CHAPTER 5

WRITING LITERARY ARGUMENTS

Most of the essays you write about literature are expository that is, you write to give information to readers. For example, you might discuss the rhyme or meter of a poem or examine the interaction of two characters in a play. (Most of the student essays in this book are expository.) Other essays you write may be literary arguments that is, you take a position on a debatable topic and attempt to change readers minds about it. The more persuasive your argumentative essay, the more likely readers will be to concede your points and grant your conclusion. When you write a literary argument, you follow the same process you do when you write any essay about a literary topic. However, because the purpose of an argument is to convince readers, you need to use some additional strategies to present your ideas.

Planning a Literary Argument

Choosing a Debatable Topic
Frequently, an instructor will assign a topic or specify a particular literary work for you to discuss. Your first step will be to decide exactly what you will write about. Because an argumentative essay attempts to change the way readers think, it must focus on a debatable topic, one about which reasonable people may disagree. Factual statements statements about which reasonable people do not disagree are therefore inappropriate as topics for argument.
Factual Statement: Linda Loman is Willy Lomans long-suffering wife in Arthur Millers play Death of a Salesman. Debatable Topic: More than a stereotype of the long-suffering wife, Linda Loman in Arthur Millers play Death of a Salesman is a multidimensional character.

In addition to being debatable, your topic should be narrow enough for you to develop within your page limit. After all, in an argumentative essay, you will have

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to present your own ideas and supply convincing support while also pointing out the strengths and weaknesses of opposing arguments. If your topic is too broad, you will not be able to discuss it in enough detail. Finally, your topic should be interesting. Keep in mind that some topics such as the significance of the wall in Robert Frosts poem Mending Wall have been written about so often that you will probably not be able to say anything very new or interesting about them. Instead of relying on an overused topic, choose one that enables you to write something original.

Developing an Argumentative Thesis

After you have chosen your topic, your next step is to state your position in an argumentative thesis one that takes a strong stand. Properly worded, this thesis statement will lay the foundation for the rest of your argument. One way to make sure that your thesis actually does take a stand is to formulate an antithesis a statement that takes an arguable position opposite from yours. If you can construct an antithesis, you can be certain that your thesis statement takes a stand. If you cannot, your thesis statement needs further revision to make it argumentative thesis.
Thesis Statement: The last line of Richard Wrights short story Big Black Good Man indicates that Jim was fully aware all along of Olafs deep-seated racial prejudice. Antithesis: The last line of Richard Wrights short story Big Black Good Man indicates that Jim remained unaware of Olafs feelings toward him.

Whenever possible, test your argumentative thesis statement on your classmates either informally in classroom conversations or formally in a peer-review session.

CHECKLIST Developing an Argumentative Thesis

Can you formulate an antithesis? Does your thesis statement make clear to readers what position you are taking? Can you support your thesis with evidence from the text and from research?

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Dening Your Terms

You should always define the key terms you use in your argument. For example, if you are using the term narrator in an essay, make sure that readers know you are referring to a first-person, not a third-person, narrator. In addition, clarify the difference between an unreliable narrator someone who misrepresents or misinterprets events and a reliable narrator someone who accurately describes events. Without a clear definition of the terms you are using, readers may have a very difficult time understanding the point you are making.

Dening Your Terms Be especially careful to use precise terms in your thesis statement. Avoid vague and judgmental words, such as wrong, bad, good, right, and immoral.
Vague: The poem Birmingham Sunday (September 15, 1963) by Langston Hughes shows how bad racism can be. Clearer: The poem Birmingham Sunday (September 15, 1963) by Langston Hughes makes a moving statement about how destructive racism can be.

