Quick assays in mineral identification

A guide to experiments for mineral collectors and geoscientists in field work

by

Walter A. Franke

retired Professor of Mineralogy, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany

This manual is intended for use by persons with a basic knowledge of inorganic chemistry, they are
advised to follow strictly the safety instructions. The author does not accept liability or responsibility
for any injury or damage to persons or property incurred by performing the experiments described on
this website, nor for the content of any outside material, including linked websites.
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Content

I General Part

Introduction 3
The heat source 5
The base and the vessels 8
Sample preparation 11
The reagents 12
Safety hints 15
The classical tests 17
Heating in a closed tube 17
Heating in the open tube 18
Heating on Charcoal 20
The coloration of borax and phosphate beads 23
Flame coloration 26
Fusibility 28
The oxidation melt 29
The ammonium hypophosphite fusion 29
Some tests for anion forming elements 30
Treatment with cobalt nitrate 32
The charcoal-soda stick 32
Heating with sodium thiosulphate 33
Spot tests and the use of the wet separation process 33
The choice of fusion processes 34
Some hints to filtration 38

II Special part

Identification tests for the different elements in alphabetical order of their

element symbols 39
The preparation of test papers and reagents 62
Staining tests for carbonates 64
UV fluorescence 65
The solubility of some minerals 66
Miscellaneous hints 69

III Appendix

A basic kit of chemicals and equipment 76

Annex I, comprises all chemicals and equipment mentioned in the General Part 76
Annex II, comprises all chemicals and equipment mentioned in the Special Part 77
References 78
The periodic table of the elements 80
Normal spectra of the alkali metals 81
Glossary 82
Subject index 85
Acknowledgements 88
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I General part
Introduction

A quick assay is a qualitative chemical analysis; it is a test to prove the presence or absence
of a chemical element in the assayed matter. Normally, the test substance is heated by a small
hot flame to temperatures in some cases as high as 1200° C. Sometimes the finely ground
material is mixed with certain chemicals in order to obtain a melt. This procedure aims to
produce a colour of the melt, or a sublimate, or a metallic regulus which is specific to a
chemical element. Sometimes the produced melt is dissolved and certain chemicals are added
to evoke a coloration which is specific for the element in question. Such assays are done on a
semimicro scale, only 0.1 to 20 mg of the tested matter are normally used.

Most of these methods were developed by Swedish scientists (Cronstedt, Bergman, Gahn,
Berzelius) in the 18th century when chemistry was developing into a modern natural science.
Many reactions reproduce on a very small scale processes used in metallurgical work and ore
processing since ancient times. Considerable improvements were achieved by Harkort, von
Kobell, Brush, Bunsen, and Plattner in the 19th century, especially by the addition of wet
chemical reactions. The entire combination of different methods was called blowpipe
analysis, since a blowpipe was used to produce the hot flame in almost all the tests.

Approximately one hundred years ago it took well-trained geologists or chemists from
several minutes to 2 hours to complete a qualitative analysis of a mineral or a metallurgical
slack using this method. Even a quantitative determination of gold and silver was possible
with a precision comparable to modern spectrographic methods. Significant improvements in
the quantitative analysis of gold and silver had already been introduced by Sir Isaac Newton
at the beginning of the 18th century, during his appointment as Master of the Mint in Great
Britain. Supplementary spot tests were triggered by the rapid development of organic
chemistry early in the 20th century.

Most of these methods were the required subject of university courses in chemistry,
mineralogy and geology till approximately 1960. Since then in research institutes blowpipe
analysis has have been progressively replaced by physical methods such as wavelength
dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and by the combination of scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (EDAX).
Somewhat later the inductive coupled plasma torch (ICP) was applied to emission
spectroscopy. All these analytical methods yield quantitative analytical results simultaneously
for many elements. No wonder that the teaching of the old-fashioned blowpipe methods
vanished almost completely from university curricula parallel to these developments.

Moreover, minerals have been identified exclusively by X-ray diffraction for the past fifty
years. The file of d-values together with relative intensities achieved by this method permits
the unambiguous identification of a mineral. Already the d-values contain information
concerning the geometrical data of the unit cell; data concerning the symmetry of the crystal
are provided by the systematic absence of some d-values. Thus it is not necessary to record
the relative intensities exactly. The Debye-Scherrer method requires very tiny amounts of the
mineral powder; for the X-ray powder diffractometer generally used today, only skilful users
manage with amounts of one cubic millimeter and less, if necessary.
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That is why the blowpipe method is indeed an odd, obsolete technique in a modern and
fully equipped research institute. Unfortunately not everyone who is interested in qualitative
inorganic analysis and mineral identification has access to the facilities of such research
institutes. There is a simple reason for this: the price for each item of such modern equipment
ranges from at least € 60,000 to many times that amount. In addition, approximately 3 to 5%
p. a. have to be invested for maintenance, expendable material and electric power. Reliable
results are only achieved by well trained staff. Commercial institutes charge approximately €
30 or more per analysis or X-ray diffraction analysis. Moreover, such spectrometers are
stationary instruments, which cannot be moved into the field. This situation is just starting to
change. Russian scientists had constructed portable energy dispersive X-ray spectrometers for
unmanned exploratory missions to the moon and Mars. They were equipped with a
radioactive element as the source of radiation and a Peltier cooling of the detector crystal. In
the 1990s such devices were further developed for civil use in the U.S.A., especially with
respect to radiation safety regulations. At the present time such hand-held, battery operated
multi-element spectrometers are on sale, but they are also expensive, with prices starting at €
35,000. For physical reasons they can be used only for elements with an atomic number of 18
or higher, due to the high absorption of long wave X-rays by air.

So who might still be interested in using an old-fashioned, but quick and cheap technique in
qualitative chemical analysis? Perhaps four groups of people:

- Geoscientists at an early stage of exploration of minerals in the field, especially in remote

environments.

- Mineral collectors who are interested in the history of mineralogy.

- People who are interested in chemistry and its history as a hobby, as well as teachers.

- Possibly, geoscientists working in scantily equipped institutes, services, and companies.

All these people are likely to have at least a basic knowledge of inorganic chemistry and
mineralogy.

In most cases the aim of the analysis is to gain further information about a mineral which
has not yet been unambiguously identified by the usual methods. First its properties should be
recorded: hardness, streak, colour, lustre, cleavage, magnetic properties, and morphology.
About 4200 mineral species are acknowledged by the International Mineralogical Association
(IMA), but only 60 to 200 species can be determined by ocular inspection and the above-
mentioned methods, depending on the experience of the geologist or collector. A qualitative
analysis gives information about the main constituents of the mineral. Let us take an example.
There are more than 400 phosphates registered as minerals. Imagine you have found a
mineral, black to brown in colour, with a hardness of ≈5, and the analysis shows the presence
of P, Li, Fe, and Mn as the main constituents. By simply looking at a good textbook on
mineralogy you will find out that this specimen is most probably sicklerite Li(Mn,Fe)PO4 or a
member of the series triphylite LiFePO4 - lithiophylite LiMnPO4 .

Information about the qualitative composition of a mineral is also of great value when
interpreting an X-ray powder diffraction pattern of this mineral. This holds true even in the
days of modern electronic data processing with advanced and sophisticated programs; many
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minerals are mixed crystals and that means the recorded d-values of a mineral may vary
considerably depending on the composition of the crystal.

The heat source

Today the heat source exclusively used is a butane torch, but the traditional heat source was
a small hot flame achieved by blowing a jet of air from a mouth-operated blowpipe through
the luminous flame of a lamp with a rectangular wick, filled with oil or paraffin. A reducing
flame was produced by placing the nozzle of the blowpipe just outside the flame, while an
oxidizing flame was obtained by placing the nozzle approximately one-third within the flame.
Wick and wickholder were cut at an angle of 15° to the horizontal direction, so, depending on
the direction of the blowpipe, a flame directed at this angle downward or upward could be
produced by blowing parallel to the wick's surface, figure 1. - The first written mention of
such a device dates back to 1670, but it can be taken for granted that the basic technique is
much older. The use of bellows in ore melting was already mentioned in the Bible (Jeremiah
6, 29 and Ezekiel 22, 20-21).

The preferred type of blowpipe for more than 100 years was invented by Gahn and first
described by Berzelius in 1812. The mouthpiece was shaped like that of a trumpet and made
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from wood or horn. It was connected to a conical brass tube approx. 180 mm long which was
fixed to a cylinder of approx. 30 mm length and 12 mm diameter in order to collect the
condensed water. A small tube about 60 mm long, ending in a 0.4-0.6 mm diameter nozzle,
was plugged into a radial borehole of this cylinder, figure 2. Good nozzles were made from
platinum; later on, nickel alloys or stainless steel were used. The air was not pressed by the
operator's lungs, but by his cheek muscles. In the 19th century already many people had
difficulty doing this properly, as can be guessed from early suggestions for bellow-operated
blowpipes.

Blowpipes of the type described by Gahn and Berzelius are no longer on sale. However,
anybody interested in this technique can build a device producing a small jet of air by
connecting a throwaway hypodermic needle (0.90 x 70 mm, DIN 13097) with a battery
operated air pump by means of plastic tubing with 4 mm outer diameter and 1 mm wall
thickness. Such membrane pumps are sold to aerate aquariums. In order to fix the needle at
the desired height and inclination it is clamped by a flat magnet to a 30 x 400 mm iron sheet
bent into a rectangle in the middle. The horizontal part of the metal sheet can be held in
position by a paperweight or a stone, figure 3.

To produce the luminous flame you need a lidded tin box, preferably a spherical one, 20 to
35 mm in diameter. A 10 mm x 4 mm wickholder can be cut and folded from the thin metal of
a beer or cola can. It should be fixed by soldering or clamping by a collet next to the inner
side of the cylinder at the upper end. Remember the inclination of the upper end of the
wickholder described above. Rectangular wicks are sold as spare parts for petroleum lamps,
but several thick round wicks in a parallel position can be used instead. The device is filled
with paraffin wax from the remains of old candles. Before use, the surface of the paraffin
should be melted by means of a lighter. You can also use the luminous flame of a Bunsen
burner instead of the paraffin lamp. Butane-operated Bunsen burners are available for
nonstationary use.

Fortunately today we can work without a blowpipe at all, since there are various small
butane gas burners on the market since the 80´s of the 20th century. Some of them have an air-
regulating screw as well as a valve to regulate the gas flow, figure 4. Items with a stable stand
and piezo ignition should be preferred. Such butane torches are designed for use in soldering
and welding; all constructions produce a hot oxidizing flame up to 1300° C, but only some
devices can also produce a reducing flame. The oxidizing flame should have a minimum
length of 12 mm and a maximum length of 40 mm; if the flame is too long the sample tends to
be blown away. - Some cheap butane torches are designed for short use only. The device must
be extinguished after 3 to 4 minutes use and any further use is only possible after the nozzle
has cooled to room temperature. The nozzle is made of stainless steel and ceramic, but most
other parts are plastic and may be deformed due to heating by radiation. This short time is not
really a disadvantage because most tests are completed in less than three minutes.
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International air traffic regulations strictly prohibit the transport of inflammable

compressed gas or fluids on all aircraft, only pocket lighters are an exception. This should be
taken into account when field use is planned. Nevertheless it is possible to transport empty
burners; butane refill containers are available in most cities of the world.

The base and the vessels

The small flame has a low heat capacity; this does not matter since the mass of the analysed
matter and the chemicals is also small. But it implies that any vessel holding the melt in its
place must also have a low heat capacity; thus the vessel must be very small. Another
possibility is to place the melt on a base with a very low heat conductivity, such as charcoal
which has been used since the very beginning of this technique. Traditionally, 110 x 35 x 12
mm charcoal blocks were used and are still on sale. But you may cut your material using a
fine saw from any dense charcoal sold for barbecues. The kinds made from basswood, pine,
or willow are recommended. Used pieces can be recycled by grinding off the contaminated
surface with a flat file or with abrasive paper. To hold the melt in place, a small cavity should
be made with a penknife or a small coin. - Charcoal is a porous substance, therefore some
melts are soaked up by the coal. This is the case for most alkali salts, only alkali phosphates,
borates and silicates produce a bead on the surface. Any fusion on charcoal implies at least a
weak reducing environment.

For these reasons other vessels must be used for some melts. Originally platinum was
preferred, as small spoons of 12 mm diameter, small crucibles and as wire. The free end of an
approx. 0.3 mm thick platinum wire is coiled into a small U-shaped loop through which an
ordinary match will barely pass. The other end is melted into a small glass tube. Due to
surface tension the melt to be handled adheres to the wire as a bead. For further treatment it
can be shaken off from the wire by a sudden jerk. To do this you have to heat the bead as
highly as possible holding the wire tight in your fist, then bang your wrist on the table. With
some skill it is possible to catch the falling bead in a dish, or - more easily - on a triple layer
of aluminium foil. For some fusion reactions this technique is still important today.
Remaining melt on the wire can be removed by melting some potassium hydrogen sulphate
KHSO4 to the wire loop. Any remains of this sulphate bead can be dissolved by boiling with
dilute hydrochloric acid HCl, then rinsing with distilled water.

Unfortunately platinum is heavily corroded at high temperatures by all sulphides, mixtures

of chlorides and nitrates, alkali hydroxides, and under reducing conditions by any matter
containing arsenic, antimony, lead, copper, bismuth, cadmium, nickel, or silver. Under
reducing conditions free quartz reacts at 1000°C to SiO, which decomposes to Si + SiO 2 . The
Si reacts with Pt to a eutectic melt with a melting point of 830°C; this melt causes severe
grain boundary corrosion. Any heating of phosphorous acid in platinum vessels should be
avoided for similar reasons. - Moreover platinum is a precious metal and additionally the cost
of forming wires and vessels is usually as high as that of the material itself. (A 10 cm long
piece of 0.3 mm Pt wire costs about € 32.)

Hence magnesia rods with 2 mm diameter and 120 mm length were introduced in the early
th
20 century as a substitute for platinum wire. Originally they were made from magnesium
oxide. They are still on sale, but nowadays such magnesia rods consist of a ceramic matrix of
magnesium aluminium spinel MgAl2 O4 and indialithe Mg2 Al4 Si5 O18 , which is the high
temperature polymorph of cordierite. Such rods are used like a platinum wire for bead
melting; after use the contaminated end is broken off and discarded. The advantage is the
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possibility of reducing the melt, but the melt cannot be shaken off since the rods are brittle.
"Magnesia“ furrows made from the same ceramic matrix are also on sale, they are used
especially for oxidizing melts. Remember that any melt formed on such magnesia devices
may be contaminated with Mg, Al and Si. Normally this does not matter, but in rare cases
these ions may disturb an intended test in solutions of the dissolved melt.

Small porcelain dishes and spot plates are recommended in the literature for melts and spot
tests. Commercial spot plates are made from glazed porcelain and contain 6 to 12 flat
depressions of equal size that hold 0.5 to 1 ml of liquid. Some authors recommend the melting
of the analyzed matter with fusion mixtures in the flat depression of a spot plate, but at
temperatures higher than 300° C the plate often cracks due to heat induced strain. Porcelain is
made from a wet plastic mixture of kaolinite with a fine powder of quartz and potash feldspar.
After the mass has been shaped to the desired form it is dried at normal temperature and then
fired to temperatures of 1100° to 1200° C. Porcelain raw material is difficult to obtain, but
you can also use normal potter's clay which is sold in hobby shops. Such clays are a wet
plastic mixture of montmorillonite, sometimes halloysite with quartz and feldspar. On firing
to high temperatures it is converted to a ceramic matrix consisting of mullite, quartz, glass,
and residues of feldspar.

Small dishes of fired potter's clay were already used in the 19th century for the roasting of
sulphides and in tests for gold and silver. At that time they were formed in a wooden mould
impregnated with oil. Today it is easier to make them in another way. Take a piece of potter's
clay with a consistency like plasticine and form a sphere the size of a small pea. Now press it
on the surface of a ping-pong ball. By repeated pressing and flattening with the thumb form a
small dish till the wall thickness is approximately 1 mm. The somewhat irregular rim of the
clay layer does not matter for later use. A perfect spherical rim can be obtained by pressing a
tube with 16 to 20 mm inner diameter against the freshly formed clay layer. Since the clay
shrinks on drying, it falls off the ping-pong ball's surface after some hours of drying at normal
temperature. Drying at normal temperature should be continued for at least two days before
firing the clay to 1000 to 1100° C. Heating in an electric furnace is preferable, but a charcoal
fire can also be used. In the latter case any adhering ash or coal should be removed by
brushing and finally by glowing with an oxidizing flame.

Clay furrows may be formed on the surface of a plastic pill tube; the outer diameter of the
tube should be 18 to 25 mm.The rims may be cut by a knife. In a similar way it is possible to
produce small streak plates if you press finely powdered quartz to the surface during
formation on a flat surface. Streaks can be dissolved on such plates in situ by appropriate
melts. The fired material does not show a pure white colour like porcelain, but is white with a
yellow or gray tinge, because potter's clay normally contains traces of iron compounds.

For use with solutions it is appropriate to glaze the dishes. This may be done in the
following way. Mix 1 ml of waterglass thoroughly with a pinch of white toothpaste. Spread
this mixture in a very thin film over the surface of the already fired dish by means of a fine
brush. The glaze is formed by firing the dish again at 1000°C. Unglazed dishes made from
fired potter's clay are slightly porous, they should be discarded after use, since they may be
contaminated with remaining melt or solution.

You may even use small thin shards of porcelain from saucers or tea cups for melt
reactions. Please test such shards before use by heating to the desired temperature in order to
avoid cracking by thermal strain during the experiment. All melts produced on a ceramic
matrix may contain elements of that matrix such as Al, Si, Mg, K, Ca, and Na; some glazes
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may additionally contain Ti, B, Sn or F! A blank test should be done if the assay is intended to
test for one of these elements; i.e. the experiment is done without adding the material to be
tested.

There are three ways to hold the ceramic dish in place during the heating process:
- The dish is held by stainless steel forceps.
- An iron wire is coiled to a loop of appropriate size and fixed to a wooden handle.
- The ceramic dish is placed on a flat base with very low thermal conductivity such as
charcoal, pumice, glass wool or ceramic wool. The glass wool may be placed in a flat tin
box with a lid to cover it after use.

Small test tubes are used for dry heating (7x70 mm), bigger ones for the handling of
solutions. A wooden clothes-peg (spring type) may be used to hold the tube A spirit lamp
should be preferred for heating. For temperatures up to 100° C bumping is avoided by using a
waterbath. Use a small tin two-thirds full of tap water and add some sand grains. This
waterbath can be placed on a tripod made from thick iron wire (figure 5).

A small funnel and two or three 50 or 25 ml beakers are sometimes needed for preliminary
work for spot tests. If field use is intended, the funnel and one beaker should be made of
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polyethylene. Glass for laboratory use such as the Pyrex or Duran brands are recommended
for the test tubes and beakers. Some watch-glasses fitting the beakers are needed as well as
microscope slides, small glass rods and cover glasses. Never try to heat watch-glasses by
means of a flame; however they can be heated on a water bath.

Glass tubes of 140 mm length, with an internal diameter of 4 mm and 6 to 9 mm are used
for some tests. Glass tubes are cut in the following way. A tiny notch is filed into one side of
the glass tube, which is then half pulled, half broken in two. Put your thumbs on both sides on
the opposite side of the notch, it is safer to wrap the glass tube in a towel before pulling!

Sample preparation

In sample preparation it is of the utmost importance to ensure the purity and homogeneous
character of the mineral in question. Since, in most cases, only very little material is required
for the tests, careful selection can generally secure enough in a pure condition. In rare cases
you may even use a mineral intergrown with another (but well-known) mineral, like quartz or
calcite.

With a few exceptions the mineral must be ground to a fine powder. As a rule the powder
should feel like flour when rubbed between your fingertips. Most textbooks recommend the
first grinding in a steel mortar, followed by a fine grinding in a small agate mortar of approx.
25 to 60 mm diameter. The agate mortar and pestle are used for grinding only, never for
pounding hard bodies! Agate mortars should be cleaned by the repeated grinding of fine
quartz powder. Agate is a slightly porous matter, avoid wetting it with any solutions, since
this may cause contamination in subsequent use. - Mineral fragments may be powdered by
wrapping in several folders of thick paper or plastic foil, and hammering on a flat piece of
steel, in this way the use of a steel mortar can be avoided.

But very often you can obtain enough material by using a file. Diamond files are superior
to all other devices, but they are expensive (approx. € 17 each). A so-called sapphire file,
originally intended for nail care, and available from pharmacies or drugstores will do the same
job. After use the file must be cleaned with soap and water, using an old tooth brush. In most
cases the powder obtained by the file can be used for the test, but sometimes it is better to
grind it to a finer state in the agate mortar. If no agate mortar is available, you can use a
porcelain mortar instead for all minerals with a hardness lower than 6.5. Since the mortar has
to be cleaned after use as well, a porcelain mortar is somewhat inconvenient, because its
surface is very rough.

Another simple possibility is to obtain a fine mineral powder by rubbing the mineral piece
on carborundum paper designed for wet grinding and polishing, the grinding paper should be
discarded after use. - Minerals with a hardness of less than 5 on the Mohs scale may be
rubbed on a clean streak plate; rubbing an area of 1 square centimetre usually yields enough
matter in a dispersed state for a test. In the case of acid soluble minerals they can be dissolved
on the streak plate in situ. Again the streak plate has to be cleaned with water, soap and a
brush afterwards. Remaining residues can be dissolved by melting a mixture of ammonium
chloride and ammonium nitrate on the streak plate which is placed on charcoal or held by
forceps. For such purposes it is recommended to cut a streak plate in 10 to 20 mm wide strips
by means of a diamond saw or a grinder.

The powdered sample is transferred by means of a fine watercolour brush to a glazed paper
which has previously been sharply folded and flattened again. Rough and fine grains can be
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separated by gently knocking against the paper from one side. The fine powder is now
transferred to an aluminium foil. Any necessary mixing with dry chemicals can be done on
the aluminium foil. The use of toothpicks is recommended for this purpose. Never use
matches, since they are usually impregnated with chemicals. A watchglass or a microscopic
slide should be used for wet mixing or mixing with potassium or ammonium hydrogen
sulphate. – It is not neccessary to buy glazed paper, it can be cut from advertising leaflets or
the cover page of any magazine.

Beginners tend to use too much substance. Enough powder to cover a small knife-tip
amounts to approximately 50 mm3 , this applies to 20 to 60 mg, depending on the density of
the mineral and the grain size of the powder. Such an amount is called a pinch in this paper. A
small pinhead has a volume of approximately 1 mm3 , such a volume of a powdered mineral
weighs 0.4 to 1.2 mg.

The reagents

The good news first: for the most important tests you need only a few chemicals and
normally only a very small amount of each. Generally minute amounts, a pinch or a knife–
pointful, are used for a test. Thus a sufficient supply may be stored in approx. 5 ml volume
plastic tubes with a tight-fitting hinged lid. All chemicals should be carefully labelled!

The bad news:

- If you want to do all possible spot tests, you have to keep more than 50 different
chemicals in store.
- Although you will use very small amounts of any chemical, suppliers sell only large
packages, much bigger than you need!

The simplest way to overcome these difficulties is to have a friend who works at a chemical
laboratory, preferably at an university laboratory. Some of the chemicals are sold in small
quantities by pharmacies. Another way is to place a joint order together with other interested
collectors. Some hints about suppliers are given in part II.

Solid reagents.

Sodium carbonate, Na2 CO3 (soda); Na2 CO3 10H2 O (natron) is also available.-
Dry sodium carbonate should be preferred. It melts at 854° C. The melt decomposes most
chemical compounds, thus producing the sodium salts of the anions, the cations are
transferred to carbonates, oxides or other compounds. NaHCO3 , which is sold as baking soda
at pharmacies, may be used as well.

Sodium tetraborate, Na2 B4 O7 ; Na2 B4 O7 10 H2 O (borax) is also available.-

The dry reagent melts at 742° C. The melt cools to a clear glass. Sodium tetraborate melt
dissolves various substances, especially metal oxides, in many cases yielding characteristic
colours.

Ammonium sodium hydrogen phosphate, NH4 NaHPO4 4H2 O, is sometimes called

phosphorous salt or microcosmic salt.-
On heating, this salt changes to sodium metaphosphate NaPO3 by losing water and NH3 .
If available NaPO3 should be preferred. The melting point is 628° C, again a clear glass is
obtained. Many oxides give a distinct colour to the glass.
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The origin of the name microcosmic salt.

Beads of sodium metaphosphate saturated with some oxides cool to a clear glass. Small crystals grow
in the glass on repeated heating and cooling. A microscope with a 80 to 100 x magnification is needed
to inspect these crystals with various morphologies. Such beads resemble a microcosmos. Some
authors tried to use the effect for analytical purposes in the 19th century, but these efforts failed. Borax
beads sometimes show the same effect.

Potassium hydrogen sulphate KHSO4 –

This compound melts at 210° C, it decomposes according to:
2 KHSO4 ⇒ K2 S2O7 + H2O and K2 S2 O7 ⇒ K2 SO4 + SO 3 .
A variety of minerals are decomposed by fusion with the reagent. Such fusions may be made
either in a platinum wire loop, on a magnesia rod, in porcelain, on glazed clay dishes, or in a
test tube.

Ammonium hydrogen sulphate, NH4 HSO4 –

Melting point 147° C. This compound or its concentrated solution can be used instead of
concentrated sulphuric acid in some cases.

Potassium nitrate, KNO3 (nitre) –

It is used only in a mixture with three parts of sodium carbonate in sensitive reactions for
chromium and manganese.

Tin(II) chloride, SnCl2 2H2 O –

It is used in reductions.

Potassium oxalate, K2 (COO)2 –

Is used for reducing melts, mostly together with sodium carbonate.

Tin, Sn / zinc, Zn –
These metals are used for reductions. The granulated metals are preferred, thin foil is useful,
too. Don't use soldering tin, since this is an alloy!

Magnesium, Mg –
Magnesium ribbon is useful for detecting phosphoric acid in minerals.

A mixture of one part ammonium chloride NH4 Cl and two and a half parts of ammonium
nitrate NH4 NO3 has a melting point of approx. 140° C. It may be used like aqua regia, which
is a mixture of concentrated nitric and hydrochloric acid. The solid mixture should be kept
dry, any contact to metals or reducing chemicals should be avoided! Melting should be done
in porcelain or glass vessels or on a magnesia furrow.

Cobalt nitrate, Co(NO3 )2 –

Just before use, the required amount of this salt is dissolved in 10 parts of water. The solution
is used to identify some oxides.

