ineffectual. ence, however, between the exercise of the right of self-protection and the act of cruising the seas in an armed vessel for the purpose of attacking enemy naval vessels.
In the event that merchant ships of belligerent nationarmed and under commission or orders to attack in all circumstances certain classes of enemy naval vessels for the purpose of destroying them, and are entitled to receive prize money for such service from their government or are liable to a penalty for failure to obey the orders given, such merchant ships lose their status of peaceable merchant ships and are to a limited extent incorporated in the naval forces of their government, even though it is not their sole occupation to conduct hostile operations.
12.
ality are
vessel engaged intermittently in commerce and under 13. a commission or orders of its government imposing a penalty in pursuing and attacking enemy naval craft, possesses a status tainted with a hostile purpose which it cannot throw aside or assume at will. It should, therefore, be considered as an armed public vessel and receive the treatment of a warship by an enemy and by neutrals. Any person taking passage on such a vessel cannot expect immunity other than that accorded persons who are on board a warship. private vessel, engaged in seeking enemy naval craft, without such a commission or orders from its government, stands in a relation to the enemy similar to that of a civilian who fires upon the organized military forces of a belligerent, and is entitled to no more considerate treatment.
States and
The events following the various controversies between the United German Governments are matters of historical importance and must be discussed in books pertaining to that branch of investi-
gation. It may be stated, however, that the controversy finally culminated in a resolution adopted by Congress April 6, 1917, declaring the existence of a state of war between the United States of America and the Imperial German Government.
AERIAL WARFARE.
257
Various reports obtained during the prosecution of the war have conclusively established that England and the United States of
America have not lagged in the development and perfection of the submarine as an engine of war. There are several incidents testifying to the heroic exploits of British submarines, and it is assumed that the employment of the submarine as practised by the German Government was not adopted by the allied nations in view of the dangers to neutral commerce and the impossibility of effectively employing the submarine without violating the acknowledged principles of international law.
LXXXII.
AERIAL WARFARE.
As a further adjunct of supporting belligerent action, aeroplanes, and captive and free balloons have come, within recent years, into such extensive use and have received such intensive attention on the part of engineers and inventors that it may be confidently stated that the future and possibility of development of this craft is merely
in a state of infancy.
The great factor which has exercised a far-reaching control in deciding the extent of use to which this craft can be put is the fact that the propulsion and navigation of these "implements of
made independent of existing or non-existing air curhave been subjected to a positive control which has and rents, the adoption of aerial craft by all of the nations. The about brought balloon has quickened its employment for all purof the dirigibility more recent times the use of dirigible aircraft (the and in poses, have a field of usefulness in times of peace for will aerojjlane)
war"
are
accelerated transportation purposes.
The develoi)ment of aerial craft has forced a change of opinion by leading authorities as to its mode of employment, as is evidenced by the views entertained in the Hague Convention in 1899 as contrasted with the rules set forth in the
Hague Convention
of 1907.
In the Franco-Prussian
War
of 1870 the Prussian authorities con-
sidered persons attempting to pass their outposts in balloons as spies, in view of the fact that, according to their opinion, the information
gained
in this
manner could be
utilized to the disadvantage of the
Prussians.
Fortunately, the persons captured and treated as spies
were not subjected to extreme punishment, and it was only shortly afterwards that it was generally recognized that, in accordance with
258
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
the rules of interDational law, such persous, not being in disguise and not acting secretly, were to be accorded the privileges of prisoners of war.
The Convention
interest
of 1899 at the
Hague
referred to above
is
of
to
establish
the views
entertained
concurrent with the
development and importance of aerial craft. The following was agreed to on July 29 and finally proclaimed on November 1, 1901: "The contracting powers agree to prohibit, for a term of five years, the launching of projectiles and explosives from balloons, or by other new methods of similar nature."
With
respect to the
it
same Convention
Laws and Customs of War on Land, was stipulated in Article 29 that

:
at the
An individual can only be considered a spy if, acting clandestinely or on false pretenses, he obtains or seeks to obtain information in the zone of operations of a belligerent with the intention of communicating it to the hostile party. Thus soldiers not in disguise who have penetrated into the zone of operations of a hostile army to obtain information are not considered spies. Similarly the following are not considered Soldiers or civilians carrying out their mission openly spies: charged with the delivery of dispatches destined either for their own army or for that of the enemy. To this class belong likewise individuals sent in balloons to deliver dispatches, and generally to maintain communication between the various parts of an army or a territory.
At the second Hague Convention of 1907 the results of aerial navigation had made such wonderful progress that the very states which by their signatures declared themselves adherents of the prohibition to discharge projectiles from balloons, refused to conThe only restriction in sider this limitation as to aerial warfare. the use of aerial craft was obtained in Article 25 of the Convention The attack or bombardment by any of 1907, which provided means whatever of towns, villages, habitations, or buildings which
'
'
are not defended
is
forbidden."
The motive inspiring the nations to concede restriction of aerial warfare was based on the impossibility of effectively controlling
aircraft
;
but in line with the results of experiments
made
thereafter,
establishing the complete dirigibility of aircraft, the original opposition to the employment thereof ceased, as the effectiveness of this
mode
.
of belligerency was clearly recognized and accepted. In 1907 Mr. Renault, one of the delegates to the second Hague Conference emphasized that the method of discharging projectiles is of little importance, as it is immaterial whether, in the destruc-
AERIiVL
WAEFAEE.
259
an arsenal, for instance, the projectile is discharged from a cannon or from a balloon. The destruction of a hospital, on the other hand, would be illegal no matter in which manner a proHe also clearly pointed out the fact jectile would be discharged. that the future of aerial craft, having potential importance, could not be blocked by a priori regulation. The history of the development of aircraft is a testimonial to the foresight of Mr. Renault.
tion of
Dr. Hazeltine, of Cambridge University, expressed in a series of lectures delivered in 1910 his views on aerial jurisdiction in time of
war.
torial
The employment
waters
of
of aerial space above the territory and terribelligerents is conceded as a proper theater of
In the case of aerial space above neutral territory, though logically the same should be a legitimate field for the operations of belligerent powers, the dangers incident therewith to the safety and
war.
life
of neutral citizens have caused the
powers
to refute the adoption
the doctrine of the right of sovereignty in the entire air space above its territory and territorial waters, the neutral state has a right to prohibit belligerent powers from transformof this view.
On
ing neutral aerial zones into fields of belligerent operations. further question with Avhich Dr. Hazeltine deals is the right of passage of belligerent aeroplanes through neutral aerial zones. The
analogy to customs observed in maritime warfare is not applicable to aerial warfare, and in line with the prediction made by Dr. Hazeltine, the present war has furnished ample incidents of belligerent aeroplanes crossing neutral aerial zones which have been subjected to the air guns of the neutrals, and in case of a forced descent the occupants of the craft have been interned.
1.
The Opinion
of the
French Government
in 1910.
The International Conference upon aerial navigation was supplied with a series of suggestions by the French Government, prescribing the methods of determining the nationality and identity of airships, the licensing of air pilots, general prohibition of the carriage of arms, explosives, photographic
tus.
air
and radiotelegraphic apparawas proposed that the navigation of the above unoccupied territory and above the open sea was to be
At
this conference
it
free.
2.
Jurisdiction.
Acts committed on board airships underlie the jurisdiction of the state to which the airship belongs. Acts taking effect outside of
the airship
the ship, however, underlie the jurisdiction of the state within wliich may be when the act is committed.
260
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
in 1910, in
The Comite Juridique International de I'Aviation finally agreed view of proposals submitted by French and German
is
committees, that aerial navigation
free.
States
have,
in
the
aerial space above the territory, including territorial waters, only those rights necessary to guarantee the security and exercise of
private right. The subject of aerial navigation has caused domestic administrative regulation prescribing certain methods of procedure in case of landing of foreign aircraft within the territory of
a respective state.
The
tioned.
jurisdiction of subjacent states has never been seriously quesIt is of interest, however, to examine the various views
and opinions expressed and formulated which preceded the adoption of the present day rules observed in carrying on aerial warfare. The leading groups contended for the entire freedom of the air and for the domain of the air residing in a subjacent state. Another
group
finally
admitted a zone of a certain height to be within the
The jurisdiction of a state and the zone thereabove to be free. argument advanced that aerial dominion should be treated in a
manner analogous
in
to
the
maritime situation,
is
not
well
taken,
view of the harmful
or neutrals, warfare.
which would endanger non-combatants considerations which are not prevalent in maritime
effects
In 1911 the Institute of International

tion a
Law
received for considera-
number
of rules
which attempt to regulate the use of aircraft
in time of
war:
Article 1. It is generally prohibited to employ aircraft balloons or aeroplanes as means of destruction or attack.
Art. 2. Military ballons or aeroplanes of enemy origin, when subjected to fire by cannons placed on the ground or on board a man-of-war, may defend themselves. Aerial warfare is permitted
:
a naval battle rages and the balloons or aeroplanes are only twenty kilometers removed from the field of
(a)
hostility
;
when
(b)
in the territorial waters of belligerents in a blockaded
zone
In the aerial zones (e) erents.

Art.
3.
above the territories of the
bellig-
prohibited to capture in the air aircraft, etc., in the case where they voluntarily enter the aerial space above the territory of the adversary or in a blockaded zone or in the case of contraband as privided in Art. 4.
It is
of
enemy non-combatants, except
AERIAL WARFARE.
261
Art. 4. It is also prohibited to seize or conflseate neutral aircraft or their cargo under claim of contraband, except in the case where aid is given to a coastal section or a blockaded port or the army or the enemy fleet in the theater of war.
Art. 5. In the cases excepted in Arts. 3 and 4 the rules of maritime prizes are applied. Art. 6. Private enemy aircraft is prohibited from penetrating into the aerial zone of the adversary state. The belligerents may prohibit neutral aircraft from Art. 7. entering the aerial zone above their territory. Art. 8. It is prohibited to aim at neutral aircraft without previous notice and to fire upon them when by accident they are forced to descend.
The
still
different
rules laid dowTi in the foregoing proposal, while, of course, from the accepted rules of to-day, show a close ap-
proach thereto, and no doubt have formed the groundwork for the formulation of the present laws.
It is of interest to
on aerial
note the opinions and expressions of writers few of which are quoted: Modern law of nations allows acts of war to take place only
craft, a
within the territory of the belligerents or on the high seas. If air forces are allowed to engage in future wars, they, too, will have to observe this principle. They will be limited to the
air
space.
domain of the belligerents and to the free parts of the air (Air Sovereignty Lycklama a Nijholt, p. 65.) The great importance of the aforesaid rule lies in its com-
tory.
plements, which forbid acts of hostility within neutral terriHence the air space of neutral States will be closed to
hostilities.
So passage above the neutral land can not be allowed any more than it is permitted on the soil. (Ibid., p. 67.) But they (the belligerents) clearly do not have the right of
using the aerial space surrounding the territory of neutral States (including marginal waters) for military purposes. (A. S. Hershey, American Journal of International Law, vol. 6, p. 386.) During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5, the War Department of
Russia issued the following rules:
The following actions, prohil)itod to neutrals, are considered as violating neutrality: The transport of the enemj^'s troops, its telegrams or correspondence, the supplying it of transport boats or war vessels. Vessels of neutrals found to be breaking any of those rules may be, according to circumstances, captured and confiscated. (U. S. Foreign Relations, 1904, p. 728.) Jurisdiction in the air space has engaged the attention of writers
for some time, and the conclusions drawn arc ordinarily based on conditions analogous on land and sea. There can be no doubt that
the extreme view on the freedom of the air
would
conflict
with the
262
sovereignty of states.
vrell established
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
The controlling decisions in many states the have principle that jurisdiction over the aerial above the state is as necessary an attribute as the jurisdiction space of the state over its territory or territorial waters. In the United
States the courts have repeatedly declared that the National Government has jurisdiction over the aerial space above the territory in matters affecting national interests.
The
distinction
etc.,
phere, water,
in 1908
:
between public and private rights in the atmoshave been clearly laid down by Mr. Justice Holmes
All rights tend to declare themselves absolute to their logical extreme. Yet all in fact are limited by the neighborhood of principles of policy which are other than those on which the
particular right is founded, and which become strong enough to hold their own when a certain point is reached. The limits set to property by other public interests present themselves as a branch of what is called the police power of the State. The boundary at which the conflicting interests balance can not be determined by any general formula in advance, but points in the line, or helping to establish it, are fixed by decisions that this or that concrete case falls on the nearer or farther side. For instance, the police power may limit the height of buildings, in a city, without compensation. To that extent it cuts down what otherwise would be the rights of property. But if it should attempt to limit the height so far as to make an ordinary building lot wholly useless, the rights of property would pervail over the other public interest, and the police power would fail. To set such a limit would need compensation and the power of eminent domain. It sometimes is difficult to fix boundary stones between the private right of property and the police power when, as in the case at bar, we know of few decisions that are very much in point. But it is recognized that the State as quasi-sovereign and representative of the interests of the public has a standing in court to protect the atmosphere, the water, and the forests within its territory, irrespective of the assent or dissent of the private owners of the land most immediately concerned. (Hudson Water Co. v. McCarter, 209 U. S., 349.)
In 1907 Mr. Justice Holmes held as follows

It is a fair
of a sovereign that the air over its territory should be polluted on a great scale by sulphurous acid gas, that the forests on its mountains, be they better or worse, and whatever domestic destruction they have suffered, should not be further destroyed or threatened by the act of persons beyond its control, that the crops and orchards on its hills should not be endangered from the same source.
and reasonable demand on the part
AERIAL WARFARE.
263
The question of permitting belligerent aircraft to take supplies and the like has not presented any real difficulties in the solution of the same. The analogy to the entrance of a vessel of war into
a neutral port
is
not justified, as in the latter case the time of
sojourn, the hour of departure, and other facts may be determined by the other belligerent with reasonable accuracy. The uncertainty of the movement of aircraft, making it impossible to learn the hour
of departure and other facts, is responsible for establishing the rule that the belligerent aircraft descending in neutral territory is subject to internment.
LXXXIII.
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.
The
wireless telegraph has
become
in recent years
an important
factor in war.
of November 3, 1906, it was genthat states should assume a control over wireless telegerally agreed In The Convention of Hague raphy. 1907, Article III of the chapter
Under the Berlin Convention
defining
The Eights and Duties of Neutral Powers