Considering Your Audience

As you plan your essay, keep your audience in mind. For example, if you are writing about a work that has been discussed in class, you can assume that your readers are familiar with it; include plot summaries only when they are needed to explain or support a point you are making. Keep in mind that you will be addressing an academic audience your instructor and possibly some students. For this reason, you should be sure to follow the conventions of writing about literature as well as the conventions of standard written English (for information on the conventions of writing about literature, see the checklist in Chapter 2, p. 000.) When you write an argumentative essay, always assume that you are addressing a skeptical audience. Remember, your thesis is debatable, so not everyone will agree with you and even if your readers are sympathetic to your position, you cannot assume that they will accept your ideas without question. The strategies you use to convince your readers will vary according to your relationship with them. Somewhat skeptical readers may need to see only that your argument is logical and that your evidence is solid. More skeptical readers, however, may need to see that you understand their positions and that you concede some of their points. Of course, you may never be able to convince hostile readers that your conclusions are legitimate. The best you can hope for is that these

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readers will acknowledge the strengths of your argument even if they remain skeptical about your conclusion.

Refuting Opposing Arguments

As you develop your literary argument, you may need to refute that is, to disprove opposing arguments by demonstrating that they are false, misguided, or illogical. By summarizing and refuting opposing views, you more opposing arguments seem less credible to readers; thus, you strengthen your case. When an opposing argument is so strong that it cannot be easily dismissed, however, you should concede the strength of the argument and then point out its limitations. Notice in the following paragraph how a student refutes the argument that Homer Barron, a character in William Faulkners short story A Rose for Emily, is gay.
Opposing argument Concession A number of critics have suggested that Homer Barron, Miss Emilys suitor, is gay. Certainly, there is some evidence in the story to support this interpretation. For example, the narrator points out that Homer liked the company of men (Faulkner 000) and that he was not a marrying man (Faulkner 000). In addition, the narrator describes Homer as wearing yellow gloves when he took Emily for drives. According to the critic William Greenslade, in the 1890s yellow was associated with homosexuality (24). This evidence, however, does not establish that Homer is gay. During the nineteenth century, many men preferred the company of other men (as many do today). This, in itself, did not mean they were gay. Neither does the fact that Homer wore yellow gloves. According to the narrator, Homer was a man who liked to dress well. It is certainly possible that he wore these gloves to impress Miss Emily, a woman he was trying to attract.

Refutation

Using Evidence Effectively

Supporting Your Literary Argument
Many literary arguments are built on assertions statements made about a debatable topic backed by evidence supporting examples in the form of references to the text, quotations, and the opinions of literary critics. For example, if you stated that Torvald Helmer, Noras husband in Henrik Ibsens play A Doll House, is as much a victim of society as his wife is, you could support this assertion with relevant quotations and examples from the play. You could also paraphrase, summarize, or quote the ideas of literary critics who also hold this opinion. Remember, only assertions that are self-evident (All plays include charac-

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ters and dialogue) or factual (A Doll House was published in 1879)

need no supporting evidence. All other kinds of assertions require support.

NOTE: Your thesis statement is an assertion that your entire essay supports. Keep in mind, however, that you can never prove your thesis conclusivelyif you could, there would be no argument. The best you can do is provide enough evidence to establish a high probability that your thesis is reasonable.

Establishing Credibility
Some people bring credibility with them whenever they write. When a wellknown literary critic evaluates the contributions of a particular writer, you can assume that he or she speaks with authority. (Although you might question the critics opinions, you do not question his or her expertise.) But most people do not have this kind of credibility. When you write a literary argument, you must constantly work to establish credibility. Clear reasoning, compelling evidence, and strong refutations go a long way toward making an argument solid. But these elements in themselves are not enough to create a convincing literary argument. In order to persuade readers, you have to satisfy them that you have credibility which you can do by demonstrating knowledge, maintaining a reasonable tone, and presenting yourself as someone worth listening to. Demonstrating Knowledge One way to establish credibility is by presenting your own carefully considered ideas about a subject. A clear argument and compelling support can demonstrate to readers that you know what you are talking about. You can also show readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject. By referring to important sources of information and by providing accurate documentation for your information, you present evidence that you have done the necessary background reading. Including a range of sources not just one or two suggests that you are well acquainted with your subject. Remember, however, questionable sources, inaccurate (or missing) documentation, and factual errors can undermine your credibility. For many readers, an undocumented quotation or even an incorrect date can call an entire argument into question. Maintaining a Reasonable Tone Your tone your attitude toward your readers or subject is almost as important as the information you convey. Talk to your readers not at them. If you lecture your readers or appear to talk down to them, you will alienate them. Remember that readers are more likely to respond to a writer who seems balanced and respectful than one who seems strident or condescending. As you write your essay, use moderate language, and qualify your statements so that they seem reasonable. Try to avoid words and phrases such as all, never, always, and in every case, which can make your points seem simplistic, exaggerated, or