Ammonium heptamolybdate, (NH4 )6 Mo7 O24 4H2O –

It is used for the detection of phosphates, arsenates, and silicates.
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Liquid reagents

You will need distilled water, which is sold at pharmacies or filling stations. It is convenient
to keep a supply of distilled water in a washbottle of the type used in chemical labs.

Hydrochloric acid, HCl –

Concentrated HCl is sold with either 32 or 36 weight%. A 1:1 dilution is generally used.

Nitric acid, HNO3 –

Concentrated nitric acid has 65 weight%. It is extremely corrosive, keep it away from skin,
fabric, metal and paper. Generally a dilution of 1 volume conc. HNO3 with 2 volumes of
water is sufficient.

Sulphuric acid, H2 SO4 –

A diluted sulphuric acid 30 weight% is sold for lead batteries at filling stations in nearly all
countries. This acid is sufficient for nearly all tests. – Some drops of the concentrated acid
may be prepared by heating no more than 1 ml of the 30% acid in a test tube, shaking
vigorously till white fumes are produced. Use and handle the remaining liquid only after
cooling! - In most cases it is possible to use ammonium hydrogen sulphate instead of
concentrated sulphuric acid.

The concentrated acids described above should be stored in small glass bottles with ground-
glass-stoppers. The diluted acids can be stored in polyethylene bottles with screw tops. Before
filling please leak-proof the bottle and the screw; fill with water, screw shut, and squeeze the
bottle gently holding the neck of the bottle downward.

Ammonium hydroxide, NH4 OH –

The concentrated solution has 34 weight%, a 1:1 dilution is sufficient.

Methanol, CH3 OH –
It is used for a special boron test, or as a solvent for organic compounds, it is poisonous when
swallowed! Denatured ethanol may be used instead.

Hydrogen peroxide, H2 O2 –
A diluted solution is used in some tests for Ti, Cr, V, or Mn. – You may use a freshly
prepared solution of sodium perborate instead. This is a constituent of tablets sold for cleaning
dentures. Look for the name sodium perborate on the label showing the ingredients. A
common brand is Kukident. A tiny part of a tablet dissolved in 1 – 2 ml water is sufficient for
each test.

It is advisable to store only a very small amount of all wet chemicals, bottles holding 30 or
50 ml are sufficient! If you need only a few drops, use a dropper to take the amount from the
bottle. - A glass tube with a narrow inner diameter (3, 4, or 5 mm) is heated in the middle over
a flame, turning it slowly so that the glass will be uniformly heated. When the glass becomes
quite soft, the tube is removed from the flame and quickly pulled in two parts. Break off the
thus formed capillary in order to get a narrow opening. Soak the liquid by means of a rubber
bulb, it is a good auxiliary construction to fix a plastic tubing to the end of the glass dropper
and close the end of the plastic tubing by a glass rod (figure 6).
 15

For transport of any kind the leakproof plastic bottles should each be wrapped in a plastic
bag secured by sellotape. Put this in a tin with a tight lid and fill the free volume at least partly
by an absorbent material like silica gel. You can also use the super-absorbent material from a
modern diaper like the brand pampers. Again the lid of the tin should be fastened with
adhesive tape.

The transport of any corrosive liquids, acids and strong alkaline solutions on an aircraft is
strictly prohibited by international air traffic regulations. You may overcome this difficulty by
using 30% sulphuric acid for lead batteries which is available worldwide and can be bought at
your destination.

- On dissolving 4.3g of NaCl in 10 ml of such acid and adding 10 ml of water you get a
15% HCl.

- A solution of 6.1g of ammonium nitrate in 10 ml of sulphuric acid 30% can be used

instead of nitric acid.

- If you dissolve 2 g of NH4 Cl and 1.4g of NaOH in 10 ml of distilled water, you may use
this solution like ammonium hydroxide.

Weigh these chemicals at home and seal or weld them separately in plastic for transport. Do
not forget to label them correctly. Mark a volume of 10 ml by a waterproof pen on a test tube.
The additional ions in these solutions must be considered only in the case of a few wet tests.
If you only need an acid to detect calcium carbonate, you may use vinegar, or, better a 10%
solution of citric acid in water.

Safety hints

All tests rely on chemical reactions, especially fusion processes can produce poisonous
gases and fumes. If you are working in a laboratory please use the fume-cupboard. Otherwise
you may work with such reactions in the open air or on a balcony. Ensure good ventilation
and take care that no other persons are inconvenienced by the fumes. If you want to smell
 16

anything you should take a deep breath beforehand, then stop breathing and take a tiny extra
sniff by fanning the air towards your nose, followed by immediate breathing out. There is
scarcely any health hazard if you always work with the recommended small amounts of
sample and reagent.

Nitrates, nitrites, bromates, iodates, and sodium perborate are oxidizing chemicals, avoid
any fusion with reducing chemicals like sulphur, powdered coal, oxalates, thiocyanates,
organic compounds, or pure sulphides since this may lead to a rapid combustion or even an
explosion.

The use of goggles is strictly recommended.

During the work do not smoke, eat or drink.
Wash your hands carefully after work.

If any drops of acid or other solutions are spilled on skin or fabric, rinse immediately with
plenty of water. Traces of acids adhering to fabric can be neutralized with white toothpaste
containing calcite.

If you are working with concentrated acids or if you heat strong acid or alkaline solutions
the use of protective gloves is by no means a sign of weakness but a prudent decision. The
thin rubber gloves designed for medical use are excellent for that purpose; but a thin,
transparent plastic bag may be used as a substitute as well.

Great care has to be taken to avoid any delay in the formation of steam bubbles if it is
necessary to heat a solution in a test tube! Such sudden steam evolution may sputter
considerable amounts of the boiling liquid out of the test tube, this may cause serious burns
especially if the solution contains strong acids or bases. The effect is known as "bumping“, it
is avoided by heating the test tube not at the bottom, but at the side and by gently shaking the
test tube in a slanting position during heating. In any case the open end of the tube should
never point towards the operator or any other person!

Hot things look the same as cold ones! Before touching any device that has been heated,
please control its temperature by its radiation: bring the back of your hand next to it, but don't
touch it! This part of human skin is very sensitive to infra-red radiation. - Finger protectors for
thumb and forefinger may be cut from thick rubber tubing approx. 25 mm in length and slit
once in an axial direction. Silicone rubber tubing should be preferred for such purposes, since
it stands temperatures up to 200° C.

Never suck any liquids into glass tubes or plastic tubing by means of your mouth!

All solutions thrown into the sink must be well diluted with tap water first, and the sink
rinsed with plenty of water.

Never store any chemicals in bottles or vessels designed and used for drinks or food! -
Take care that no unauthorized persons, especially no children, have access to
chemicals!

To protect your working table cover it with newspaper and a double layer of aluminium foil
like that sold for kitchen use.
 17

The classical tests

These are the tests developed and widely used in the 19th century. The mineral powder is used
directly, no wet separation process is employed.

Heating in a closed tube

Glass tubes closed at one end, 8 to 10 cm long and 3 to 6 mm internal diameter should be
preferred, but it is also possible to use small test tubes. The coarsely powdered assay of 1 to
50 mg of mass is transferred to the bottom of the tube, take care to avoid any fine material
adhering to the upper parts of the tube wall. In some cases it is advantageous to use only a few
pieces of approx. 1 mm diameter. The tube is heated at the bottom and held by a wooden
clamp or clothes-peg at the top in an oblique, nearly horizontal position. If any water
condenses in the upper part, put some cotton wool in the upper part to avoid water drops
rolling back to the hot part and causing cracks. It is important to increase the temperature
slowly.

You may observe the following phenomena:

a. Change in the condition or appearance of the assay.

b. The formation of gases which collect in the tube.
c. The formation of sublimates or condensed liquids on the cold walls of the tube.

a. Change in condition and appearance.

Only materials with a low melting point fuse in the closed tube. Such boiling melt points to
minerals of the zeolite group, or to crystal hydrates. They can be distinguished by their
hardness, zeolites are not scratched by steel.

Minerals containing liquid inclusions may snap and explode owing to the evolution of
steam during heating. Sometimes they break up into very fine powder or dust, e.g. milky
quartz. This phenomenon is called decrepitation.

Some minerals emit a bright, often coloured light when heated below redness.( T ≈ 300° C)
The effect can be observed only in darkness. It is caused by the healing of lattice defects on
heating. The lattice defects are always due to radioactive radiation which had hit the crystal
since its formation. This effect is called thermoluminescence, it is often found on fluorite,
quartz, calcite, apatite, zircon, and diamond in specimens from different outcrops.

Sometimes the colour of a mineral changes due to the healing of lattice defects on moderate
heating, mostly from dark colours to lighter ones. Such bleaching is a common procedure
used in treating raw gemstones, especially metamikt zircons. – But minerals may also change
colour after heating, owing to decomposition. For example the carbonates of copper, iron, and
manganese become black on heating, due to the formation of black oxides. A dark red colour
frequently occurs when hematite is formed.
 18

b. The formation of gases

Carbon dioxide CO2 is obtained from most carbonates, it may be identified by introducing a
drop of a clear barium hydroxide or calcium hydroxide solution onto the inner wall of the
tube next to the open side. The drop becomes white owing to the formation of the respective
carbonates. The calcium hydroxide solution should be freshly prepared by agitating some
Ca(OH)2 with water in a test tube, after allowing the surplus solid to settle for some minutes,
take a drop of the clear solution by a glass rod for the test.

Oxygen O2 may be formed by the decomposition of pyrolusite and other manganese oxides.
To detect it, light a wooden toothpick with a torch flame, blow out the flame of the burning
wood and insert the still glowing end of the toothpick into the tube. The presence of oxygen
causes the glow to intensify or the flame to re-appear.

Sulphur dioxide SO2 with a strong, pungent odour may be formed by the decomposition of
sulphates or the part-oxidation of sulphides. It is detectable by the acid reaction it imparts to
moistened pH-paper or by the decoloration of wet brown pyrolusite-paper. Such paper is
prepared by soaking white filter paper with an aqueous solution of potassium permanganate
and drying the paper. Soaking and drying is repeated once or twice till the paper is distinctly
brown . The dry paper can be stored for months in tightly sealed glass or plastic vessels. For
use cut a small strip, dip it in water, shake off any surplus water, and place it half inside the
tube, bending the second half down. The decoloration is due to the reaction SO2 + MnO 2 ⇒
MnSO4 , which only occurs in the presence of water.

Sometimes minerals containing fluorine as well as OH-groups cause hydrofluoric acid HF

to form; it will etch the glass, gives an acid reaction to pH-paper and has a pungent odour.
This reaction occurs only at higher temperatures. (e.g. topaz)

Many organic materials will develop a brown smoke, mostly accompanied by dark
distillation products and an empyreumatic odour. Only amber or natural resins produce an
aromatic odour.

A garlic-like odour points to the presence of arsenic, while selenium causes a peculiar odour
resembling the smell of a rotten radish.

c. The formation of sublimates or condensed liquids on the cold walls of the tube.

Water is given off from zeolites and hydrates like gypsum at low temperatures. Minerals
containing the hydroxyl group, like clay minerals, micas or amphiboles lose their water due to
the reaction 2 OH- ⇒ H2 O + O2- only at higher temperatures. Any sublimate that occurs
should be inspected through a lens and proved by heating the tube at the location of the
sublimate:

Black like a black mirror, next to the assay dark gray crystals ⇒ As

Black similar to As, transferred to a streak pla te and rubbed it turns red ⇒ HgS

Black fusible globules ⇒ Se or Te, small globules of Se transmit a reddish light.

 19

Red to brown colours point to sulphides of As or Sb , hot they look nearly black, the As-
compounds are readily volatile.

Yellow, hot orange-red ⇒ S, may be produced in the closed tube by pyrite or marcasite.

White may be ammonium salts, or As2 O3 , or Sb2 O3 , or lead chloride, or Hg2 Cl2 .
Repeat the test adding five times the amount of dry sodium carbonate to the
assay, ammonium salts give the NH3 smell, mercury chloride decomposes to
metallic mercury. To distinguish As- and Sb-oxides use the open tube test.

Gray metallic globules, which may be united by rubbing with a strip of paper ⇒ Hg

When sulphates decompose, small drops of concentrated sulphuric acid may sometimes
occur, they look like oil. - Closed tubes should be discarded after use if any sublimate has
formed.

Heating in an open tube

Glass tubes, open at both ends, are employed in heating and roasting substances in a current
of air, thus bringing about oxidation. The tubes should be between 5 and 8 mm internal
diameter and 15 to 17 cm long. They should be held in a slanting position of 20° to 30° in
order to ensure a draft of air on heating. Straight tubes may be used, but the powder of the
assay tends to fall out of the tube. To bend a tube, heat the tube 5 cm from one end, turning it
constantly during heating. When this part becomes soft, bend it to an angle of 20°-30°. The
coarsely powdered sample is placed next to the bend. Bring the smaller part in a horizontal
position and heat the tube first somewhat above the sample to produce a draught of air. The
long part acts like a chimney, hold the tube at this upper end. Please increase the temperature
very slowly to ensure complete oxidation. Heating in an open tube is one of the most
important tests for minerals which are suspected to belong to the sulphide group; the test will
give a reliable proof if S, As, Sb, Hg, Te, or Se are main constituents.

S: All sulphides are oxidized and sulphur dioxide is formed, which can be detected by its
odour or by the colour change of wet pH-paper. Again brown moistened pyrolusite paper can
be used to detect the formation of sulphur dioxide, which will bleach the brown paper. The
minerals sphalerite ZnS and molybdenite MoS2 are difficult to roast, they should be used as a
fine powder for this test. –

As: All arsenides are oxidized to As2 O3 , which is white and readily volatile. The sublimate
forms as a ring, and where it deposits on the warm glass it is distinctly crystalline. With a
good lens octahedrons can be observed. The typical garlic odour should not occur, since this
is an indication of incompletely oxized samples. –

Sb: This element is oxidized to Sb2 O3 , which is white and slowly volatile. The sublimate
forms as a dense, white smoke, which passes up the tube and partly settles on the upper side,
partly it leaves the tube. It is volatile, but on further heating it changes to Sb2 O4 , this
compound is non-volatile, infusible, and its colour is pale straw-yellow when hot. Often a
white "fur“-like deposit of this compound is formed on the underside.

Se: SeO 2 has a typical odour of rotten radish. Only large amounts produce a gray sublimate
of Se next to the sample. It may turn to red at a distance, and, far from the sample there
 20

appears a sublimate of SeO 2 made up of white, radiating, prismatic crystals, which are readily
volatile on heating.

Te: Produces a white smoke, partly it passes through the tube, partly it settles as a thick,
white sublimate on the lower side. Very similar to Sb2 O4 , but on heating of the sublimate of
TeO 2 small oil-like drops are formed!

Hg: Produces gray metallic globules; volatile. By rubbing the minute globules with a strip of
paper, they may be made to unite.

Bi: If sulphides are present, a small white sublimate of bismuth sulphate is formed. When
heated it melts to brown drops, the cooled drops are yellow and opaque. On increased heating
they vanish due to the formation of Bi-silicates.

Pb: Sulphides with a considerable lead content may give a small amount of a sublimate of
PbSO4 . The colour is white when cold, on strong heating it vanishes due to the formation of
colourless lead silicate.

The test for Pb and Bi is not very reliable and should be confirmed by heating on charcoal.
Arsenates are already oxidized, they will not give reactions in the open tube. The same is true
for most sulphates, only those of some transition metals are decomposed to the metal oxide
and SO3 , which itself decomposes at higher temperatures to SO2 and oxygen. - Open tubes
should be discarded after use if any sublimates were observed during the test.

Heating on charcoal

Most probably this is the oldest method to prove ores. Both reductions and oxidations are
obtained on charcoal. If the mineral shows no decrepitation a small piece of 1 to 2 mm
diameter is used, otherwise the sample is finely crushed and mixed with some water to a
paste. The piece or the paste is laid on the coal into a flat cavity approx. 1 to 2 mm depth
about 10 mm from one end of the coal. Now the surface of the charcoal is brought into a
slanting position of approx. 20° with the assay at the lower end. The flame is directed towards
the sample in such way that the area just ahead of the inner blue cone is close to the sample,
while the remaining hot gases pass over the charcoal towards the upper end (figure 4). The
combined effect of the flame and the burning charcoal gives considerable heat and intense
reduction is achieved. Many elements are volatilized; passing into air they take on oxygen and
deposit characteristic coatings of oxide on the coal. The sulphur of sulphides oxidizes to SO2
with its typical odour. The garlic odour of As or the odour already described typical for the
presence of Se occurs only under strong reducing conditions.

It is important to judge whether any sublimate is deposited next to the assay or far from it.
Any colour should be recorded in the hot stage as well as after cooling. Some sublimates are
volatile on direct heating. Please try gentle heating first and look for any coloration of the
outer flame when touching the sublimate with the top of the flame.- Some charcoals produce a
white-gray ash on burning. This may be confused with a sublimate. To test it, please do a
blank test without assay.

In some cases a metallic bead is formed. - If no sublimate or metallic bead is achieved, the
procedure should be repeated using a finely powdered mixture of one volume sample with
three volumes of dry sodium carbonate. This mixture is slightly moistened before heating to
avoid any blowing-off effects by the flame gases. The soda mixture should always be applied
 21

if there is any likelihood that the mineral may belong to the sulphide group or is a gossan
mineral!

If the substance is assumed to be a carbonate or sulphate it should be brought into contact

with wet pH-paper after intense glowing of the pure sample on charcoal. The carbonates and
sulfates of the alkaline earth group show an alkaline reaction, due to the formation of the
appropriate hydroxides.

As: Produces a white, very volatile sublimate far from the assay. Sometimes the colour
changes to gray. When touched with the flame the sublimate vanishes rapidly and gives a
pale blue colour to the flame. Often the garlic odour is pronounced if the mixture with sodium
carbonate is used.

Sb: The Sb2 O3 sublimate is white, less volatile than that of As2 O3 , and therefore nearer to the
assay. Thin layers distant from the assay show a bluish colour. Touching with the flame
causes the sublimate to move with a pale green shine.- A grayish-white, brittle bead is formed
only if enough antimony is present. After extinction of the flame, the bead stays liquid for
some time, producing white smoke. Eventually, the last smoke produces tiny white crystals on
the bead's surface.

Se: The volatile sublimate is steel-gray, far from the assay it often changes to white, tinged
with red. When touched with the flame it imparts an azure-blue colour to the flame. The
typical odour similiar to that of rotten radish is pronounced.

Te: A dense, white sublimate with a gray, sometimes brownish rim is typical. It is volatile; a
green shine is produced only with a reducing flame.

Zn: The ZnO sublimate is canary-yellow only when hot, but white when cold. It is not
volatile!

Cd: CdO deposits as a dark, almost black sublimate, which changes with decreasing thickness
from reddish-brown to yellow, the outer coal surface shows an iridescence resembling
peacock colours. The colour varies from blue-violet to black, followed by a change from
copper-red to brass-yellow towards the cold side of the coal. This iridescence is very typical,
it can be observed even in the presence of a large surplus of zinc. - The sublimate is volatile if
touched by the flame, but it imparts no colour to it.

Bi: Bismuth produces a sublimate of Bi2 O3 , it is dark orange-yellow when hot and changes on
cooling to yellow with a yellowish-white rim. The coating is volatile if the coal is heated to
visible glowing, but no colour is given to the flame. – Any formed metallic bead shows a gray
to reddish-white colour and is brittle, although it may at first flatten to some extent when
hammered.

Pb: Lead compounds produce a gray malleable metallic bead. The bead imparts a blue colour
to the oxidizing flame; the PbO settles as a dark-yellow sublimate when hot, the cool oxide is
sulphur-yellow with a bluish-white rim of lead carbonate. The sublimate is volatile on
glowing, again imparting a blue colour to the flame.

A yolk-yellow sublimate of a mixed oxide of lead and antimony is formed next to the assay if both
elements are present in the assay. The typical Sb2 O3 sublimate is produced as well. - Many authors in
the 19th century found it difficult to distinguish the yellow sublimates of Bi and Pb oxide. They
resolved this problem by converting the oxides to iodides, which have quite different colours. The
 22

coatings were moistened with a solution of iodine in alcohol. On repeated heating the bismuth oxide
changed to a volatile brilliant red bismuth iodide, while the PbO changed to volatile yellow lead
iodide.

Sn: Tin compounds are reduced to a bright white bead of metallic tin in the reducing flame; it
assumes a white coating when cold. The bead is malleable, the white sublimate of SnO 2 is
next to the assay and nonvolatile.

Cu: Copper compounds are reduced to red, malleable beads. They are fusible only at a rather
high heat. Sometimes many small globules or spongy plates are formed. They are bright when
in the reducing flame, but they oxidize and become black on exposure to the air. No coating is
formed on the charcoal.

Ag: Minerals containing enough silver form a white and bright malleable bead. It is easily
fusible. If less noble metals like lead, antimony, or zinc are present, an alloy bead is formed.
Prolonged treatment with an oxidizing flame causes these less noble metals to oxidize and
eventually the silver bead is formed. In such cases the white sublimate of oxides turns reddish
by the deposition of traces of silver oxide Ag2 O. If copper is present its full oxidation is
sometimes difficult since black copper oxide covers the bead. An easy way to detect any
silver content of such beads is to tranfer the bead to a ceramic dish. Add some borax and treat
with an oxidizing flame. The oxidized copper dissolves in the borate melt with a blue colour
and the silver bead remains.

Au: Gold is rather easily fusible, the yellow malleable bead is bright in the hot as well as the
cold stage. On prolonged heating some gold is vaporized, producing a reddish to golden
colour which can be observed only on a white base, but not on charcoal. If any alloy should
be proved, melting with borax on a ceramic dish is recommended. If gold and silver is present
the colour of the remaining bead depends on its silver content.

Mo: Minerals with a considerable molybdenum content produce a sublimate of MoO3 which
is pale yellow when hot, but white when cold. It is sometimes distinctly crystalline, and is
volatile in the oxidation flame. This coating assumes a beautiful azure-blue colour if it is
touched for an instant with a reducing flame. If the coal glows red during contact with the
flame the coating is reduced to a lower oxide, which looks copper-red when cold.

Black magnetic globules or flakes, or a magnetic mass will be obtained on fusing iron
containing minerals with sodium carbonate on charcoal. The same may happen if cobalt or
nickel is present. For further wet analysis for Fe and Ni they should be dissolved in hot
concentrated HCl. Cobalt can be detected by dissolving some of the powdered globule in
molten borax; see borax and phosphorous salt beads.

Easily fusible globules with a metallic lustre, bright when in the reducing flame, but
tarnishing on exposure to the air, are frequently obtained when combinations of certain metals
like Pb, Ag, Cu, and Bi with S, As, or Sb are heated on charcoal. They can be distinguished
from metallic beads by their brittleness. Complete oxidation of S, As, and Sb can be achieved
by prolonged treatment with the oxidation flame.

White coatings may also result from the volatilization of some chlorides, namely the
chlorides of lead, copper, bismuth, mercury, ammonium, and the alkalis. Touching with the
flame renders such sublimates volatile, Pb and Bi forming a yellow new sublimate. PbCl2
imparts a pale blue colour to the flame. If CuCl2 is present it melts and produces an intensive
 23

azure blue flame colour. These phenomena are only important if you are testing oxychlorides
from an oxidation zone.

To prove whether a bead is brittle or malleable, put the bead on a flat piece of steel and give
it a gentle blow with a hammer. Brittle beads will crash to pieces, while perfectly malleable
metallic globules can be hammered to thin sheets. Less malleable globules can be hammered
to sheets when they are heated after each blow. On proving alloys care should be taken
especially with lead-gold alloys, some compositions in this system are extremely brittle!

Some scientists in the 19th century recommended heating on gypsum plates as well as on
charcoal, since some coloured sublimates may be more easily detected on a white surface. In
fact, this is true for the red-brown sublimate of silver oxide and the red one of gold. In all
other cases the use of gypsum plates provides no advantage at all. - These gypsum plates were
prepared by making a thin paste from calcined gypsum with water, pouring this upon a sheet
of glass, and spreading it out evenly until it is 3 to 4 mm thick. Before the plaster sets, its
surface is ruled off by means of a knife into rectangular blocks about 4 x 8 cm. They are
removed after the plaster hardens.

According to a suggestion by Goldschmidt the sublimates can be deposited on small cover

glasses for microscopic use. The cover glasses have to be positioned on the charcoal at an
appropriate distance from the assay. They are excellent for further microscopic observation. A
small pocket microscope with a 30x magnification can be used. Such sublimates on a cover
glass can be transferred to a test tube as well and used for further wet analysis.

The coloration of borax and phosphate beads

Borax is Na2 B4 O7 10 H2O; on heating it loses its water of crystallization and melts at 742°C
to a colourless, transparent glass, which consists of a mixture of sodium metaborate and boric
oxide. Na2 B4 O7 ⇒ 2NaBO 2 + B2O3 .
The hot melt reacts with most oxides of the transition metals, as well as the oxides of the main
group elements and silicates. The reaction leads to metaborates, sometimes orthoborates are
also formed. Any SiO 2 deriving from silicates or quartz is incorporated into the glass structure
if a surplus of borax is employed. Many transition metals impart a characteristic colour to the
glass. On reducing conditions some elements are transferred to a lower charge, e.g. Fe3+ ⇒
Fe2+, and in such a way a characteristic colour change is evoked. Some elements can be
reduced to the metallic state, like Cu or Ni.

Very similar beads result on the melting of sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate tetra-
hydrate, Na(NH4 )HPO4 4 H2 O which is also called microcosmic salt. The colourless,
transparent beads contain sodium metaphosphate in a glassy state:
Na(NH4 )HPO4 ⇒ NaPO3 + H2 O + NH3
Pure sodium metaphosphate NaPO3 melts at 628°C, it is recommended to use this dry
component instead of the microcosmic salt, if it is available.
Again the melt dissolves the oxides of transition metals by the formation of orthophosphates,
e.g. CuO + NaPO3 ⇒ NaCuPO4
The colour of the phosphate beads is generally very similar to that of the borax beads, but
there are some important exceptions. Silicates are also dissolved by the metaphosphate melt,
according to the formula

CaSiO 3 + NaPO3 ⇒ CaNaPO 4 + SiO 2

 24

Quite in contrast to the borate melt, in this case the formed silica is not incorporated into the
glass structure! The silica "skeleton“ of dissolved small silicate grains often can be detected in
phosphate beads during and after fusion. However, it should be noted that many silicates
dissolve completely in the bead, but the remaining SiO 2 is not visible to the naked eye or by
using a lens. So the absence of any silica "skeleton“ does not conclusively prove that a silicate
is not present!