:
stipulates that
belligerents are forbidden to
Erect on the territory of a neutral Power a wireless (a) telegraph station or other apparatus for the purpose of communicating with belligerent forces on land or sea
;
Use any installation of this kind established by them war on the territory of a neutral Power for purely military purposes, and which has not been opened for the serv(b)
before the
ice of public messages.
In Article VIII
called
it
is
stipulated that
"A
neutral
Power
is
not
on behalf of the belligerents upon of telegraph or telephone cables or of wireless telegraphy apparatus belonging to it or to Companies or private individuals."
to forbid or restrict the use
In 1912, at the Convention of London, July 5 (ratified by the United States Senate on January 22, 1913), the question as to wireless telegraj)hy was definitely settled. It was agreed to apply the terra of the convention to all radio stations which are establislied or worked by the contracting parties and open to pul)lic service between the coast and vessels at sea. Coastal stations are those on
sbore or on board a permanently moored vessel.
Th^'.
names of
264
coastal stations
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
other data to acquaint the power of facts tending to facilitate the exchange of radiograms are to be communicated, according to the terms of the agreement.
all
and
It is
furthermore stipulated in Article
IX
that radio stations are
bound
to give absolute priority to calls of distress
source, to similarly answer such calls, regard thereto as may be required.
and
to take
from whatever such action with
As regards
It
is,
wireless communication in
war
vogue as to the rights and hoAvever, well settled that a belligerent may regulate, or completely interdict, the use of wireless telegraphy in its jurisdiction.
flicting opinions in
It is
time, there were conduties of belligerents.
furthermore incumbent, on board a neutral vessel, to abstain act which would tend to render service to one of the belligsuch as by despatch of messages or the giving of information to erents,
from any
the advantage of one belligerent or to the disadvantage of the other. An unneutral act of this kind subjects the wireless apparatus to
confiscation,
and the
vessel also
may
suffer the consequences of these
unneutral
"Wireless
acts.
communication of considerable distance was established in February, 1914, when press messages were exchanged between stations at Sayville, Long Island, and Nauen, a short distance from Berlin, both stations being approximately four thousand miles apart. The messages at both ends could be easily read, and, in spite of the great distance, were declared to be perfect.
communication was recognized shortly the cables between the United States and Germany were cut, subjecting the reports emanating from Germany to the censorship of the Allied Powers. The direct messages were sent by wireless to Sayville, Long Island, where, however, a military censor had to be established, in view of the fact that the neutrality of the United States was being jeopardized.
of wireless
The importance
after the outbreak of the
war when
The commercial importance of the wireless telegraph service of the United States has caused a regular service to be installed between Stations are Arlington, Virginia, and the Eiffel Tower in Paris.
also provided at Panama and San Francisco, although the latter two are used only occasionally and are not open for commercial
purposes.
The most important
service offered to the commercial world
is
that of informing shippers of the whereabouts of vessels, the course pursued, a change of route, and the like.
DECLARATION QF PARIS.
265
DECLARATION OF PARIS,
subject of deplorable disputes;
1856.
Considering that maritime law, in time of war, has long been the
That the uncertainty of the law and of the duties in such a matter, give rise to differences of opinion between neutrals and belligerents which may occasion serious difficulties, and even conflicts
;
That
it is
consequently advantageous to establish a uniform doc:
trine on so important a point
That the plenipotentiaries assembled in congress at Paris cannot better respond to the intentions by which their Governments are animated, than by seeking to introduce into international relations
fixed principles in this respect;
The above-mentioned
solved to concert
this object; and,
plenipotentiaries, being duly authorized, reamong themselves as to the means of attaining
having come to an agreement, have adopted the declaration: solemn following

1.
Privateering
is,
and remains abolished.

enemy's goods, with the exception of
2.
The neutral
flag covers
contraband of war.
Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not liable to capture under enemy's flag.
3.
Blockades, in order to be binding, must be effective; that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of the enemy.
4.
of the undersigned plenipotentiaries engage to to the knowledge of the states which declaration the present bring have not taken part in the congress of Paris, and to invite them to
The Governments
accede to
it.
Convinced that the maxims which they now proclaim cannot but be received with gratitude by the whole world, the undersigned plenipotentiaries doubt not that the efforts of their Governnients to obtain the general adoption thereof, will be crowned with full
success.
The present declaration
is
not and shall not bo binding, except

it.
between those powers wlio have acceded, or shall accede, to
Done
at Paris,
tin-
Kith of April, 1856.
266
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
LXXXV.
INTERNATIONAL NAVAL CONFERENCE.
Signed at London February
26,
1909; ratification advised by the
Senate, April 24, 1912.
Blockade in Time of War.

1.
blockade must not extend beyond the ports and coasts be-
longing to or occupied
2.
by the enemy.
ade, in order to
to the
3.
In accordance with the Declaration of Paris of 1856, a blockbe binding, must be effective, that is to say, it
must be maintained by a force
sufficient really to
prevent access
enemy
coastline.
is
The question whether a blockade
effective is a question of
fact.
4.
is
A A
blockade
is
not regarded as raised
if
the blockading force
temporarily withdrawn on account

5.
of stress of weather.
all
blockade must be applied impartially to the ships of
nations.
6.
a warship to enter,
7.
The Commander of a blockading force may give permission and subsequently to leave, a blockaded port.
In circumstances of distress, acknowledged by an
it,
to
officer of the
blockading force, a neutral vessel
and subsequently leave nor shipped any cargo

8.
may enter a place under blockade provided that she has neither discharged
there.
A A
blockade, in order to be binding, must be declared in ac9,
cordance with Article

11 and 16.
9.
and
notified in accordance with Articles
is
made
either
its
by the blockading
name.
Power
or
by the naval authorities acting in
It specifies:
(1)
The date when the blockade begins;

The geographical
limits of the coastline
(2)
(3)
10.
under blockade;
The period within which neutral
vessels
may come
out.
If the operations of the authorities acting in its name,
blockading Power, or of the naval do not tally with the particulars,
which, in accordance with Article 9 (1) and (2), must be inserted

in the declaration of blockade, the declaration is void,
267
and a new
declaration
11.
is necessary in order to
is
make
the blockade operative.
notified
To neutral Powers, by the blockading Power by means of a (1) communication addressed to the Government direct, or to their representatives accredited to
(2)
it;
To the
local
authorities,
by the
officer
commanding the
local authorities will, in turn, inform the foreign consular officers at the port or on the coastline under block-
blockading force.
The
ade as soon as possible.

12.
to cases
The rules as to declaration and notification where limits of a blockade are extended,
or
of blockade apply where a block-
ade
is
re-established after having been raised.
The voluntary raising of a blockade, as also any restriction in the limits of a blockade, must be notified in the manner prescribed by Article 11.
14.
The
is
liability
blockade
of a neutral vessel to capture for breach of contingent on her knowledge, actual or presumptive,
of the blockade,
Failing proof to the contrary, knowledge of the blockade is presumed if the vessel left a neutral port subsequently to the notifi15.
cation of the blockade to the
provided that such notification

16.
Power to which such port belongs, was made in sufficient time.
If a vessel
approaching a blockaded port has no knowledge,
actual or presumptive, of the blockade, the notification must be made to the vessel itself by an officer of one of the ships of the blockading
force.
This notification should be entered in the vessel's logbook,

state the
and must
day and hour, and the geographical position
of
the vessel at the time.
through the negligence of the officer commanding the blockading force, no declaration of blockade has been notified to the local authorities, or, if in Ihe declaration, as notified, no period has been mentioned within wliich neutral vessels may come out, a neutral vessel coming out of the blockaded port must be allowed to pass
If,
free.
may not be captured for breach of blockade within the area of operations of tlic warsliips detailed 1o except render the blnekade effective.
17.
Neutral vessels
268
18.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
The blockading forces must uot bar access
to neutral ports
or coasts.
19.
Whatever may be the
ulterior destination of a vessel or of her

if,
cargo, she cannot be captured for breach of blockade, moment, she is on her way to a non-blockaded port.
20.
at the
which has broken blockade outwards, or which has attempted to break blockade inwards, is liable to capture so long as she is pursued by a ship of the blockading force. If the pursuit is abandoned, or if the blockade is raised, her capture can no longer
vessel
be effected.
A vessel found guilty of breach of blockade is liable to 21. condemnation. The cargo is also condemned, unless it is proved that at the time of the shipment of the goods the shipper neither knew nor could have known of the intention to break the blockade.
1.
Contraband of War.
22. The following articles may, without notice, be treated as contraband of war, under the name of absolute contraband Arms of all kinds, including arms for sporting purposes, and (1)
:
their distinctive
component
parts.
(2) Projectiles, charges, distinctive component parts. (3) (4)
and cartridges
of all kinds,
and
their
Powder and
and their
explosives specially prepared for use in war.

field
Gun-mountings, limber boxes, limbers, military wagons,

distinctive
forges,
(5) (6) (7) (8)
component
parts.
Clothing and equipment of a distinctively military character.

All kinds of harness of a distinctively military character.
Saddle, draught, and pack animals suitable for use in war.

Articles of
camp equipment, and
their distinctive
component
parts.
(9)
Armour
plates-.
"Warships, including boats, and their distinctive component (10) such a nature that they can only be used on a vessel of of parts
war.
(11) Implements and apparatus designed exclusively for the manufacture of munitions of war, for the manufacture or repair of arms, or war material for use on land or sea.
23.
of absolute contraband
Articles exclusively used for war may be added to the list by a declaration, which must be notified.
269
Such notification must be addressed to the Governments of other Powers, or to their representatives accredited to the Power making the declaration. A notification made after the outbreak of hostilities is addressed only to neutral Powers.
24.
The following
articles,
susceptible
of use in
war
:
as well
as for purposes of peace, may, without notice, be treated as contraband of war, under the name of conditional contraband
(1)
(2)
Foodstuffs.
(3)
Forage and grain, suitable for feeding animals. Clothing, fabrics for clothing, and boots and shoes, suitable
Gold and silver in coin or bullion
Vehicles of
parts.
all
for use in war.

(4) (5)
;
paper money.
kinds available for use in war, and their
component
(6)
Vessels, craft, and boats of all kinds; floating docks, parts of docks and their component parts.
(7) Railway material, both fixed and rolling-stock, and material for telegraphs, wireless telegraphs, and telephones. Balloons and flying machines and their distinctive com(8)
ponent parts, together with accessories and articles recognizable as intended for use in connection with balloons and flying machines.
(9)
Fuel; lubricants.
(10)
Powder and
explosives not specially prepared for use in
war.
(11)
Barbed wire and implements for fixing and cutting the

Horseshoes and shoeing materials. Harness and saddlery.
same.
(12)
(13)
Field glasses, telescopes, chronometers, (14) nautical instruments.
and
all
kinds of
25. Articles susceptible of use in war as well as for purposes of peace, other than those enumerated in Articles 22 and 24, may be added to the list of conditional contraband by a declaration,
which must be notified

paragraph of Article 23.
26.
in
the
manner provided
for in the second
If a
treat as contraband
classes
Power waives, so far as it is concerned, the right to of war an article comprised in any of the
enumerated in Articles 22 and 24, such intention shall be announced by a declaration, which must be notified in the manner provided for in the second paragraph of Article 23.
270
27.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Articles which are not susceptible of use in
war may not be
declared contraband of war.

28.
(1)
terials
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
The following may not be declared contraband of war: Raw cotton, wool, silk, jute, flax, hemp, and other raw maof the textile industries, and yarns of the same. Oil seeds and nuts; copra. Rubber, resins, gums, and lacs; hops. Raw hides and horns, bones and ivory. Natural and artificial manures, including nitrates and phosMetallic ores.
phates for agricultural purposes.

(6) (7)
Earths, clays, lime, chalk, stone, including marble, bricks,
slates, and tiles. Chinaware and glass. (8) Paper and paper-making materials. (9) Soap, paint and colours, including (10) in their manufacture, and varnish.
articles exclusively
used
cake,
(11)
Bleaching
powder,
of
soda
ash,
caustic
ammonia, and sulphate

(12)
ammonia and sulphate
soda, salt of copper.
Agricultural,
(13)
mining, textile, and printing machinery. Precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, mother-of-pearl,
and
coral.
(14) (15)
Clocks and watches, other than chronometers.
(16)
(17) niture and requisites.

29.
Fashion and fancy goods. Feathers of all kinds, hairs, and bristles. Articles of household furniture and decoration;
office fur-
Likewise the following
may
not be treated as contraband of
war:
(1)
Articles serving exclusively to aid the sick
and wounded.
can, however, in case of urgent military necessity and subject to the payment of compensation, be requisitioned, if their destination is that specified in Article 30.
They
Articles intended for the use of the vessel in which they (2) are found, as well as those intended for the use of her crew and passengers during the voyage.
Absolute contraband is liable to capture if it is shown to be 30. destined to territory belonging to or occupied by the enemy, or It is immaterial whether the to the armed forces of the enemy.
271
carriage of the goods is direct or entails transshipment or a subsequent transport by land. 31. Proof of the destination specified in Article 30 is complete in
the following cases
:
When the goods are documented for discharge in (1) port, or for delivery to the armed forces of the enemy. When the vessel is to call at enemy ports only, or (2)
is
an enemy
when
she
an enemy port or meet the armed forces of the enemy before reaching the neutral port for which the goods in question are documented.
to touch at
32.
Where
a vessel
is
carrying absolute contraband, her papers
are conclusive proof as to the voyage on which she is engaged, unless she is found clearly out of the course indicated by her papers
and unable
33.
adequate reasons to justify such deviation. Conditional contraband is liable to capture if it is shown to
to give
be destined for the use of the armed forces or of a government department of the enemy State, unless in this latter case the cir-
cumstances show that the goods cannot in fact be used for the purposes of the war in progress. This latter exception does not apply to a consignment coming under Article 24 (4).
34.
The destination referred
to
in Article 33
is
presumed
to
exist if the goods are consigned to enemy authorities, or to a contractor established in the enemy country who, as a matter of common
knowledge, supplies articles of this kind to the enemy. A similar presumption arises if the goods are consigned to a fortified place belonging to the enemy, or other place serving as a base for the armed forces of the enemy. No such presumption, however, arises in the case of a merchant vessel bound for one of these places if it is sought to prove that she herself is contraband. In cases where the above presumptions do not arise, the destination is presumed to be innocent.
The presumptions
35.
set
up by
this Article
is
may
be rebutted.
Conditional contraband
not liable to capture, except
when
found on board a vessel bound for territory belonging to or occupied by the enemy, or for the armed forces of the enemy, and when it is not to be discharged in an intervening neutral port.
The
which the vessel
ship's papers are. conclusive proof both as to the voyage on is engaged and as to the port of discharge of the
is found clearly out of the course indicated by her and unable to give adequate reasons to justify such deviapapers,
goods, unless she
tion.
272
36.
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Notwithstanding the provisions of Article 35, conditional contraband, if shown to have the destination referred to in Article 33, is liable to capture in cases where the enemy country has no seaboard.
37. vessel carrying goods liable to capture as absolute or conditional contraband may be captured on the high seas or in the
territorial waters of the belligerents

vôyage, even
if
she
is
to
throughout the whole of her touch at a port of call before reaching
the hostile destination.

38.
vessel
may
carried contraband on a previous occasion point of fact at an end.