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unrealistic. Also, avoid absolute statements. For example, the statement, In

Doe Season, the ocean symbolizes Andys attachment to her mother, leaves no room for other possible interpretations. A more measured and accurate statement might be, In Doe Season, the symbol of the ocean might suggest Andys identication with her mother and her realization that she is becoming a woman.

Presenting Yourself as Someone Worth Listening To When you write a literary argument, you should try to present yourself as someone your readers will want to listen to. Make your argument confidently, and dont apologize for your views. For example, do not use phrases such as In my opinion and It seems to me, which undercut your credibility. Be consistent, and be careful not to contradict yourself. Finally, avoid the use of I (unless you are asked to give your opinion or to write a reaction statement), and avoid slang and colloquialisms.

Being Fair
Argument promotes one point of view over all others, so it is seldom objective. However, college writing requires that you stay within the bounds of fairness and that you avoid bias conclusions based on preconceived ideas rather than on evidence. To make sure that the support for your argument is not misleading or distorted, you should follow the guidelines below: Avoid distorting evidence. Distortion is misrepresentation. Writers sometimes misrepresent the extent to which critical opinion supports their thesis. For example, by saying that many critics think that something is so when only one or two do, they try to make a weak case stronger than it actually is. Avoid quoting out of context. When you take words from their original setting and use them in another, you are quoting out of context. When quot a sources words out of their original context, you can change the meaning of what someone has said or suggested. For example, you are quoting out of context if you say, Emily Dickinsons poems are so idiosyncratic that they do not appeal to readers. . . . when your source says, Emily Dickinsons poems are so idiosyncratic that they do not appeal to readers who are accustomed to safe, conventional subjects. By eliminating a key portion of the sentence, you alter the meaning of the original. In context, the original sentence indicates only that readers who are used to safe, conventional subjects (not all readers) dislike Dickinsons poetry. Avoid slanting. When you select only information that supports your case and ignore information that does not, you are guilty of slanting. In your literary arguments, include examples that represent a fair range of evidence, not just examples that support your thesis. The same holds true for the sources that you provide from your research. Consult books and articles that represent a cross-section of critical opinion about your subject. If you find

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that such a cross-section does not exist, you may need to modify your thesis. Only by doing this can you be sure that you are not misleading readers. Avoid using unfair appeals. Traditionally, writers of arguments use three types of appeals to influence readers: (1) logical appeals, which address a readers sense of reason, (2) emotional appeals, which play on a readers emotions, and (3) ethical appeals, which emphasize the credibility of the writer. Problems arise, however, when these appeals are used unfairly. For example, writers can use logical fallacies flawed arguments to fool readers into thinking a conclusion is logical when it is not (see Chapter 4 for a discussion of logical fallacies). Writers can also use inappropriate emotional appeals appeals to prejudice, for example to influence readers. And finally, writers can undercut their credibility if they use questionable support books and articles written by people who have little or no expertise on the topic. This is especially true when information is obtained from the Internet, where the credentials of the writer may be difficult or impossible to assess.

CHECKLIST Being Fair

Have you distorted evidence? Have you quoted material out of context, changing the meaning of a statement by focusing on certain words and ignoring others? Have you slanted information, selecting material that supports your points and ignoring information that does not? Have you used any unfair appeals?