There are two further differences regarding both kind of beads:

- Borax beads are more viscous than the phosphate beads. Therefore it is easier to handle
a borax bead if the molten bead is held in place by its surface tension.

- The colours of the phosphate beads are usually more pronounced.

The beads can be made in several ways. Use of the platinum wire loop is the oldest way,
and it is the best method since you can look through the bead. Unfortunately great care must
be taken when treating beads on a platinum loop with a reducing flame, because any
formation of easy reducible elements will lead to corrosion of the platinum. Melting the bead
on the tip of a magnesia rod avoids these pitfalls, but any judgement of the colour must be
done against the background of the magnesia rod.

If necessary, beads can also be prepared in small cavities on charcoal. This technique
achieves an intensive reduction; by adding a small amount of tin or tin chloride any content of
Cu or Ni can be reduced to the metallic state. It can be extracted subsequently from the bead
by melting with some lead.

To produce a bead, heat the platinum loop or the magnesia rod to a red glow, then dip it into
the appropriate salt. Some material should adhere to the loop or rod. Now glow again till all
material is molten. This procedure should be repeated till a clear colourless bead of sufficient
mass is formed. Do not dip any hot loop or rod into a plastic storage vessel, it may melt! Put
some borax or sodium metaphosphate on a piece of aluminium foil instead, and pick it up
from there. - If the assay is a mineral of the sulphide group it has to be roasted before being
used for bead coloration. Put a thin layer of the very finely powdered sulphide on a magnesia
furrow and glow it till all material is converted to the oxides. Easily melting minerals can be
roasted if they are mixed with some pure graphite powder. If any difficulties arise due to
incomplete oxidation, mix the half-roasted powder with some ammonium carbonate and glow
again.

The finely powdered assay is placed on aluminium foil and a minute amount is brought to
the moistened cold colourless bead by dipping it into the powder. A trace of saliva may be
used for moistening. Now melt to a bright glow for approximately a minute, then look at the
hot bead as well as at the cold one using a lens. It is important to apply a minute amount of
the assay as otherwise the bead may become too dark or opaque. If the colour of the bead is
too faint, a repetition of the material take-up is possible. This stepwise take-up is a quicker
way to success than the application of larger amounts at once!

To cause a distinctive colour it is necessary to dissolve 2 to 3 weight % of the appropriate

oxide of the element in a given bead for the elements W, Mn, and Fe. Approximately 1 to 0.5
weight % of the oxide is sufficient for the elements Cu, Ni, V, U, Ti, Cr, and Ce. The test for
cobalt is the most sensitive one, even 0.1% CoO causes a blue colour.
 25

Generally the colour tint changes with the temperature because the absorption spectrum is
shifted towards longer wavelength with increasing temperature. For this reason we see an
increase of red, brown or yellow colours at high temperatures, but a decrease of the colour for
blue and green on hot beads.

It is very important to know what kind of flame to use for melting beads, an oxidizing flame
or a reducing one. You should test that in the following way, no matter what heat source is
used, a butane torch, a bunsen burner or a blowpipe flame. Dissolve a sufficient amount of
ammonium molybdate in a borax bead. In a really pure oxidizing flame the hot bead is clear
and pale yellow, it becomes colourless on cooling. Look for the colour of the hot bead
immediately after its removal from the flame, holding it against a white background. Even
small amounts of reducing gas in the flame will cause a brown colour. Reciprocally the
reducing power of a flame can be tested by a borax bead doped with a sufficient amount of
manganese oxide. After melting with an oxidizing flame this bead shows a reddish violet
when cold. A real reducing flame more or less quickly changes this bead to a colourless one,
due to the reduction of the manganese to the divalent state. If your butane torch produces only
an oxidizing flame you may place the hot bead into the luminous part of a pocket lighter
flame for reduction.

Ambiguous results may occur if the assay contains several elements that render different
colours to the beads. Nevertheless such coloration may give useful hints for further proofs by
wet analysis. Especially mixtures of iron and copper, sometimes with nickel or cobalt are
green in the hot stage; on cooling they change to various shades of yellow, green or blue,
depending on the concentrations of the elements. Even a small amount of Co can be detected
by an intensive reduction of such phosphate beads on charcoal with some tin chloride; the
typical blue cobalt colour remains. - A blood red colour is caused on a phosphate bead in the
reducing flame if iron-containing minerals of tungsten or titanium are tested.

Generally the oxides of the following elements give no colour to the borax bead: the alkalis,
the alkaline earth elements, aluminium, tin, zinc, zirconium, tantalum, niobium, scandium,
yttrium, lanthanum, thorium and all rare earths, with the exception of cerium and mixtures of
neodymium and praseodymium. The elements lead, antimony, cadmium, and bismuth give
only a pale yellow colour to the hot bead, but the cold bead is colourless. Only bismuth is
reducible by the reducing flame causing a gray colour. – The same is true for the phosphate
beads, with some exceptions: here the elements Ta, Nb, Cd, Pb, Sb, and Bi turn a hot bead a
very pale yellow if they are present at high concentrations, but the cold bead is colourless. In
the reducing flame beads containing Pb, Sb, and Bi become gray, while Nb will cause a faint
brown colour. Mixtures of neodynium and praseodymium give a very pale rose colour to any
bead. - This information is only for anyone who is interested in the method, none of the faint
colours described above can be taken as a distinct evidence for the presence of an element in
the assay!
 26

Colour of the phosphate beads

oxidizing flame element reducing flame
hot cold hot cold
yellowish green colourless Mo green green
pale yellow colourless W green blue
pale yellow colourless Ti yellow violet
green green Cr green green
yellowish green yellow V green green
yellowish green greenish yellow U green green
yellowishbrown pale yellow Fe pale yellow colourless
green pale blue Cu colourless red
blue blue Co blue blue
brownish red yellow Ni brownish red yellow to gray
violet violet Mn colourless colourless
Colour of the borax beads
oxidizing flame element reducing flame
hot cold hot cold
pale yellow colourless Mo brown brown
pale yellow colourless W yellow yellow to brown
pale yellow colourless Ti grayish brownish-violet
orange pale yellow Ce colourless colourless
yellow yellowish-green Cr green green
yellow yellowgreen V dirty green green
yellow to orange red yellow U pale green pale green to colourless
yellow to orange red yellow Fe green pale green
green blue Cu pale green opaque red
blue blue Co blue blue
violet reddish-brown Ni opaque gray opaque gray
violet reddish-violet Mn colourless colourless

Flame coloration

The compounds of certain elements are volatilized in a non-luminous flame, some of the
volatile species impart characteristic colours to the flame. The colours observed by the flame
test are summarized in the following table. Some extremely rare elements like indium,
rubidium and caesium are not included.

Flame tests
Colour of the flame Element
Persistent golden yellow Sodium
Violet Potassium
Carmine-red Lithium
Brick-red to yellowish Calcium
Crimson Strontium
Yellowish green Barium, molybdenum
Green Boron, copper, thallium
Blue Lead,arsenic, antimony, bismuth,
Blue-green Phosphates
 27

Tests may be made in different ways:

- A very small elongated fragment of the mineral can be held with clean stainless steel
forceps. Take care that the flame touches only the mineral, not the forceps.

- A minute quantity of the very finely powdered material is taken on a magnesia rod or a
platinum wire loop: the rod or wire is heated till it gives no coloration, then it is moistened
with pure water or hydrochloric acid, and its end is touched to the powdered material to take
up some of the mineral, which is then introduced into the flame. It is possible to use a soft
iron wire with a loop instead of the platinum wire. This device corrodes quickly, but due to
the cheap iron wire it can be replaced from time to time. Usually the wire is contaminated
with sodium. Therefore before use the loop is dipped into HCl and heated until the wire glows
without producing the yellow sodium colour.

- Oxides, carbonates and phosphates should be mixed with some HCl, the resulting slurry is
again brought to the flame by a loop or the magnesia rod. Sulphates of the alkaline earth
group give better results if they are previously glowed on charcoal. In this way they are at
least partly reduced to alkaline earth sulphides which are soluble in HCl. Chlorides are the
most volatile compounds, they should be used as far as possible.

Especially sodium compounds cause a persistent golden-yellow flame which masks all
other flame colours. Unfortunately this test for sodium is extremely sensitive, already an
amount of 7 x 10-8 mg Na causes a distinctive yellow flame. It is possible to overcome this
difficulty by viewing the flame through two thicknesses of cobalt glass, which masks the
yellow sodium colour. Flame tests with the cobalt glass are used to detect the alkali and
alkaline earth elements; but the colour of the flame is changed by the cobalt glass; this change
is indicated by the table at the end of this section. Sometimes it is convenient to fix the cobalt
glass to a spectacles frame by means of adhesive tape. If no cobalt glass is available it is
possible to look at the flame through a bottle filled with a diluted solution of potassium
permanganate. Again the yellow sodium colour is masked in this way, but the colours are
slightly changed. It is recommended to gain experience by trials with known composition.

Silicates should be tested for boron by fusion with a mixture of one part calcium fluoride
with one and a half parts of ammonium hydrogen sulphate on a platinum or iron wire loop.
Mixing of these chemicals should be done in the plastic lid of a tubule. In this way boron-
containing minerals produce boron trifluoride, which is extremely volatile. Therefore a green
colour is caused even if the loop is brought next to the flame without touching it.

Another way to test silicates for alkali elements is to glow the finely powdered mineral with
the same amount of gypsum. By this procedure calcium silicate and the appropriate alkali
sulphates are formed.

The flame colours of some elements mainly occurring as sulphides were already described
in the section "heating on charcoal“. Since sulphides do not contain alkalis or alkaline earth
elements it is useless to test them for such flame colorations on a magnesia rod or a loop!

The colours are best seen in a dark room; since this is usually inconvenient a dark screen or
charcoal as a background will be found advantageous. Flame tests should never be done in
bright daylight.
 28

Flame tests with cobalt glass

Flame coloration Flame colour through cobalt glass Element
Golden-yellow Nil Sodium
Carmine-red Purple-Red Lithium
Violet Crimson Potassium
Brick-red Light-green Calcium
Crimson Purple Strontium
Yellowish green Bluish-green Barium

Fusibility

The ease with which minerals fuse is of considerable assistance in their identification.
Small elongated splinters about 1.5 mm in diameter should be employed in testing fusibility.
The splinter should be held by forceps so that its end projects beyond the metal, only this end
is held to the flame. Older textbooks recommend the use of platinum forceps, but it is possible
to use stainless steel ones instead. Any remaining fused material at the tips can be removed by
means of fine abrasive paper. The fusibility of a mineral is determined by comparing its
fusibility with that of a fragment of comparable size from a scale suggested by Von Kobell.

1. Stibnite Sb2 S3 Fuses easily in the flame of a candle or a match.(525°C)

2. Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Fuses rather slo wly in a candle flame. A small fragment
in a closed glass tube fuses at a full red heat.(∼ 800°C)

3. Almandine Fe3 Al2 (SiO 4 )3 Fuses readily to a globule at the tip of an oxidizing flame
of a butane torch. (∼ 1050°C)

4. Actinolite
Ca2 (Mg,Fe)5 (OH/Si4 O11 )2 Edges of a fragment are readily rounded by an oxidizing
flame, only very fine splinters are fused to a globule.
(∼1200°C)

5. Orthoclase KAlSi3 O8 The edges of a fragment are rounded with difficulty by

an oxidizing flame. (∼1300°C)

6. Bronzite (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 Only the finest points and thinnest edges become
rounded by an oxidizing flame. (∼1400°C)

Sometimes no fragments are available and the powder does not fuse in a closed glass tube
at full red heat. In such cases the mineral is ground with some drops of water in an agate
mortar, the pulp is spread on charcoal and first slowly heated to dryness, then intensively
glowed. The cake thus formed can be picked up cautiously with the forceps, holding the rim
of the cake to the flame. This procedure was already suggested by Berzelius. Of course it
cannot be used for sulphide minerals, since such minerals would be decomposed by glowing
on charcoal!

Textbooks on mineralogy and mineral identification normally register the fusibility of

minerals, unfortunately some recently published books have refrained from such hints.
Anyway, in order to test the heat of the employed flame it is recommended to heat splinters of
the standard minerals. Some iron-containing oxides are infusible in an oxidizing flame, but
 29

are fusible with difficulty in a reducing flame, due to the reduction of iron to the divalent
state; e.g. hematite or franklinite.

The oxidation melt

The finely powdered mineral is melted with a surplus of a mixture of soda and potassium
nitrate (3 : 1). A magnesia furrow, a clay dish, a magnesia rod or a platinum wire loop may be
used.

In the presence of manganese the melt shows a green colour with a bluish tinge. This is due
to the formation of sodium manganate Na2 MnO4 . The melt can be dissolved in water,
resulting in a green solution. On acidification with acetic acid this solution changes its colour
to red and a brown sediment settles. After some time the red colour fades and a colourless
solution with a brown sediment remains. The red colour is caused by the formation of the
permanganate ion, the brown sediment is a disordered pyrolusite.

The presence of chromium causes a yellow colour due to the formation of sodium chromate
Na2 CrO4 . The melt dissolves in diluted acetic acid; this yellow solution changes its colour to
blue on the addition of hydrogen peroxide. The blue colour caused by chromium peroxide is
very unstable, it quickly changes to green by the formation of trivalent chromium compounds.

The wet part of both tests can be carried out also on a micro scale. To do this, the melt is
moistened with a drop of distilled water. The liquid is soaked after some seconds by the end
of a strip cut from white filter paper. One or two drops of diluted acetic acid are placed at the
rim of the soaked solution. In the test for chromium then add a drop of hydrogen peroxide or a
solution of sodium perborate.

Both tests are rather sensitive, already a content of 0.2% of Cr or Mn of the tested matter is
sufficient for a distinct coloration of the oxidizing melt.

The ammonium hypophosphite fusion

NH4 H2 PO2 , ammonium hypophosphite contains phosphorus in a positive monovalent state.

On fusion it decomposes at a low temperature (∼ 200°C) to a mixture of ortho phosphoric and
meta phosphoric acid by the simultaneous formation of phosphine PH3 , hydrogen and
ammonia. Phosphine is a very strong reducing agent. Phosphoric acids decompose all
silicates, carbonates and most oxides, except quartz. The melting with ammonium
hypophosphite is a reducing fusion. For this reason it is useless to apply this assay for
minerals of the sulphide group!

You must proceed with great caution when using this reaction. The evolved phosphine is
extremely poisonous, it is self-inflammable and burns with flames of up to 5 cm length to a
white smoke of phosphorous pentoxide, which again is seriously toxic on aspiration. Never do
such fusion in a room, unless a well-ventilated fume cupboard is available! The reaction may
be done in the open air if a secure ventilation by a low wind is guaranteed.

A pinch of the well-powdered mineral is mixed with half a teaspoon of the ammonium
hypophosphite and placed in a clay dish or porcelain dish. Place the dish on a piece of
charcoal or on glasswool. Heating is done by directing the flame of a butane torch towards the
side of the vessel. The flame may be taken away till the burning of the melt stops. Finally the
melt is heated again till a clear melt is formed. Sometimes a little precipitate is formed.
 30

If the hot melt is blue, but changes its colour to a pale pink on cooling cobalt is present.

If the melt stays blue on cooling, put some drops of water on the cool melt:
- A violet colour indicates tungsten.
- A pale pink colour which turns to orange-red on the addition of hydrogen peroxide or
sodium perborate solution indicates titanium.

Vanadium causes a reddish hot melt, it changes its colour on cooling to yellow and then to
green. A small amount of water placed on the top of the cool melt becomes pale green, on
addition of hydrogen peroxide the colour changes to a pale pink.

Green melts are caused by uranium or chromium: add some water, separate the green
solution by transferring to a test tube and add ammonium carbonate and hydrogen peroxide.
A yellow-orange colour indicates uranium, but the green colour is lasting if only chromium is
present.

A reddish-brown colour of the melt indicates molybdenum, but this test does not work for
molybdenite MoS2 !

A colourless melt with a white precipitate may contain Nb, columbium. Add some
concentrated hydrochloric acid and some pieces of tin foil and heat again. The formation of a
blue colour is a proof for Nb.

The ammonium hypophosphite fusion test is not really a classical test, since it was
introduced only in 1941 by American scientists. - Many pitfalls may arise in using it, since
any easily reducible element may cause a dark colour, masking the above-mentioned colours.
So arsenic, silver or tellurium cause a black colour, while black melts with a brown rim may
occur in the presence of copper, bismuth or antimony. Yellow-brown melts are formed by
minerals containing tin, lead or selenium.

Some tests for anion forming elements

The Hepar reaction for sulphur:

Mix the finely powdered mineral with sodium carbonate and melt the mixture on charcoal.
Any sulphur content, even the sulphate ion, is changed by this procedure at least partly to
sodium sulphide. Now remove the melt from the charcoal by means of a knife and place the
material with a drop of water on a clean silver surface. A black stain of silver sulphide is
readily formed. It should be noted that the rare elements Te and Se also produce black
staining. - To remove any stains on the silver, the surface should be cleaned by scouring with
toothpaste.

Test for sulphides:

Put a small amount of the mineral in a test tube, add a piece of pure zinc and add 3 ml
concentrated hydrochloric acid. On warming the mixture, hydrogen sulphide evolves; a white
filter paper strip soaked with lead acetate solution turns black if it is placed on the open end of
the test tube. This test works also for sulphides which are insoluble in HCl. As, Se and Te
may also cause a coloration. Ensure good ventilation, hydrogen sulphide is very poisonous! -
It is possible to prepare the lead acetate paper and to store it after drying in any air-tight vessel till use.
Before use it should be moistened again.
 31

Test for phosphorus by reduction with metallic magnesium:

A small glass tube of 8 to 10 cm length is intensively heated at one end till the flame turns
yellow, now the walls of the heated end are tweezed together by means of stainless steel
forceps. Cool this closed end slowly by waving it to the flame and back, eventually by setting
it down on charcoal. After complete cooling to room temperature place a piece of magnesium
ribbon about 20 mm long into the tube next to the closed end, add a minute amount of the
finely powdered mineral and tap the tube so as to bring the mineral powder as much as
possible in contact with the magnesium metal. The mineral powder should be heated before to
a low red glow on a magnesia furrow. Hold the tube with a clothes peg (spring-type) at the
open end in a nearly horizontal position and heat the portion with the magnesium ribbon and
mineral till the Mg ribbon is ignited. The use of goggles is recommended! Crack off the end
of the hot tube by dipping it into water. The disagreeable odour of phosphine PH3 , somewhat
like the odour of garlic, is clear evidence for the presence of phosphorus in the mineral. The
burning Mg reduces any phosphates and Mg3 P2 is formed, this compound reacts with water to
PH3 . Ensure good ventilation!

Test for fluorine:

The finely powdered mineral is mixed with 5 parts of sodium metaphosphate, transferred to
a new test tube and some drops of water are added. Cotton wool is used to close loosely the
open end of the test tube. On melting and prolonged heating hydrofluoric acid will be given
off; it etches the glass. Some silicon tetrafluoride thus formed is decomposed by water vapour
and forms a white tarnish of silica in the upper part. Etching and tarnish are best seen after the
tube has been cooled and rinsed with water. The test tube should be discarded after use. This
test is applicable only if fluorine is a main constituent. No clear results are achieved for very
low F contents sometimes found in amphiboles and some micas.

Test for boron:

The mineral powder is mixed with some drops of concentrated sulfuric acid or some
ammonium hydrogen sulphate and approx. 4 ml methanol in a test tube. On gentle heating the
volatile trimethylester of boric acid is formed, this compound burns with a green colour if the
methanol vapor is ignited. The test can also be made in a potter's clay dish. If no methanol is
available it is possible to use ethanol instead. - This test is applicable only to minerals which
are decomposed by sulfuric acid. Any hard minerals may be silicates, they should first be
melted with the same amount of sodium carbonate on charcoal. The resulting bead is ground
and melted with potassium hydrogen sulphate. This melt is wetted with some drops of water;
dry carefully before adding H2 SO4 and CH3 OH, followed by heating and ignition.

Test for silicon:

Approximately 0.4 g of the mineral powder is mixed with a quarter of this amount of
calcium fluoride and placed in a plastic tube like that used for tablets in pharmaceutic use.
One millilitre of concentrated sulfuric acid is added and the tube is closed with the plastic lid,
in which a hole has previously been made by means of a hot nail. It is possible to use a sheet
of lead with an appropriate hole instead of the plastic lid. The hole is covered with a wet black
cotton fabric kept wet by placing some wet cotton wool on the lid. Now heat the lower part of
the plastic tube gently by dipping it into hot water for 10 minutes. Any SiF 4, evolved in the
reaction of CaF2 + H2 SO4 + silicate, is decomposed by the water according to the formula:
3 SiF 4 + 2 H2 O = SiO 2 + 2 H2 SiF 6 . After opening the lid the black fabric should have turned
white in the presence of any silicate in the tested mineral.
 32

Treatment with cobalt nitrate

This test was applied in the 19th century for the identification of infusible and light-coloured
pure oxides. Cobalt nitrate is converted to a black oxide on heating. But characteristic colours
of mixed oxides are formed by strong heating, if an extremely finely powdered white metal
oxide is wetted with the appropriate amount of cobalt nitrate solution. The reaction between
the cobalt oxide and the tested metal oxide is a solid state reaction. It occurs readily only at
high temperatures, and with extremely finely powdered metal oxides! Such fine powders are
for instance sublimates on charcoal or precipitates yielded by wet processes. Ambiguous
results are achieved by the application of the test to mixtures of oxides! Actually the method
was only used to identify ZnO, Al2 O3 or MgO.

Two types of a non-volatile white sublimate may occur on heating of the assayed matter on
charcoal. Such sublimate is moistened with a 10% cobalt nitrate solution at the rim of the
sublimate and again intensively heated. ZnO exhibits a clear green colour, it is best seen when
cold. This mixed oxide is called Rinmann`s green. If the sublimate is SnO 2, only a bluish-
green is achieved. Only careless workers apply this test to sublimates made up from Sb2 O3,
since this compound is volatile on further heating. Unfortunately Sb2 O3 also forms a dirty
green colour on glowing with cobalt solution.

Carbonates can be transformed to oxides by intensively heating on charcoal, afterwards they

may be treated with cobalt nitrate followed by glowing. Only MgO develops a colour in the
pink to flesh-colour range, but SrO and CaO become gray.

The deep blue colour of the oxide CoAl2 O4 resulting on glowing aluminium oxide with
cobalt nitrate solution has sometimes been used as an artificial pigment. It is called Thenard`s
blue. Its formation is a good test for Al, but it should be made only with the precipitate of
aluminium hydroxide obtained by wet analysis. It was called Thenard`s bluff, instead of
Thenard`s blue, by generations of students of chemistry who were frustated by their careless
work. Namely, amorphous silica, zinc silicate or finely powdered quartz melts with CoO to a
blue glass, which may be mistaken for Thenard`s blue.

Just to illustrate the many pitfalls of the method described, some colours achieved by other light
oxides are added here: violet may be caused by zirconium oxide or by the phosphate, borate or
arsenate of magnesia; titanium oxide produces a green with a yellow tinge, and barium oxide exhibits
a reddish brown.

The charcoal-soda stick

Most of the methods described were used in the early 20th century by students of chemistry
as preliminary tests in inorganic analysis. A Bunsen burner could be used as a heat source for
nearly all tests, but there was one exception. For heating on charcoal a small hot flame is
needed. Since no butane torch was available at that time, the use of a blowpipe was inevitable.
Many students ran into difficulties when using that device, so they invented a surrogate. For
the charcoal-soda stick a toothpick is dipped in molten natron. Don't use matches: they are
impregnated with sodium phosphate. Natron has the formula Na2 CO3 10 H2 O, it melts at 32°C
by decomposing into a saturated solution of sodium carbonate and Na2 CO3 H2 O. Now the
front end of the stick is held into the oxidizing Bunsen flame till the wood is converted to
charcoal soaked with sodium carbonate. If any glowing is observed after taking the stick out
of the flame it should be immediately dipped into molten natron. The powdered mineral is
mixed with two parts of molten natron, brought to the tip of the prepared stick, and is now
 33

heated in the reducing part of a Bunsen burner flame till complete melting occurs. The stick is
quickly removed from the flame and the front end is ground with some water in a mortar. Any
remaining charcoal is carefully washed away, and this elutriation isolates any metal beads or
metallic flakes. The use of a good lens is recommended. Iron, nickel or cobalt form magnetic
flakes, they can be isolated by a magnet covered with a thin plastic foil. After being
transferred to a piece of filter paper they are dissolved in diluted hydrochloric acid. Fe causes
a brown, Ni a green, but Co a pink solution. Easily reducible metals like Pb, Sn, Bi, Sb and
Ag form small globules, but Cu shows red flakes or a red spongy mass. - However, heating on
charcoal is by far superior to the charcoal-soda stick, because it allows the observation of
sublimates, as well as the typical flame colours.

Heating with sodium thiosulphate

Most metal oxides are converted to metal sulphides by melting with Na2 S2 O3 10 H2O,
sodium thiosulphate. This method was used occasionally only in the 19th century, because
many sulphides have a different colour from the appropriate oxides.

The 1:1 mixture is heated together with a small amount of oxalic acid in a closed tube or a
test tube in a slanted, nearly horizontal position in order to avoid the rinsing back of water.
Sometimes sublimates occur. - The following colours may be observed.

White: Zn / Red: Sb / Yellow: As or Cd / Green: Mn or Cr / Brown: Sn or Mo

Black sulphides are formed by the elements: Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Pb, Bi, Hg, Ag, U, and Au.

Spot tests and the use of the wet separation process

It is possible to determine the main constituents of many minerals by the classical tests
described, but there are also some exceptions. For instance there is no simple and conclusive
test for aluminium, magnesium, zirconium, and beryllium, especially in silicates. Sometimes
there is an interest in minor or trace amounts of Ag, Au, As, U, or other elements in minerals
or in mineral aggregates, in this case some of the classical methods may fail due to their low
sensitivity.

Many elements form typical colours with dye-stuffs and the sensitivity of such reactions is
high enough to identify even trace amounts. But most of the used dyestuffs react with more
than one element and the reacting ion must be present in an aqueous solution. Therefore the
mineral must be dissolved in an acid; acid-insoluble minerals must be decomposed
beforehand by an appropriate fusion process. In most cases, disturbing ions have to be
removed by one or more subsequent precipitation processes, or the disturbing ion must be
masked by a special reagent. Fortunately you need only very small volumes. Usually it is
sufficient to add one drop of the dye solution to one drop of the solution to be tested for the
element. Generally the typical colour change is best seen if the drops are combined on a white
filter paper placed on glass or plastic. Such spot tests may be carried out also on spot plates or
on a white glazed porcelain shard, but often the sensitivity is enhanced on filter paper due to
capillary phenomena. The sensitivity may be enhanced again at a factor of two to ten by using
dry filter paper impregnated with the dye or a special reactant.