39.
not be captured on the ground that she has if such carriage is in
Contraband goods are
liable to
condemnation.
carrying contraband may be condemned if the reckoned either by value, weight, volume, or freight, contraband, forms more than half the cargo.
40.
vessel
41.
demned
If a vessel carrying contraband is released, she may be conto pay the costs and expenses incurred by the captor in
respect of the proceedings in the national prize court custody of the ship and cargo during the proceedings.
and the
42. Goods which belong to the owner of the contraband and are on board the same vessel are liable to condemnation.
encountered at sea while unaware of the outcontraband which applies to her cargo, the contraband cannot be condemned except on payment of compensation; the vessel herself and the remainder of the cargo are not liable to condemnation or to the costs and expenses
43.
If a vessel
is
break of
hostilities or of the declaration of
The same rule applies if the master, of the aware outbreak of hostilities, or of the becoming declaration of contraband, has had no opportunity of discharging
referred to in Article 41.
after
the contraband.
vessel is deemed to be aware of the existence of a state of war, or of a declaration of contraband, if she left a neutral port subsequently to the notification to the Power to which such port belongs of the outbreak of hostilities or of the declaration of contraband
respectively, provided that such notification was made in sufficient time. vessel is also deemed to be aware of the existence of a
state of
tilities.
war
if
she left an
enemy port
after the outbreak of hos-
273
44. A vessel which has been stopped on the ground that she is carrying contraband, and which is not liable to condemnation on account of the proportion of contraband on board, may, when the circumstances permit, be allowed to continue her voyage if the master is willing to hand over the contraband to the belligerent war-
ship.
The delivery of the contraband must be entered by the captor on the logbook of the vessel stopped and the master must give the captor duly certified copies of all relevant papers.
The captor is at liberty to destroy the contraband that has been handed over to him under these conditions.
2.
Unneutral Service.
A neutral vessel will be condemned and will, in a general 45. way, receive the same treatment as a neutral vessel liable to condemnation for carriage of contraband
:
on a voyage specially undertaken with a view to (1) the transport of individual passengers who are embodied in the armed forces of the enemy, or with a view to the transmission of
If she is
intelligence in the interest of the enemy. (2) If, to the knowledge of either the owner, the charterer, or the master, she is transporting a military detachment of the enemy,
or one or more persons who, in the course of the voyage, directly assist the operations of the enemy.
the
In the cases specified under the above heads, goods belonging to owner of the vessel are likewise liable to condemnation.
The provisions of the present Article do not apply if the vessel is encountered at sea while unaware of the outbreak of hostilities, or if the master, after becoming aware of the outbreak of hostilities, has had no opportunity of disembarking the passengers. The vessel is
deemed to be aware of the existence of a state of war if she left an enemy port subsequently to the outbreak of hostilities, or a neutral port subsequently to the notification of the outbreak of hostilities to the Power to which such port belongs, provided that such notification was made in sufficient time.
46.
receive the same treatment as
neutral vessel will be condemned and, in a general way, would be applicable to her if she were
:
an enemy merchant vessel

(1) (2)
If she takes a direct part in the hostilities; If she is undci- llic orders or control of an agent placed on
board by the enemy Government;
274
(3)
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
If she
is
in
the
exclusive
employment
of the
enemy Gov-
ernment.
If she is exclusively engaged at the time either in the transof enemy troops or in the transmission of intelligence in the port interest of the enemy. (4)
owner
47.
In the cases covered by the present Article, goods belonging to the of the vessel are likewise liable to condemnation.
individual embodied in the armed forces of the enemy found on board a neutral merchant vessel, may be made a prisoner of war, even though there be no ground for the capture
Any
who
is
of the vessel.
3.
Destruction of Neutral Prizes.
neutral vessel which has been captured may not be destroyed by the captor; she must be taken into such port as is proper for the determination there of all questions concerning the
48.
validity of the capture.
As an exception, a neutral vessel which has been captured a belligerent warship, and which would be liable to condemnaby tion, may be destroyed if the observance of Article 48 would involve
49.
tions in
50.
danger to the safety of the warship or to the success of the operawhich she is engaged at the time.
is destroyed all persons on board must be the ship's papers and other documents which the parties interested consider relevant for the purpose of deciding on the validity of the capture must be taken on board the warship.
Before the vessel
placed in safety,
and
all
captor who has destroyed a neutral vessel must, prior to decision any respecting the validity of the prize, establish that he acted in the face of an exceptional necessity of the nature cononly in 49. If he fails to do this, he must compensate Article templated
51.
the parties interested and no examination shall be question whether the capture was valid or not.
52.
made
of the
If the capture of a neutral vessel is subsequently held to be invalid, though the act of destruction has been held to have been
justifiable, the
ested, in place of the restitution to

entitled.
captor must pay compensation to the parties interwhich they would have been
If neutral goods not liable to condemnation have been de53. stroyed with the vessel, the owner of such goods is entitled to com-
pensation.
275
54. The captor has the right to demand the handing over, or to proceed himself to the destruction of, any goods liable to condemnation found on board a vessel not herself liable to condemnation, provided that the circumstances are such as would, under
demnation.
Article 49, justify the destruction of a vessel herself liable to conThe captor must enter the goods surrendered or de-
stroyed in the logbook of the vessel stopped, and must obtain duly certified copies of all relevant papers. When the goods have been handed over or destroyed, and the formalities duly carried out, the
master must be allowed to continue his voyage.
The provisions of Articles 51 and 52 respecting the obligations of a captor who has destroyed a neutral vessel are applicable.
4.
Transfer to a Neutral Flag.

vessel to a neutral flag, effected
55.
The transfer of an enemy
before the outbreak of hostilities, is valid, unless it is proved that such transfer was made in order to evade the consequences to which
an enemy
There is, however, a presumpnot on board a vessel, which has lost her belligerent nationality less than sixty days before the outbreak of This presumption may be rehostilities, that the transfer is void.
vessel, as such, is exposed.
tion, if the bill of sale is
butted.
Where the transfer was effected more than thirty days before the outbreak of hostilities, there is an absolute presumption that it is valid if it is unconditional, complete, and in conformity with
neitlier the control of,
the laws of the countries concerned, and if its eft'ect is such that nor the profits arising from the employment of, the vessel remain in the same hands as before the transfer. If,
however, the vessel lost her belligerent nationality less than sixty days before the outbreak of hostilities and if the bill of sale is not on board, the capture of the vessel gives no right to damages.
56.
The transfer
of an
enemy
vessel to a neutral flag effected
after the outbreak of hostilities, is void unless it is proved that such transfer was not made in order to evade the consequences to which an enemy vessel, as such, is exposed.
There, liowcvcr, void:

(1)
is
an absolute^ presumption that a transfer
is
If the transfer has been
made during
a voyage or in a blockis
aded port.
(2)
If a right to repurchase or recover the vessel
reserved to
the vendor.
276
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
if the requirements of the municipal law governing the (y) right to fly the flag under which the vessel is sailing, have not been
fulfilled.
5.
Enemy
Character.
57.
the neutral or
Subject to the provisions respecting transfer to another flag, enemy character of a vessel is determined by the flag
is
which she is entitled to fly. The case where a neutral vessel
engaged
in a trade
which
is
is
closed in time of peace, remains outside the scope of, wise affected by, this rule.
and
in
no
58. The neutral or enemy character of goods found on board an enemy vessel is determined by the neutral or enemy character of
the owner.
59.
found on board an enemy

goods.
60.
In the absence of proof of the neutral character of goods vessel, they are presumed to be enemy
Enemy
goods on board an enemy vessel retain their enemy
character until they reach their destination, notwithstanding any transfer effected after the outbreak of hostilities while the goods
are being forwarded.
however, prior to the capture, a former neutral owner exeron the bankuptey of an existing enemy owner, a recognized legal right to recover the goods, they regain their neutral character.
If,
cises,
6.
Convoy.
61.
Neutral vessels under national convoy are
exempt from
search.
The commander of
convoy
gives, in writing, at the request
of a belligerent warship, all information as to the character of the vessels and their cargoes, which could be obtained by search.
of the
commander
commander of the belligerent warship has reason to confidence of the commander of the convoy has that the suspect been abused, he communicates his suspicions to him. In such a
62.
If the
matter.
of the convoy alone to investigate the record the result of such investigation in a report, of which a copy is handed to the officer of the warship. If, in the opinion of the commander of the convoy, the facts shown in the report .justify the capture of one or more vessels, the protection of the convoy must be withdrawn from such vessels.
case
it is
for the
commander
He must

7.
277
Resistance to {Search.
63. Forcible resistance to the legitimate exercise of the right of stoppage, search, and capture, involves in all cases the condemnation of the vessel. The cargo is liable to the same treatment as the
cargo of an enemy vessel.

of the vessel are treated as
Goods belonging
to the
master or owner
enemy goods.
Compensation. goods
is
8.
64.
If the capture of a vessel or of
not upheld by the
prize court, or if the prize is released without any judgment being given, the parties interested have the right to compensation, unless there were good reasons for capturing the vessel or goods.
9.
Final Provisions.
65.
as a whole,
The provisions of the present Declaration must be treated and cannot be separated.
66. The Signatory Powers undertake to insure the mutual observance of the rules contained in the present Declaration in any
war in which all the belligerents are parties thereto. They will therefore issue the necessary instructions to their authorities and to their armed forces, and will take such measures as may be required
in order to insure that
it
will be applied
by
their courts,
and more
particularly by their prize courts.

67.
The present Declaration
shall be ratified as soon as possible.
The
ratification shall be deposited in
London.
The first deposit of ratifications shall be recorded in a Protocol signed by the Representatives of the Powers taking part therein, and by His Britannic INIajesty's Principal Secretary of State for.
Foreign Affairs.
The subsequent deposits of ratifications shall be made by means of a written notification addressed to the British Government, and
accompanied by the instrument of ratification. A duly certified copy of the Protocol relating to the first deposit of ratifications, and of the notifications mentioned in the preceding paragraph as well as of the instruments of ratification Avhich accom-
pany them, shall be immediately sent by the Bi-itish Government, through the diplomatic channel, to the Signatory Powers. The said GovernuK'nt -sliall, in the cases contemplated in the preceding paragraph, infonn tlu-ni at the same time of the date on which it received the notification.
278
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
in the case of the
ratifications, sixty such the Protocol of date the after deposit, and, in recording days the case of the Powers which shall ratify subsequently, sixty days after the notification of their ratification shall have been received
The present Declaration shall take effect, 68. Powers which were parties to the first deposit of
by the British Government.

69. In the event of one of the Sij,'natory Powers wishing to denounce the present Declaration, such denunciation can only be made to take effect at the end of a period of twelve years, begin-
ning sixty days after the first deposit of ratifications, and, after that time, at the end of successive periods of six years, of which the first will begin at the end of the period of twelve years.
Such denunciation must be

in advance, to the British
notified in writing, at least one year

shall
Government, which
inform
all
the
other Powers.
It will
only operate in respect of the denouncing Power.
The Powers represented at the London Naval Conference 70. attach particular importance to the general recognition of the rules which they have adopted, and therefore express the hope that the
Powers which were not represented there will accede to the present Declaration. They request the British Government to invite them
to
do
so.
Power which
desires to accede shall notify its intention in
writing to the British Government, and transmit simultaneously the act of accession, which will be deposited in the archives of the said
Government.
The said Government shall forthwith transmit to all the other Powers a duly certified copy of the notification, together with the act of accession, and communicate the date on which such notification was received. The accession takes effect sixty days after
such date.
In respect of all matters concerning this Declaration, acceding shall be on the same footing as the Signatory Powers.
71.
Powers
The present Declaration, which bears the date of the 26th February, 1909, may be signed in London up till the 30th June, 1909, by the Plenipotentiaries of the Powers represented at the Naval Conference.
In faith whereof the Plenipotentiaries have signed the present Declaration, and have thereto affixed their seals.
HAGUE CONVENTION.
279
LXXXVI. SECOND HAGUE CONVENTION.

Concluded Oct.
I.
18,
1907.
Regulations respecting the

Section
I.
Laws and Customs
of
War
on Land.
On Belligerents.
I.
Chapter
I.
The
Qualifications of Belligerents.
Article
laws, rights, and duties of war apply not only to armies, but also to militia and volunteer corps fulfilling the following conditions
The
1.
2. 3.
4.
To To To To
be
commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates have a fixed distinctive emblem recognizable at a distance carry arms openly; and conduct their operations in accordance with the laws and
customs of war. In countries where militia or volunteer corps constitute the army, or form part of it, they are included under the denomination
' ' ' '
army.
Article
II.
The inhabitants of a territory which has not been occupied, who, on the approach of the enemy, spontaneously take up arms to resist the invading troops without having had time to organize themselves in accordance with Article I, shall be regarded as belligerents if they carry arms openly and if they respect the laws and customs of
war.
Article III.
The armed forces of the belligerent parties may consist of combatants and noncombatants. In the case of capture by the enemy, both have a right to be treated as prisoners of war.
Chapter
II.
Prisoners
of
War.
Article IV.
Prisoners of war are in the power of the hostile Government, but not of the individuals or corps who capture them. They must be humanely treated.
All their personal belongings, except arms, horses, papers, remain their property.
and military
280
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Article V.
Prisoners of
other place,
war may be interned in a town, fortress, camp, or and bound not to go beyond certain fixed limits; but
they cannot be confined except as an indispensable measure of safety and only while the circumstancs which necessitate the measure continue to exist.
Article VI.
The State may utilize the labour of prisoners of war according to rank and aptitude, officers excepted. The tasks shall not be excessive and shall have no connection with the operations of the
their
war.
Prisoners
may
be authorized to
work
for the public service, for
private persons, or on their Work done for the State

of a similar kind done
own
is
account.
paid at the rates in force for work

or, if
by soldiers of the national army,
there
are none in force, at a rate according to the work executed. When the work is for other branches of the public service or for
private persons the conditions are settled in agreement with the

military authorities. The wages of the prisoners shall go towards improving their position, and the balance shall be paid them on their release, after de-
ducting the cost of their maintenance.

Article VII.
into whose hands prisoners of war have fallen charged with their maintenance. In the absence of a special agreement between the belligerents, prisoners of war shall be treated as regards board, lodging, and clothing on the same footing as the troops of the Government who captured them.
The Government
is
Article
VHI.
Prisoners of
war
orders in force in the
shall be subject to the laws, regulations, and army of the State in whose power they are.
Any act of insubordination justifies the adoption towards them of such measures of severity as may be considered necessary. Escaped prisoners who are retaken before being able to rejoin
their own army or before leaving the territory occupied by the army which captured them are liable to disciplinary punishment. Prisoners who, after succeeding in escaping, are again taken prisoners, are not liable to any punishment on account of the previous
flight.
HAGUE CONVENTION.
Article IX.
281
Every prisoner
is
subject, his true liable to have the advantages given to prisoners of his class curtailed.
of war is bound to give, if he is questioned on the name and rank, and if he infringes this rule, he
Article X.
Prisoners of
war may be
set at liberty
on parole
if
own Government and the Government by whom they were made prisoners, the engagements they have contracted. In such cases their own Government is bound neither to require of nor accept from them any service incompatible with the parole
given.
country allow, and, in such cases, they are bound, honour, scrupulously to fulfill, both towards their
the laws of their on their personal
Article XI.
prisoner of
parole; to the request of the prisoner to be set at liberty on parole.

Article
war cannot be compelled to accept his similarly the hostile Government is not obliged
liberty on to accede
Xn.
war liberated on parole and recaptured bearing arms Government the to whom they had pledged their honour, or against the of that allies against Government, forfeit their right to-be treated
Prisoners of
as prisoners of war,
and can be brought before the Courts.

Article
XHI.
Individuals who follow an army without directly belonging to it, such as newspaper correspondents and reporters, sutlers and contractors,
who
fall into
the enemy's hands and
whom
the latter thinks
expedient to detain, are entitled to be treated as prisoners of war, provided they are in possession of a certificate from the military
authorities of the
army which they were accompanying.

Article
XIV.
An inquiry office for prisoners of war is instituted on the comnicncornont of hostilities in each of the belligerent States, and, when
nof'cssary, in neutral countries
which have received belligerents

office to
in
their territory.
It is the
function of this
It receives
reply to all in-
quiries about the prisoners.
from the various services
concerned
full
information respecting internments and transfers,
282
releases
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
on parole, exchanges, escapes, admissions into hospital, well as other information necessary to enable it to make as deaths,
out and keep up to date an individual return for each prisoner of war. The office must state in this return the regimental number,
name and surname, age, place of origin, rank, unit, wounds, date and place of capture, internment, wounding, and death as well as any observations of a special character. The individual return shall be sent to the Government of the other belligerent after the
and colfound on the field of battle or left by prisoners who have been released on parole, or exchanged, or who have escaped, or died in hospitals or ambulances, and to forward them to those concerned.
office to
conclusion of peace. It is likewise the function of the inquiry
receive
lect all objects of personal use, valuables, letters, etc.,
Article
XV.
Relief societies for prisoners of war, which are properly constituted in accordance with the laws of their country and with the
from the
object of serving as the channel for charitable effort shall receive belligerents, for themselves and their duly accredited agents
every facility for the efficient performance of their humane task within the bounds imposed by military necessities and administrative regulations. Agents of these societies may be admitted to the
to the halting places of repatriated prisoners, if furnished
places of internment for the purpose of distributing relief, as also with a
personal permit by the military authorities, and on giving an undertaking in writing to comply with all measures of order and police
which the
latter
may
issue.
Article
XVI.
Inquiry
offices
orders, and valuables,
enjoy the privilege of free postage. Letters, money as well as parcels by post, intended for pris-
oners of war, or dispatched by them, shall be exempt from all postal duties in the countries of origin and destination, as well as in the countries they pass through.
Presents and relief in kind for prisoners of

riage by the State railways.
Article XVII.
Officers
officers
war
shall be admitted
free of all import or other duties, as well as of
payments for
car-
taken prisoners shall receive the same rate of pay as of corresponding rank in the country where they are de-
HAGUE CONVENTION.
tained, the
283
tlieir
amount
to be ultimately
refunded by
own Gov-
ernment.
Article
XVni.
shall enjoy complete liberty in the exercise of including attendance at the services of whatever Church they may belong to, on the sole condition that they comply with the measures of order and police issued by the military
Prisoners of
war
their religion,
authorities.
Article
XIX.
The wills of prisoners of war are received or drawn up in the same way as for soldiers of the national army. The same rules shall be observed regarding death certificates as well as for the burial of prisoners of war, due regard being paid to their grade and rank.
Article
XX.
war
After the conclusion of peace, the repatriation of prisoners of shall be carried out as quickly as possible.
Chapter III. The Sick and Wounded.