Using Visuals as Evidence

Visuals pictures, drawings, diagrams, and the like can add a persuasive dimension to your essay. Because visual images have an immediate impact, they can sometimes make a good literary argument even better. In a sense, visuals are another type of evidence that can support your thesis. For example, suppose you are writing an essay about the play Trifles in which you argue that Mrs. Wrights quilt is an important symbol in the play. In fact, your research leads you to conclude that the process of creating the quilt by piecing together its log cabin pattern parallels the process by which the two female characters in the play determine why Mrs. Wright murdered her husband. The addition of a photograph of a quilt with a log cabin pattern such as the one shown below could not only eliminate several paragraphs of description but also help support your conclusion. Of course, not all visuals will be appropriate or effective for a literary argument. Before using a visual, make certain it actually supports the point you make. If it does not, it will distract readers and thereby undercut your argument. To ensure that readers understand the purpose the visual is supposed to serve, introduce

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FPO
it with a sentence that establishes its context; then, discuss its significance, paying particular attention to how it helps you make your point.

Organizing a Literary Argument

In its simplest form, a literary argument like any argumentative essay consists of a thesis statement and supporting evidence. And, like other argumentative essays, literary arguments frequently use additional strategies to win audience approval and to overcome potential opposition. Elements of Literary Arguments Introduction: The introduction should orient readers to the subject of your essay, presenting the issue you will discuss and explaining its signicance. Thesis statement: In most literary arguments, you will present your thesis statement in your introduction. However, if you think your readers may not be familiar with the issue you are discussing (or if it is very controversial), you may want to postpone stating your thesis until later in the essaypossibly until after the background section. Background: In this section, you can survey critical opinion about your topic, perhaps pointing out the shortcomings of these approaches. You can also dene key terms, review basic facts, or briey summarize the plot of the work or works you will discuss. Arguments in support of your thesis: Here you present your assertions and the evidence to support them. It makes sense to move from least controversial to most controversial point or from most familiar to
continued on next page

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least familiar idea. In other words, you should begin with arguments that your readers are most likely to accept and then deal with those that require more discussion and more evidence. Refutation of opposing arguments: In a literary argument, you should summarize and refute the most obvious arguments against your thesis. If you do not address these opposing arguments, doubts about your position will remain in your readers minds. If the opposing arguments are relatively weak, refute them after you have presented your own arguments. However, if the opposing arguments are strong, concede their strengths and discuss their limitations before you present your own arguments. Conclusion: Your conclusion will often restate your thesis as well as the major arguments you have made in support of it. Your conclusion can also summarize key points, remind readers of the weaknesses of opposing arguments, or underscore the logic of your position. Many writers like to end their essays with a strong last linefor example, a quotation or memorable statement that they hope will stay with readers after they nish the essay.

Sample Student Paper: Writing a Literary Argument

The following student paper presents a literary argument about Dee, a character in Alice Walkers short story Everyday Use. The student author uses ideas she developed as she read the story as well as those found when she did research. She also supports her points with two visuals from a DVD of the story.

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Chase 1 Margaret Chase Professor Sierra English 1001 6 May 2005 The Politics of Everyday Use Introduction Alice Walkers Everyday Use focuses on a mother, Mrs. Johnson, and her two daughters, Maggie and Dee, and how they look at their heritage. The storys climax comes when Mrs. Johnson rejects Dees request to take a hand-stitched quilt with her so that she can hang it on her wall. Knowing that Maggie Thesis statement will put the quilt to everyday use, Dee is horried, and she tells her mother and Maggie that they do not understand their heritage. Although many literary critics see Dees desire for the quilt as materialistic and shallow, a closer examination of the social and historical circumstances in which Walker wrote this 1973 story suggests a more generous interpretation of Dees actions. Background On the surface, Everyday Use is a story about two sisters, Dee and Maggie, and Mrs. Johnson, their mother. Mrs. Johnson tells the reader that Dee, . . . would always look anyone in the eye. Hesitation was no part of her nature (000). Unlike her sister, Maggie is shy and introverted. She is described as looking like a lame animal that has been run over by a car. According to the narrator, She has been like this, chin in on chest, eyes on ground, feet in shufe (000), ever since she was burned in a re.