Test sticks are now available for many cations and anions showing semi-quantitative results
by the coloration of different zones; they are the result of the further development of this
technique during the last fifty years. Such test sticks are used predominantly in water analysis
 34

and environment control, but they are too expensive for occasional use in mineral
determination.

Some tests require the use of strong acid or basic solutions which cause the decay or the
swelling of any paper. Such reactions may be carried out in small test tubes, because looking
along the axis of the tube the deepness of the coloration does not depend on the dilution of the
solution. A high sensitivity is achieved sometimes by the fluorescence caused by ultraviolet
radiation.

The following text presents selected fusion processes for the different mineral groups and
selected tests for different elements.

The choice of fusion processes

As already stressed, the first step in identifying a mineral is an accurate ocular inspection of
the matter in order to determine colour, lustre, streak colour, hardness, cleavage, magnetic
properties, and morphology, like re-entrant angles and other hints to twinning. A rough hint to
higher density is only possible for bigger lumps and for densities in the range of 4 or higher. It
is strongly recommended to note all observations throughout the whole determination
procedure. - The system of mineralogy arranges the minerals in groups, depending on their
chemical composition and structure. The type of fusion has to be chosen with respect to the
chemical composition of the mineral, so it is very important first to gain information about the
kind of mineral group.

Some authors have published systematic tables for identifying mineral species by means of
their physical properties and by simple chemical experiments. Only few people have used
such tables more than once. There are several reasons for this. You have to follow strictly the
path given by the scheme, but any erroneous estimation will lead to inconsistent results.
Moreover any scheme will fail if two intergrown minerals are tested. A quicker result may be
achieved by any somewhat experienced collector or geoscientist using a trial-and-error
method. - Some hints are given here how to operate in this way.

Presumption of sulphide minerals

Minerals may belong to the sulphide group if they show a distinctive streak colour as well
as a colour. (There are only two rare and unimportant exceptions among the more than 300 members
of the sulphide group.) Such minerals should be tested using the classical tests in the open and
closed tube and by heating on charcoal. If S, or As, or both are detected, the mineral is most
probably a member of the sulphide group. (In rare cases arsenates, arsenites, sulphates, selenites or
tellurites may be present.) The mineral can be dissolved by fusion in a test tube with a mixture
of ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride. Add some drops of dilute hydrochloric acid to
arrive at a solution for further wet processing.

Dissolution in hydrochloric acid

Try to dissolve the mineral in hot hydrochloric acid, but act carefully with only tiny
amounts if the mineral is black and produces a black streak colour. All oxides containing
tetravalent manganese dissolve in hydrochloric acid, generating chlorine gas! The odour of
this poisonous gas is pungent and a piece of wet iodide-starch paper becomes blue when held
atop the open end of the tube. The formation of chlorine is avoided if oxalic acid is added to
the hydrochloric acid. Also all iron oxides dissolve slowly in such a hot mixture of oxalic acid
and hydrochloric acid, even magnetite. This method can be used to remove coatings of iron or
manganese oxides from acid-insoluble minerals like quartz.
 35

Any intensive effervescence of a mineral on dissolution points to carbonates, a test for

carbon dioxide can be made by a drop of barium or calcium hydroxide solution on a glass rod.

A turbid solution, a flocculent precipitate or the formation of a jelly points to acid soluble
silicates. Boil the solution for some time till a white or yellowish precipitate is formed.
Sometimes it is necessary to heat carefully till complete dryness; add concentrated HCl after
cooling and boil again. Dilute with distilled water before filtration. Now isolate the precipitate
by filtration and washing with water. Any silica precipitate is soluble in a hot NaOH solution.

If a clear solution is obtained without effervescence and without the formation of hydrogen
sulphide the mineral may belong to the following groups: phosphates or oxides/hydroxides or
sulphates or chlorides/fluorides or borates or arsenites/arsenates or selenites/tellurites.
Any white precipitate at least partly soluble on heating and crystallizing in tiny needles on
cooling is presumably lead chloride; use a lens.

⇒ Tests should be made for P by flame coloration and by ignition with magnesium ribbon.
With a few exceptions phosphates show a hardness lower than 6.

⇒ Sulphates are detected by the formation of a white precipitate of BaSO4 on the addition of
BaCl2 solution. The Hepar test may give further corroboration, especially for acid insoluble
minerals. Hardness lower than 4.

⇒ Heat the mineral in a test tube with potassium or ammonium hydrogen sulphate. Any
chlorides give HCl, a white smoke of NH4 Cl is produced if a drop of ammonium hydroxide
solution is held next to the open end of the tube by means of a glass rod or filter paper.

⇒ Test for fluorine by heating with sodium metaphosphate in a new tube, as already
described.

⇒ Borates may be identified by the aforementioned tests for boron.

⇒ Test for As, Se or Te by the three classical methods: open and closed tubes, heating on
charcoal.

The mineral may belong to the oxide/hydroxide group if none of the aforementioned tests
gives a positive result. By a strong and prolonged heating on charcoal hydroxides are
converted to oxides at temperatures above 900°C. Test for any change with respect to colour,
hardness and appearance after the glow process of a tiny fragment. But you have to bear in
mind that many silicates and some oxides may also change their properties on strong heating!
Some oxides may be reduced or partly reduced by glowing on charcoal. If there is any
likelihood of this, you may gain further information by melting a mixture of the ground
mineral with soda on charcoal.

Presumption of silicates
Most silicates show a hardness between 5 and 8, but there are many exceptions for
phyllosilicates, especially clay minerals. Silicates show mostly a vitreous lustre, the streak
colour is normally white, even dark-coloured species produce only grey or brownish streaks.
Many neo-, soro-, and phyllo-silicates and all zeolites are decomposed by hydrochloric acid.
The cold solution sometimes forms a jelly, sometimes flocculent silica is precipitated. How to
proceed in such cases was already described above. - Because many silicates are not soluble
 36

in hydrochloric acid, they have to be decomposed by a fusion process. There are several
possibilities:

- Melting of the mineral powder with the same amount of soda or a mixture of soda and
potassium carbonate on charcoal. No complete fusion may be achieved for silicates containing
zirconium, beryllium, or much aluminium or magnesium. Do not use too much soda, in such
cases the sodium silicate is soaked up by the charcoal and the non-reducible metal oxides like
magnesium or aluminium oxide form an infusible residue.

- One part of the mineral powder is mixed with one part of soda and one part of borax; this
mixture is melted on charcoal.

Both fusion processes may lead to the reduction of reducible elements and therefore metallic
beads, or flakes and sublimates may occur. - The soda or soda/borax beads have to be
crushed and ground before dissolution in hydrochloric acid.

- Any reduction can be avoided by dissolving the silicate in molten NaOH (Fp = 322°C) or,
better, in a mixture of NaOH and KOH (Fp = 170°C). Unfortunately these melts are soaked
up by charcoal and all easily available vessel materials except silver are attacked. However,
you can melt the mineral powder with two flakes of both alkali hydroxides on a teaspoon
made from stainless steel. Such a melt is contaminated with iron, chromium, and nickel. Work
cautiously since the melt is aggressive to almost everything, use goggles, and wait till the melt
is solidified and completely cooled before adding any water! The addition of water to the hot
melt can spill the corrosive liquid due to the sudden evaporation of the water! Place the cold
spoon with the melt in a small beaker and add some distilled water. After solution some
brown floccules of iron hydroxide remain, add hydrochloric acid till an acidic reaction is
assured by pH-paper. In most cases gelatinization occurs or floccules of silica are formed.
Boil the diluted solution in a test tube till the silica settles on cooling. The filtrate can be used
for further tests, but not for the identification of iron, chromium and nickel, since they are a
contamination caused by the use of the stainless steel spoon in flux melting.

Fusion with potassium hydrogen sulphate

Acid-insoluble oxide minerals may be melted after intensive grinding with potassium
hydrogen sulphate (1 : 8 ) in a test tube for some minutes (Fp ≅ 300°C). Turn the test tube in a
slanted position during the cooling of the melt; in this way you reach a larger surface of the
melt. Dissolve the cold melt in water. Check carefully whether the mineral has dissolved
completely. If the oxide contains any Nb, Ta, W, Sn or Zr, the white oxides of these elements
remain undissolved; only the tungsten oxide is yellow. Such insoluble residue should be
filtered and washed with dilute HCl. If ZrO 2 is present, also some TiO 2 may remain, but
some Ti and all other dissolved elements will be found in the solution. - Tests for the elements
Nb, W, Sn, and Zr in the filtered residue are described in the chapter on special tests for
selected elements.

A survey of fusion melts is given on the following page.

- Carbonate melts convert all bivalent metals into carbonates; while aluminium, titanium,
silicon and phosphates are converted to water soluble compounds: alkali aluminate NaAlO 2 ,
sodium titanate Na4 TiO 4 , sodium silicate, alkali phosphate.

- Adding KNO3 to carbonate melts cause oxidizing conditions; Cr and Mn are converted to
water soluble chromate K2 CrO 4 and manganate K2 MnO4 , respectively.
 37

- Adding potassium oxalate K2 C2 O4 to a melt causes reducing conditions; the formation of

chromate is prevented. This may be important, if a stainless steel teaspoon is used as the
vessel.

- The same as for carbonate melts holds true for alkali hydroxide melts, of course no
carbonates are formed, but hydroxides and oxides of bivalent metals. Al, P, Pb, Si, Ti, V, W,
and Zn compounds are converted to water soluble compounds.

- Borate glass melts dissolve most minerals, with the exception of sulphides. The crushed
glass can be dissolved in HCl.

- The same is true for phosphate melts, but the silica is not dissolved in most cases.

- Acid sulphate melts converts oxides and phosphates into sulphates and alkali phosphates. W,
Sn, Nb, Ta, and Zr remain as oxides, acid insoluble silicates are not attacked.

- The fusion with a mixture of ammonium chloride and ammonium nitrate is a neat substitute
for aqua regia, a mixture of concentrated HCl and HNO3 . It decomposes all minerals of the
sulphide group, as well as acid soluble silicates and some oxides. The solid mixture is easier
to store and to transport than the aggressive liquids.

A survey of fusion melts

Composition Melting point Vessel Fusion type

Na2 CO3 854°C charcoal, Pt carbonate
K2 CO3 901°C charcoal, Pt carbonate
Na2 CO3 /K2 CO3 710°C charcoal, Pt carbonate
Na2 CO3 /KNO3 400°C magnesia furrow, carbonate, oxidizing
Pt, porcelain
Na2 CO3 /K2 C2 O8 710°C stainless steel, carbonate, reducing
charcoal
Na2 B4 O7 borax 742°C charcoal, Pt, borate glass
magnesia rod
borax/soda ≈ 960°C charcoal, Pt,magnesia borate glass
NaPO3 628°C magnesia rod, Pt phosphate glass
NaOH 322°C stainless steel, Ag alkali hydroxide
NaOH/KOH 170°C stainless steel, Ag alkali hydroxide
KOH 404°C stainless steel, Ag alkali hydroxide
KHSO4 210°C glass, Pt, porcelain acid, sulphate
K2 S2 O7 ≈ 300°C glass, Pt, porcelain acid, sulphate
NH4 HSO4 147°C glass, Pt, porcelain acid, sulphate
NH4 Cl/NH4 NO3 ≈ 142°C glass, porcelain acid, chloride/nitrate
(oxidizing)
 38

Some hints about filtration

Most wet analysis requires the separation of a solution and a precipitate or a remaining
solid phase. In modern laboratories this is achieved by means of centrifugation, but good
centrifuges are expensive. Moreover, such device can scarcely be used in the field. Therefore
you have to rely on the old filtration method. Normally you have to fold the filter paper first
to a half circle, and then again to a quarter circle. Now the cone is opened, one layer on one
side, three layers on the other side. The cone is placed in the filter funnel and completely
wetted with distilled water, any surplus of water in the cone is discarded. The use of filter
paper with 55 mm diameter and a funnel with a top diameter of 35 mm is recommended. Use
a moderately fine textured filter paper. For a quantitative analysis washing of the filter residue
is neccessary and the washing liquid dilutes the filtrate. Since all quick assays are qualitative
analysis it is mostly possible to proceed in a more simple way.

1. If you need only the filtrate you may proceed in the usual way; after obtaining enough
filtrate, discard the filter paper with the precipitate. Sometimes spot tests require only a filter
paper soaked with the filtrate. In such cases you place atop the test tube a piece of filter paper
larger than the open end and upon that the test paper. Now press a big rubber stopper against
this double layer and turn the test tube upside down. Thus both papers are soaked. -
In some cases it is possible to place a drop of the fusion slurry on filter paper, now turn the
paper and place a drop of the reagent solution on the wetted spot.

2. If only the precipitate is needed you may proceed in the usual way, discarding the filtrate
and the washing liquid. For further handling the precipitate can be scratched from the filter
cone by means of a spatula, or the cone is punctured and the precipitate washed down into a
test tube. - Sometimes it is neccessary to gain the insoluble remains of a fusion melt, but the
water soluble part is of no interest. No funnel is needed, place the crushed melt in the
depression of a spot test plate, a clay dish or a watch glass. Treat with water, stir, and remove
the washing water by soaking with filter paper, a paper towel, or kitchen paper. Repeat this
operation at least four times. The soaking paper should be discarded.

3. If the filtrate as well as the precipitate is needed, you must proceed in the usual way, but the
washing liquid should be discarded.

Remember quick assays work with small amounts, thus usually only small volumes of liquid
are used; normally no more than 1 - 5 ml are to be filtrated.
 39

II Special part
In the following text some information is given about identification tests for the different
elements. For most elements some remarks are added on the abundance and the distribution of
the element within the geological cycle. Such information will be useful to anyone interested
in minerals, since 99.3% of the crustal rocks are composed of only 12 chemical elements,
namely O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg, Ti, H, P, and Mn. The abundance of all other elements
ranges within the order of some hundreds of ppm down to 0.001 ppb for the rarest elements.
Remember one ppm = 10-6 applies to a gram per ton and one ppb = 10-9 means a milligram
per ton. - The elements are arranged in the alphabetical order of their element symbols.

Ag silver

Silver is a rare element, it makes up only 0.1 ppm of the earth's crust. It is concentrated in
hydrothermal veins, where it forms some of its own minerals such as proustite Ag3 AsS3 and
pyrargyrite Ag3 SbS3 . But the main amount of silver is incorporated in galenite PbS.

Any silver content of a mineral enters the metallic bead formed on melting the mineral with
soda on charcoal. It is recommended to transfer this bead to a clay dish and to melt it with
borax with the oxidizing flame, if there is any likelihood that silver is present. Only silver and
other noble metals like gold, platinum, and palladium will remain bead-shaped under such
conditions.

The following procedure may be used to detect trace amounts of silver in galenite,
sphalerite or fahlore. 1 - 2 g of the finely powdered mineral is dissolved in 2 ml of
concentrated nitric acid in a small porcelain crucible, a beaker or a test tube and the solution is
boiled till a dry state is achieved. After complete cooling add 10 ml of water and some drops
of nitric acid and boil again. Transfer this solution to a test tube. Put a piece of filter paper on
top and upon that a dry piece of filter paper prepared with the saturated solution of 5-(4-
dimethylaminobenzyliden)-rhodanine in acetone. Now press a rubber stopper larger than the
open end of the tube against this arrangement and turn the test tube till both papers are wetted.
A red colour of the test paper indicates the presence of Ag, Cu, Hg, Au, Pt, or Pd. If the
colour is caused by Cu or Hg it will vanish on the addition of some drops of diluted HCl.

Al aluminium

Aluminium is one of the eight main elements of the earth's crust. Unfortunately there is no
quick and simple assay for the detection of Al, especially in silicates. The following wet
procedure may be used if necessary.

A pinch of the powdered mineral and a pinch of potassium oxalate are melted with two
flakes of NaOH on a stainless steel teaspoon. Only after complete cooling the spoon with the
solid melt is placed in a plastic beaker. Add 5 ml water and warm gently for 5 minutes. This
alkaline solution is filtrated using a plastic funnel. The filtrate should be dropped into a test
tube with 5 ml of diluted HCl. The acid solution is boiled till a dry state is reached. Add 5 ml
of water and a drop of diluted HCl. Put a piece of filter paper on the top of the test tube and
upon that a dry paper which was previously freshly impregnated with a solution containing
0.1% of the ammonium salt of aurintricarboxylic acid and 1% of ammonium carbonate. Now
press a rubber stopper larger than the open end of the test tube against the paper and turn the
test tube till both papers are wetted. Remove the upper paper and hold it for a time over an
open bottle containing ammonia solution. The presence of Al is indicated by the formation of
a red colour, which is best visible on the dried paper.
 40

Another possibility is to place a drop of the above-mentioned filtrate of the alkaline

solution on a spot test plate or a watch glass. Further, add a drop of a 0.1% solution of sodium
alizarin sulfonate in water. Acetic acid is now added dropwise until the violet colour
disappears, and then a further drop of acetic acid. A flocculent red precipitate appears in the
presence of Al. A blank test should give no colour or only a faint pink. The blank test is
necessary since NaOH may contain traces of Al.

As arsenic

The arsenic content of the earth's crust is only 2 ppm. As may be present in sulphide
minerals and in some gossan minerals. Any considerable content in sulphide minerals is easily
detected by melting with soda on charcoal and by heating in an open tube. In gossan minerals
arsenic mostly exists in the pentavalent state, thus no reaction is found by the open tube
reaction. But it is detected in a closed tube if the mineral powder is mixed with soda and
charcoal powder before heating.

To detect even very small amounts of arsenic in minerals, the dissolved mineral is mixed
with conc. HCl and tin chloride. On heating this mixture renders a black precipitate of As.

Since arsenic is a very poisonous element, tests are sometimes needed for even trace
amounts in different matter. Such sensitive tests mostly use the formation of the volatile
arsine AsH3 by the action of nascent hydrogen. In acid solutions antimony interferes due to
the formation of volatile SbH3 . This is avoided by the reduction in alkaline solution.
Arsenates do not react, they have to be reduced beforehand to the trivalent state by the
addition of hydroxylamin sulphate or with tin chloride in a strong acid hydrochloric solution:
Place 3ml of water in a normal test tube, add a flake of potassium hydroxide and some pure
aluminium turnings or some crumpled pieces of aluminium foil. Loosely plug the tube with
cotton wool and then place a piece of filter paper moistened with a 20% silver nitrate solution
on the top of the tube. Warm the tube gently to produce a regular evolution of hydrogen. After
2 to 5 minutes remove the filter paper and examine the paper that covered the tube for any
coloration. Trace amounts of As in the reagents used may cause a faint brownish colour. Only
now remove the cotton wool plug, add 1 ml of the test solution and replace the cotton wool
plug with a new piece of the silver nitrate paper. Again produce hydrogen by gentle warming
for the same time, then remove the paper and compare the two spots. The second spot will
appear black if much arsenic is present. The black colour is due to metallic silver which is
formed according to the formula AsH3 + 6 Ag+ = As3+ + 6 Ag
If only small amounts of arsenic are present the spot sometimes shows a yellow colour
which is caused by the complex Ag3 As 3AgNO3 . - Only trivalent arsenic reacts, arsenates
should be reduced beforehand! - Ensure good ventilation since arsine AsH3 is very poisonous!

Au gold

Gold is well known to everybody, though it is one of the rarest elements of the earth's crust
with a content of only 5 ppb. It occurs as a trace amount in the lattice of some sulphide
minerals, especially in pyrite and chalcopyrite. Native gold is also found in small quantities in
crystalline schists and in granitic rocks, mostly associated with quartz. It collects in the sands
and gravels which have resulted from the disintegration of rocks and mountain masses that
have contained gold. Placer deposits formed in this way gave rise to the famous gold rushes in
the 19th century. Owing to its weak chemical affinity gold does not form very stable
compounds in nature, only some rare tellurides are known as gold bearing minerals. Placer
gold sometimes contains some silver and traces of copper and iron.
 41

Any sulphide ore may be dissolved by the fusion of a pinch of the powdered mineral with a
surplus of the mixture of one part ammonium chloride with 2.5 parts of ammonium nitrate.
The cooled melt is dissolved in some drops of hydrochloric acid. A drop of this solution is
brought to a filter paper and a drop of a solution of SnCl2 is added. A red colour indicates the
presence of gold.

Another procedure may be used in testing for gold in panning residues. Transfer the wet
heavies into a glass jar or beaker and decant the water. Now add two pinches of calcium
hypochlorite and 3 ml of hydrochloric acid and cover the vessel with a watchglass. Ensure
good ventilation, since chlorine evolves due to the reaction HOCl + HCl = Cl2 + H2 O. The
chlorine dissolves the native gold and soluble HAuCl4 is formed. Wait for 10 minutes, add 10
ml of diluted HCl and shake cautiously. Now transfer some of the solution to a test tube and
boil till no odour of chlorine remains. Some drops of a solution of SnCl2 are now added to the
cooled solution. The presence of gold is indicated by a purple colour due to a colloidal
solution of gold, called " purple of Cassius“. If there is only a tiny amount of gold the colour
shows sometimes a bluish purple. Please refrain from weeping for joy in case of a positive
reaction: this reaction is extremely sensitive. Already the 1/1000 part of a milligram of gold
per millilitre causes a red colour.
If no calcium hypochlorite is available it is possible to use chloride of lime CaOCl2 instead.
The use of sodium hypochlorite solution is also possible. Such a solution is sold in some
countries by pharmacies as "eau de javelle“ for bleaching and disinfection. - Gold can be
dissolved also in bromine water. - Add a surplus of solid sodium thiosulphate to any
remaining solution in order to destroy any free chlorine or bromine!

B boron

The mean value for boron in the earth's crust is 3 ppm. In igneous and metamorphic rocks
boron is mainly concentrated in the mineral tourmaline and in low amounts in micas. Silicates
may be proved for boron by mixing the mineral powder thoroughly with three parts each of
ammonium hydrogen sulphate and fluorite. The mixture is heated on a magnesia furrow with
the oxidizing flame of a butane torch. The hydrofluoric acid liberated by the mixture attacks
the mineral, forming volatile boron trifluoride BF 3 . This compound gives a green flame
coloration, which is usually of only momentary duration.

A test with turmeric paper may be used to screen water soluble or acid soluble minerals for
any boron content. Turmeric paper is moistened with a dilute hydrochloric acid solution of the
mineral, and then dried at 100°C on the outside of a test tube containing boiling water. In the
presence of boron the paper assumes a reddish-brown colour, and this is changed to inky-
black by moistening with ammonia. The test is only disturbed by ferric compounds, Ti, and
Mo which cause a brown colour already in acid solution, but these elements are usually absent
in minerals which are soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. However, the brown colour
produced by these compounds, unlike that due to boric acid, does not change to bluish black
on the addition of alkali.

Ba barium and Sr strontium

Both alkaline earth elements are quite common in crustal rocks with 400 ppm Ba and 460
ppm Sr. They are similar in their chemical behaviour, but most barium compounds are less
soluble. The barium or strontium content of a mineral has to be converted to carbonate for an
assay. This is done by the fusion of a 1:1 mixture with soda on charcoal or on a magnesia
 42

furrow. Dark minerals should be fused with potassium carbonate instead of soda. The
resulting bead or residue is treated with hot water in a clay dish or the depression of a spot test
plate. The water is soaked off with filter paper. This procedure is repeated twice, the residue
contains any barium or strontium as carbonate.

To test the flame coloration this residue is dissolved with some drops of hydrochloric acid
and the solution is brought to the flame by a platinum wire loop. Strontium chloride is more
volatile than the barium compound. Sr produce a crimson colour, barium causes a yellowish
green. It is not possible to detect minor amounts of Ba in this way, since the flame coloration
can be seen only if at least 15 mg Ba are present per millilitre. The use of a spectroscope is
recommended; Ba shows green lines at 524.2 nm and 513.7 nm, together with other green and
red lines; Sr shows many red lines, an orange line at 604.5 nm and a blue one at 460.8 nm.

In order to detect such minor amounts of barium the fusion residue is dissolved in hot
acetic acid in a small test tube. Now add some solid sodium acetate and some drops of a
concentrated potassium dichromate solution. A yellow precipitate of BaCrO 4 is formed if Ba
is present. The hot mixture is filtrated into another test tube and some drops of a saturated
solution of ammonium sulphate are added to the clear solution. The presence of Sr is
indicated if any white precipitate of SrSO4 is produced or a distinct turbidity is seen by
looking into the tube in the axial direction.

Be beryllium (French: glucinium)

With 2 ppm in the earth's crust Be is one of the rarer elements. Beryl is the main occurring
mineral, but many other minerals, especially silicates containing Be are known. - Any soluble
Be-compounds are poisonous, they are formed by fusion reactions.

The finely powdered mineral is mixed with the same amount of soda and transferred to
charcoal. Moisten with one drop of water and melt the mixture. This melt is well ground and
treated with a flake of NaOH and 3 ml water in a test tube for some minutes without heating.
Add some drops of a freshly prepared solution of quinalizarin to the filtered solution. The
violet colour changes to blue if Be or Mg is present. If only Mg is present this blue vanishes
on the addition of bromine water. - To prepare the quinalizarin solution please touch some
solid quinalizarin with a clean spatula, hold it vertical and dissolve the tiny amount adhering
to the spatula in ammonia solution. - The bromine water is prepared in the following way.
Dissolve a pinhead of potassium bromide KBr and a pinhead of potassium bromate KBrO 3 in
some drops of water in a normal test tube, add some drops of hydrochloric acid and close the
tube by a cork stopper soaked with molten paraffin. Bromine is evolved by the reaction:
BrO 3 - + 5 Br- + 6 H+ ⇒ 3 H2 O + 3 Br2 Now add some water and a spatula of solid sodium
acetate. This preparation should be done only in a fume-cupboard or in open air if a good
ventilation is ensured! To destroy any bromine add a spatula of sodium thiosulphate to the
solution before discarding it.

Grains or small fragments of beryl can be identified without fusion. They should be etched
with hot NaOH solution in a test tube, washed with water, followed by boiling with an
aqueous solution of quinalizarin. The surface of beryl achieves an intense blue colour.