Article
XXI.
sick
The obligations of belligerents with regard to the wounded are governed by the Geneva Convention.
Section
II.
and
Hostilities.
Chapter
I.
Means of Injuring the Enemy,

Bombardments.
Article
Sieges,
and
XXn.
means
of injuring the
The
right of belligerents to adopt
enemy
is
not unlimited.
Article XXIII.
it is
In addition to the prohibitions provided by special Conventions, especially forbidden
To employ poison or poisoned weapons; (a) To kill or wound treacherously individuJils belonging to (b) the hostile nation or army; To kill or wound an enemy who, liaving laid down his (c) arms, or having tk) longer means of defence, has surrendered
at discretion;
284
(d)
(e)
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
To declare that no quarter will be given; To employ arms, projectiles, or material calculated
to
cause unnecessary suffering; To make improper use of a flag of truce, of the national (f ) flag, or of the military insignia and uniform of the enemy, as well as the distinctive badges of the Geneva Convention To destroy or seize the enemy's property, unless such (g) destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the neces;
sities of
war; To declare abolished, suspended, or inadmissible in a Court of law the rights and actions of the nationals of the hos(h)
party. belligerent is likewise forbidden to compel the nationals of the hostile party to take part in the operations of war directed against their own country, even if they were in the belligerent's service
tile
before the
commencement
of the war.
Article
XXIV.
taining information about the ered permissible.
Ruses of war and the employment of measures necessary for obenemy and the country are considArticle
XXV.
lages, dwellings, or buildings
The attack or bombardment, by whatever means, of towns, vilwhich are undefended is prohibited.
Article
XXVI.
The
officer in
command
of an attacking force must, before com-
mencing a bombardment, except in cases of assault, do all in his power to warn the authorities.
Article
XXVH.
In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be taken to spare, as far as possible, buildings dedicated to religion, art, science, or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals, and places
where the sick and wounded are collected, provided that they are not being used at the time for military purposes. It is the duty of the besieged to indicate the presence of such buildings or places by distinctive and visible signs, which shall be
notified to the
enemy beforehand.
Article
XXVIII.
The
pillage of a
town or
place, even
when taken by
assault, is
prohibited.
HAGUE CONVENTION.
-
285
Chapter
II.
Spies.
Article
XXIX.
person can only be considered a spy when, acting clandestinely or on false pretences, he obtains or endeavours to obtain information in the zone of operations of a belligerent, with the intention of com-
municating it to the hostile party. Thus, soldiers not wearing a disguise who have penetrated into the zone of operations of the hostile army, for the purpose of obSimilarly, the foltaining information, are not considered spies.
lowing are not considered spies:
Soldiers and civilians, carrying out their mission openly, intrusted with the delivery of despatches intended either for their own army or for the enemy's army. To this class belong likewise persons sent in balloons for the purpose of
carrying despatches and, generally, of maintaining communications between the different parts of an army or a territory.
Article
XXX.
A
trial.
spy taken in the act shall not be punished without previous

Article
XXXI.
spy who, after rejoining the army to which he belongs, is subsequently captured by the enemy, is treated as a prisoner of war, and incurs no responsibility for his previous acts of espionage.
Chapter
III.
Flags
of Truce.
Article
XXXII.
person is regarded as bearing a flag of truce who has been authorized by one of the belligerents to enter into communication with the other, and who advances bearing a white flag. He has a
right to inviolability, as well as the trumpeter, bugler or the flag-bearer and interpreter who may accompany him.
Article
drummer,
XXXIU.
is
The commander
to
whom
a flag of truce
sent
is
not in
all
cases
obliged to receive it. He may take all the necessary steps to prevent the envoy taking advantage of his mission to obtain information.
In case of abuse, he has the right to detain the envoy temporarily.
28G
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Article
XXXIV.
The envoy loses his right of inviolability if it is proved in a clear and incontestable manner that he has taken advantage of his privileged position to provoke or commit an act of treachery.
Chapter IV.
Capitulations.
XXXV.
Article
Capitulations agreed upon between the contracting parties must take into account the rules of military honour.
Once
settled,
they must be scrupulously observed by both parties.
Chapter V.
Article
Armistices.
XXXVI.
An
between the belligerent
armistice suspends military operations by mutual agreement If its duration is not defined, the parties.
belligerent parties may resume operations at any time, provided always that the enemy is warned within the time agreed upon, in
accordance with the terms of the armistice.

Article
XXXVII.
local.
An
armistice
may
be general or
The
first
suspends the mili;
tary operations of the belligerent States everywhere the second only between certain fractions of the belligerent armies and within a
fixed radius.
Article
XXXVHI.
An armistice must be notified officially and in good time to the competent authorities and to the troops. Hostilities are suspended immediately after the notification, or on the date fixed.
Article
It rests
XXXIX.
armistice,
with the contracting parties to settle, in the terms of the what communications may be held in the theatre of war
with the inhabitants and between the inhabitants of one belligerent

State and those of the other.
Article
XL.
Any serious violation of the armistice by one of the parties gives the other party the right of denouncing it, and even, in eases of urgency, of recommencing hostilities immediately.
UAGUE CONVENTION.
Article XLI.
287
A violation of the terms of the armistice by private persons acting on their own initiative only entitles the injured party to demand the punishment of the offenders or, if necessary, compensation for
the losses sustained.
Section
III.
Military
Authority Over the Territory of the Hostile

State.
Article XLII.
Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army. The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority
has been established and can be exercised.

Article XLIII.
The authority of the legitimate power having in fact passed into the hands of the occupant, the latter shall take all the measures in his power to restore, and ensure, as far as possible, public order and
safety, while respecting, unless absolutely prevented, the laws in force in the country.
Article
XLIV.
belligerent is forbidden to force the inhabitants of territory occupied by it to furnish information about the army of the other
belligerent, or about its
means
of defeuce.
Article
XLV.
to
It is forbidden to compel the inhabitants of occupied territory swear allegiance to the hostile Power.
Article
XLVI.
and
and private propmust be respected.
Family honour and
rights, the lives of persons,
erty, as well as religious convictions
practice, Private property cannot be confiscated.
Article Pillage
is
XLVII.
formally forbidden.
Article
XL VIII.
If, in
and
tolls
the territory occupied, the occupant collects the taxes, duos. imposed for the benefit of the State, he shall do so, as far
288
as
is
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
possible, in accordance with the rules of assessment and incidence in force, and shall in consequence be bound to defray the ex-
penses of the administration of the occupied territory to the same extent as the legitimate Government was so bound.
Article
If,
XLIX.
in addition to the taxes mentioned in the above Article, the occupant levies other money contributions in the occupied territory, this shall only be for the needs of the istration of the territory in question.
army
or of the admin-
Article L.
general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, shall be inflicted upon the population on account of the acts of individuals for which they cannot be regarded as jointly and severally responsible.
Article LI.
No
contribution shall be collected except under a written order, and on the responsibility of a Commander-in-chief. The collection of the said contribution shall only be effected as far
as possible in accordance with the rules of assessment of the taxes in force.
No
and incidence
For every contribution a receipt
shall be given to the contributors.
Article LIT.
Requisitions in kind and services shall not be demanded from municipalities or inhabitants except for the needs of the army of
occupation.
They
shall be in proportion to the resources of the
country, and of such a nature as not to involve the inhabitants in the obligation of taking part in military operations against their
own
country.
shall only be demanded on the authority of the commander in the locality occupied. Contributions in kind shall as far as possible be paid for in cash
Such requisitions and services
not, a receipt shall be given and the shall be made as soon as possible.
if
payment
of the
amount due
Article LHI.
An army
and realizable
of occupation can only take possession of cash, funds, securities which are strictly the property of the State,
HAGUE CONVENTION.
289
depots of arms, means of transport, stores and supplies, and, generally, all movable property belonging to the State wliicb may be used
for military operations.
All appliances, whether on land, at sea, or in the air, adapted for the transmission of news, or for the transport of persons or things, exclusive of cases governed by naval law, depots of arms, and,
generally, all kinds of ammunition of war, may be seized, even if they belong to private individuals, but must be restored and compensation fixed when peace is made.
Article LIV.
Submarine cables connecting an occupied territory with a neutral

lute necessity.
territory shall not be seized or destroyed except in the case of absoThey must likewise be restored and compensation
fixed
when peace
is
made.
Article
LV.
The occupying State
shall be
regarded only as administrator and
usufructuary of public buildings, real estate, forests, and agricultural estates belonging to the hostile State, and situated in the
occupied country. It must safeguard the capital of these properties, and administer them in accordance with the rules of usufruct.
Article LVI.
The property of municipalities, that of institutions dedicated to religion, charity and education, the arts and sciences, even when
State property, shall be treated as private property. All seizure of, destruction or wilful damage done to institutions of this character, historic monuments, works of art and science, is
forbidden, and should be
made
the subject of legal proceedings.
n.
Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in
War
on Land.
Chapter
I.
The
Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers.

Article
I.
The
territory of neutral
Powers
is
inviolable.
Article
II.
Belligerents are forbidden to move troops or convoys of either munitions of war or supplies across the territory of a neutral Power.
290
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Article III.
Belligerents are likewise forbidden to: Erect on the territory of a neutral Power a wireless (a) telegraphy station or other apparatus for the purpose of communicating with belligerent forces on land or sea; Use any installation of this kind established by them (b) before the war on the territory of a neutral Power for purely military purposes, and which has not been opened for the service of public messages.
Article IV.
Corps of combatants cannot be formed nor recruiting agencies opened on the territory of a neutral Power to assist the belligerents.
Article V.
neutral
Articles II to
It is
Power must not allow any of the acts referred to in IV to occur on its territory. not called upon to punish acts in violation of its neutrality
its
unless the said acts have been committed on

Article VI.
own
territory.
The responsibility of a neutral Power is not engaged by the fact of persons crossing the frontier separating to offer their services to one of the belligerents.
Article
Vn.
to prevent the export or trans-
A neutral Power is not

army
or a
fleet.
called
upon
port, on behalf of one or other of the belligerents, of arms, munitions of war, or, in general, of anything which can be of use to an
Article
VIH.
neutral
Power
is
not called upon to forbid or restrict the use
on behalf of the belligerents of telegraph or telephone cables or of wireless telegraphy apparatus belonging to it or to Companies or
private individuals.
Article IX.
Every measure Power in regard
of restriction or prohibition taken by a neutral to the matters referred to in Articles VII and
VIII must be impartially applied by it to both belligerents. A neutral Power must see to the same obligation being observed by Companies or private individuals owning telegraph or telephone
cables or wireless telegraphy apparatus.
HAGUE CONVENTION.
Article X.
291
The
fact of a neutral
Power
resisting,
even by force, attempts to
violate its neutrality cannot be regarded as a hostile act.
Chapter II. Belligerents Interned and

Territory.
Wounded Tended
in Neutral
Article XI.
neutral Power which receives on its territory troops belonging to the belligerent armies shall iatern them, as far as possible, at a distance from the theatre of war.
It
may keep them
ia
camps and even confine them
in fortresses
or in places set apart for this purpose. It shall decide whether officers can be left at liberty on giving their parole not to leave the neutral territory.
Article XII.
Power
In the absence of a special Convention to the contrary, the neutral shall supply the interned with the food, clothing, and relief required by humanity. At the conclusion of peace the expenses caused by the internment
shall be
made good.
Article
Xin.
A
leave
neutral
Power which
If
it
them
at liberty.
receives escaped prisoners of war shall allows them to remain in its territory it
may
assign them a place of residence. The same rule applies to prisoners of war brought by troops taking
refuge in the territory of a neutral Power.

Article
XIV.
the sick and
Power may authorize the passage into its territory of wounded belonging to the belligerent armies, on condition that the trains bringing them shall carry neither personnel or war material. In such a case, the neutral Power is bound to take whatever measures of safety and control are necessary for the
neutral
purpose.
wounded brought under these conditions into neutral one of the belligerents, and belonging to the hostile territory by be must guarded by the neutral PoAver so as to ensure their party,
The
sick or
not taking part afrain
in
the rnililary operations.
The same duty
292
shall devolve
INTERNATIONAL! LAW.
on the neutral State with regard to wounded or sick

to its care.
of the other
army who may be committed

Article
XV.
to sick
The Geneva Convention applies

neutral territory.
and wounded interned
in
Chapter
III.
Neutral Persons.
XVI.
is
Article
The nationals of a State which

considered as neutrals.
Article
not taking part in the war are
XVII.
:
neutral cannot avail himself of his neutrality If he commits hostile acts against a belligerent; (a) If he commits acts in favour of a belligerent, particu(b) larly if he voluntarily enlists in the ranks of the armed force of one of the parties. In such a case, the neutral shall not be more severely treated by
the belligerent as against whom he has abandoned his neutrality than a national of the other belligerent State could be for the same
act.
Article XVIII.
The following
(a)
acts shall not be considered as
committed in favour
letter (b)
:
of one belligerent in the sense of Article
XVII,
Supplies furnished or loans made to one of the belligerents, provided that the person who furnishes the supplies or who makes the loans lives neither in the territory of the other party nor in the territory occupied by him, and that the supplies do not come from these territories. Services rendered in matters of police or civil admin(b)
istration.
III.
Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time Chapter I. The Bombardment' of Undefended
of
War.
Towns,
Ports,
Villages, Dwellings, or Buildings.
Article
I.
The bombardment by naval forces of undefended ports, towns,

villages, dwellings, or buildings is forbidden.
place cannot be bombarded solely because automatic submarine contact mines are anchored off the harbour.
HAGUE CONVENTION.
Article
11.
293
war
Military works, military or naval establishments, depots of arms or material, workshops or plant which could be utilized for the
fleet
needs of the hostile
or army,
and the ships of war
in the har-
bour, are not, however, included in this prohibition. The commander of a naval force may destroy them with artillery, after a sum-
mons followed by a reasonable time of waiting, if all other means are impossible, and when the local authorities have not themselves destroyed them within the time fixed. He incurs no responsibility for any unavoidable damage which may be caused by a bombardment under such circumstances.
If for military reasons immediate action is necessary and no delay can be allowed the enemy, it is understood that the prohibition to bombard the undefended town holds good, as in the case given in
paragraph
1,
and that the commander
shall take all
due measure in
order that the town
may
suffer as little
harm
as possible.
Article HI.
After due notice has been given, the bombardment of undefended ports, towns, villages, dwellings, or buildings may be commenced, if the local authorities, after a formal summons has been made to
them, decline to comply with requisitions for provisions or supplies necessary for the immediate use of the naval force before the place
in question.
These requisitions shall be in proportion to the resources of the place. They shall only be demanded in the name of the commander of the said naval force, and they shall, as far as possible, be paid for in cash if not, they shall be evidenced by receipts.
;
Article IV.
Undefended ports, towns, villages, dwellings, or buildings may not be bombarded on account of failure to pay money contributions.
Chapter
II.
General Provisions.
Article V.
In bombardments by naval forces all the necessary measures must be taken by the commander to spare as far as possible sacred edifices,
buildings used for artistic, scientific, or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals, and places where the sick or wounded are
294
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
collected, on the understanding that they are not used at the same time for military purposes. It is the duty of the inhabitants to indicate such monuments, edifices, or places by visible signs, which shall consist of large stiff rectangular panels divided diagonally into two coloured triangular portions, the upper portion black, the lower portion white.
Article VI.
If the military situation permits, the
commander
of the attacking
his
naval force, before commencing the
bombardment, must do
utmost to warn the authorities.