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Chase 2 Unlike Dee, Mrs. Johnson never received an education. After second grade, she explains, the school closed down. She says, Dont ask me why: in 1927 colored asked fewer questions than they do now (000). Mrs. Johnson concedes that she accepts the status quo even though she knows that it is unjust. This admission further establishes the difference between Mrs. Johnson and Dee: Mrs. Johnson has accepted her circumstances, while Dee has worked to change hers. Their differences are illustrated by their contrasting dress. As show in Figure 1, Dee and

FPO
Fig. 1. Dee and Hakim arrive at the family home. Everyday Use, The Wadsworth Original Film Series in Literature: Everyday Use, dir. Bruce R. Schwartz, DVD (Boston: Wadsworth, 2005).

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Chase 3 her boyfriend Hakim dress in the Afro-American style of the late 1960s, embracing their heritage; Mrs. Johnson and Maggie dress in plain, conservative clothing. Background continued When Dee arrives home with her new boyfriend, it soon becomes obvious that character is, for the most part, unchanged. As she eyes her mothers belongings and asks Mrs. Johnson if she can take the top of the butter churn home with her, it is clear that she is still very materialistic. However, her years away from home have also politicized her. Dee now wants to be called Wangero because she believes (although mistakenly) that her given name comes from whites who owned her ancestors. She now wears African clothing and talks about how a new day is dawning for African Americans. Social and historical context used as evidence to support The meaning and political importance of Dees decision to adopt an African name and wear African clothing cannot be fully understood without a knowledge of the social and political context in which Walker wrote this story. Walkers own words about this time period explain Dees behavior and add meaning to it. In her interview with White, Walker explains that the late 1960s was a time of cultural and intellectual awakening for African Americans. In an effort to regain their past, many turned to Africa, adopting the dress, hairstyles, and even the names of their African ancestors. Walker admits that as a young woman she too became interested in adopting an African heritage. (In fact, she herself

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Chase 4 was given the name Wangero during a visit to Kenya in the late 1960s.) Walker tells White that she considered keeping this new name, but eventually realized that to do so would be to dismiss her family and her American heritage. When she researched her American family, she found that her great-great grandmother had walked from Virginia to Georgia carrying two children. If thats not a Walker, she says, I dont know what is. Thus, Walker realized that, over time, African Americans had actually transformed the names they had originally taken from their enslavers. To respect the ancestors she knew,

FPO
Fig. 2. Traditional hand-stitched quilt. Evelyn C. White, Alice Walker: Stitches in Time, interview, The Wadsworth Original Film Series in Literature: Everyday Use, dir. Bruce R. Schwartz, DVD (Boston: Wadsworth, 2005).

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Chase 5 Walker says, she decided it was important to retain her name. Along with adopting elements of their African heritage, many African Americans also worked to elevate the objects that represented their heritage, such as the quilt shown in Figure 2, to the status of high art. According to Salaam, one way of doing this was to put these objects in museums; another was to hang them on the walls of their homes. Such acts were aimed at convincing whites that African Americans had an old and rich culture and that consequently they deserved not only basic civil rights, but also respect. These gestures were also meant to improve self-esteem and pride within black communities (Salaam 42-43). Concession and presentation of opposing argument Admittedly, as some critics have pointed out, Dee is more materialistic than political. For example, although Mrs. Johnson makes several statements throughout the story that suggest her admiration of Dees deant character, she also points to incidents that highlight Dees materialism and selshness. When their rst house burned down, Dee watched it burn while she stood under a tree with a look of concentration (000) rather than remorse. Mrs. Johnson knows that Dee hated their small, dingy house, and she knows too that Dee was glad to see it destroyed. Furthermore, Walker acknowledges in an interview with her biographer, Evelyn C. White, that as she was writing the story, she imagined that Dee might even have set the re that destroyed the house