Bi bismuth

With a value of only 0.2 ppm in the earth's crust bismuth is a rare element, but it is
concentrated in sulphide ores and their oxidation products.
 43

Any considerable amount of Bi produces a white to yellow zoned sublimate on charcoal by

heating with an oxidizing flame. Only high amounts cause a brittle, reddish white bead on
heating with soda. A 1:1 mixture of sulphur and potassium iodide is placed on the sublimate
and ignited, followed by a short repeated application of the oxidizing flame. The sublimate
changes its colour to red due to the formation of bismuth iodide. Any yellow sublimate
occurring during this treatment points to the simultaneous presence of lead.

Br bromine

Bromine is only found in salt minerals or brines. Seawater contains approximately 65 ppm.
Br is sometimes considerably enriched in salt lakes like the Dead Sea which contains 3 %. For
a sensitive test, place some crystals of potassium permanganate and a small crystal of copper
sulphate in a small beaker or on a spot test plate and add two drops of the slightly acidified
solution to be tested. Warm this arrangement without boiling. Free bromine is liberated and
will blue wetted iodide-starch paper placed atop the vessel. The test fails if more than traces
of iodide are present.

C carbon

Carbonates are dissolved by hot diluted HCl in a test tube, calcite and aragonite already
dissolve in the cold acid. To detect the CO2 evolved by effervescence hold a glass rod with a
drop of a saturated solution of Ba(OH)2 or Ca(OH)2 over the tube. A white colour of the drop
indicates CO2 . The colour is best seen if the end of the glass rod is coloured black or red by
coating with sealing wax. The CO3 -content of some members of the scapolite series may not
be detected by this method.

Any organic matter is destroyed by heating to a mild red glow with access to air, graphite
needs a somewhat higher temperature and diamond is oxidized only at temperatures beyond
800° C. Carborundum SiC may be found sometimes in placer mineral concentrates after a
century of intense industrial use of this mineral. It is not oxidized by oxygen even at high
temperatures; but it is readily decomposed by the fusion with KOH on a stainless steel spoon
with access to air:
SiC + 4 KOH + 2 O2 ⇒ K2 SiO 3 + K2CO3 + 2 H2 O

Ca calcium

The presence of Ca in acid soluble minerals like zeolites or phosphates can be identified by
the following procedure. Place a small grain on a microscopic slide and wet it with a drop of
30% sulphuric acid. Now place a cover glass upon the grain. By means of a microscope or a
good lens it is possible to observe the slow precipitation of gypsum; needles, twinned crystals
and sometimes well shaped crystals are formed. In most cases the grain resembles the shape
of a sea urchin after some time.

Minerals which are insoluble in acids should be fused after grinding with soda 1:1 on
charcoal. The residue is treated with hot water in a clay dish or on a spot plate. The liquid is
soaked with filter paper. Treating with water and soaking off the dissolved matter is repeated
twice. The remaining carbonate is dissolved with some drops of diluted HCl. If neither Sr or
Ba is present, this solution imparts a yellowish-red colour to the flame if it is brought to it by
a platinum wire loop or a magnesia rod. The use of a spectrometer is recommended: Ca
produces a red line at 622 nm and a green one at 533 nm, both lines in an equal distant to the
 44

yellow sodium line if a prism spectrometer is used. - For a wet identification NH4 OH is added
to the solution of the carbonate in HCl. After filtration a part of the solution is tested for Ba
and Sr by the addition of ammonium sulphate. If no precipitate occurs calcium oxalate is
precipitated in the hot solution by the addition of ammonium oxalate. If Ba or Sr is present it
is thrown down by the addition of some solid ammonium sulphate, now boil the solution and
filtrate after some minutes. Again precipitate Ca as the oxalate in this filtrate. Mn, Co, and the
rare earth interfere since they may produce a precipitate under these conditions as well. But
the presence of Ca can be assured by dissolving the filtrated oxalate in HCl and looking for
the flame coloration.

Cd cadmium

Cadmium is a rare element with an average content of 0.2 ppm in the earth crust. The main
amount of Cd is isomorphically incorporated in zinc ores; e.g. sphalerite often contains 1 to
0.1 % Cd. Nevertheless pure cadmium ores sometimes occur especially in veins of low
hydrothermally formed deposits.

Since Cd is more volatile than Zn any zinc ore should be treated first only shortly with a
reducing flame on charcoal. In this way it is possible to detect even trace amounts of Cd by
the typical darkbrown to yellow changing sublimate and the peacock-like iridescence of the
outer part of the sublimate. Try the first assay with a small fragment only, and try again with a
mixture of soda and charcoal powder if no clear result is achieved.

Ce cerium, the rare earth elements, and Th thorium.

Scandium, yttrium, lanthanium, and the 14 elements following lanthanium are known as
the rare earth elements (REE). Only these 14 elements with the atomic numbers 58 to 71 are
called lanthanides. All REE are very similar in their chemical properties and hence difficult to
separate from each other. They are all trivalent, only cerium can achieve a tetravalent state. It
should be mentioned that europium and samarium may enter the divalent state only under
strongly reducing conditions, while praseodymium oxide enters the tetravalent state if it is
glowed in the presence of air. Thorium is the first element of the actinide group. Its chemical
behavior is very similar to the REE, though Th only occurs in the tetravalent state. The name
REE is somewhat misleading: the average amount of cerium in the earth's crust is similar to
copper (45 ppm), even the less abundant heavy lanthanides each reach about 1 ppm. However,
a considerable part of the overall amount of the rare earth elements is incorporated as mixed
crystal ions in some main rock-forming minerals such as micas, feldspars, and pyroxenes. -
The REE and thorium also form special minerals, but these minerals are mostly disseminated
as fine grains in plutonic rocks. Therefore useful mineral deposits are only found in
pegmatites or as placer minerals.

Two subgroups are divided, the cerium group with mainly Ce, La, Nd, Pr with the minerals
monazite CePO4 , allanite which is a member of the epidote group (sometimes called by the
old name orthite), cerite is a Ce,Ca-silicate, fergusonite, samarskite and pyrochlore are oxides
containing niobium, tantalum, and titanium; while bastnaesite and parisite are fluorine-
containing carbonates.

The yttrium group comprising Y and the heavier lanthanides are found especially in the
minerals xenotime YPO4 , gadolinite which is a silicate containing Fe and Be, and in some
oxides together with Nb, Ta, Ti, Fe, like euxenite and yttrotantalite. Many of these minerals
also contain some Th or U. Any such trace amounts of Th and U are unfavourable because of
 45

radiation safety conditions in plant processing. Florencite CeAl3 (OH)6 (PO4 )2 and other REE
bearing minerals of the crandallite group are mainly associated with the weathering horizon of
carbonatites. - Scandium is concentrated in Thortveitite (Sc,Y)2 Si2 O7 , a pegmatitic mineral
and in bazzite, a Sc-analogue of Beryl.

All rare earth elements and Th form oxalates which are insoluble in weak mineral acids if
no alkali ions are present. In this way REE and Th can be separated and identified using the
wet method. The following procedures may be used to obtain a solution appropriate for the
oxalate precipitation. Finely powdered specimens should always be used.

Carbonates/fluorides are heated with some drops of concentrated sulphuric acid till the
formation of white vapours of sulphuric acid ceases. The test tube or clay dish used is
somewhat etched by the formation of HF, but this does not matter. A drop of diluted HCl is
added to the cooled substance, which is now dissolved in approximately 8 ml of distilled
water.

Phosphates are mixed with five parts of dry sodium carbonate and melted in a clay dish.
The dish with this melt is transferred to a small beaker and boiled with 10 ml of water for
some minutes. The residue is isolated by filtration and washed twice with hot water. The
filtrate is discarded, it contains sodium phosphate and the surplus of sodium carbonate. The
residue is dissolved in 2 ml of diluted HCl.

Silicates can be dissolved in a mixture of conc. HCl and conc. HNO3 in a test tube.
Evaporate to a nearly dry state, add some drops of HCl and gain a clear solution by filtration.
Already glowed silicates and bazzite are insoluble in aqua regia, they may be handled like
phosphates.

The clear solutions achieved in one of the ways described above can be used for oxalate
precipitation, any turbid solutions should be filtrated beforehand. Now dilute this solution
with twice the volume of distilled water and add some solid oxalic acid. Mix thoroughly and
heat for some minutes without boiling. All rare earth elements and Th are precipitated as
white oxalates, which should be isolated by filtration.

Oxides like yttrotantalite and pyrochlore are mixed with eight parts of KHSO4 and melted on
a clay dish or on a magnesia furrow. The melt is dissolved in approx. 10 ml of cold water plus
some drops of diluted HCl. Ammonia solution is now added till the well stirred solution gives
a basic reaction. The precipitate is isolated by filtration and washed twice with water. A
suspension of this precipitate is treated with a warm oxalic acid solution till only a white
heavy precipitate of the REE oxalates remain.

Special tests for different REE elements:

- A part of the oxalates is carefully heated on a magnesia furrow to a low red glow. If more
than 1% of Pr is present, a more or less brown colour is obtained. Pure CeO 2 has a yellowish
tinge, but most REE oxides are white.

- Another part of the oxalate precipitate is dissolved in some drops of concentrated nitric acid.
The solution is yellow only in the presence of Ce. This yellow colour vanishes on the addition
of hydrogen peroxide. Now add some solid ammonium acetate and heat the solution. The
formation of a brown suspension indicates the presence of cerium.
 46

- Being radioactive, thorium may be detected using a Geiger counter if available. If not, some
drops of potassium iodate solution are added to a part of the hydrochloric solution used for the
precipitation of the oxalates. A white precipitate of Th(JO 3 )4 points to the presence of Th.

- A content of La can be detected in the following way. Part of the oxalate precipitate is
glowed on a magnesia furrow and then boiled with diluted acetic acid in a test tube. After
filtration add some drops of a solution of iodine in potassium iodide solution. Now add
ammonium hydroxide dropwise till the colour is only faintly brown. The presence of
lanthanum is indicated by the formation of a blue solution or a blue precipitate on heating.

Some lanthanide elements show strong absorption bands in the visible range. These are the
elements neodymium, praseodymium, samarium, europium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium,
and thulium. If a solution of these elements is held before the slit of a spectroscope directed
towards a strong light, dark bands may be seen interrupting the continuous spectrum. The
clear fusion solution may be used for this purpose. A small, cellphone-sized, portable
spectroscope adapted for such inspection is still on sale at a price of approx. 360 €. Prominent
absorption bands are located about the middle of the green, and on the border between yellow
and red.

For some decades now, there has been an increasingly brisk demand for many rare earth
elements owing to a multitude of technical applications. Most spectacular was the rise of the
price of gadolinium during the 1980s, due to its extreme neutron capture ability.

Cl chlorine

Seawater contains 1.9% chlorine. Only few rock forming minerals show Cl as a lattice
element, like scapolite, sodalite or apatite; but fluid inclusions are mostly filled with chloride
brines. Chlorine is often a member of minerals of the exogenic cycle. There are three rather
sensitive tests for Cl.- Take care to avoid any contamination with sweat!

- The fine ground mineral is mixed with the third part of copper oxide, wetted with distilled
water to produce a slurry and now spread on charcoal. Blow gently with a fanning flame to
dry the mixture, then heat the dry mixture as high as possible and watch the flame colour.
Disregard any green colour, only an azure-blue colour indicates the presence of Cl!

- The mineral powder is fused with KHSO4 in a small test tube. The escaping HCl is
indicated by the white fume of NH4 Cl which is formed in the vicinity of a drop of ammonia
solution held atop. A folded strip of filter paper may be placed on the rim of the test tube and
wetted with the ammonia solution.

- The mineral powder is mixed with some pyrolusite and heated with some drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid in a test tube. Free chlorine is thus formed and a wetted iodine
starch paper placed atop will change to blue.

Chlorargyrite AgCl produces a positive result only with the first test. - Any bromides or
iodides, with the exception of AgBr and AgI, produce a mixture of the free element and SO2
on fusion with KHSO4 .
 47

Co cobalt

With a content of 23 ppm in the earth's crust cobalt is a common element which is mainly
found in sulphide ores. - Make a bead of NaPO3 on a magnesia rod. Take up some of the
roasted mineral powder by the hot bead and glow intensively with the oxizing flame. The
presence of cobalt is indicated by a smalt-blue colour, this colour changes towards violet if
Mn or large amounts of Fe and Ni are present.

Another assay can be made on a spot test plate. A pinhead of the mineral powder is
dissolved in nitric acid in a depression and dried. Approximately the same amount of solid
NH4 SCN ammonium thiocyanate and sodium thiosulphate is added and intensively rubbed
with a glass rod. If Co is present a blue colour evolves; any Ni present will produce a greenish
tinge. If a drop of distilled water is added, the colour vanishes, but returns on warming the
mixture.

Cr chromium

The chromium content of 200 ppm in the earth's crust marks Cr as a very common
element. It is largely removed from a magma in the early stage of crystallization as chromite
FeCr2 O4 , which is the main mined mineral. A considerable number of other Cr-bearing
minerals are known, many of them show a peculiar green or red to pink colour. In minerals
chromium is normally trivalent, it enters the hexavalent state only at high temperatures in an
alkaline environment and in the presence of oxygen. Such natural conditions - for instance,
burning bituminous limestones - are quite rare; therefore minerals containing the chromate ion
CrO 42- are also rare.

Mostly Cr is changed to yellow sodium chromate Na2 CrO 4 by the fusion of Cr bearing
minerals with a mixture of soda and potassium nitrate on a magnesia furrow or a magnesia
rod. The reaction was described already in the general part. If manganese is also present the
melt is green. In such rare cases the melt is dissolved in a small beaker in a few millilitres of
distilled water by boiling. Now acetic acid is added till the solution is acid and boiling is
repeated. Wait till any precipitate has settled and pour the clear solution into a clay dish. Put a
pinhead-sized crystal of lead acetate in this solution and stir with a small glass rod. Yellow
lead chromate settles at the bottom. The precipitate is isolated by decanting the solution and
washing once with water. By melting with sodium metaphosphate or microcosmic salt a green
colour is achieved.

Some silicates and oxides do not react with the molten soda-nitre mixture. Such minerals
are melted beforehand with a surplus of a 1:1 mixture of soda + borax on charcoal. The
powdered bead is molten with the same amount of nitre KNO3 . - Spinel and pyrope coloured
red by their Cr content turn opaque black on heating; during cooling the colour changes via
yellowish green back to red. The same is true for silicates with a red colour due to the
presence of Cr + Fe. Do not try this test with any valuable minerals or gems, the specimen
may crack or stay opaque!

Cs cesium and Rb rubidium

The amount of both alkali metals in the earth's crust is 1 ppm for Cs and 120 ppm for Rb.
Due to its large ionic radius Cs is concentrated in pegmatites where the rare mineral pollucite
(Cs,Na)2 Al2 Si4 O12 H2O is sometimes found. The considerable amount of Rb enters the
 48

position of the K+ ion in feldspars and micas, in pegmatites, thus the ratio Rb/K is somewhat
increased, but no minerals with Rb as a main constituent are formed.

Both elements have to be identified by their flame emission spectra using a spectroscope: a
red line at 789 nm and a violet one at 421.5 nm indicates Rb; Cs shows a blue line at 458 nm.

Cu copper

Nearly all copper minerals can be dissolved by melting with a mixture 1:2.5 of ammonium
chloride and ammonium nitrate on a magnesia furrow. This melt is dissolved in a rather
concentrated solution of ammonium carbonate, a deep blue colour indicates the presence of
copper. Even small amounts are detected in this way if the solution is transferred to a small
test tube; by looking in the axial direction from top to bottom the colour perception is
independent of the height of the solution column. Identification is impaired by the presence of
Ni, because Ni also causes a light-blue coloured solution with ammonium carbonate. To avoid
any uncertainty some of the blue solution is brought to an acid reaction by acetic acid, and a
solution of potassium ferrocyanide K4 Fe(CN)6 is added. A brown precipitate indicates the
presence of copper. Zinc ferrocyanide paper may be used instead.

It should be mentioned that many secondary copper minerals are soluble in ammonium
carbonate solution, e.g. malachite, azurite, all basic sulphates, phosphates, chlorides, and the
copper silicates chrysokolla and dioptase. The dissolution rate of Cu-silicates is enhanced by
the addition of ammonia solution.

F fluorine

Fluorine is a very common element with 700 ppm in the earth's crust. In igneous rocks
considerable amounts of F enter the position of OH ions, especially in micas, amphiboles and
in apatite. Fluorite is an ubiquitous mineral in hydrothermal veins.

A test for fluorine by heating with sodium phosphate was already described in the general
part. - For another test, place 1 ml concentrated sulphuric acid in a new test tube, add some
minute crystals of potassium chromate or potassium dichromate. On boiling, the mixture runs
evenly over the glass surface. Only now a few grains of the mineral are added. On rotating the
tube, an uneven flow of the sulphuric acid, with formation of unmoistened areas, indicates the
presence of fluorine. Silicic and boric acid strongly diminish the sensitivity of the test. - The
test tube can be further used for any other test after rinsing with plenty of water, but not for
this test for F! Firstly pour off the cooled acid into plenty of water, then rinse the test tube!

Fe iron

Sulphides are molten with a 1 : 2.5 mixture of ammonium chloride and ammonium nitrate,
oxides are molten with potassium hydrogen sulphate, but silicates have to be fused with the
same amount of soda on charcoal. Any residue of the soda melt is dissolved in HCl, the other
fusion melts are dissolved in water, and two drops of nitric acid are added. On the addition of
potassium ferrocyanide K4 Fe(CN)6 a blue precipitate is formed. - The test is impaired by
fluoride ions, but sulphide minerals do not contain fluorine and any fusion with potassium
hydrogen sulphate expels the HF. Therefore disturbance is only likely to occur if F-containing
silicates are tested for Fe, e.g. amphiboles. In such rare cases the residue of the soda melt may
be fused with potassium hydrogen sulphate before dissolution in water.
 49

In minerals iron may enter the bivalent state called ferrous iron, as well as the trivalent state
called ferric iron. If both ions Fe2+ and Fe3+ are present in the same lattice of an oxide or a
silicate, the crystal assumes a dark to black colour; such minerals are called mafic minerals,
e.g. biotite, magnetite, augite, and many amphiboles. The presence of ferrous iron in a mineral
can be detected in the following way. Mix the finely powdered mineral with three times its
volume with dry sodium tetraborate Na2 B4 O7 in a large closed glass tube and fuse the
mixture. While hot, crack the glass containing the fusion by touching it with drops of water,
break off the end, and transfer to a test tube containing 3 ml concentrated HCl. Boil for about
a minute, then dilute with 5 ml water. Divide the solution into two parts and test one for
ferrous iron with a solution of the red salt of potassium ferricyanide K3 Fe(CN)6 . A blue
precipitate of Turnbulls blue is decisive for Fe2+. The other part may be tested for Fe3+ with a
solution of the yellow salt of potassium ferrocyanide K4 Fe(CN)6 ; this blue precipitate is called
Prussian blue.- The tests are very decisive, any oxidation resulting from contact with air
during the fusion and the dissolution, which cannot be wholly avoided, are so trifling that
practically they may be disregarded.

Hg mercury

The mercury content of the earth's crust is 0.5 ppm, the native element and HgS cinnabarite
is found in hydrothermal deposits of very low temperature origin. Small amounts of Hg are
incorporated in some sulphides containing Sb and As.

Any considerable Hg content can be detected by heating the mineral powder with six parts
potassium oxalate in a closed tube. Metallic mercury is deposited at the cold parts, use a lens
for observation. The sensitivity of this test is considerably enhanced if you put a tiny piece of
gold foil adhering to an iron wire in the upper part of the closed tube. The yellow colour of
the gold is turned white by any mercury vapour formed during the heating.

To detect even traces of Hg the mineral is fused with an 1 : 2.5 mixture of ammonium
chloride and ammonium nitrate and this melt is dissolved with a small amount of water.
Disregard any white precipitate. Now a small piece of aluminium foil is rubbed partly with a
fine abrasive paper, washed with distilled water and etched with concentrated NaOH on a
watchglass until a uniform evolution of hydrogen occurs at the roughened place. After rinsing
with water and rubbing with a piece of cotton wool moistened slightly with very diluted
NaOH, the foil is dried. A drop of the test solution is placed on the prepared aluminium foil,
after 5 minutes the liquid is taken up with filter paper. After some minutes, a white growth of
aluminum hydroxide appears on the foil if mercury is present.

I iodine

Seawater contains 0.05 ppm iodine, higher amounts are sometimes found in salt lakes and
brines. Small amounts may occur in volcanic exhalations. NaIO 3 sodium iodate and NaIO 4
sodium periodate were reported from the sodium nitrate deposits of the Atacama Desert in
Chile. Considerable amounts of iodine compounds are incorporated into organisms.-

A pinch of starch is mixed with cold water, this suspension is poured into 200 ml boiling
water. Soak filter paper with the cooled solution and dry it. Such prepared paper is treated in
succession with single drops of diluted acetic acid, test solution, and diluted solution of
potassium nitrite. A blue spot or ring shows the presence of iodine, due to the reaction:
2 HI + 2 HNO2 = I2 + 2 NO + 2 H2O
 50

K potassium

Acid soluble minerals are brought to the flame as a slurry with concentrated hydrochloric
acid with the magnesia rod or the platinum wire loop. Use a cobalt glass. A violet flame
indicates K, but any Li impairs the detection.

Acid insoluble silicates are mixed with the same amount of CaF2 and a drop of
concentrated sulphuric acid, this slurry is taken up with the Pt wire loop. The use of a
spectroscope is recommended, a double red line at 766 nm and 770 nm indicates K.

For a wet method the mineral is mixed with the same amounts of soda and borax, and
molten to a clear bead on charcoal or a platinum wire loop. This bead is dissolved in a small
amount of diluted HCl. A drop of the clear solution or the filtrate is placed on a microscopic
slide and treated with a minute amount of solid sodium cobaltinitrite Na3 Co(NO2 )6 . A yellow
precipitate or a turbidity indicates the presence of potassium. Unfortunately, much lithium
may also produce a precipitate!

Li lithium

With a 30 ppm content in the earth's crust lithium is not a rare element. Due to its small
ionic radius Li is only partly incorporated in the lattice of rock forming minerals where it
enters the lattice position otherwise filled by magnesium. Remaining amounts in the magma
form individual minerals like lepidolite, spodumene, amblygonite, and petalite in some
pegmatites.

Lithium chloride is the most volatile of all alkali and earth alkali chlorides. The immediate
formation of a carmine red colour on the border of the flame is characteristic for the presence
of lithium. If sodium is present the flame should be observed through a cobalt glass.
Phosphates can be wetted with concentrated HCl and then tested for the flame coloration, in
such cases the pale blue-green colour typical for phosphoric acid is observed simultaneously.

Acid insoluble silicates should be tested after mixing with calcium fluoride and
concentrated sulphuric acid. - It is another possibility to mix the mineral powder with BaCl2
and to melt this mixture on a platinum wire loop, the red colour of Li will appear only at the
tip of the flame. - Normally the use of a spectroscope is not necessary; Li causes a red line at
670.8 nm.

Mg magnesium

Admittedly, the identification of low amounts of Mg in minerals by means of a quick assay

is a difficult task. A lot of elements disturb almost any test, these elements have to be
separated by precipitation at first. Nevertheless there are two reactions which might fit at least
for some frequent Mg-minerals.

- Diphenylcarbazide is a dyestuff which gives a deep red-violet coloration to magnesium

hydroxide. Many other elements also react with the reagent, therefore the reaction is done as a
staining reaction on the solid sample. Only more or less white minerals can be used, e.g.
carbonates, oxides, phosphates. An alcoholic solution of diphenylcarbazide is prepared: three
pinches of diphenylcarbazide are dissolved in 5 ml ethanol and 1 ml of water and a flake of
NaOH is added. The solution can be stored in a plastic bottle for some weeks. Two drops each
 51

of this solution are placed in two depressions of a spot test plate. Now the test plate is slightly
warmed and a pin-head sized sample is placed in each depression. One of the mineral
specimens has previously been heated to a red glow while held by a forceps. After 5 minutes
the solution is soaked away with filter paper and replaced by hot water, and this method of
washing is continued till no more colouring matter goes into the water. Magnesite and slightly
soluble minerals like brucite are stained red-violet. Dolomite and other carbonates bearing
considerable Mg are stained only if they have been preheated.

- White silicates like chrysotile and talc are mixed with sodium carbonate and potassium
carbonate and fused on a platinum wire loop. The bead is dissolved in hydrochloric acid on a
spot plate or a clay dish and a drop of NaOH is added. Now add a drop of the following
solution: a tiny amount of p-nitrobenzeneazo-α-naphtol is dissolved in 10 ml water together
with 3 flakes KOH. A blue precipitate or colour, compared with a blank, indicates
magnesium. Bear in mind that aluminium and iron seriously interfere with this test.

A somewhat laborious method can be used for mafic minerals. Acid soluble minerals are
dissolved in concentrated HCl; acid insoluble minerals are molten with a flake each of NaOH
and KOH on a stainless steel spoon. Only after complete cooling the solid melt is dissolved
with as little water as possible, any remnants sticking to the spoon are dissolved with nitric
acid. All liquids are combined and 1 ml conc. HCl and a drop of diluted sulphuric acid are
added. Now add a pinch of solid ammonium chloride and ammonia solution till a basic
reaction is assured. Dissolve half a pinch each of solid sodium sulphide and ammonium
carbonate in this solution and boil it. From the hot filtrate of this mixture Mg is precipitated
by adding some drops of an ammonia solution and a hot solution of NH4 NaHPO4
(microcosmic salt). A crystalline, quick settling precipitate of struvite NH4 MgPO4 x6H2 O
indicates magnesium. The precipitate is insoluble in conc. NH4 OH and should not be coloured
brown by the addition of hydrogen peroxide.

Mn manganese

With 1% of the earth's crust manganese is a very common element. In igneous rocks Mn2+
mostly replaces ferrous iron. Under surface conditions it enters quickly the tri- and tetravalent
charge and insoluble oxides are formed.

The mineral powder is mixed with 4 parts of soda and 1 part of KNO3 . Melt this mixture on
a clay dish. A green to blue-green colour indicates Mn; the test is very sensitive, there is no
disturbance by Cr, which turns to chromate by this oxidation melt. Add some water and pour
the green liquid into a small test tube. On acidifying with acetic acid the solution turns violet
due to the formation of permanganate, simultaneously brown flocculi of MnO 2 settle. After
some time the violet colour ceases and the brown precipitation increases. If any Cr is present,
the remaining liquid shows a yellow colour.