Article VII.
town or
place, even
when taken by
storm,
may
not be pillaged.
IV.
The Adaption
to
Naval
War
of the Principles of the
Geneva
Convention.
Article
I.
Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or assigned by States specially and solely with a view to assisting the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked, the names of which have been com-
municated to the belligerent Powers at the commencement or during the course of hostilities, and in any case before they are employed, shall be respected, and cannot be captured while hostilities last.
These ships, moreover, are not on the as regards their stay in a neutral port.
Article H.
Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the expense of private individuals or officially recognized relief societies, shall be likewise respected and exempt from capture, if the belligerent Power
to
same footing
as warships
whom
they belong has given them an
official
commission and has
notified their
names
to the hostile
Power
at the
commencement
of
any case before they are employed. These ships must be provided with a certificate from the competent authorities declaring that the vessels have been under their control while fitting out and on final departure.
or during hostilities,
in
and
HAGUE CONVENTION.
Article IH.
295
Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the expense of private individuals or officially recognized societies of neutral countries, shall be respected and exempt from capture, on condition that they are placed under the control of one of the belligerents, with the
previous consent of their
own Government and with
the authoriza-
tion of the belligerent himself, and that the latter has notified their name to his adversary at the commencement of or during hostilities, and in any case, before they are employed.
Article IV.
The ships mentioned in Articles I, II, and III shall afford relief and assistance to the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked of the belligerents without distinction of nationality.
The Governments undertake not

purpose.
to use these ships for
any military
These vessels must in no wise hamper the movements of the combatants.
During and after an engagement they will act at their own risk and peril.
The belligerents shall have the right to control and search them they can refuse to help them, order them off, make them take a certain course, and put a Commissioner on board they can even detain them, if important circumstances require it.
; ;
far as possible, the belligerents shall enter in the log of the hospital-ships the orders which they give them.
Article V.
As
r- --
Military hospital-ships shall be distinguished by being painted white outside with a horizontal band of green about a metre and a-half in breadth.
The ships mentioned in Articles II and III shall be distinguished by being painted white outside with a horizontal band of red about a metre and a-half in breadth. The boats of the ships above mentioned,
may
as also small craft which be used for hospital work, shall be distinguished by similar
painting.
All hospital ships shall make themselves known by hoisting, with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross provided by the
296
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Geneva Convention, and further, if they belong to a neutral State, by flying at the mainmast the national flag of the belligerent under whose control they are placed.
Hospital-ships which, in the terms of Article FV, are detained by the enemy, must haul down the national flag of the belligerent to
whom
they belong.
The ships and boats above mentioned which wish to ensure by night the freedom from interference to which they are entitled, must,
subject to the assent of the belligerent they are accompanying, take the necessary measures to render their special painting sufficiently
plain.
Article VI.
The distinguishing signs referred to in Article can only be used, whether in time of peace or war, for protecting or indicating the ships therein mentioned.
Article VII.
In the case of a fight on board a war-ship, the sick-wards shall be respected and spared as far as possible. The said sick-wards and the materiel belonging to them remain subject to the laws of war; they cannot, however, be used for any
purpose other than that for which they were originally intended, s^ long as they are required for the sick and wounded. The commander, however, into whose power they have fallen may apply them to other purposes, if the military situation requires it, after seeing that the sick and wounded on board are properly provided for.
Article VIII.
Hospital-ships and sick-wards of vessels are no longer entitled to protection if they are employed for the purpose of injuring the
enemy.
The fact of the staff of the said ships and sick-wards being armed for maintaining order and for defending the sick and wounded, and the presence of wireless telegraphy apparatus on board, is not a sufficient
reason for withdrawing protection.

Article IX.
Belligerents may appeal to the charity of the commanders of neutral merchant-ships, yachts, or boats to take on board and tend the sick and wounded.
HAGUE CONVENTION.
297
Vessels responding to this appeal, and also vessels which have of their own accord rescued sick, wounded, or shipwrecked men,
shall enjoy special protection
and certain immunities.
In no case
can they be captured for having such persons on board, but, apart from special undertakings that have been made to them, they remain liable to capture for any violations of neutrality they may have committed.
Article X.
The
religious, medical,
inviolable,
and
its
leaving the ship instruments which are their

Tills staft: shall
and hospital staff of any captured ship is members cannot be made prisoners of war. On they take away with them the objects and surgical
own private property. continue to discharge its duties while necessary, and can afterwards leave when the Commander-in-chief considers
it
possible.
belligerents must guarantee to the said staff, when it has fallen into their hands, the same allowances and pay which are
The
given to the
staft*
of corresponding
rank
in their
own
navy.
Article XI.
Sailors and soldiers on board, when sick or wounded, as well as other persons officially attached to fleets or armies, whatever their nationality, shall be respected and tended by the captors.
Article XII.
Any
war-ship belonging to a belligerent
may demand
that sick,
wounded, or shipwrecked men on board military hospital-ships, hosjjital-ships
belonging to relief societies or to private individuals,
merchant-ships, yachts, or boats, whatever the nationality of these vessels, should be handed over.
Article
Xin.
If sick, wounded, or shipwrecked persons are taken on board a neutral war-ship, every possible precaution must be taken that they do not again take part in the operations of the war.
Article
XIV.
The shipwrecked, wounded, or sick of one of the belligerents who into the power of the other belligerent are prisoners of war. The captor must decide, according to circumstances, whether to
fall
298
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
keep them, send them to a port of his own country, to a neutral In this last ease, prisoners thus port, or even to an enemy port. repatriated cannot serve again while the war lasts.
Article
XV.
at a neutral
The shipwrecked,
sick, or
wounded, who are landed
unless an arport with the consent of the local authorities, must, between the neutral State and rangement is made to the contrary
the belligerent States, be
guarded by the neutral State so as to
prevent them again taking part in the operations of the war.

be borne
The expenses of tending them in hospital and interning them shall by the State to which the shipwrecked, sick, or wounded
Article
persons belong.
XVI.
After every engagement, the two belligerents, so far as military interests permit, shall take steps to look for the shipwrecked, sick, and wounded, and to protect them, as well as the dead, against pillage and
ill
treatment.
They shall see that the burial, whether by land or sea, or cremation of the dead shall be preceded by a careful examination of the
corpse.
Article XVII.
Each belligerent shall send, as early as possible, to the authorities of their country, navy, or army the military marks or documents of identity found on the dead and the description of the sick and
wounded picked up by him. The belligerents shall keep each other informed
as to internments and transfers as well as to the admissions into hospital and deaths tvhich have occurred among the sick and wounded in their hands.
They shall collect all the objects of personal use, valuables, letters, etc., which are found in the captured ships, or which have been left by the sick or wounded who died in hospital, in order to have them
forwarded to the persons concerned by the authorities of their own
fountry.
Article
XVni.
The provisions of the present Convention do not apply except between Contracting Powers, and then only if all the belligerents
are parties to the Convention.
HAGUE CONVENTION.
Article
299
XIX.
The Commanders-in-chief of the belligerent fleets must see that the above Articles are properly carried out; they v^îll have also to see to cases not covered thereby, in accordance with the instructions
of their respective Governments and in conformity with the general principles of the present Convention.
Article
XX.
shall take the necessary measures for bringof the present Convention to the knowledge of ing the provisions their naval forces, and especially of the members entitled thereunder
The signatory Powers
to immunity,
and for making them known

Article
to the public.
XXI.
to
The Signatory Powers likewise undertake to enact or

to
propose
their Legislatures, if their criminal laws are inadequate, the measures necessary for checking in time of war individual acts of
pillage and ill-treatment in respect to the sick and wounded in the as well as for punishing, as an unjustifiable adoption of naval
fleet,
or military marks, the unauthorized use of the distinctive marks mentioned in Article V by vessels not protected by the present Convention.
They will communicate to each other, through the Netherland Government, the enactments for preventing such acts at the latest within five years of the ratification of the present Convention.
Article
XXII.
In the case of operations of war between the land and sea forces of belligerents, the provisisons of the present Convention do not apply except between the forces actually on board ship.
Article XXIII.
The present Convention shall be ratified as soon as possible. The ratifications shall be deposited at The Plague. The first deposit of ratifications shall be recorded in a procesverbal signed by the Representatives of the Powers taking part therein and by the Netherland IMinister for Foreign Affairs. Subsequent deposits of ratifications shall be made by means of a written notification addressed to the Netherland Government and
accompanied by the instrument of
ratification.
300
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
certified
copy of the proces-verbal relative to the first deposit of ratifications, of the notifications mentioned in the preceding paraonce graph, as well as of the instruments of j-atification, shall be at
sent
by the Netherland Government through the diplomatic channel to the Powers invited to the Second Peace Conference, as well as to In the the other Powers which have adhered to the Convention. cases contemplated in the preceding paragraph the said Government shall inform them at the same time of the date on which it received
the notification.
Article
XXIV.
Non-signatory Powers which have accepted the Geneva Convention of the 6th July, 1906, may adhere to the present Convention. The Power which desires to adhere notifies its intention to the
Netherland Government in writing, forwarding to it the act of adhesion, which shall be deposited in the archives of the said Government.
The said Government shall at once transmit to all the other Powers a duly certified copy of the notification as well as of the act of adhesion mentioning the date on which it received the notification.
Article
XXV.
The present Convention, duly ratified, shall replace as between Contracting Powers, the Convention of the 29th July, 1899, for the adaptation to maritime warfare of the principles of the Geneva
Convention. The Convention of 1899 remains in force as between the Powers which signed it but which do not also ratify the present Convention.
V.
Right of Capture in Naval War.
Chapter
I.
Postal
Correspondence.
I.
Article
The
official
postal correspondence of neutrals or belligerents, whatever its or private character may be, found on the high seas on
the correspondence
sible delay.
board a neutral or enemy ship, is inviolable. If the ship is detained, is forwarded by the captor with the least pos-
HAGUE CONVENTION.
Article
II.
301
The inviolability of postal correspondence does not exempt a ueutral mail-ship from the laws and customs of maritime war as to neutral merchant-ships in general. The ship, however, may not be searched except when absolutely necessary, and then only
with as much consideration and expedition as possible.
Chapter
II.
The
Exemption from Capture of Certain

Article HI.
Vessels.
employed
Vessels used exclusively for fishing along the coast or small boats in local trade are exempt from capture, as well as their
appliances, rigging, tackle, and cargo. They cease to be exempt as soon as they take any part whatever
in hostilities.
The Contracting Powers agree not to take advantage of the harmless character of the said vessels in order to use them for
military purposes while preserving their peaceful appearance.
Article IV.
Vessels charged with religious, scientific, or philanthropic missions are likewise
exempt from capture.
Chapter
III.
Regulations Regarding the Crews of Enemy Merchantships Captured
by a
Belligerent.
Article V.
When an enemy merchant-ship is captured by a belligerent, such of its crcAv as are nationals of a neutral State are not made prisoners of war.
rule applies in the case of the captain and officers likewise nationals of a neutral State, if they promise formally in writing
The same
not to serve on an
enemy
ship while the
war
lasts.
Article VI.
The captain, officers, and members of the crew, when nationals of the enemy State, are not made prisoners of war, on condition that
they make a formal promise in writing, not to undertake, while hostilities last, any service connected with the operations of the
war.
302
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Article
Vn.
The names
conditions laid
are notified
of
by
persons retaining their liberty under the in Article V, paragraph 2, and in Article VI, the belligerent captor to the other belligerent. The
the
down
latter is forbidden
knowingly
to
employ the said persons.
Article VIII.
The provisions of the three preceding Articles do not apply to ships taking part in the hostilities.
VI. Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval War.

Article
I.
Belligerents are bound to respect the sovereign rights of neutral Powers and to abstain, in neutral territory or neutral waters, from any act which would, if knowingly permitted by any Power, constitute a violation of neutrality.
Article
II.
Any act of hostility, including capture and the exercise of the right of search, committed by belligerent war-ships in the territorial waters of a neutral Power, constitutes a violation of neutrality and is strictly forbidden.
Article IH.
When a ship has been captured in the territorial waters of a neutral Power, this Power must employ, if the prize is still within its jurisdiction, the means at its disposal to release the prize
with
its officers and crew, and to intern the prize crew. If the prize is not in the jurisdiction of the neutral Power, the captor Government, on the demand of that Power, must liberate the
prize with its officers
and crew.
Article IV.
prize Court cannot be set up by a belligerent on neutral territory or on a vessel in neutral waters.
Article V.
Belligerents are forbidden to use neutral ports and waters as a base of naval operations against their adversaries, and in particular
HAGUE CONVENTION.
to erect wireless
303
telegraphy stations or any apparatus for the purpose of communicating with the belligerent forces on land or sea.
Article VI.
The supply, in any manner, directly or indirectly, by a neutral Power to a belligerent Power, of war-ships, ammunition, or war material of any kind Avhatever, is forbidden.
Article VII.
neutral
Power
is
not bound to prevent the export or transit,
for the use of either belligerent, of arms, ammunitions, or, in general, of anything which could be of use to an array or fleet.
Article VIII.
A
or
neutral Government
is
bound
to
employ the means
at its dis-
posal to prevent the fitting out or arming of any vessel within its jurisdiction which it has reason to believe is intended to cruise,
engage
in hostile operations, against a

is
peace. vigilance to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise, or engage in hostile operations, which had
Government
at
It is
also
Power with which that bound to display the same
been adapted entirely or partly within the said jurisdiction for use in war. Article IX.
neutral Power must apply impartially to the two belligerents the conditions, restrictions, or prohibitions made by it in regard to the admission into its ports, roadsteads, or territorial waters, of belligerent war-ships or of their prizes.
Nevertheless, a neutral
Power may
forbid a belligerent vessel
which has failed to conform to the orders and regulations made by it, or which has violated neutrality, to enter its ports or roadsteads.
Article X.
The neutrality of
through
its
Power
territorial
is not affected .by the mere passage waters of war-ships or prizes belonging to
belligerents.
Article XI.
neutral
Power may allow
belligerent war-ships to employ its
lifonsed pilots.
304
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Article XII. In the absence of special provisions to the contrary in the legislation of a neutral Power, belligerent war-ships are not permitted to remain in the ports, roadsteads, or territorial waters of the said Power for more than twenty-four hours, except in the cases covered
by the present Convention.