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Chase 6 and scarred her sister. Even now, Dee is ashamed of the tin-roofed house her family lives in, and she has said that she would never bring her friends there. Mrs. Johnson has always known that Dee wanted nice things (000); even at sixteen, she had a style of her own: and knew what style was (257). However, although these examples indicate that Dee is materialistic and self-serving, they also show positive traits: pride and a strong will. Knowing Refutation of opposing argument

that she will encounter strong opposition wherever she goes, she works to use her appearance to establish power. Thus, her desire for the quilt can be seen as an attempt to establish herself and her African-American culture in a society dominated by whites. Mrs. Johnson knows Dee wants the quilt, but she decides instead to give it to Maggie. According to Houston Baker, when Mrs. Johnson chooses to give the quilt to Maggie, she is challenging Dees understanding of her heritage. Unlike Dee, Mrs. Johnson recognizes that quilts signify sacred generations of women who have made their own special kind of beauty separate from the traditional artistic world (qtd. in Piedmont-Marton 45). According to Baker, Mrs. Johnson realizes that her daughter Maggie, whom she has long dismissed because of her quiet nature and shyness, understands the true meaning of the quilt in a way that Dee never will (Piedmont-Marton 45). Unlike Dee, Maggie has paid close attention to the traditions and skills of her

Analysis of Mrs. Johnsons nal act

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Chase 7 mother and grandmother: she has actually learned to quilt. More important, by staying with her mother instead of going to school, she has gotten to know her family. She poignantly underscores this fact when she tells her mother that Dee can have the quilt because she does not need it to remember her grandmother. Even though Maggies and Mrs. Johnsons understanding of heritage is clearly more emotionally profound than Dees, it is important not to dismiss Dees interest in elevating the quilt to the level of high art. The political stakes of dening an object as art in the late 1960s and early 1970s were high, and the ght for equality went beyond basic civil rights. Although there is much in the story that Conclusion restating thesis indicates Dees materialism, her desire to hang the quilt should not be dismissed as simply a selsh act. Like Mrs. Johnson and Maggie, Dee is a complicated character. At the time the story was written, displaying the quilt would have been not only a personal act, but also a political actone with important, positive results. The nal message of Everyday Use may just be that in order to create an accurate view of the quilt (and by extension AfricanAmerican culture) you need both viewsMaggies and Mrs. Johnsons every-day use and Dees elevation of the quilt to art.

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Chase 8 Works Cited Everyday Use. The Wadsworth Original Film Series in Literature: Everyday Use. Piedmont-Marton, Elisabeth. An Overview of Everyday Use. Short Stories for Students 2 (1997): 42-45. Literature Resource Center. Gale Group Databases. U of Texas Lib. System, TX. 20 April 2005 <http://www.galegroup.com>. Salaam, Kalamu Ya. A Primer of the Black Arts Movement: Excerpts from the Magic of Juju: An Appreciation of the Black Arts Movement. Black Renaissance/Renaissance Noire 2002: 40-59. Expanded Academic ASAP. Gale Group Databases. U of Texas Lib. System, TX. 21 April 2005 <http://www.galegroup.com>. The Wadsworth Original Film Series in Literature: Everyday Use. Dir. Bruce R. Schwartz. DVD. Boston: Wadsworth, 2005. Walker, Alice. Everyday Use. Literature: Reading, Reacting, Writing. Ed. Laurie G. Kirszner and Stephen R. Mandell. 6th ed. Boston: Wadsworth, 2007. 000-00. White, Evelyn C. Alice Walker: Stitches in Time. Interview. The Wadsworth Original Film Series in Literature: Everyday Use.