Black manganese oxides are easily dissolved by sulphurous acid H2 SO3 . The black streak
of such oxides on a streak plate is wetted with a drop of HCl and a very small crystal of
sodium thiosulphate is added. The black streak vanishes almost immediately.
 52

Mo molybdenum

Molybdenum is a rare element, the average amount in the earth's crust being 1 ppm. The
most frequent molydenum-containing mineral is molydenite MoS2 , it is easily identified by its
low hardness, its high lustre and the colour. A flake held to the oxidizing flame imparts a
yellow-green colour to it. Molydenite dissolves in hot concentrated nitric acid; it is also
possible to dissolve it by melting with a mixture of ammonium chloride with ammonium
nitrate.

Other Mo-minerals like molybdates may be dissolved in the same way. For further
identification a drop of the test solution and a drop of ammonium thiocyanate solution are
placed on filter paper previously moistened with dilute hydrochloric acid. Only in the
presence of iron does a red fleck appear which disappears on adding two drops of stannous
chloride solution. In its place a brick-red colour of the Mo(III)-thiocyanate complex appears,
if Mo is present. The stannous chloride solution is prepared by dissolving a pinch of SnCl2 in
1 ml concentrated HCl and adding 2 ml water.

Na sodium

The yellow flame coloration of sodium is extremely sensitive, only a longlasting intense
yellow flame colour indicates a reasonable amount of Na. - Acid insoluble silicates are mixed
with CaF2 and a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid or ammonium hydrogen sulphate for the
flame test.

Nb niobium, also called columbium, and Ta tantalum

The average amounts in the earth's crust are 24 ppm Nb and 2 ppm Ta. Both elements are
almost invariably associated, because they are isomorphous with one another, and their
chemical behaviour is very similar. However, the Nb/Ta ratio may vary in a wide range in
different deposits. They are found in granite pegmatites constituting the acid-forming
elements in some oxides, like columbite, fergusonite, samarskite, and euxenite. Pyrochlore is
often associated with carbonatites. All these minerals have a hardness of ≅ 6, the streak colour
is brown to black. Other lattice elements are Fe, Mn, Ti, and very often Y, Sn, U, and Th.
Moreover, niobium is occasionally found in some silicate minerals in nepheline syenites, e.g.
eudialyte.- Ores containing columbite/tantalite are sometimes called “coltan” in Africa.

Oxides are fused with 8 parts of potassium hydrogen sulphate in a test tube. When the
decomposition is complete, as shown by the disappearance of black particles, the tube is
inclined and turned while cooling, causing the melt to solidify as a thin crust on its sides. In
this way it is more readily dissolved on subsequent treatment with cold water, which requires
considerable time. The white residue of niobic and tantalic oxides is collected on a filter and
washed with diluted HCl, followed by washing with water and finally with ammonia solution.
A portion of this residue is boiled in a test tube with conc. HCl and granulated tin, a blue
colour indicates Nb. If much Nb is present the blue colour remains if water is added, if the
colour fades, only traces of Nb are present. In such cases the mineral may contain mainly Ta.
- Some textbooks call the fading of the blue on the addition of water a test for Ta; in fact it is
not possible to reduce Ta oxide in this way. But indeed minerals containing Ta mostly also
have some traces of Nb. -

Silicates must be fused with the fivefold amount of borax on a magnesia rod. Make two or
three beads and, with a hammer blow, crush the beads together with the broken tips of the
 53

magnesia rods, wrapped in paper. This powder is dissolved with 2 ml concentrated HCl in a
test tube till the solution is nearly clear; of course the magnesia rod pieces will remain. If Nb
is present, a blue colour will appear on the addition of tin to the boiling solution. If Ti is
present as well as Nb, the colour turns violet first and later blue.

White Nb2 O5 can be converted quickly into the dark brown Nb2 O3 with a reducing flame.
This change in colour is best observed if a water suspension of the filter residue is dried on
the margin of a magnesia furrow and then heated strongly. The flame is then directed on the
mass in such fashion that the inner, reducing cone impinges on the solid. The darkening is
easily seen with even small particles; it disappears completely or at least partially when the
flame is taken away because contact with the air brings about reoxidation.

Ni nickel

80 ppm Ni in the earth's crust mark nickel as a common element. The divalent element is
concentrated in orthomagmatically formed sulphide ores such as pentlandite and pyrrhotite as
well as in hydrothermal veins where Ni is often associated with arsenic and cobalt. Some
amount is incorporated by silicates like olivine. On weathering Ni-silicates such as garnierite
are formed.

Fuse the mineral with a mixture 1 : 2.5 of ammonium chloride and ammonium nitrate in a
small test tube, after cooling add some ammonia solution. Disregard any white turbidity or a
brown precipitate. A drop of this solution is placed on a dry strip of filter paper impregnated
with an alcoholic solution of dimethylglyoxime. The paper is then immersed in a bath of
dilute ammonia, and kept in gentle motion. A red fleck indicates the presence of Ni. In the
presence of much Mn the paper turns brown, in this case the test is repeated using ammonium
carbonate as the bath liquid. - Use a slightly warmed, saturated solution of dimethylglyoxime
in acetone or a 1% solution in alcohol to impregnate the paper.

P phosphorus

When heated with the oxidizing flame many phosphates impart a pale bluish-green colour
to the flame, while others show the reaction only if moistened with concentrated sulphuric
acid or ammonium hydrogen sulphate solution and then heated. The colour is not very marked
and may be masked by other elements which produce a flame colour.

The test already described by the reduction with metallic magnesium is rather sensitive; the
mineral powder used for this test should first be heated to a low red glow on a magnesia
furrow. This expels any water and OH content that might impair reduction.

For a wet indication dissolve a pinhead-sized amount of the mineral in a test tube by
melting with ammonium hydrogen sulphate. After cooling add some distilled water. Now
prepare a solution of a pinhead-sized ammonium molybdate in 5 ml diluted nitric acid and add
some drops of the test solution at room temperature. A yellow precipitate indicates the
presence of phosphoric acid, it usually takes some minutes to form the precipitate! If arsenates
are present they will form a yellow precipitate if the solution is warmed! Silicic acid produces
a yellow colour.
 54

Pb lead

The earth's crust contains 15 ppm Pb. Lead minerals are mainly found in hydrothermal
veins where galena PbS is an ubiquitous mineral. A lot of other lead minerals are formed in
the oxidation zone of hydrothermal deposits. Lead is divalent in minerals with the exception
of plattnerite PbO2 .

If Pb is a main constituent, it is easily detected by heating a 1 : 1 mixture of the mineral

with soda on charcoal, an addition of charcoal powder or potassium oxalate is recommended.

For a wet indication dissolve a tiny amount of the mineral in diluted nitric acid or melt it
with a mixture of ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride on a magnesia furrow. Add a
tiny amount of KJ potassium iodide to the solution or the moistened melt. The yellow colour
of PbJ2 indicates lead. - Cerussite PbCO3 is coloured yellow if it is wetted first with a
saturated solution of oxalic acid and then, after a minute, with potassium iodide solution.

If a piece of pyromorphite Pb5 Cl(PO4 )3 is heated on charcoal it melts easily, on cooling it

crystallizes to a facetted sphere. The name of the mineral is due to this effect. Mostly the
charcoal assumes a thin white coating of PbCl2 .

Pt platinum and the platinum group elements

Ruthenium Ru, rhodium Rh, and palladium Pd, are called the light platinum elements,
while osmium Os, iridium Ir, and platinum Pt are the heavy platinum elements. They are very
rare with a content of 0.01 ppm Pd, 0.005 ppm Pt, and only 0.001 ppm each for the other
elements of this group in the earth's crust. The elements are mainly disseminated in
orthomagmatic basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks as elements, only Pt occurs sometimes as
sperrylite PtAs2 . Mineable deposits are preferably alluvial placer deposits.

Platinum and palladium are readily dissolved by a mixture of concentrated HNO3 + HCl,
but there is no attack by any acid for rhodium, iridium and alloys with much osmium +
iridium. - Ru and Os are dissolved by a melt of KOH and KNO3 forming green and violet
compounds, respectively. Rhodium is dissolved slowly by potassium pyrosulphate at a red
glow only.

Chloride solutions of platinum form yellow crystals of (NH4 )2 PtCl6 on the addition of
NH4 Cl. On microscopic observation the crystals show the morphology of octahedra. The test
is not very sensitive, since the solubility of the precipitate is 1:100.

Platinum salts, like those of gold, palladium and osmium, in acid solution, are reduced to
the metal by stannous chloride. This can be used for a screening test: a drop of the solution is
placed on filter paper and a drop of stannous chloride SnCl2 in strong hydrochloric acid is
placed upon it. Any stain indicates the presence of the above mentioned noble metals, only As
and Sb may produce a stain, too. If the result is positive, you may proceed in the following
way.

For a sensitive Pt-test the solution is made basic with ammonia and some oxalic acid is
added. On gentle warming any gold salts are reduced to the metal. Now combine a clear drop
of this solution with a drop of potassium iodide; a brown-red colour indicates the presence of
platinum.
 55

For a sensitive test for palladium, filter paper is bathed in a cold saturated alcohol solution
of dimethylglyoxime. After drying, the paper is placed in a concentrated solution of a nickel
salt that has been made barely ammoniacal; red nickel dimethylglyoxime precipitates. After
thorough washing with water, the paper is bathed briefly in alcohol and dried. Now add some
solid sodium acetate to the test solution and place a drop of it on the red paper. After gentle
drying bathe the red paper in dilute HCl until the surface surrounding the drop position
becomes white. Then wash the paper in cold water. A pink to red spot remains, depending on
the quantity of palladium present. - Palladium and palladium alloys produce a brown-black
stain if a drop of an alcoholic solution of iodine is placed on the metal surface and allowed to
evaporate in the air. The staining withstands washing with alcohol, the stain disappears on
heating to redness. No stain is given by platinum, but any silver in the alloy may produce a
yellow stain which is readily dissolved by a concentrated solution of sodium thiosulphate.

S sulphur

At least part of any sulphur in a mineral is converted to sodium sulphide by melting a

mixture of the mineral powder with soda on charcoal. Add some charcoal powder if sulphates
are tested. The bead is treated with two drops of water on a clean sheet of silver. A black stain
of silver sulphide indicates the presence of sulphur, but Se and Te may give the same result. -
Place a drop of the dissolved bead on filter paper and add a drop of a diluted solution of
Na4 Fe(CN)5 NO sodium nitroprusside. A violet colour indicates the presence of sulphur, Se
and Te do not interfere.

Acid soluble exogenic sulphate minerals are dissolved in HCl, the solution is filtrated and
BaCl2 solution is added. A white precipitate sometimes only forms after the inner wall of the
test tube has been rubbed with a glass rod; it indicates the presence of the sulphate ion SO4 2-.
Barite and celestine should be molten with a surplus of soda on a stainless steel teaspoon, this
melt is dissolved in water. After filtration this solution is acid ified with HCl and then again
barium chloride solution is added. - On melting the following reaction has occurred: BaSO4 +
Na2 CO3 = Na2 SO4 + BaCO3 .

- Yellow native sulphur is easily detected by touching with the flame, a brown melt is formed
which burns to SO2 with its typical pungent odour.

The presence of acid insoluble sulphide minerals may be detected in the following way.
Some mineral powder is mixed with diluted HCl in a test tube. Add a piece of zinc and warm
gently. A small amount of hydrogen sulphide H2 S is formed together with the hydrogen. This
is detected by the blackening of a wet lead acetate paper held atop.

Sb antimony

Antimony is a rare element with a 0.2 ppm content in the earth's crust. It is mostly
concentrated in hydrothermal veins of low temperature origin, often as stibnite Sb2 S3 .

Most antimony compounds, when heated on charcoal in the oxidizing flame, yield a dense
white sublimate of Sb2 O3 . It is deposited quite near to the heated part and it is volatile. This
sublimate may be deposited on a cover glass placed on the charcoal at an appropriate place.
This cover glass plus sublimate can be used for the following tests:
 56

- Dissolve the white sublimate by a drop of diluted HCl and place this drop on a clean sheet
of silver. Add a piece of granulated tin to the liquid, a black spot of metallic Sb forms on the
silver.

- The white sublimate turns to red by heating with solid sodium thiosulphate in a test tube.
Use a broken piece of the cover glass and a small amount of the sodium thiosulphate. Put
cotton wool into the upper part of the test tube and heat in a nearly horizontal inclination, a lot
of water is given off at first.

Many sulphantimonites produce a characteristic sublimate of the oxysulphide of antimony

Sb2 S2 O only on a rather intense heat in a closed tube. It appears black when hot, but changes
on cooling to a reddish-brown.

Se selenium

The amount of selenium in the earth's crust is only 0.09 ppm. Selenium occurs mostly
together with sulphides in hydrothermal veins, selenites and selenates within the oxidation
zone are extremely rare.

When a substance containing selenium is heated on charcoal, a curious odour can be

observed resembling rotten radishes. This rather sensitive test was first described by
Berzelius.

For a wet test dissolve the mineral with a minute amount of nitric acid, add 1 ml
concentrated HCl and boil. Now solve a pinhead-sized crystal of potassium iodide KJ on a
watchglass in a drop of concentrated HCl and soak this solution with a filter paper. A drop of
the test solution is placed in the middle of the moist part. Any black-brown stain that develops
is completely decolorized by a drop of sodium thiosulphate solution if no selenium is present;
otherwise a red-brown stain of Se is left.

Si silicon

Approximately 0.4 g of the mineral powder is mixed with only a quarter of this amount of
calcium fluoride and placed in a plastic tube like those used for tablets. One millilitre of
concentrated sulphuric acid or a concentrated solution of NH4 HSO4 is added and the tube is
closed with the plastic lid, in which a hole with a diameter of 2 - 4 mm has previously been
made by means of a hot nail. The hole is covered with a wet black fabric, and the fabric must
be kept wet by placing some wet cotton wool on the lid. Now heat the lower part of the plastic
tube gently by dipping it into hot water for 10 minutes.

Any SiF 4, evolved in the reaction of CaF2 + H2 SO4 + silicate, is decomposed by the water
according to the formula: 3 SiF 4 + 2 H2 O = SiO 2 + 2 H2 SiF 6 . After opening the lid the black
fabric should have turned white in the presence of any silicate in the tested mineral. - This test
is impaired by the presence of a considerable amount of boric acid, and it may fail if too much
calcium fluoride has been used. In such cases only HBF 4 , or H2 SiF 4 is formed; both acids are
soluble in water.

It is also possible to proceed in the following way. Melt a pinch of the mineral powder with
a flake of NaOH on a stainless steel spoon. Only after complete cooling add one millilitre of
distilled water to the solid melt and dissolve it at least partly. This solution is poured into a
plastic beaker with one millilitre of ammonium molydate solution, and drop by drop HNO3 is
added till a weak acid solution is achieved. Now dissolve a pinhead sized amount of SnCl2
 57

and a flake of NaOH in some drops of water in a plastic vessel. After complete cooling pour
this solution into the beaker with the test solution. A blue colour indicates the presence of
silicate; the colour fades after some minutes. Arsenic and phosphoric acid must be absent in
the mineral.

Another method is to dissolve the NaOH melt completely in water, to pour it into a test
tube, then cautiously adding an equal volume of concentrated nitric acid, and to evaporate to
dryness. Be careful towards the end of the operation, do not allow the tube to become very
hot. Moisten the residue after cooling with 3 ml HCl, boil for a few seconds and add 5 ml
distilled water. Heat again to boiling and remove the insoluble silica by filtering. This silica
should be white after washing with water. It is tested for purity by puncturing the filter and
washing the silica by means of a jet of water into a clean test tube. Then add a little KOH and
boil; if pure, the silica will go wholly into solution. In rare cases when Nb-containing silicates
such as eudyalite are tested, a turbidity of niob oxide may remain.

Sn tin

Tin is a rare element with an average amount of 3 ppm in crustal rocks. This sounds past
belief since bronze, its alloy with copper, was the main material for tools and weapons for
millenniums in the history of mankind. Even in the present electronic age tin is an important
material for soldering. Fortunately the occurrence of tin bearing minerals is nearly exclusively
associated with the pneumatolytic, pegmatitic, and hydrothermal stage of granite plutons. The
mineral chiefly found in it is cassiterite SnO 2 , a hard, heavy, and extremely weathering
resistant mineral. It is insoluble in any acid or mixture of acids and therefore collected as a
placer mineral in the sands which have resulted from the disintegration of weathered granite
plutones. Moreover, Sn scarcely enters the lattice of the main rock forming minerals and other
tin minerals like stannite Cu2 FeSnS 4 are quite rare. Minor amounts of tin are found in some
pegmatite minerals like columbite. Tin is tetravalent in minerals, but in solution it can be
reduced to the divalent state.

Prospectors for tin are mainly searching for cassiterite as a placer mineral. The mechanical
corroded grains of cassiterite are difficult to distinguish from other placer minerals. They are
placed on a sheet of zinc and a drop of diluted HCl is added. Within a few seconds SnO 2
grains are covered with a dull-grey skin of metallic tin. Flat thick-walled dishes made from
cast zinc are often used for this purpose. The test may fail if the grains are covered with iron
oxides. In such cases the iron oxide coating can be removed by warm HCl saturated with
oxalic acid, followed by washing with water.

To detect tin in other minerals the tin must be present as SnCl2 in solution. This is
achieved in the following way. Sulphides are molten with a 1 : 2.5 mixture of
NH4 Cl/NH4 NO3 , for oxides and silicates the fusion with KOH on a stainless steel spoon is
recommended. In both cases the cool solid melt is dissolved in a little water, and the same
amount of concentrated HCl is cautiously added. Add to this solution a few granules of stick
zinc, after some seconds all tin is reduced to the divalent state. There are two ways to detect
the presence of tin:

- The test solution is stirred with a test tube filled with cold water. If the portion of the test
tube which has been dipped into the solution, is held in a nonluminous Bunsen flame, a
characteristic blue flame mantle forms around the test tube. This flame colour is specific for
tin only, the test fails only in the presence of As.
 58

- For a wet method mix some drops of ammonium molybdate solution with a surplus of
NH4 NaHPO4 on a spot test plate or a clay dish, add a drop of nitric acid and warm gently. A
yellow precipitate of ammonium phosphomolybdate is formed. Soak the liquid with paper and
wash the precipitate twice with water. Adding a drop of the test solution will reduce the
yellow precipitate to molybdenum blue. Both tests are rather sensitive, antimony does not
interfere.

For a reduction on charcoal mix the mineral powder with one part of charcoal powder and
two parts of soda and make into a paste with water. Globules of tin are achieved by a fusion
on charcoal only if tin is a major component; if heated intensively and for a considerable time,
sufficient tin may volatilize to give a white, non-volatile coating of SnO 2 on the charcoal.

Sr strontium, see Ba barium

Ta tantalum, see Nb columbium

Te tellurium

Tellurium is a very rare element with only 0.002 ppm content in the earth's crust. Tellurides
or the native element associated with sulphides are mostly found. Oxidation products such as
salts of tellurous and telluric acid very rarely occur in gossans.- A very delicate test for Te is
made by heating the mineral powder with concentrated sulphuric acid, when the latter
assumes a reddish-violet colour. The cautious addition of water, after cooling, causes the
colour to disappear, and a grayish-black precipitate of Te is produced.

Ti titanium

4.4 weight % of the earth's crust is made up of titanium, indeed it is the ninth in the rank of
abundance of elements. It is found in combination with oxygen in oxides and silicates,
predominantly in the tetravalent, but sometimes in the trivalent state. Rutile TiO 2 , ilmenite
FeTiO 3 , titanomagnetite, and titanite CaTiSiO 5 are the most common titanium minerals. They
are present as accessory minerals in most igneous rocks. Trace amounts of Ti are nearly
always incorporated in the lattice of pyroxenes, amphiboles, and many micas. Regarding its
physical and chemical properties rutile is in fact a mineral apt to be concentrated in placer
deposits. Unfortunately, it mostly occurs in igneous rocks as fine needles or it is intergrown
with quartz. For this reason only a few mineable placer deposits of rutile are known, but these
few are very large.

For a wet test the mineral powder is fused on charcoal with the sixfold amount of soda, and
the melt is dissolved with concentrated HCl. Boil the solution, filter if necessary, then add a
little granulated tin or a piece of zinc. On boiling, a violet colour indicates Ti owing to the
formation of TiCl3 . The colour is seen best when the liquid becomes cold, and the hydrogen
formation ceases. This test may fail if the tested matter contains less than 3% titanium oxide.

Another highly sensitive test works only in a sulphuric acid solution. The above- mentioned
melt with soda is treated with sulphuric acid in a test tube and heated. After cooling to room
temperature, some water and a tiny amount of NaNH4 HPO4 is added, then some hydrogen
peroxide. A yellow colour indicates Ti. If vanadium is present it will cause a red colour, in
case of any doubt, add a small amount of NaF. The yellow colour due to Ti will vanish, while
the red colour of V stays. - Some Ti minerals like oxides can be dissolved by fusion with
 59

KHSO4 in a test tube, and dissolving the melt in cold water. Such solutions can be used for
the hydrogen peroxide test also.

U uranium

The uranium content of the earth's crust is 2 ppm. U-bearing minerals are often associated
with granite plutons. The minerals uraninite UO 2 , pitchblende, brannerite U(Ti,Fe)2 O6 , and
coffinite USiO 4 occur in pegmatites and hydrothermal veins. Small amounts of U are often
incorporated in the crystal lattice of zircon and monazite. Uranium is tetravalent in all these
minerals of the endogenic cycle. On contact with oxygen and water all these uranium minerals
are quickly oxidized, and the hexavalent uranium forms the uranyl ion UO 2 2+. This particular
ion is dumb-bell shaped and cannot be incorporated into the lattice of any other mineral. As a
result, uranyl-minerals are formed. More than 100 of such uranyl-minerals are known. Most
prominent are the uranium micas. These minerals are not silicates because the sheet layers are
made up by PO4 3- and UO 2 2+ ions. Cations and water are arranged between the layers. -
Within the exogenic cycle, trace amounts of U are often found in lignites and phosphorites.

All crystalline uranyl compounds, with the exception of such minerals that contain
transition elements, show a fluorescence in ultra-violet light. Already borax beads which
contain uranium exhibit an appreciable green fluorescence, but sodium fluoride beads light up
to a deep yellow colour if they contain any U. This may be used in the following highly
sensitive test:
Sodium fluoride is fused to form a bead in a loop of platinum wire (NaF melts at 992° C).
When cold, the bead appears only slightly violet in ultraviolet light. Now the bead is wetted
with the test solution. After careful evaporation, fuse the bead again for a short time. After
cooling examine the bead in ultraviolet light. As a source of UV the use of a cheap pocket
money tester is recommended. Only Nb and Be give a very weak similar fluorescence.

Nearly all uranium minerals can be dissolved in nitric acid, but zircon, monazite, and
some oxides should be taken up by a hot soda bead on a platinum wire. After melting, take up
some potassium nitrate and melt again. This bead is dissolved in diluted HCl.
- For a wet test, some drops of this solution are placed on a spot plate or a clay dish. Add a
tiny amount of sodium thiosulphate, stir and then add a drop of a solution of potassium
ferrocyanide K4 Fe(CN)6 . A brown precipitate indicates U; when a flake of NaOH is added the
precipitate turns yellow.

It should be mentioned that most minerals containing the uranyl group are soluble in a
solution of ammonium carbonate, which thereby assumes a yellow colour.

V vanadium

Vanadium makes up 110 ppm of the earth's crust, so it is no rare element. However, the
main mass of vanadium is widely distributed in igneous rocks, where the trivalent vanadium
takes up the position of trivalent iron in mafic minerals. During weathering of these mafic
minerals, the vanadium enters the pentavalent state, and it is widely redistributed because
alkali vanadates are readily water soluble. Vanadium minerals form preferably in the outcrop
of lead deposits. Vanadinite Pb5 Cl(VO 4 )3 and descloizite Pb(Zn,Cu)(OH)VO 4 are the most
common vanadates. Insoluble minerals also form together with the uranyl ion. Among those,
carnotite K2 (UO 2 )2 (VO 4 )2 3H2O, which possesses a structure similar to uranium micas, is the
best known. V may also enter the tetravalent state, but minerals which contain tetravalent
vanadium are extremely rare. Patronite VS 4 was only found together with asphalt in two
 60

mines in Peru; for a long time, this was the main mined ore. Roscoelite, a green
vanadium(III)-bearing mica from sandstone bands, was also mined for this element.

All vanadates can be dissolved in strong acids. If vanadates are boiled with concentrated
HCl, the oxychloride of tetravalent vanadium VOCl2 is formed due to the reaction:
V2 O5 + 6 HCl = 2 VOCl2 + 3 H2 O + Cl2 . The chlorine gives a blue colour to wet potassium
iodide-starch paper held atop of the test tube. The colour of the solution changes to green and
finally to a light blue on dilution with water, but this colour may be masked if Cu or U is
present. Ensure a good ventilation due to the formation of chlorine! Please mind that any
black manganese oxides will also cause the evolution of chlorine.

For a more sensitive wet test you need a solution of pentavalent V in sulphuric acid.
Vanadates can be dissolved in sulphuric acid or may be molten with KHSO4 , followed by
dissolving in few drops of diluted sulphuric acid. Silicates must be melted with a mixture of
soda with some KNO3 on a magnesia furrow. The melt is dissolved in water and brought to a
strong acidic state by the addition of sulphuric acid. Filter this solution if any precipitate
occurs and treat some drops with a tiny amount of solid NaF on a spot test plate, a clay dish,
or a watch glass. Now add, only drop by drop, a very diluted solution of hydrogen peroxide. If
vanadium is present, a red to pink coloration appears. It is a pitfall of this test that too much
hydrogen peroxide converts the red precipitate of peroxovanadium sulphate yellow. Therefore
the diluted hydrogen peroxide should be added only in very small amounts. The addition of
NaF is only necessary if Ti or Fe3+ is present.

The amber colour of a bead of phosphorous salt in the oxidizing flame is a quick but quite
reliable test for minerals where V is a main constituent.

W tungsten (German: Wolfram)

The content of tungsten in the earth's crust is approximately 1 ppm. The element is always
hexavalent in minerals. It does not enter the lattice of igneous rock forming minerals; thus, it
concentrates as tungstates in pegmatites and hydrothermal veins. Only three tungstates are
widespread and important: wolframite (Fe,Mn)WO 4 , scheelite CaWO 4 , and stoltzite PbWO 4 .
On weathering of these minerals some extremely rare minerals are sometimes formed.
Tungsten is also found in small quantities in a number of columbites and tantalites.