Article XIII.
If a
tilities
Power which has been informed
of the
outbreak of hos-
learns that a belligerent war-ship is in one of its ports or roadsteads, or in its territorial waters, it must notify the said ship to depart within twenty-four hours or within the time prescribed
by
local regulations.
Article
XIV.
belligerent war-ship may not prolong its stay in a neutral port beyond the permissible time except on account of damage or stress of weather.
It
must depart as soon as the cause of the delay
is
at
an end. The regulations as to the question of the length of time which these vessels may remain in neutral ports, roadsteads, or waters, do not apply to war-ships devoted exclusively to religious, scientific,
or philanthropic purposes.
Article
XV.
In the absence of special provisions to the contrary in the legisof a neutral Power, the maximum number of war-ships belonging to a belligerent which may be in one of the ports or Boadsteads of that Power simultaneously shall be three.
lation
Article
XVI.
When war-ships belonging to both belligerents are present simultaneously in a neutral port or roadstead, a period of not less than twenty-four hours must elapse between the departure of the ship
belonging to one belligerent and the departure of the ship belonging
to the other.
The order of departure
is
unless the ship which arrived first tension of its stay is permissible.
determined by the order of arrival, is so circumstanced that an ex-
belligerent war-ship
may
not leave a neutral port or roadstead
until twenty-four hours after the departure of a merchant-ship flying the flag of its adversary.
HAGUE
C02SrVENTI0N,
305
Article XVII.
In neutral ports and roadsteads belligerent war-ships may carry out such repairs as are absolutely necessary to render seaworthy, and may not add in any manner whatsoever to The local authorities of the neutral Power fighting force.
only-
them
their
shall
decide what repairs are necessary, and these must be carried out with the least possible delay.
Article
XVm.
may not make use of neutral ports, roadfor replenishing or increasing their on territorial waters steads, material or their war of armament, or for completing their supplies
Belligerent war-ships
crews.
Article
XIX.
or
Belligerent war-ships may only revictual in neutral ports roadsteads to bring up their supplies to the peace standard.
Similarly these vessels may only ship sufficient fuel to enable them to reach the nearest port in their own country. They may, on
the other hand, fill up their bunkers built to carry fuel, when in neutral countries which have adopted this method of determining
the
amount of
fuel to be supplied.
If, in accordance with the law of the neutral Power, the ships are not supplied with coal within twenty-four hours of their arrival, the permissible duration of their stay is extended by twenty-four
hours.
Article
XX.
Belligerent war-ships which have shipped fuel in a port belonging to a neutral Power may not within the succeeding three months replenish their supply in a port of the same Power.
Article
XXI.
prize may only be brought into a neutral port on account of unseaworthiness, stress of weather, or want of fuel or provisions.
It
must leave as soon as the circumstances which
justified
its
entry are at an end. If it does not, the neutral Power must order it to leave at once; should it fail to obey, the neutral Power must employ the means at its disposal to release it with its officers and crew and to intern the prize crew.
306
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Article
XXII.
one of
The neutral Power must, similarly, release a prize brought into its ports under circumstances other than those referred to in Article XXI.
Article XXIII.
Power may allow prizes to enter its ports and roadwhether under convoy or not, when they are brought there to be sequestrated pending the decision of a Prize Court. It may have the prize taken to another of its ports. If the prize is convoyed by a war-ship, the prize crew may go on board the convoying ship. If the prize is not under convoy, the prize crew are left at liberty.
neutral
steads,
Article
If,
XXIV.
notwithstanding the notification of the neutral Power, a bellig-
erent ship of war does not leave a port where it is not entitled to remain, the neutral Power is entitled to take such measures as it
considers nfeceasary to render the ship incapable of taking the sea during the war, and the commanding officer of the ship must facilitate the execution of such measures.
a belligerent ship is detained by a neutral Power, the and crew are likewise detained. The officers and crew thus detained may be left in the ship or kept either on another vessel or on land, and may be subjected to the measures of restriction which it may appear necessary to
officers
When
impose upon them. A sufficient number of men for looking after the vessel must, however, be always left on board. The officers may be left at liberty on giving their word not to quit the neutral territory without permission.
Article
XXV.
A
or in
neutral
Power
is
bound
to exercise such surveillance as the
means
at its disposal allow to prevent any violation of the provisions of the above Articles occurring in its ports or roadsteads
its
waters.
Article
XXVI.
The exercise by a neutral Power of the rights laid down in the present Convention can under no circumstances be considered as
an unfriendly act by one or other belligerent who has accepted the
Article relating thereto.
DEFINITION OF TERMS.
Article
307
XXVII.
The Contracting Powers

course
all
shall communicate to each other in due Laws, Proclamations, and other enactments regulating in
their respective countries the status of belligerent war-ships in their ports and waters, by means of a communication addressed to the Government of the Netherlands, and forwarded immediately by
that
Government
to the other Contracting Powers.
LXXXYII.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS EMPLOYED IN INTERNATIONAL
LAW.
Abandonment. The relinquishment of property or rights. Accretion. The increase of real property caused by gradual imperceptible deposition wherebj^ to the soil portions are added. Alien. person residing in one state but owing allegiance to
"
another.
Allegiance. The tie which binds citizens to the government for the protection accorded to them.
Ambassador.
An envoy sent by the sovereign state or ruler to another state with a legal commission and authority to transact business on behalf of the country he represents. Annexation. The act of uniting one thing to another; especially employed in connection with the uniting of lands.
The investigation and determination of matters of difference between contending parties, by one or more unofficial persons, chosen by the parties and called arbitrators or
Arbitration.
referees.
Armistice.
cessation of hostilities between belligerent nations
foi'
a considerable time.
Asylum.
Refuge to a fugitive from
justice.
Belligerency.
Blockade.
thereto.
The state of being actually at war. The besieging of the shore or ports of one belligerent
to prevent access
by the naval forces of another belligerent
Capitulation.
The treaty which determines the conditions under nbandoned to the commanding officer which nf the armv which besieged it.
a fortified place is
308
Cession,
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
The transfer of land by one government to another. Citizenship. The status of a person owing allegiance to a state by
reason of birth or naturalization within the jurisdiction of that
state.
Claims.
The
some
erent
service or
assertion of a liability to the party making pay a sum of money. (16 U. S. 539.)
it
to
do
Capture (Maritime War).
The taking of property by one
bellig-
from another.
Confederacy.
An agreement between two or more states or nations which they unite for their mutual protection and good. by commercial A Consul. agent of a country residing in a foreign whose country duty it is to promote the commerce of the state
commissioning him. Contraband. Articles primarily or ordinarily used for military purposes in time of war. Contributions. Sums of money levied by the chief of an army from the inhabitants of an invaded territory, this term is used interchangeably with requisitions.
Credence, Letters of. The instrument which authorizes and establishes a public minister in his character with the state or prince to whom they are addressed.
person belonging to the army or navy leaving his post or duties without permission for the purpose of escaping. Domicile. The place in which one's habitation is fixed without
Deserter.
any present intention of removing therefrom. Droit d'aubaine. The law whereby property held by foreigners dying intestate or testate reverts to the state.
Embargo.
of
proclamation or order of state, usually issued in time or threatened hostilities, prohibiting the departure of ships or goods from some or all ports of such state, until further orders.
war
Enlistment
The act of making
a contract to serve the
government
in a subordinate capacity either in the
army or navy.
Exemption, Exequatur.
Immunity from any charge, duty, burden or liability. certificate issued by the Foreign Department of a
state to a consul or commercial agent of another state, authorizing the performance of the consular duties.
Extradition.
The surrender of persons charged with crime by one foreign state to another on its demand, pursuant to treaty
stipulations between them.
DEFESriTION OP TERMS.
Extraterritoriality.
309
The quality of laws which makes them operate beyond the territory of the power enacting them, upon certain
persons or certain rights.
Federal Union.
The combining of several
states
imder a central
government exercising national sovereignty in foreign matters.
High
The uninclosed waters of the ocean, and also those seas. waters on the sea coast which are without the boundaries of low water mark.
The removing into one country from another. That which is given to a person (state) to prevent his suffering damage. Insurgent. One who is concerned in an insurrection, but distinguished from a rebel in that the former justly opposes the
Immigration.
Indemnities.
tyranny of constituted authority.

Insurrection.
its
A rebellion
The
of citizens or subjects of a country against
government.
rules of conduct regulating the intercourse
International law.
of states.
Jus gentium. Law of nations. Jus naturae (Jus naturale). The rule and dictate of right reason showing the moral deformity or moral necessity there is in any
act
according
to
its
suitableness
to
reasonable
nature.
(Grotius.)
Martial Law.
The application of military government to persons and property within the scope of it, according to the laws and usages of war, to the exclusion of the municipal government in all respects where the latter would impair the efficiency of military rule and military action. Mediation. The act of some mutual friend of contending parties who brings them to agree, compromise or settle their disputes. Military Law. A system of regulations for the government of an
army.
Neutrality. The state of a nation which takes no part between or more other nations at war with each other.
two
Neutralization.
An act of one or more nations imposing upon another state a condition nf ytormnnent neutrality.
310
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
Pacific blockade.
The besieging by one or more states of a port or ports of another without declaring war upon that state.
document granted in time of war to protect persons Passport. or property from the general operation of hostilities.
Postliminium.
The legal fiction applied to persons having been out of the realm (as in the case of having been taken prisoner), whereby they are reinstated into their former status and
rights.
Privateer.
A vessel owned by one or more private individuals armed and equipped at his or their expense for the purpose of carrying on a maritime war, -by the authority of one of the belligerent
court.
parties.
Prize
That branch of admiralty which adjudicates upon
cases of maritime captures

Prizes.
made
in time of war.
at sea of a ship or other a vessel by authority of belligerent power, either with the design of appropriating it, with the goods and effects it contains, or
The apprehension and detention
with that of becoming master of the whole or a part
of its cargo. relation Protectorate.
assumed by a strong nation toward a weak
one, whereby the former protects the latter from hostile invasion or dictation and interferes more or less in its domestic concerns.
Rebellion.
The taking up of arms traitorously against the govern-
ment.
Recognition, is an acknowledgment. The term is applied in connection with the acknowledgment of independence and sovereignty of a state.
Reprisals.
?
The taking
of measures
by one nation
to the disad-
vantage of another nation in return or satisfaction for an injury committed by the latter on the former.
Requisition.
Retaliation.
Articles of consumption or supply levied
by an
in-
vading army.
Includes reprisal and retorsion.
Retorsion.
act employed by a government to impose the same hard treatment on the citizens or subjects of a state that the latter has used toward the citizens or subjects of the former for the purpose of obtaining the removal of obnoxious meas-
An
ures.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Sovereignty.
in a state.
311
The union and exercise of
all
human power
possessed
Sponsions. Agreements entered into by agents of a state in excess of their authority. State. Association of human being established for the accomplishment of certain ends by certain means.
Suzerainty.
Treaties.
The
office
or jurisdiction of a suzerain.
Agreements made and entered into by one independent by which it places itself under an obligation. Truce. An agreement between belligerent parties by which they
state with another, in conformity with law,
mutually engage to forbear

other for some time, the
Visit
all
still
acts of hostility against each
war
continuing.
The right of a belligerent to board neutral private on the high seas, or in the waters of either belligerent and examine their papers and cargo. War. A hostile contest with arms between two or more states or communities claiming sovereign rights.
and
search.
vessels
INDEX
[references ABE TO PAGES]
ABROGATION,
of treaties, 78.
ABSOLUTE CONTRABAND,
liable to capture, 216.
214.
ABUSE OF FLAGS OF TRUCE,

ACQUISITION,
and
loss of sovereignty, 18. of title to territory, 18.
172.
ADDRESSES,
of diplomatic agents, 49.
AERIAL WARFARE,
AEROPLANE,
257.
prohibition affecting, 147.

see Aerial warfare. Aircraft.
AGENTS,
appointment
commercial,
of diplomatic, 39.
50.
diplomatic, 39.
AGREEMENTS,
see Sponsions, 180.
AIRCRAFT,
jurisdiction concerning, 259.
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,
Peace
of, 68,
ALIENS,
36, 151.
enlistment of, 121, residence of, 36.

sojourn
status
of,
37.
of, 21.
ALLEGIANCE,
temporary, of hostile citizens in time of war, 169.
ALLIAN'CE, The Holy,
69.
AMBASSY,
see Embassy.
AMERICA,
see United States.
AMBULANCES AND HOSPITALS,
154.
314
INDEX.
ANGARY, 234. APPOINTMENT,

ARBITRATION, 103. ARMAMENT OP MERCHANTMEN,

submarines as
affecting, 250.
ARMED MERCHANTMEN,
in neutral ports, 252.
laws regarding status on the high seas, 252.
of, 251.
relations of belligerents and neutrals as affected by status
of, 253.
submarines and,
249.
ARMISTICE,
conditions controlling an, 178, 286.
Hague convention concerning,

truce and, 174, 286.
179.
ARTICLES,
adapted to form contraband, 215. not contraband, 215.
ASSYRIANS,
Babylonians and,
o.
ASYLUM,
98.
in America, 99.
in legations, lOO.
on merchant vessels, 102. on ships of war, 101,201.

the right
of, 22.
ATTACH:g;S,
45.
military, 45.
naval, 46.
scientific, 47.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,
declaration of
war
of, 114, 116.
AUTHORITY,
to issue passports, 94.
AUTOMATIC SUBMARINE CONTACT MINES AND TORPEDOES, BABYLONIANS,

and Assyrians,
5.
242.
BALLOONS,
see Aerial warfare.
BARBARY STATES,
consular officers in the,
64.
BELGIUM,
conclusion of treaties, 72.
BELLIGERENCY,
recognition
of, 17, 126, 127.
BELLIGERENT CONVOY,
226.
INDEX.
315
BELLIGERENTS,
interned and wounded tended in neutral territory, 291. prohibited acts of, 146.
qualification of, 279. status of armed merchantmen as affecting, 253.
BERLIN,
Congress
of, 70.
BLOCKADE,
breach
of,
by neutral vessels, 211.

of, 211.
declaration
In time of war, 210, 266.
BLOCKADING OPERATIONS, BOMBARDMENTS,

notice
212.
and sieges in time of war, 161, 283, by naval forces in time of war, 292.
of, 168.
292.
BOOTY AND CAPTURES,

gallant conduct of the British in the In time of war, 133.
He de
la Passe, 138.
BUILDINGS,
protected against firing in time of war, 173.
CABLE,
see
Submarine
cable.
CANAL,
Corinth, 193.
Kiel,
193. 194.
Panama,
Suez, 189.
CANALS AND WATERWAYS,

neutralization
of, 188.
CAPITULATION,
182, 286.
authority to make, 183.
binding to belligerent and
its allies, 184.
limitations of authority to make, 183.
terms
of,
183.
CAPTURED VESSELS,
see Conquest, 165.
CAPTURE,
of vessels carrying contraband, 222, 272.
CAPTURES,
and booty
in
time of war, 133.
CARLOWITZ,
Peace
of, 67.
CARTEL
(exchange of prisoners of war),
159.
ship, 159.
CELEBRATION,
of fetes
by ships of war, 206.