Scheelite and stoltzite dissolve in hot concentrated HCl, while forming a yellow precipitate
of WO 3 . If boiling is continued after the addition of granulated tin, a blue colour results. The
colour may change to brown on further reduction. Wolframite and columbite are to be fused
with KOH on a magnesia furrow. Dissolve the solid melt in water only after complete
cooling. Add again tin to the filtered solution. On acidifying with HCl and boiling, the blue
reduction test is obtained. The following test may be carried out on filter paper: a drop of the
aqueous solution of the KOH melt is placed on filter paper; then, on the opposite side of the
paper a drop of concentrated HCl is added. When treated with a solution of SnCl2 in HCl the
yellowish colour changes to blue due to the formation of partially reduced tungsten oxides.

Zn zinc

Zinc is a common element in the earth's crust with 65 ppm . It is mostly concentrated in
hydrothermal veins. The principal mineral is sphalerite, ZnS, but several other sulphides
contain Zn in small quantities as a constituent or as intergrown admixtures of ZnS.
 61

Smithsonite ZnCO3 , and a considerable number of other zinc-bearing minerals such as

silicates, phosphates, arsenates, vanadates, and zinkite ZnO are formed in the oxidation zone.

It is recommended to mix the mineral powder with half the amount of soda, to add some
charcoal powder and to make into a paste with water. Zinc volatilizes when this mixture is
heated on charcoal and is detected by the non-volatile coating of ZnO, which is of a pale
canary-yellow colour when hot and white when cold. - If the mineral contains aluminium or
tin, some borax should be added and intense heating is necessary. This is especially
recommended if gahnite ZnAl2 O4 or stannite Cu2 SnFeS4 with intergrown ZnS is tested. The
white sublimate of ZnO may be captured by a cover glass placed in the proper position on the
charcoal. There is also a wet detection technique: Dissolve the white coating in hot acetic acid
The solution gives a white precipitate with a solution of potassium ferrocyanide K4 Fe(CN)6 . -
Another way to confirm that the white coating is ZnO consists of wetting the sublimate with a
considerably diluted solution of cobalt nitrate, then heating again. The green colour of
Rinmann´s green indicates Zn.

The following procedure is recommended only if traces of zinc are to be detected in

silicates or technical products: Melt the powder with a flake of NaOH on a magnesia furrow.
After complete cooling dissolve in a few drops of water. This solution is mixed on a watch
glass with a few drops of a green solution of 1 mg diphenylthiocarbazone (dithizone) in 10 ml
carbon tetrachloride. Now the carbon tetrachloride is evaporated by blowing while stirring
with a glass rod. The solution assumes a raspberry-red colour in the presence of zinc. A
precipitate of any colour should be disregarded. A fume cupboard should be used, carbon
tetrachloride smells agreeable, but it is poisonous if it is inhaled!

Zr zirconium

Zirconium makes up 160 ppm of the earth's crust. Due to its tetravalent charge and its size,
the Zr4+ ion is not incorporated into the lattice of the main rock-forming minerals; almost
invariably, zircon ZrSiO 4 is formed and finely dispersed in igneous rocks, especially in the
late stages of crystallization. Some complex Zr-silicates occur only in nepheline syenites.
Pure zircon is the most weathering-resistant silicate, therefore it is concentrated in placer
deposits. Zircon often captures tetravalent uranium and thorium during crystallization from
the magma. The radioactive decay of these elements over geological time disturbs the short-
range order of the crystal lattice; such minerals are called metamict. Minerals altered in this
way exhibit a dark colour. Syenites containing Zr-silicates which have been subject to
weathering may form baddeleyite ZrO 2 as the weathering product. Thus formed baddeleyite
layers are the main mineable zirconium ores.

Zr minerals are decomposed by the fusion with NaOH on a stainless steel spoon or a silver
dish, or by melting the mineral powder with a mixture of soda and borax on charcoal. The
crushed bead or the cold and solid NaOH melt is treated with water in order to dissolve the
water soluble compounds. The water is discarded, either by filtering or by soaking with filter
paper. The remaining insoluble zirconium oxide hydrate is dissolved in a few drops of diluted
HCl. A small part of this solution is treated with hydrogen peroxide on a watch glass, from a
near neutral solution a white precipitate forms. If the solution turns yellow, Ti is present. If no
Ti is present, a drop of the hydrochloric solution of the melt residue is placed on turmeric
paper; if it turns orange, Zr is present. As the colour is not very marked, the following test is
better.
 62

Place some drops of the hydrochloric acid solution in a clay dish or a spot test plate and
evaporate slowly to dryness only, do not overheat. Add two drops of an alcoholic alizarin
solution, and boil once. Then add a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid. Only the red-violet
zirconium lake remains unaffected. Be, Al, Ti, and Th do not interfere. - The alcoholic
alizarin solution is prepared by dissolving alizarin in ethanol, treating it drop by drop with
highly diluted HCl until a pure yellow colour develops; this solution is diluted with an equal
volume of ethanol and filtered.

No simple identification tests can be recommended for the heavy elements of the third main
group of the periodic table of the elements: Ga gallium, In indium, and Tl thallium, the same
is true for Ge germanium. With average amounts in crustal rocks of 15 ppm gallium, 2 ppm
germanium, 1 ppm thallium, and 0.1 ppm indium, only the last-named may be called a rare
element. No indium minerals are known, Tl minerals are extremely rare and Ge and Ga
minerals are only rarely found, mainly in the oxydation zone of a few sulphide ore deposits.
For technical use all these elements are mainly yielded as by-products during the purification
of raw zinc. - Indium and thallium each produce a single line in flame emission spectra: Tl
535 nm green, and In 451 nm indigo-blue. The names of both elements are based on their
flame coloration. - Thallium is a very poisonous element!

The preparation of test papers and reagents

Not all test papers and reagents are on sale. Moreover, it is much cheaper to prepare them,
especially for only occasional use. The wet papers should be pinned to a string by means of a
clothes peg and dried in a dust-free atmosphere. All papers should be stored in airtight plastic
vessels in a dark place. Always use distilled water.

Dimethylglyoxime paper is used for the identification of Ni and Pd. - Filter paper is soaked
with a saturated alcoholic solution of dimethylglyoxim and dried. The reagent paper is stable
for a long time.

Iodide-starch-paper is turned blue by the action of strong oxidizing compounds, especially

by free chlorine and bromine. - Three pinches of starch are mixed with some water and
poured into 150 ml boiling water. After cooling, approximately one gram of potassium iodide
is dissolved in this liquid, followed by soaking and drying of the filter paper in the usual way.
The wetted paper is hold atop the solution to be proved; take in mind that nitrogen dioxide NO2 also
is able to turn the paper blue, this compound may be produced on boiling strong acid solutions
containing nitrates.

Lead acetate paper is used to identify the presence of hydrogen sulphide H2 S. - 2.5 g of
potassium acetate is dissolved in 100 ml water. The filter paper is soaked and dried as usual.

Pyrolusite paper serves to detect the presence of SO2 . - Three pinches of potassium
permanganate KMnO 4 are dissolved in 100 ml water. Filter paper is soaked with this dark
violet solution and dried. Soaking and drying is repeated twice and the brown paper is finally
well washed with water before the last drying. The dry paper is stable for 1-2 years.

Turmeric-paper is used for the identification of boron and zirconium as well as a test paper
for alkalis. - Turmeric is an Indian plant, curcuma longa; the powdered rhizome of this is used
as a dye-stuff and as a spice, especially in curry. The active content curcumine is on sale, but
not the test paper. The easiest way is to shake half a teaspoon of turmeric powder with 10 ml
acetone, and, after the powder settles, to soak a white filter paper with the yellow solution.
 63

The dried paper is stable for years if it is stored in an air-tight container in a cool and dark
place. (Turmeric is called curcuma in French and German.)

Zinc sulphide paper can be used as a screening reagent to detect Ag, Cu, Pb, Sb, Bi, Hg,
trivalent As, Sn, and Cd. Antimony causes a red stain, cadmium and arsenic a yellow one, all
other elements a dark brown staining. Stains caused by mercury compounds turn black. -
Filter paper is soaked with a solution of 2 g zinc sulphate (or another soluble zinc salt) in 100
ml water and dried. This paper is again soaked with a solution of 2 g sodium sulphide or
potassium sulphide in 100 ml water. After drying it is again soaked with the zinc solution,
well washed and dried. The paper is stable.

Zinc ferrocyanide paper is used for the rapid detection of iron and copper. - The paper is
soaked with a solution of 2 g of a soluble zinc salt, like the sulphate, in 100 ml water and
dried. The dry paper is soaked with a solution of 2 g potassium ferrocyanide K4 Fe(CN)6 , a
yellow compound, in 100 ml water. After drying the paper is treated again with the zinc
solution, well washed with water and dried. - A brown stain results in contact with a solution
containing Cu2+ ions, a blue stain is caused by Fe3+ ions. The very faint staining by solutions
containing Mn2+ (pink), Ni2+ (green), and Co2+ (blue) cannot be recommended as conclusive
tests.

An iodine solution can be prepared from potassium iodide in the following way. Heat a
mixture of two pinches each of potassium iodide KI and potassium hydrogen sulphate KHSO4
in a test tube till a sublimate of free iodine is formed on the inner wall of the test tube. After
complete cooling blow a stream of air into the tube till no odour of sulphur dioxide is smelled.
Now scratch the iodine from the walls by means of a spatula while holding the tube in a
slanting position. Transfer the iodine to a watch glass. It can be dissolved either in alcohol or
in a potassium iodide solution. - The solution is used to identify lanthanum or to convert the
white oxide sublimates of Pb and Bi on charcoal into the yellow or red coloured iodide
sublimates. The solution is stable if it is stored in a glass bottle with a ground glass stopper or
a cork stopper soaked with paraffin.

Bromine water dissolves metallic gold, platinum and palladium and it is used to test for
beryllium and magnesium. - A pinhead sized amount of each potassium bromide KBr and
potassium bromate KBrO 3 is dissolved in some drops of diluted HCl, 5 ml water and a pinch
of sodium acetate is added. Always ensure good ventilation, it is dangerous to inhale any of
the brown vapours! The solution should be freshly prepared for use. Add a surplus of sodium
thiosulphate to any remaining liquid before flushing with much water in the sink.

Ammonium molybdate solution is used to detect phosphates, arsenates and silicates. - One
gram of ammonium molybdate in a finely powdered state is mixed with 10 ml water,
approximately 10 ml concentrated nitric acid is added drop by drop and stirred intensively till
any white precipitate is dissolved and a clear solution results. The solution is stable, it should
be stored in a plastic bottle.

Stannous chloride solution is used as a reducing agent in some tests. - 0.5 g SnCl2 is
dissolved in 6 ml water + 4 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid.- The solution is stable.
 64

Staining tests for carbonates

Aragonite is a modification of CaCO3. It is stable only at high pressures, but is often formed
metastable if CaCO3 is precipitated in the presence of Mg2+ ions and in the temperature range
of 29°C to 260°C. Both calcite and aragonite effervesce on contact with cold diluted HCl and
even with vinegar, but aragonite scratches calcite; this is a simple test if a crystal of calcite
with a flat face is available. However, sometimes a staining test to differentiate between
calcite and aragonite is required. - Boil the carbonate with a 10% solution of cobalt nitrate,
only aragonite assumes a pink colour, while calcite remains unstained. Any remaining cobalt
nitrate solution can be used for further tests.

Calcite and dolomite may be distinguished in the following way: A small fragment of the
mineral is immersed for 30 seconds in a solution made from 10 ml distilled water and 1 ml
concentrated HCl; now the specimen is immersed for 5 minutes in a solution of 100 ml
distilled water + two pinches of alizarin sulphonic acid + 10 drops of concentrated HCl.
Finally the fragment is washed with distilled water till the washing water stays colourless.
Calcite, aragonite, and witherite are stained red, while ankerite, strontianite, and cerussite may
turn purple. No staining is observed for dolomite, magnesite, siderite, smithsonite, gypsum,
and anhydrite.

It is only rarely necessary to differentiate between magnesite and dolomite, since dense
polycrystalline magnesite mostly shows a characteristic white colour. An appropriate staining
test was already described, see Mg.

To differentiate between dolomite, pure calcite, and magnesium containing calcite, shake
0.2 g alizarin sulphonic acid with 25 ml methanol and add 15 ml of 30% NaOH. Boil the
mineral for 6 minutes with this mixture. Dolomite and the Mg-containing calcite turn purple,
pure calcite remains unstained.

All dye-stuff solutions and etching acids should be used only once and then discarded.

In rare cases it may be necessary to isolate small amounts of minerals or fossils from
calcareous sediments like limestone. A 0.4% solution of monochloroacetic acid CH2 ClCOOH
dissolves calcite, aragonite and dolomite, most other minerals including apatite remain
unattacked. The dissolution is a very slow process, at least 24 hours and a large surplus of the
acid is needed for fine powders. The disintegration of bigger lumps may take weeks!
 65

UV fluorescence

Ultra violet radiation is invisible for the human eye, but most sources of UV also emit some
light in the visible range. Some solid and liquid matter emits visible light by the absorption of
UV light, normally only a small part of the visible spectrum. Therefore this fluorescence light
is coloured. The effect is called phosphorescence if the emission of visible light continues for
some time after stopping the UV source. In minerals fluorescence is mostly due to impurity
atoms in the lattice. This is the reason why some mineral species always fluoresce, while
other minerals exhibit the effect only sometimes in certain deposits. Depending on the
conditions of formation of the mineral, the amount as well as the kind of impurity atoms may
vary; such variations can cause changes in colour and intensity of the fluorescence of a
mineral! It should be borne in mind that many organic materials also fluoresce e.g. teeth,
some lichen, fungi on rotten wood, some kind of fabric, and naphtha. - Even thin coatings of
iron and manganese oxides may suppress the effect.

Shortwave UV has a 185 nm to 300 nm wave length, longwave UV ranges from 300 nm to
400 nm. Take care to avoid any UV light catching your eyes, even the reflection from a light
surface is dangerous; severe damage, even blindness, may result. Glass absorbs shortwave
UV, but not longwave UV. Wear fabric gloves if you intend to handle minerals in UV light
for longer than a few seconds. - Portable battery-operated UV light lamps operating on shortwave
254 nm and longwave 366 nm for field use are on sale with prices in the range from € 92 to € 360.
Battery-operated money testers are much cheaper, they only work in the long wave, but the price range
is in the order of € 5 to € 30. An EPROM eraser is a strong source for shortwave UV.

The following minerals always exhibit fluorescence

Mineral shortwave UV longwave UV

autunite Ca(UO 2 )2 (PO4 )2 ⋅10-12H2O yellow

and many other uranyl-minerals
cerussite PbCO3 yellow yellow

hauyne (Na,Ca)4-8(AlSiO 4 )6 (SO4 ,Cl)1-2 orange

hydrozincite Zn5 (CO3 )2 (OH)6 blue white

malayaite Ca5 SnSiO 5 greenish yellow

powellite CaMoO4 yellow

ruby Al2 O3 + 0.1-0.6%Cr2 O3 red red

scheelite CaWO 4 blue to yellow

scapolite
Na3 (AlSi3 O8 )3 ⋅NaCl /Ca3 (Al2 Si2 O8 )3 ⋅CaCO3 yellow orange-yellow

willemite Zn2 SiO 4 green

zircon ZrSiO 4 yellow to orange yellow to orange

 66

The following minerals sometimes fluoresce, depending on the origin:

Alkali feldspar, anhydrite, andalusite, aragonite, anglesite, apatite, barite, benitoite,

chalcedony, calcite, colemanite, cristobalite, danburite, diamond, dumortierite, eucryptite,
fluoborite, fluorite, gypsum, halite, hyalite, jadeite, lapis lazuli, monazite, opal, petalite,
periclase, rhodochrosite, sapphire, smithsonite, sphalerite, spodumene, strontianite,
thomsonite, tremolite, topaz, turquoise, witherite, wollastonite. - No claim to completeness!

The solubility of some minerals

These files comprise only selected minerals and mineral groups. Tests should be made with a
small amount of finely ground material.

The following minerals are insoluble in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid

albite NaAlSi3 O8 paragonite NaAl2 (Si3 AlO 10 )(OH)2

amblygonite (Li,Na)Al(PO4 )(F,OH) prehnite Ca2 Al2 Si3 O10 (OH)2

astrophyllite pseudobrookite Fe2 TiO 5

(K,Na)3 (Fe,Mn)Ti2 Si8 O24 (OH,O)7

axinite Ca2 (Fe,Mg,Mn)Al2 BOH,O(Si2 O7 )2 pyrite FeS2

babingtonite Ca2 (Fe,Mn)FeSi5 O14 (OH) pyrochlore (Ca,Na)2 Nb2O6 (OH,F)

barite BaSO4 spodumene LiAlSiO 6

boracite Mg3 B7 O13 Cl talc Mg3 (Si4 O10 )(OH)2

chloritoid (Fe,Mg,Mn) 2 Al4 Si2 O10 (OH)4 titanite CaTiSiO 5

celestine SrSO4 vesuvianite Ca10 Mg2 Al4 (Si2 O7 )2 (OH)4

hematite Fe2 O3 xenotime YPO4

ilmenite FeTiO 3 zircon ZrSiO 4

lawsonite CaAl2 Si2 O7 (OH)2 H2 O zoisite CaAl3 (SiO 4 )3 (OH)

lazulite MgAl2 (PO4 )2 (OH)2 and most members of the following mineral
groups: feldspars with the exception of
marialite 3NaAlSi3 O8 NaCl anorthite, clinopyroxenes, orthopyroxenes,
epidote, amphiboles
muscovite KAl2 (Si3 AlO 10 )(OH,F)2

allanite (Ce,Ca,Y)2 (Al,Fe)3 (SiO 4 )3 (OH)

 67

The following minerals are soluble in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid

analcime NaAlSi2 O6 H2 O meionite 3CaAl2 Si2 O8 ⋅CaCO3

anorthite CaAl2 Si2 O8 melilite (Ca,Na)2 (Mg,Al,Fe)Si2 O7

apatite Ca5 (F,OH,Cl)(PO4 )3 monticellite CaMgSiO 4

apophyllite KCa4 (Si4 O10 )2 (F,OH)8H2 O nepheline KNa3 (AlSiO 4 )4

augite (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al) 2 O6 olivine (Mg,Fe)2 SiO 4

brucite Mg(OH)2 periclase MgO

chlorite
(Mg,Fe)3 (OH)2 /Si4 O10 /(Mg,Fe)3 (OH)6 pectolite Ca2 NaH(Si3 O9 )

chondrodite (Mg,Fe)5 (OH,F)2 (SiO 4 )2 rhodonite CaMn4 Si5 O15

chrysotile Mg6 (Si4 O10 )(OH)8 saponite, a Mg-rich mineral of the

smectite group
colemanite Ca2 B6 O11 5H2 O

datolite CaBSiO 4 (OH) sodalite Na8 (Cl2 /(AlSiO 4 )6 )

eudialyte, a red cyclosilicate with wöhlerite Ca2 NaZr(F,OH,O)2 /Si2 O7

Na,Ca,Fe,Mn,Ce,Zr
occurring in nepheline syenites epidote after glowing

fluorite CaF2 garnets after melting, except uwarovite

gadolinite Y2 FeBe 2 (O/SiO 4 )2 all carbonates

gehlenite (Ca,Na)2 (Mg,Al,Fe)Si2 O7 all calcium silicates

glauconite, a green iron-rich mica all calcium silicate hydrates

goethite FeOOH most zeolites

ilvaite CaFe3 (O/Si2 O7 /OH) andesine, labradorite, and bytownite are

imperfectly soluble
leucite KAlSi2 O6
most phosphates
ludwigite Mg2 Fe(O 2 /BO3 )

Mn oxides like cryptomelane, and

pyrolusite evolve chlorine on dissolution!
 68

The following minerals are dissolved by hot concentrated sulphuric acid

amblygonite (Li,Na)Al(F,OH/PO4 ) ilmenite FeTiO 3

alunite KAl3 (OH)6 (SO4)2 monazite CePO4

anatase TiO 2 allanite (orthite) a Ce-rich epidote

anglesite PbSO4 perovskite CaTiO 3

anhydrite CaSO4 phlogopite KMg3 (Si3 AlO 10 )(F,OH)2

baddeleyite ZrO 2 pyrophyllite Al2 (OH)2 (Si4 O10 )

barite BaSO4 rutile TiO 2

biotite dark mica titanite CaTiSiO 4 /O

böhmite AlOOH topaz Al2 (F,OH)2 SiO 4

chloritoid FeAl2 (OH)2 /O/SiO 4 vermiculite

(Mg,Fe,Al)3 (Si,Al)4 O10 (OH)2 ⋅4H2 O
cryolite Na3 AlF 6
zircon ZrSiO 4
gibbsite Al(OH)3
most members of the crandallite group

The following minerals are soluble in hot 20% KOH

alunite KAl3 (OH)6 (SO4 )2 realgar AsS

anglesite PbSO4 stibnite Sb2 S3

chalcedony SiO 2 sulfur S

opal SiO 2 ⋅nH2 O tridymite SiO 2

orpiment As2 S3 wavellite Al3 (PO4 )2 (OH,F)3 ⋅5H2 O

A 10% solution of ammonium carbonate dissolves most copper ores, with the exception of
the sulphides and oxides; the dissolution rate is sometimes enhanced by the addition of
ammonia solution. The solution turns deep blue.

Most uranium minerals containing hexavalent U are dissolved by ammonium carbonate

solution; the solution turns yellow. Minerals containing tetravalent U are only slowly attacked
by a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and ammonium carbonate solution.
 69

Miscellaneous hints

The Mohs' hardness of a mineral measures its resistance to being scratched, but the
hardness may be considerably different on different faces. Large mineral specimens are
pressed on to and drawn across a smooth surface of a standard. Small grains are best
determined by placing the grain on the smooth surface of the standard, it is then pressed
firmly into that surface with a flat wooden implement, such as the blunt end of a pencil, and
steadily drawn across it. The presence of a scratch, which must be an elongated indentation
and not just a linear accumulation of powder, must be controlled by a lens! It is preferable to
use flat pieces of the standard minerals calcite (H=3), fluorite (H=4), apatite (H=5), orthoclase
(H=6), and quartz (H=7). Obsidian or window pane glass may be used instead of apatite
which is often not available. Some textbooks recommend the use of metal sheets: copper
(H≈3), brass (H≈3.5 to 4), soft iron (H≈4 to 5), and annealed steel (H≈5.5 to 7). Such sheets
must be controlled before use by minerals with known hardness! - It is very important not to
confuse the true hardness of a single mineral grain with the brittleness, or lack of granular
cohesion, of a fine-grained mineral aggregate. Furthermore, inclusions or surface coatings of a
soft mineral may be harder, e.g. hematite on calcite or soft fibrous minerals which are
silicious. For preliminary tests a sewing-machine needle can be used. Its blunt end should be
mounted in wood; for transport its sharp end may be inserted into a small piece of cork. Most
times the hardness of such a device is in the range of 5.5 to 6.

The density of a mineral is its mass per unit volume and is given as g cm-3. To determine
the density of a mineral you need a balance with a sensitivity of 0.001 g. If such a device is
available you can record the weight of the mineral sample and the volume of water which it
displaces. The mineral piece is tied by a very thin copper wire and held into a vessel with
water on a balance. The surplus of weight after immersing the mineral gives the mass of the
displaced water. Litz wire from an electric cable may be used.

Another possibility is to use a pycnometer, that is a small bottle fitted with a long ground-
glass stopper, which is pierced along its length by a small-diameter hole. With four readings it
is possible to calculate the density:
The dry pycnometer = P, the mineral + the dry pycnometer = M, the pycnometer + the
mineral filled with water = T. Eventually the pycnometer is emptied and filled only with
water = W. - The mass of the mineral is M - P, the volume of the mineral is W + M - P - T.

Only non-porous minerals can be used! Many minerals are members of a mixed crystal series,
that means their density may vary considerably. Therefore it makes no sense to calculate more
than the first decimal place.

It is possible to use heavy liquids to measure the density by the swim-sink method. Such
liquids are:
Tribromomethane (bromoform) CHBr3 , D = 2.90; methanol is used for dilution

Tetrabromoethane Br2 CHCHBr2 ; D = 2.96; methanol is used for dilution

Diiodomethane CH2 I2 , D = 3.32; xylole is used for dilution

Clerici solution is a concentrated solution of thallium formiate and thallium malonate,

D = 4.25; distilled water is used for dilution.
 70

All these liquids are extremely poisonous already on contact with skin, most gloves are
attacked by the halogen-containing hydrocarbons. The health risks caused by such vapours are
seriously increased by smoking during handling; high temperatures may convert such vapours
to more toxic compounds! Any use of such heavy liquids should be restricted to use in
scientific laboratories in well ventilated fume-cupboards and by well-trained staff!
There is one exception: a saturated solution of sodium polytungstate in water reaches
densities of 2.9 to 3.0 and this compound is classified as a less poisonous compound. The
solution is very expensive, 100 ml cost approx. € 120, but the above - mentioned poisonous
liquids are also expensive.

If you have determined the main elements of a mineral you have to compare this result with
physical properties like colour, lustre, hardness, streak colour, cleavage, and density in order
to establish which mineral it is. Nobody knows all minerals by heart, so you need a good
textbook, preferably one with appropriate tables. For instance two books can be recommended
which contain such tables for approximately 200 of the most abundant minerals:

John Sinkankas: “Mineralogy for amateurs“ - Van Nostrand Reinhold Company

New York - Cincinnati - Toronto - London - Melbourne 1964

which is unfortunately out of print, or

Meurig P. Jones: “Applied Mineralogy - A Quantitative Approach “, 1987

Graham & Trotman Ltd. London, ISBN 0-860-10511-3

Another data source must be used for rare minerals or if no clear result is obtained. In such
cases search the internet http:/www.webmineral.com ⇒ Mineralogy database ⇒ subgroups
"Chemical composition“ and "Determinative Mineralogy“

Another and possibly more user-friendly source can be found using the search engines HotBot
or MSN Web Search:
http//www.geonord.org/edu/minid.html ⇒ Nomenklatur ⇒ alfabetisk och systematic mineral
förteckning ⇒ mineral search ⇒ Bolean search database for given elements in formula

The streak colour is an important information especially for sulphides, oxides, carbonates,
and phosphates. Large specimens should be rubbed on the streak plate, if the mineral is
intergrown it is easier to rub the mineral with the edge of the streak plate. For this purpose it
is convenient to cut a plate into small pieces of 15 to 20 mm width by means of a diamond
saw or a grinder. Such pieces may be used also for acid fusions.

Spot test plates can be cut into small strips with only three depressions as well, such strips
can be heated more easily.