18.
CHANGES OF GOVERNMENT,
316
INDEX.
CITIZENS, In a war
of rebellion, 141. of hostile country considered enemies, 168. temporary allegiance of hostile, 169.
22.
of, 30.
CITIZENSHIP,
impeachment
CIVIL,
requirements for acquiring,

oflBcers, salaries of, in
25.
invaded territory, 133.
War,
139.
CIVILIANS,
see also Noncombatants.
taking up arms spontaneously in time of war, 146.
CLAIMS,
against United States by her executive
officers, 48.
CLASSES,
and
titles in
the consular service, 50.
CLASSIFICATION,
of diplomatic representatives, 40.
COMBATANTS,
and noncombatants,
119.
COMMENT,
by United States
officers forbidden, 233.
COMMERCE,
restrained by submarines in time of war, 244.
COMMERCIAL AGENTS,
jurisdiction
of,
50.
53.
intercourse in time of war, 129.
COMMISSIONERS,
and special envoys,
39.
COMPENSATION,
for prize not upheld
by court, 277.
70.
CONCLUSION OF TREATIES,
by by by by by by by by by
Belgium, 72. France, 72.
Germany,
Italy, 73.
71. 71.
Great Britain,
Netherlands,
Spain, 73.
73.
Switzerland,
73. 74.
United States,
CONDEMNATION,
of neutral vessels, 235.
of vessels carrying contraband, 223.
CONDITIONAL CONTRABAND,
214.
INDEX.
317
CONDITIONS,
affecting laying of submarine cables, 240. controlling an armistice, 178. controlling a truce, 176.
controlling truce and armistice, 178, 286.
CONFEDERATE GOVERNMENT,
CONFERENCE,
International Naval, 266,
16.
Naval, 222. of Paris concerning maritime law, 265.
CONFISCATION,
of
enemy property
in time of war, 130.
CONGRESS,
International Naval, 225.
of Berlin, 70.
of Vienna, 68, 70.
CONQUEST, 165. CONSEILLER, 45. CONSULAR,

and diplomatic functions,
office,
48.
superadded, 42. officers in eastern countries,

officers in
officers, judicial
officers, officers,
63.
the Barbary States, 64.
powers
of, 55. 64.
military rank salutes to, 64.
of,
service, 50.
service, classes
treaty, 58,
and
titles in the, 50.
CONSULS,
51.
of, 57.
immunities and privileges

jurisdiction
of, 53.
merchant, 58. powers and duties
of, 51.
CONTACT MINES AND TORPEDOES,

automatic submarine,- 242.
CONTINUOUS RESIDENCE, CONTRABAND,

absolute, 214
28,
absolute, liable to capture, 216. articles adapted to form, 215.

articles not, 215.
conditional, 214.
delivery
of, 223.
hydroaeroplanes not, 236. of war, 213, 268.

vessels carrying, 216, 223.
CONTRACTS,
in
time of war,
138.
318
INDEX.
CONTRIBUTIONS,
levied by military occupant, 136, 288.
CONTROL OF SUBMARINE CABLES,

government, 239.
CONVENTION,
see also Conference, Congress.
Geneva, 153.
International Prize Court, 225.
The Hague,
103, 146, 161, 179, 279.
CONVOY,
225, 276.
belligerent, 226.
neutral, 226.
CORINTH CANAL, 193. COUNSEL TO EMBASSY OR LEGATION,

local, 47.
CREDENTIALS,
and reception
CRIMEAN WAR,
and treaty
of Paris, 1856, 69.
CRIMES,
committed by American soldiers in time
of war, 134.
CUTTING OP SUBMARINE CABLES,

DECEIT,
against an
241.
enemy
DECLARATION,
of blockade, 211. of intention to of intention to
become a become a
citizen of the United States, 27. citizen of the United States,
withdrawal
of, 28.
of Paris, 1856, concerning maritime law, 265. of war in modern times, 113. of
of of
war war war
in the Middle Ages, 112. of the Greeks, 111.

of the
Romans,
112.
DE FACTO,
and de jure governments,
15.
DEFINITION,
of terms
employed in international law,

223.
307.
DELIVERY OF CONTRABAND,
DESERTION,
from United States army,
of seamen, 52.
144.
DESTRUCTION,
of neutral prizes, 274.
DEVASTATION AND DESTRUCTION,

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SHIPS OF WAR. AND SHIPS OF COMMERCE,

see Ships of war.
INDEX.
319
DIPLOMATIC,
and consular
I'unctions, 48.
grades in the United States, 41. representatives, grades of, 42.
DIPLOMATIC AGENTS,
addresses
of, 49.
39.
appointment
of, 39. of, 42.
credentials and reception duties of, 48.
presents
to, 49. of,
rights to protection
44.
speeches
of, 49.
DISCHARGE,
and shipment
of
seamen,
52.
DISCIPLINE,
and maintenance
of prisoners of war, 148.
DROIT D'AUBAINE (property DUAL NATIONALITY, 29.

DUTIES,
and powers of consuls, 51. imposed upon submarines,
held by foreigners), 166.
251.
of
merchant vessels in time
of war, 218.
of states, rights and, 16.
DUTY,
ships of
war may purchase supplies

officers in, 63.
free
of,
201.
EASTERN COUNTRIES,
consular
EFFECTS OF TRUCE,
EGYPT,
175.
International relations
of, 4.
3.
EGYPTIAN COMMONWEALTH, EMBASSY OR LEGATION,

local counsel to, 47.
secretaries
of, 44.
EMBLEM,
Red
Cross, 156.
184.
END OF WAR,
ENEMY,
citizen of hostile country considered, 168.
property in time of war, confiscation of, 130. property in time of war, public and private, 132.
merchant
ships, 301.
vessel, character of, 276.
ENFORCEMENT OF TREATIES,
ENGLAND,
see Great Britain.
76.
ENLISTMENT.
of aliens, 121.
320
INDEX.
ENVOYS,
commissioners and
special, 39,
EVIDENCE,
of flag of vessels, 201.
EXCHANGE,
of
war
prisoners, 159.
EXEMPTION,
from capture of certain vessels in time of war, 301. from jurisdiction of ships of war, limitations of, 199. from search, 225. from territorial jurisdiction, 21.
EXPATRIATION, 37. EXTRADITION, 96. EXTRATERRITORIALITY,

of ships of war, 199.
EXTRATERRITORIAL JURISDICTION,
FETES,
celebrated by ships of war, 206.
22.
FLAG,
of ships, 202. of truce, 172, 285. of truce, abuse of, 172.
of truce, bearer of, 172. of truce. United States
Navy Regulations
concerning, 173.
transfer of
enemy
vessels to a neutral, 221, 275.

in, 95.
FOREIGN COUNTRIES,
passports issued by United States diplomatic representatives recognition of belligerency by, 127.
FOREIGNERS IN HELLAS,
the right
of, 7.
FORM OF TREATY,
FORTS,
76.
salutes between ships and, 204.
FRANCE,
conclusion of treaties, 72. declaration of war by, 116, 117, 118.
FRANCO-PRUSSIAN TREATY,
70.
FREE NAVIGATION,
see Neutralization of canals and waterways.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS,
concerning war and peace,
7,
109, 1G9.
153.
GENEVA CONVENTION
see also
(Red Cross),
Hague Convention.
153.
(Red Cross),
GERMANY,
conclusion of treaties, 71. declaration of war by, 114, 115.
requisitions in Versailles
made
by, 137.
GOOD OFFICES,
106.
INDEX.
321
GOVERNMENT,
changes
of, 18.
confederate, 16. de facto and de jure, 15.
kinds
of, 14.
state and, 14.
GRADE OF DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES, GRADES IN THE UNITED STATES,

diplomatic, 41.
of naval officers concerning visits
42.
GREAT BRITAIN,
conclusion of treaties,
declaration of
247, 248.
71.
on ships of war, 206.
war
by, 116, 117, 118.
reply to United States proposal on conduct of submarine warfare by
GREEKS,
declaration of
war by
the, 111.
see also Hellas, Hellenes, Hellenic.
GROTIUS,
11.
GUERRILLAS,
and guerrilla warfare, 144. and levies en masse distinguished, punishment of, 145.
146.
HAGUE CONVENTION,
aerial warfare, 257.
angary, 235.
armistice, 179.
mediation, 103.
prohibited war measures, 146.
sieges
Second (1907), 279. and bombardments,
161.
HELLAS,
the right of foreigners
in, 7.
HELLENES,
the international relations of the,
6.
HELLENIC WORLD, HIGH SEAS.
6.
armed merchantmen on
the, 252. definition of the term, 186.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT,
of International law,
?,.
of International law, Introduction to, of treaties,

0',.
?,.
HOBSGN'S HEROIC ACT, 160, HOLY ALLIANCE. 60. HOSPITALS AND AMBULANCES. HOSPITAL SHIPS. 158. HOSTILE CITIZENS.
trrnporary allegfance
of,
154.
169.
territory, occupation of. 132.
322
INDEX.
HOSTILITIES,
end
of, 184.
of, 182.
suspension
see also War.
HUMANITARIAN ASPECTS OF LAW OF WAR, HYDROAEROPLANES, 236.

IMMUNITIES,
and privileges
of consuls, 57.
167.
IMPEACHMENT,
of citizenship, 30.
INDEMNITY,
for unjust seizure of vessels, 224.
INDEPENDENCE,
sovereignty and, 12.
INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY,
International Union for the protection
of,
92.
INFORMATION AGENCIES FOR PRISONERS OF WAR, INSTITUT DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL,

INSURGENTS,
see Belligerency.
150.
resolutions concerning passage of vessels through territorial waters, 187.
INSURRECTION, 139. INTENTION TO BECOME AN AMERICAN CITIZEN,

declaration
of, 26.
INTERNATIONAL,
Naval Conference, 266. Naval Congress, 225. Prize Court Convention,
225.
relations of Egypt, 4. relations of the Hellenes,
6. 8.
relations of the
Romans,
1.
Union
for the protection of industrial property, 92.
INTERNATIONAL LAW,
definition of terms
employed in, 307. historical development of, 3. introduction to historical development
of,
3.
INTERPRETATION OF TREATIES,
INTRODUCTION,
to historical
77.
development of international law,
3.
INVALID TRANSFER,
of flag, 222.
INVIOLABILITY,
of flag bearer (flag of truce), 172.
ISRAELITES, ITALY,
6.
JUDICIAL POWERS,
of consular oflBcers, 55.
INDEX.
323
JURISDICTION,
concerning aircraft, 259. exemption from territorial,
extraterritorial, 22.
21.
limitations
of,
21.
military, 167.
national, 20.
of consuls
and commercial agents, 53. of ships of war, limitations of exemption from, 199.
over vessels,
20.
JUS GENTIUM,
of the
Romans,
9.
KIEL CANAL, 193. KINDS OF GOVERNMENT, 14. LANDING OF SUBMARINE CABLES,

conditions affecting, 240.
239.
LAW,
international,
1.
maritime,
10.
martial, 170.
naturalization, 25.
LAWS AND CUSTOMS,

of
war on
land, 279.
239.
LAYING OF SUBMARINE CABLES,

conditions affecting, 240.
LEGATION OR EMBASSY,
local counsel to, 47.
secretaries of
embassy
or, 44.
LEGATIONS,
asylum
in, 100.
LENIENT MEASURES,
accorded to noncombatants, 1G8.
LETTERS OF MARQUE OR PRIVATEERS, LEVIES EN MASSE, 146.

and guerrillas distinguished,
146.
209.
LIBERTIES,
and payment granted
to prisoners of
war, 151.
LICENSES,
to carry
on a trade interdicted by laws of war, 134.

199.
LIMITATIONS,
of
exemption from jurisdiflion of ships of war,
of jurisdiction, 21.
LOCAl COUNSEL,
to
embassy or
legation, 47.
LOSS OF SOVEREIGNTY,
acquisition and, 18.
MACEDONIA,
MAIL,
8.
Bteamers and mail
In
time of war, 210.
324
INDEX.
MAINTENANCE,
MARGINAL
MARINE,
and discipline SEA,
of prisoners of war, 148. 186.
see naval forces.
MARITIME LAW,
10.
Declaration of Paris concerning, 265.
MARTIAL LAW,
object
of, 170.
170.
scope
of, 170.
MEDIATION, 103. MEDIEVAL STATES, MEN-OF-WAR,

see ships of war.
10.
MERCHANT CONSULS, MERCHANTMAN,
58.
see merchant vessels.
MERCHANT VESSELS,
armed, see Privateers.
asylum
in, 102.
charged with removal of the sick and wounded, 157. duties of, in time of war, 218.
in neutral ports, armed, 252. laws concerning status of armed, 251.
on the high seas, armed, 252. submarines and, 249. submarines affecting armament
of, 250.
MIDDLE AGES,
declaration of
war
in the, 112.
MILITARY,
attaches, 45.
jurisdiction, 167, 287. necessity in time of war, 167.
occupation, 15, 287. rank of consular officers, 64.

status, recognition of, 145.
MINES AND TORPEDOES,

automatic submarine contact, 242.
MINISTERS,
classiflcatiou of, 40.
MODERN
TIMES,
war
in, 113. 19.
declaration of
MODES OF ACQUIRING TITLE TO TERRITORY, MONROE DOCTRINE, 91.

MOST-FAVORED-NATION CLAUSE, MUNICIPAL LAWS,
MiJNSTER AND OSNABRuCK,
treaties of, 67.
91.
in invaded territory suspended, 133.
ii)EX.
325
NATIONALITY,
dual, 29.
of vessels, 201. tf vessels, proof of, 203.
3ick
and wounded soldiers treated Irrespective

20.
of, 155.
NATIONAL JURISDICTION,
NATURALIZATION,
in time of war, 35.
laws, 25.
requirements In other countries,
30,
NAVAL,
attaches, 46.
Conference, International, 266. Conference, London, 222. forces, assistance rendered to the shipwrecked or wounded by, 156. forces, bombardment by in time of war, 292.
warfare, 294.
NAVIGATION,
of canals
and waterways,
188.
NAVY,
see naval forces.
NECESSITY,
military, in time of war, 167.
NETHERLANDS,
NEUTRAL,
convoy, 226. countries, seizure of property
ports,
of,

of, 289, 292, 302.
armed merchantmen
in, 252.
powers and persons, rights and duties vessel, breach of blockade by, 211.
vessel, character of, 276. vessel, destruction of captured, 275.
NEUTRALITY,
227.
declaration. United States, 228.
NEUTRALIZATION,
of canals
and waterways,
13.
188.
NEUTRALIZED STATES,
NEUTRALS,
status of
armed
nierchantniPii as affecting, 253.
NONCOMBATANTS,
combatants and,
status
of,
119.
attached to armies, 150.

236.
NONCONTRABAND CHARACTER OF HYDROAEROPLANES,

NOTICE, of bombardment
in
time of war,
168.
NYSTADT,
Treaty
of,
68.
326
INDEX.
OBJECT,
of martial law, 170. of treaties, 66.
OBLIGATION OF PAROLE OF PRISONERS OF WAR, OCCUPATION,

military, 15.
of hostile territory, 132.
153.
OFFICERS,
civil,
their salaries in invaded territory, 133.
OFFICES,
good, 106.
OLDEST STATE TREATIES, OSNABRuCK,

Treaties of Mijnster and,
65.
67.
PANAMA CANAL,
PARIS,
194.
The
Declaration of, concerning maritime law, 265. First Peace of, 68.
Treaty of 1856 and Crimean War,
69.
PAROLE,
obligation
of,
and punishment
for transgression, 153.
of prisoners of war, 149, 152.
PARTITIONS OF POLAND,. 68. PASSPORTS, 94.

and safe conducts,
authority to issue, issued by United
tries, 95.
135.
94.
States
diplomatic
representatives
in
foreign
coun-
refusal
of, 95.
PAYMENT,
and
liberties granted to prisoners of war, 151.
5.
PERSIAN EMPIRE,
PEACE,
of Aix-la-Chapelle, 68.
of Carlowitz, 67. of Paris
and Congress
of Vienna,
The
First, 68, 70.
of Prague, 70. of Utrecht, 67, of Westphalia, 66.
War and, 7. PHENICIANS, 4.

POISON,
and poisoned weapons
POLAND,
partitions
of, 68.
POSTLIMINY,
166.
POWERS,
and duties of consuls, 51. and rights of Insurgents whose belligerency
of consular officers, judicial, 55.
is
recognized, 126.
INDEX.
327
POWER TO DECLARE WAR, PRAGUE,

Peace
of, 70.
110.
PRESENTS TO DIPLOMATIC AGENTS, 49. PRESIDENT WILSON'S APPEAL TO AMERICANS,

PRISONERS,
of war, 148, 279.
233.
exchange of, 159. information agencies

parole
of, 149, 152.
for, 150.
payment and
liberties granted to, 151.
reports on, 151. rights to services

see Privateers.
of,
149.
PRIVATE ARMED VESSELS,
PRIVATEERS OR LETTERS OF MARQUE,

PRIVILEGES,
and immunities
of consuls, 57.
209.
PRIZE,
compensation for, not upheld by court, Court Convention, International, 225..
277.
PRIZE COURTS,
see also Indemnity.
PROHIBITED
WAR MEASURES,
146.
PROHIBITION,
affecting aerial warfare, 147.
affecting land war, 148.
PROOF OF NATIONALITY OF SHIPS,

PROPERTY,
of neutrals in time of
203.
war
(see Angary).
of the enemy, confiscation of, 130. public and private, of the enemy, 132.
taken by enemy, 166.
PROTECTED STATES,
PROTECTION,
13.
of buildings against firing, 173. of flag bearer (flag of truce), 172. of hospital ships, 158. of industrial property. International Union for the, 92. of merchant vessels assigned to Red Cross work, 157.
of property, see Postliminy, 166. of submarine cables, 241. rights of diplomatic agents to, 44.
PUNISHMENT,
for transgression of parole of prisoners of war, 153.
of guerrillas, 145. of spies
and war-traitors,
143.
of unauthorized acts In Invaded territory, 133.
328
INDEX.
RANK OF CONSULAR OFFICERS,

military, 64.
RATIFICATION OF TREATIES, REBELLION, 139, 140. REBELS,

treatment
of, 140.
78.
RECEPTION OF DIPLOMATIC AGENTS,

credentials and, 42,
RECOGNITION,
of belligerency, 17, 126. of military status, 145. of states, 16.
RED CROSS,
ambulances and hospitals, emblem, 156. Geneva Convention, 153. hospitals and ambulances,
154.
154.
treatment of the sick or wounded, 155. work of merchant vessels in time of war, work of naval forces in time of war, 156.
157.
REFUSAL OF PASSPORTS, 95. REGISTRY OF VESSELS, 203. REGULATIONS REGARDING FLAGS OF TRUCE,
U, S.
Navy Department,
173.
REPORTS,
on prisoners of war,
151.
REPRISALS,
REQUIREMENTS,
for acquiring citizenship in America, 25. for acquiring citizenship in other countries, 30.
REQUISITIONS,
by military occupant,
136, 288.
made by Germans
in Versailles, 137.
RESIDENCE,
continuous, 28.
of aliens, 36.
RESISTANCE,
to search
by neutral vessels in time of war,
220, 277.
RESTRAINT,
on commerce by submarines in time of war, 244.
RETALIATIONS,
RETORSIONS,
iff
time of war,
163.
INDEX.
329
RIGHT,
of asylum, 22.
of capture in naval war, 300. of passage through territorial sea, 186. to appropriate property of neutrals, 234. to services of prisoners of war, 149.
RIGHTS,
and duties of neutral powers in naval war, 302. and duties of states, 16. and powers of insurgents whose belligerency is recognized, exercised by cruisers in time of war, 217.
of diplomatic agents to protection, 44.
127.
ROMANS,
declaration of
war
of the, 112.
8.
international relations of the, the jus gentium of the, 9.
ROMAN STATE,
RULES,
8.
for establishing title to territory, 19.
governing an armistice, 178. governing a truce, 176.
SAFE CONDUCTS AND" PASSPORTS,

SAILORS,
see Naval forces.
135.
SALUTES,
between ships and forts, 204. between ships of war, 205.
of vessels carrying sovereigns, 205.
to consular officers, 64.
U. S. regulations regarding, 207.
SCIENTIFIC ATTACHES,
SCOPE,
of martial law, 170.
47.
of military necessity in time of war, 167.
SEAMEN,
desertion
of, 52.
of,
shipment and discharge
52.
SEARCH,
exemption from, 225. resistance to, by vessels In time of war, 220, 277.
visit and, 217.
SECRETARIES,
of
embassy or
legation, 44.
13.
SEMI-SOVEREIGN STATES,
SERVICE,
consular, 50. unneutral, 235, 273.
SHIPMENT AND DISCHARGE OF SEAMEN,
52.
330
SHIPS, and forts, salutes between, asylum on, 101, 201.
extraterritoriality of, 199. fetes celebrated by, 206.
hospital, 158.
INDEX.
204.
limitations of exemption from jurisdiction

of war, 198.
of,
199.
salutes between, 205,
supplies free of duty for, 201.

visits on, 205.
see also Vessels.
'
SICK
AND WOUNDED SOLDIEPo,

'':i,
in time of war, 155, 283.
SIEGES AND BOMBARD!,.^NTS,

in time of war.
283.
SOJOURNERS C. SOLDIERS
tre?'^
ênt of sick and wounded, 155, 283.

18.
SO^' .xiEIGNTY,
acquisition
and loss of, and independence, 12.
SPAIN,
SPEECHES OF DIPLOMATIC AGENTS,

SPIES,
141, 144, 285.
180.
49.
SPONSIONS,
ratification of, 180.
STATE,
and government,
14.
treaties, oldest, 65.
STATES,
11.
defined, 11.
medieval, 10.
neutralized, 12.
protected, 13.
recognition
rights
of, 16.
and duties
of,
16.
senai-sovereign, 13.
STATUS,
of aliens, 21.
of
armed merchant
vessels, 251.
of submarines, 249.
SUBMARINE,
contact mines and torpedoes, automatic, 242. warfare, reply of British Government to U.
247, 248.
S.
proposal for conduct
of,
warfare, U. S. proposal for conduct
of, 246, 248.
INDEX.
331
SUBMARINE CABLES,
conditions affecting laying
cutting
of, 241. of, 240.
landing
of, 239.
protection of, 241, 289. under control of government, 239.
SUBMARINES,
243. 249.
and armed merchantmen, duties imposed upon, 251. restraint of commerce by,
244.
SUEZ CANAL,
189.
190.
London Conference,
Paris Conference, 190.
SUPERADDED CONSULAR OFFICE, 42. SUPPLIES FREE OF DUTY FOR SHIPS OF WAR,
SURRENDER,
or capitulation, 182.
201.
terms
of, 183.
SUSPENSION,
of arms, 182. of hostilities, 172, 182. of intercourse in time of war, 129. of municipal laws in time of war, 133.
SWITZERLAND,
conclusion of treaties,
73.
TAXES,
levied
by military occupant,
287.
TELEGRAPHY,
wireless, 263.
TEMPORARY ALLEGIANCE OF HOSTILE

TERRITORIAL,
jurisdiction,
CITIZENS,
169.
exemption from, 21. waters, see Marginal Sea.
TERRITORY,
acquisition of title to, 18.
modes
of acquiring title to, 19. occupation of hostile, 132, 287.
rules for establishing title
to,
19.
TIME LIMIT,
for transfer of
of truce, 175.
enemy
vessel to neutral flag, 222.
TITLES AND CLASSES IN THE CONSULAR SERVICE, TITLE TO TERRITORY,

acquisition
of, 18.
50.
modes
of aoquiriim, 19.
rules for establishing, 19.
TOLLS,
levied by military occupant, 136.
TORPEDOES,
automatic submarine contact mines and,
242.
332
INDEX.
TRAITORS,
in time of war, 142, 143.
TRANSFER,
of flag, 221. of flag, valid
of of
enemy enemy
and invalid, 222. vessel to neutral flag, 221, 275. vessel to neutral flag, time limit for, 222.
65.
TREATIES,
9,
abrogation of, 78. concluded by whom, 76. concluded in time of war,
75.
enforcement
historical
of, 76.
development
of, 77.
of, 65.
interpretation
object
of, 66.
of Mtjnster
and Osnabrtjck,
67.
of the United States, 80.
oldest state, 65.

ratification of, 78.
TREATMENT,
of disloyal citizens in time of war, 141.
of prisoners of war, 148.
of rebels, 140. of sick
and wounded soldiers in time of war,
155.
TREATY,
Clayton-Bulwer, 189.
consular, 58.
form
of, 76.
Franco-Prussian,
of Nystadt, 68.
70.
pf Paris, 1856,
and the Crimean War,
69.
TRUCE,
abuse of flag
of, 172.
and armistice, and its effects,
174. 175.
flag of, 172, 285.
rules governing, 176. time limits of, 175.

see also Suspension of Hostilities.
"
UNITED STATES,
asylum in
the, 99.
'
conclusion of treaties, 74. declaration of war against Germany, 117. desertion from army of the, 144.
diplomatic grades in the, 41. neutrality proclamation, 228. proposal for the conduct of submarine warfare, 246, 248. regulations regarding flags of truce, Navy Department, 173.
INDEX.
333
UNITED STATES
(Continued)
regulations regarding salutes, 207.

treaties of the, 80. see also America.
UNNEUTRAL SERVICE,
UTRECHT,
Peace
of, 67.
235, 273.
VALID TRANSFER OP FLAG,

VESSELS,
armed
222.
private, see Privateers, 209.
carrying conditional contraband, 216. carrying contraband, 216, 222. carrying contraband, capture of, 222. carrying contraband, condemnation of, 222. carrying sovereigns, salute' of, 205. character of enemy, 276.
charactei cf neutral, 276.
condemnation
of, ^35.
destruction of captured Dûtral, 274. exemption from capture in lih:'^ of war, 301. jurisdiction of, 20.
merchant, asylum in, 102. merchant, in time of war, 102, 157, 209, 218, 249, ioO, 301.
nationality
of, 201. of,
proof of nationality
203.
registry of, 203. transfer to a neutral flag of enemy, 221, 275.
unaware
of war, 223.
see also Ships of war,
Merchant
vessels,
Naval forces
VIENNA,
Congress
of, 68, 70.
VISIT
AND SEARCH,
of vessels in time of war, 217. rights exercised by cruiser regarding, 217.
VISITS OF SHIPS OF WAR,

ceremony
of,
205.
officers
grades of naval
concerning, 206.
WAR,
aircraft, jurisdiction in time of, 259.
allegiance, temporary, of hostile citizens in time of, 169.
and peace,
as a
7,
to an end, 1G9. assistance to shipwrecked by naval forces in timo
means
of,
156.
blockade in time
of, 210, 266.
bombardments, bombardments
cables in time
in time of, 168, 292. of buildings in time of, 173.

of, 133,
booty and capture in time

of,
301.
241.
of, -223.
capture of vessels carrying contraband
334
INDEX.
(Continued)
WAR
civil, 139.
civilians or
noncombatants in time
of, 168.
civilians taking up arms spontaneously in time of, 146. confiscation of enemy property in time of, 130.
contraband
of, 213.
contracts in time
contributions,
of, 138.
levied by military occupant in time Crimean, and Treaty of Paris, 69. crimes committed by U. S. soldiers in time of, 134. deceit against enemy in time of, 159.
etc.,
of, 136.
declaration
of,
111.
of, 164.
of,
destruction and devastation in time duties of merchant vessels in time
218.
end
of, 184.
exchange of prisoners of, 159. general conclusions, 109, 169.

guerrilla, 144.
humanitarian aspects of laws of, 167. hydroaeroplanes not vessels of, 238. laws and customs of land, 279. licenses to carry on tr'-':c interdicted by law in time mail steamers a'-' mail in time of, 219, 300. measures ^.,ohibited, 146. millLary necessity in time of, 167. municipal laws in time of, 133.
naturalization in time
of,
of, 134.
35.
naval, see warfare. neutral powers and persons, rights noncombatants in time of, 168. notice of
objects
of, in
time
of, 289, 292.
bombardments
in time of,
168.
of, 169. of, 283.
poison and poisoned weapons in time
power
to declare, 110.
of,
prisoners
148, 279.
prohibition affecting aerial, 147. prohibition affecting land, 148. punishment of unauthorized acts in time
reprisals in time of, 162.
of, 133.
rescue
work
of
merchant vessels
in
in
time
of, 157.
rescue work of naval forces in time

retaliation
of, 156.
and retortion
time
of, 163.
rights exercised by ships
of, 217. of, 217. of,
search and visit of vessels in time
search and visit of vessels in time

ships
sieges
of, 198.
resistance
of, 234.
to,
220.
seizure of property of neutrals in time
and bombardments submarine cables in time
in
of,
time
241.
of, 101.
INDEX.
335
WAR
(Continued)
of, 243.
of, 129.
submarines in time
traitors, 142, 143.
suspension of intercourse in time

transfer of flag in time
of, 222.
treaties concluded in time of, 75. treatment of rebels in time of, 141.
vessels,
vessels,
visit
treatment of sick and wounded soldiers in time merchant, in time of, 301.
of, 155, 283, 291,
unaware of existence of, 223. and search of vessels in time of,

of, 263.
217.
wireless telegraphy in time
WARFARE,
aerial, 257.
guerrilla, 144.
naval, 294.
prohibition affecting aerial, 147. prohibition affecting land, 148.

right of capture in naval, 300. rights and duties of neutral powers in naval, 302.
WILSON,
appeal to Americans by President, 233.
see also Neutrality.
WITHDRAWAL OF DECLARATION OF INTENTION TO BECOME AMERICAN CITIZEN,

28.
ES, consisting of
This book
is
DUE
on the
last
date stamped below
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Berthold Singer International Law 1918

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^^a^y.

Berthold Singer, LL. D.,

Law, Chicago Law School

Consul of Spain, Costa Rica, Salvador

and Consul-General of Nicaragua

214 West Madison Street

Our Army, Naval and Aviation Forces

especially prepared for our ready compendium for

Army, Naval and

The outbreak new war

attention to the submarine

to the aeroplane, so that the student

Historical Development of International 1. Introduction.

The Egyptian Commonwealth.

10. 11. 12.

16. 17. 18.

Medieval States. Maritime Law.

Sovereignty and Independence. Neutralized States. Semi-Sovereign States.

Government Kinds of Government. De Facto and De Jure Governments.

Exemption from Territorial Jurisdiction

Extraterritorial Jurisdiction. The Right of Asylum.

Naturalization Laws. Requirements for Acquiring Citizenship.

Declaration of Intention. Declaration of Withdrawal. Continuous Residence.

of Citizenship. in Other Countries. of

Commissioners and Special Envoys. Appointment.

15. 16. 17. 18. 1&. 20.

Diplomatic and Consular Functions. Duties of Diplomatic Agents. Speeches.

Consular Service. 1. Classes and Titles. 2. Commercial Agents.

Powers and Duties. Shipment and Discharge

10. 11. 12. 13.

Historical Development of Treaties. Oldest State Treaties. Objects of Treaties.

The The The The The

Treaties Concluded in Times of War. Treaties Concluded by Whom. Form of Treaty.

Interpretation of Treaties. Ratification of Treaties.

XVI. XVII. XVIII.

Treaties of the United States

Most-Favored-Nation Clause Monroe Doctrine

Authority to Issue. Foreign Countries. Refusal of Passports.

Asylum Asylum Asylum

in America. in Legations. in Ships of "War.

Germany against Russia. Germany against France.

12. 13. 14.

Combatants and Noncombatants Enlistment of Aliens

Punishment for Unauthorized Capture and Booty.

General and Special Licenses. Object of liicense.

Passports and Safe Conducts

InsurrectionCivil 1. Civil War.

Treatment of Rebels. Loyal and Disloyal Citizens. Treatment Accorded to Disloyal

Punishment Commensurate with Danger.

Status of Noncombatants Attached to Armies.

Information Agencies for Prisoners of War. Liberties Granted to Prisoners of War.

of Giving Paroles. Obligation of Parole and Punishment of Transgression.

of Prisoners. Hobson's Heroic Act.

Reprisals Retorsion or Retaliation

167 Military Jurisdiction 1. Military Jurisdiction Based on Statute and Com2.

mon Law. Humanitarian Aspects of Law

Notices of Bombardment. Citizens of Hostile Country Considered Enemies.

Lenient Measures Accorded to Noncombatants.

Temporary Allegiance of Hostile a Means to an End.

Objects of Martial Law. Scope of Martial Law.