Light coloured precipitates are better seen on a dark background. Watchglasses can be
placed on dark paper or charcoal; clay dishes may be dark glazed: mix equal amounts of fine
powdered basalt and borax and produce a slurry by adding drop by drop a solution of cobalt
nitrate on stirring. On firing to 1000°C the dried slurry melts to a bluish-black glaze .

It is recommended to clean the equipment after any use. Pipe cleaners can be used for
cleaning tubes. Use soap and a hard sponge or brush to clean streak plates, most remaining
streaks are dissolved by melting a mixture of NH4 Cl/NH4 NO3 on the plate. After cleaning,
 71

rinse all items with distilled water. - Agate mortars should cleaned by repeated grinding of
fine quartz powder. Agate is a slightly pororous matter, avoid wetting it with any solutions.

Colour perception may vary from person to person; some people have difficulties
distinguishing red and green tinges. Such different colour perceptions may lead to
misunderstandings in doing quick assays, but it is not an unconquerable handicap if you are
aware of it. So consult an ophthalmologist if you distinguish stop and go at traffic lights by
their position rather than by colour!

For the detection of ferromagnetic minerals a small, but strong magnet is needed,
especially if the mineral is intergrown in a rock, e.g. pyrrhotite in gabbro. A larger strong
magnet is suitable to remove magnetite from panning residues or from sand and gravels. To
prevent small particles clinging to the magnet, it may be wrapped in a plastic bag. Tightly
adhering small particles can be removed from the magnet by means of a freshly used chewing
gum! - A magnetic field may disturb or destroy the information stored on credit cards or
electronic devices like pocket computers! This danger is at least minimized if you wrap the
magnet in a thin steel sheet, cut from a cola can, then again in cardboard, and place this
package in a lidded tin made of iron, such as a candy box. Take care to pack the magnet well
away from watches, credit cards and electronic devices in your luggage.

Comminution is an important part of sample preparation. Cracking mineral pieces

wrapped in paper or plastic by a hammer blow is recommended as a first step. An appropriate
anvil of 10 mm thickness and 20 to 35 mm diameter may be turned and polished by a lathe
from a steel rod. If possible it should be annealed. It can be also used to determine hardness
and for striking small chisels. Small amounts of mineral powder are obtained by means of a
sapphire or diamond file, but for very hard minerals a very small steel mortar serves a useful
function. Such a device can be built in the following way: Search for a tool trading company
delivering semifinished material and order a guide bush (French: matrice cyclique, German:
Führungshülse) DIN 9845 with 8 mm inner diameter, 12 mm outer diameter, 10 length and a
round punch (French: poinçon, German: Schneidstempel) DIN 9861, with 8 mm diameter, 70
mm length. Cut the round punch in the middle by means of a grinder. Insert one half into the
guide bush up to just one third of its height and fix this position with rubber tubing. This
arrangement serves as a small steel mortar, the other part of the round punch is used as the
pestle. - Cutting-pliers are useful for detaching and breaking up small fragments of minerals.
A mortar made from sintered corundum is an acceptable substitute for an agate mortar.
The former is harder and non-porous, but slightly more brittle; the price is similar.

Alkaline fusions done on stainless steel are always contaminated by iron and very often by
Cr and Ni. It is possible to avoid such contamination if the fusion is done on a silver dish.
Any goldsmith is able to prepare such a dish of pure silver 20 mm diameter, 7 mm height and
0.4 mm wall thickness with a small handle for holding by a forceps at a price of
approximately € 15. Only melts containing alkali hydroxides should be prepared on such a
device! Never use it for acid fusions or for borate melts! Place it on a clay dish on charcoal
during heating. Pure silver melts at 960.5°C, therefore heat very cautiously!

During wet analysis the use of a water bath is often useful. To obtain a cheap,
dismountable water bath, place a tea light on a piece of plywood of appropriate size and drill
three holes into the plywood forming an equilateral triangle which just surrounds the tea light.
Now insert three pieces of iron wire ≈ 2 mm thickness and 70 mm length into these holes.
Place a tin of 55 mm diameter, 35 mm height on this tripod; e.g. 70 g double concentrated
 72

tomato paste from Italy is sold in such tins. The lower part of a small cola can may be used as
well, see figure 5, page 10.

Some boreholes in a piece of wood or polystyrene-foam may serve as a test tube rack.
Any such test tube rack should first be tested for tilting by means of a test tube filled with
water and fitted with a small funnel.

A stiff paste of waterglass and fine powdered talc may be used as a considerably heat-
resistant glue for joining ceramic, glass, and iron.

It is useful to keep small pieces of the equipment in small labelled boxes for storage and
transport. Match boxes are useful for clay dishes and other small items; aluminium cigar
tubes may be used for magnesia rods, furrows, and other elongated items. Ask for such
aluminium tubes at a tobacco shop. For transport, the entire equipment should be stored in a
shockproof box made of stiff cardboard, plastic or tin. Glass items may be wrapped in bubble
foil or crumpled paper, don´t forget to fill any voids with such material. The use of soft plastic
foam cannot be recommended, it may be converted to a sticky mass by the influence of heat
and chemicals after some time.

The use of a spectroscope is recommended for the identification of alkali metals and
alkaline earth metals. Spectroscopes using a prism for dispersion are expensive, with prices
ranging from ≈ € 160 to € 300. A cheap, but useful alternative is to use spectroscopes which
only contain a slit and a replica diffraction grating. Such instruments need a slightly oblique
look to the ocular side and are supplied by Ward´s Natural Sciences, New York or
Astromedia, Germany at prices from € 6 to 24. On watching flame coloration the position of
the burner as well as the spectroscope should be fixed and the flame and the slit should be
parallel. - Prism spectroscopes show a non-linear wave length scale; the refraction index of
the prism glass depends on the wave length, but this dependence is not linear. As the result the
spectrum seems to be compressed in the blue, shortwave range. Spectroscopes with a
diffraction grating show a linear wave length scale, such spectra are called normal spectra.
Normal flame emission spectra of the alkali metals are shown in the appendix.

Most chemicals are stored in plastic vessels, this is cheap and useful especially for field use.
Please remember that nearly all kinds of plastic have a limited lifetime, after some years the
material becomes brittle and any squeezing may cause cracks. Some liquids enhance this
development considerably, like all oxidizing materials, ketones, halogen-containing
hydrocarbons, and many liquid organic compounds with the exception of methanol and
ethanol. Bottles and vials are mostly made of polyethylene, the high density kind marked PE-
HD is superior to the low density type marked PE-LD. Polypropylene PP is comparable to
PE-HD, it is used for funnels and beakers since it withstands boiling water for short term use.
For heavy duty field use by exploration companies bottles are available that are made of
polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE, teflon perfluoroalkoxylalkane PFA, or tetrafluoroethylene-
hexafluoropropylene FEP. Such bottles are inert to all chemicals suggested in this book,
including all concentrated acids and they withstand mechanical shocks. With prices in the
range of € 20 to € 30 for 100 ml items they are expensive, but they may avoid a lot of severe
trouble during field work. - Suitable for similar reasons are a 50 ml beaker made from PFA or
ETFE ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene copolymere at a price of ≈ € 10; such item can be used in
a boiling water bath and is inert to all used chemicals. It should not be heated by an open
flame. - The lower part of a plastic pill tube can be used as a small plastic beaker at
temperatures up to 70°C.
 73

The assays presented in this booklet have been selected in order to avoid the use of very
poisonous compounds, such as alkali cyanides, mercury salts, and benzidine, as well as
compounds that may cause severe risks during handling and transport, such as concentrated
hydrofluoric acid and sodium superoxide. If you always follow all safety instructions
cautiously and use only the small amounts recommended there is no health risk in laboratory
work. A greater risk may be represented by some minerals, especially those containing Hg,
As, U, and Cd. Mercury and arsenic are very toxic elements if they are incorporated and both
elements are volatile on heating. So test all minerals that may contain these elements first by
heating in a closed tube with soda + charcoal powder. If such a test is positive any heating on
charcoal should be done only if an excellent ventilation is ensured. Collectors should store
cinnabar specimens in air-tight polystyrene boxes; often native mercury in very small droplets
is present and the mercury vapours may cause a chronic intoxication. Minerals containing
arsenic are not volatile at room temperature but should be stored off limits for children.

Cadmium is very toxic, too; it is considerably volatile by heating on charcoal, but the
danger is much less. - The chemical toxicity of uranium is similar to that of mercury, the
radiation risk is additional, especially for U-containing minerals which are in radioactive
equilibrium with their decay products. No volatile products are formed by the recommended
tests for U. But all uranium-containing minerals of a collection should again be sealed in air-
tight plastic or polystyrene cases; the radioactive decay continuously produces radon 222 Rn
with a half-life period of 3.82 days and radon 219 Rn with a half-life period of 3.9 sec; this
noble gas may enter the air. Since radon is fairly soluble in water it may be incorporated by
inhalation!

Tellurium is a less poisonous element, no health risk, but a social risk may be encountered
by the inhalation of traces of TeO 2 fumes during heating of Te-bearing minerals on charcoal.
At least a part of the Te is converted by metabolism into dimethyltellurium (CH3 )2 Te which is
emitted by respiration and this compound has a very strong garlic-like smell. The same holds
true for Se-bearing minerals, but the inhalation of more than traces of SeO 2 may cause an
irritation of the mucous membrane of your nose. This so-called selenium nose-cold ceases
within days, but the garlic smell of sweat and breath is additional.

Commercial and scientific laboratories should store any waste containing more than trace
amounts of heavy metals like Cd, Pb, Cu, Ni, Co, Cr, Ba, Sr, Hg, U, Th, and As in a break-
proof vessel. A near-neutral reaction of the solution can be provided by the addition of ternary
calcium phosphate and aluminium hydroxide. Under such conditions most toxic elements
enter the precipitate.

A cheap method for the unambiguous identification of transparent minerals is the

determination of the refractive index and of birefringence. Only mineral grains in the size of
20 to 30 µm are needed for the Becke line method if a polarizing microscope and a set of
refracting index liquids are available. It is also possible to use a gem refractometer, but in
this case a mineral specimen with a flat or polished surface of approximately 2 mm2 is
needed.

A polariscope is useful for the inspection of transparent single crystals and gems in the size
range from one mm to several centimetres. The specimen is illuminated through a polarization
filter and is viewed through a second polarization filter, both in crossed position. The field of
view always stays black for glass and cubic crystals, like garnets or spinels, but if birefringent
crystals are turned between the filters they usually change from bright to extinction. Synthetic
spinels grown by the Verneuil technique show a typical, undulated extinction. Such cheap
 74

synthetic spinels can be coloured nearly any colour during production by doping with
different metals, thus imitating precious stones! - A century ago tourmaline-tongs were used
for such purpose. Two thin plates cut parallel to the c-axis of a green tourmaline crystal were
mounted parallel to one another by means of spring-like wire tongs. One of the mountings
was rotatable.- Today it is more convenient to use two linear polarizing filters for cameras or
cheap polarizing foil. It is a simple arrangement to build a cube from stiff cardboard, one side
open. The filters are inserted in appropriate cuttings in two opposite squares next to the open
side. Any skilful hobby worker may invent other arrangements. Such a device may be useful
for the inspection of placer mineral concentrates containing raw gemstone minerals.

United Nations reports estimate the number of people depending on wild gold digging at
one million, thus dispersing approximately 500 tons of mercury per year into the environment.
This caused serious contamination, especially in the Philippines and Brazil. Wild gold diggers
are called garrimpeiros, they use the mercury to dissolve the fine gold powder gained by the
washing process. The mercury is evaporated by heating with a strong flame on an iron base.
In that way a massive piece of gold is achieved, but the mercury is spilled into the
environment. Unfortunately some mercury - especially in the aquatic ecosystem - is
transformed by the metabolism of microorganisms to much more poisonous compounds such
as dimethylmercury. At the end of the food chain the mercury is concentrated in fish and
shell-fish.- Commercial companies sometimes also use mercury for collecting gold from fine
slimes, but they recycle the mercury by distillation in iron retorts. Mercury dissolves all
metals with the exception of iron. - The use of mercury can be avoided by a very old process:
molten lead with a melting point of 327.4°C readily dissolves gold, silver, and most other
metals. The lead and all other metals besides the noble metals can be oxidized to the oxides
by heating with an oxidizing flame. PbO melts at 890°C, this melt was soaked up by a base of
slightly compressed fine powdered bone ash in a clay dish. This process was considerably
improved early in the 19th century by heating the Pb-Au alloy together with some borax in a
clay dish. The borax melt dissolves all oxides immediately, and a noble metal bead is formed
which only contains gold, silver and any metals of the platinum group originally present in the
starting material. Any borax melt residues can be removed by boiling with water or diluted
sulphuric acid. Admittedly, this process is somewhat less simple than the amalgam process,
but the use of lead + borax is cheaper. The price for 1 kg Hg is ≈ € 75, the use of pure lead +
borax instead may cost ≈ € 25. - Lead from batteries contains considerable amounts of
antimony and is less suitable for this purpose. Never try to use soldering tin for dissolving
noble metals, the gold may be taken up by the SnO 2 resulting in oxidation!

Beginners may have difficulties finding supply sources for chemicals and lab ware.
Generally local suppliers should be preferred, since you save postage and packing costs. Try
the Yellow Pages and ask at the next pharmacy. Butane torches and stainless steel forceps are
mostly sold in DIY stores.- If no local supplier is available try the internet:

Australia: (lab ware) Crown Scientific http:/crownscientific.com.au

(chemicals) Sigma Aldrich Pty Ltd. [email protected]

North America: http:/www.coleparmer.com or [email protected] (lab ware)

[email protected] (chemicals) or [email protected]

For cheap replica grating spectroscopes and sets of refractive liquids please
contact: e-mail: [email protected]
 75

Brazil [email protected] or [email protected]

Argentina [email protected]

Mexico [email protected]

Europe: (chemicals) http:/www.sigma-aldrich.com or [email protected]

(lab ware & chemicals) France + Germany [email protected]

Great Britain [email protected]
Spain [email protected]
Russia [email protected]

(cheap butane torches) http:/www.business.conrad.com

( D.I.Y. kit for an excellent, cheap hand spectroscope (≈ € 10), polarizing foil):
[email protected]

For supply sources for other European contries please ask:

[email protected] or www.sigma-aldrich.com or www.vwr.com

Republic of South Africa: [email protected] or [email protected]

[email protected] (chemicals)

Turkey [email protected]

India [email protected]

Iran [email protected]

Korea [email protected]

Malaysia [email protected]

China [email protected]

Japan: http://www.to-mate.co.jp
[email protected]

Finally, a hint to more or less dedicated mineral collectors. Long experience has shown
that roughly 1 to 2 % of all sold minerals are incorrectly labelled, and even more are
incompletely labelled, i.e. if you inspect the specimen carefully using a lens you may find
other minerals. - If this information has triggered your interest in quick assays, I recommend
that you do not buy the full equipment at once. Instead, start with the few chemicals and items
for the classical tests described in part I.
 76

III Appendix

A basic kit of chemicals and equipment:

soda, dry Na2 CO3 , sodium carbonate

borax, dry Na2B4 O7 , sodium tetraborate
phosphorous salt NH 4 NaHPO4 4H2O sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate
or
sodium meta phosphate NaPO3
ammonium hydrogen sulphate NH4 HSO 4
a mixture of ammonium chloride and ammonium nitrate NH 4Cl/NH4 NO3 1:2.5
a mixture of dry soda and potassium nitrate Na2 CO3 /KNO3 3:1
tin Sn , granules or foil
sodium perborate NaBO3 4H2 O or denture cleaning tablets
fluorite CaF2
gypsum CaSO 4 2H2 O
silver Ag , sheet or coin
pH paper
cotton wool
magnesium ribbon Mg

butane burner
charcoal in rectangular pieces
magnesia rods
magnesia furrows
closed glass tubes
open glass tubes
wooden clothes peg (spring type)
test tubes, small and normal size with cork stopper
forceps, stainless steel
spatula, stainless steel
microscopic slides and cover glasses
sapphire file
a small mortar, made from agate or corundum, alternatively a porcelain mortar
filter paper for analytical use, 50 mm diameter
glass rods
water colour brush
streak plate
cobalt glass

hydrochloric acid, HCl 15%

acetic acid, CH3 COOH 20%
ammonium hydroxide, NH4 OH 15%
methanol CH 3OH or ethanol C2 H5OH

Annex I, comprises all chemicals and equipment mentioned in the General part:

potassium hydrogen sulphate KHSO 4

oxalic acid (COOH)2 2H2O
Zn, in granules
cobalt nitrate Co(NO3 )2
tin chloride SnCl2
sodium thiosulphate Na2 S2O5 5H2O
ammonium carbonate (NH4 )2 CO3
 77

ammonium heptamolybdate (NH 4 )6Mo 7 O27 4H2O

potassium oxalate K 2 (COO)2
lead acetate Pb(CH 3 COO) 2 3H2 O for preparing lead acetate paper
barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 8H2O or calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
ammonium hypophosphite NH 4HPO2
potassium permanganate KMnO 4 for preparing pyrolusite paper
sodium hydroxide NaOH
potassium hydroxide KOH
dimethyl glyoxime CH3 C(NOH)C(NOH)CH 3
nitric acid 15% HNO 3
Pt wire loop
a small beaker, 10 or 25 ml
dropper
stainless steel spoon
small porcelain dish
glass funnel, top diameter 35 mm
plastic funnel
clay dishes

Annex II, comprises all chemicals and equipment mentioned in the Special part:

Some chemicals are only used for the determination of one or a few elements, this is indicated by the
relevant element symboles in brackets.

ammonium sulphate (NH 4 )2 SO4 ( Ca )

sodium acetate CH3 COONa
potassium carbonate K2 CO3
potassium nitrate KNO 3
potassium nitrite KNO 2 ( I )
potassium bromide KBr ( only used for the preparation of bromine water )
potassium bromate KBrO3 ( only used for the preparation of bromine water )
potassium iodate KIO 3 ( Th )
potassium dichromate K2 Cr2 O7 ( F, Pb )
ammonium oxalate (COONH4)2 H2O ( Ca )
ammonium thiocyanate NH 4 CNS ( Co, Mo )
sodium nitroprusside Na2 Fe(CN)5 NO 2H2 O ( S in presence of Se or Te )
sodium cobaltonitrite Na3 Co(NO2)6 also called sodium hexanitritrocobaltate(III) ( K )
sodium fluoride NaF ( U )
calcium hypochlorite Ca(ClO)2 ( Au )
ammonium acetate CH 3COONH 4
sodium sulphide Na2 S
potassium ferrocyanide K 4 Fe(CN)6 3H2O
potassium ferricyanide K3 Fe(CN)6 ( Fe 2+ )
5-(4-dimethylaminobenzyliden)-rhodanine C12H12N2OS2 ( Ag, Au, Pt, Pd)
diphenylcarbazide C13H14N4O ( Mg )
aurintricarboxylic acid ammonium salt C 22H14 O9 3 NH3 ( Al )
quinalizarin, 1,2,5,8-tetrahydroxy anthraquinone C 14 H8O6
also sold as chinalizarin ( Be, Mg )
Na alizarin sulphonate C14 H7 O7 SNa also sold as alizarin red S
p-nitrobenzeneazo-α α -naphtol O 2NC6H4=NC 10H6OH
also called 4-(4-nitrobenzolazo)-1-naphthol or magneson II ( Mg )
diphenylthiocarbazid C6 H5 NHNHCSN:NC6H5 also called dithizon ( Zn )
sulphur S
copper sulphate CuSO4 5H2O ( Br )
copper oxide CuO ( Cl )
 78

potassium iodide KI
barium chloride BaCl 2 2H2O ( SO42- )
silver nitrate AgNO3 ( As )
turmeric paper ( B, Zr )
KI/starch paper
ZnS paper
zinc ferrocyanide paper
hydrochloric acid, conc. HCl 30%
nitric acid, conc. HNO3 68%
sulphuric acid H 2 SO4 100%

spot test plate

test tube rack
silver dish
plastic beaker
water bath/ tea light
SiC grinding paper

References
Brush, George Jarvis: Manual of Determinative Mineralogy with an Introduction on
Blowpipe Analysis - Sixteenth edition
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York - London 1926

Dana, Edward Salisbury: The System of Mineralogy of James Dwight Dana - Descriptive
Mineralogy - Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Ltd. 1892

DÀns/Lax: Taschenbuch für Chemiker und Physiker Bd.I - Dritte Auflage 1967
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN 3-540-03756-X

Eppler, W.F.: Praktische Gemmologie - 1973 Rühle-Diebener-Verlag KG, Stuttgart

Evans, Anthony M.: Introduction to Mineral Exploration

Blackwell Science Ltd. 1995 ISBN 0-632-02427-5

Feigl, Fritz: Spot Tests - Volume I: Inorganic applications -

Elsevier Publishing Company Amsterdam - Houston - London - New York 1954

Fleischer, Michael & Mandarino, Joseph A.: Glossary of Mineral Species 1991
The Mineral Record Inc. Tucson, Arizona 85740, POB 35565 U.S.A.

Franke, Walter Artur, Mehran, Nosrat-A.: Crystal Growth in Gels at elevated Pressures:
the upper limit of temperature for metastable formation of aragonite.
Cryst. Res. Technol., 27/3 (1992), p. 295-299.

Garnes, Richard V, Skinner, H. Catherine, Fourd, Eugene E, Mason, Brian & Rosenzweig,
Abraham:
Dana´s New Mineralogy
John Wiley & Sons, 1997 ISBN 0471-19310-0
 79

Gocht, Werner: Handbuch der Metallmärkte - Zweite Auflage 1985

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo, ISBN 3-540-16128-1

Henglein, Martin: Lötrohrprobierkunde - 4. Auflage - Sammlung Göschen Band 483

Walter De Gruyter & Co. Berlin 1962

Hochleitner, Rupert, von Philipsborn, Henning, Weiner, Karl Ludwig, Rapp, Klaus:
Minerale - Bestimmen nach äusseren Kennzeichen. 3. Auflage
E. Schweizerbarth´sche Verlagsbuchhandlung Stuttgart 1996

Jones, Meurig P.: Applied Mineralogy - A Quantitative Approach - 1987

Graham & Trotman Ltd. London, ISBN 0-860-10511-3

Klockmann, Friedrich: Klockmanns Lehrbuch der Mineralogie / überarbeitet und erweitert

von Paul Ramdohr und Hugo Strunz - 16. Auflage 1978
Ferdinand Enke Verlag Stuttgart, ISBN 3-432-82986-8

Köhler, Alexander: Das Bestimmen der Minerale - Springer-Verlag Wien 1949

Kolbeck, Friedrich: Carl Friedrich Plattners Probierkunst mit dem Lötrohre - Siebente
Auflage - Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig 1907

Mason, Brian: Principles of Geochemistry - Second edition 1952

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York

Merian, Ernest: Metalle in der Umwelt - Verlag Chemie Weinheim; Deerfield Beach, Florida
Basel 1984, ISBN 3-527-27817-5

Moesta, Hasso: Erze und Metalle - Ihre Kulturgeschichte im Experiment.

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York 1983, ISBN 3-540-11799-7

Ney, Paul: Gesteinsaufbereitung im Labor - 1986 Ferdinand Enke Verlag Stuttgart

ISBN 3-432-95971-0

Pape, Hansgeorg: Leitfaden zur Bestimmung von Erzen und mineralischen Rohstoffen -
Ferdinand Enke Verlag Stuttgart 1977 ISBN 3-432-89011-7

Phillipsborn, Hellmut von: Tafeln zum Bestimmen von Mineralen nach äußeren Kennzeichen
2. Auflage - Ferdinand Enke Verlag Stuttgart 1967

Riesenfeld, E. H.: Anorganisch-chemisches Praktikum - Neunte Auflage

S. Hirzel Verlag Leipzig 1930

Ritchie, Arthur S.: Chromatography in Geology - Elsevier 1964

Sinkankas, John: Mineralogy for amateurs - Van Nostrand Reinhold Company

New York - Cincinnati - Toronto - London - Melbourne 1964

Vogel, Arthur Israel: Vogel`s qualitative inorganic analysis - 6th ed. revised by G. Svehla.
1987 Longman Scientific & Technical - ISBN 0-582-45090-X
80
81
 82

Glossary
carbonatite
A calcitic or dolomitic rock of apparent ly magmatic origin.

Earth's crust
The outmost layer of the Earth constitutes less than 0.1% of the Earth´s volume. The
continental crust of continents and continental shelves has an average thickness of 35 km,
while the oceanic crust underlying the deep sea is only 5 to 10 km thick.

endogenic cycle
All geological events happening within the Earth´s crust, mainly under reducing conditions.

exogenic cycle
Geological events on the Earth´s surface, mainly under oxidizing conditions like weathering,
transport, and deposition of sediments.

gossan
An iron-bearing weathered zone overlying many sulphide deposits. It contains mainly
hematite and limonite, but sometimes residual minerals like gold and often oxidation products
such as sulphates, phosphates, arsenates, and vanadates. German: Eiserner Hut

hydrothermal deposit
Deposits formed from aqueous fluids by the crystallization of ore and gangue minerals in the
temperature range of 50° C to 400° C, mostly they occur in former fractures and faults.

ICP spectrometer
The substance is dissolved; this diluted solution is sprayed into the plasma of an inductively
coupled plasma torch. The extreme ly high temperature of the plasma causes a wavelength-
characteristic emission of visible light for nearly all present elements. A special combination
of prisms, lenses, and detectors allows the simultaneous identification of many elements.

igneous rock
A rock that solidified from a wholly or partially molten material, a magma.

isomorphism
Two or more different crystalline compounds with very similar crystal lattices which form
mixed crystals.

mafic minerals
Dark coloured minerals, mainly ferromagnesian, occurring in igneous rocks.

metamict
A mineral whose short-range order has been disrupted by radiation damage after
crystallization. The radiation is due to uranium or thorium. Most metamict crystals show a
dark colour, e.g. zircon.

metamorphic rocks
A rock derived from a sediment or other rock by the formation of new crystalline phases due
to considerable changes in temperature and pressure, generally at depth in the Earth´s crust.
 83

nepheline syenite
Plutonic rock, mainly composed of Na-rich alkali feldspar and nepheline together with
amphiboles or pyroxenes. Rare minerals are often frequent in minor amounts.

orthomagmatic
The stage during which the main mass of a magma crystallizes.

outcrop
Rocks and minerals that are exposed and visible at the surface.

oxidation zone
The part of a sulphide deposit that is chemically altered by the reaction with water and air.

pegmatite
A coarse-grained igneous rock at the upper margin of granites, mostly within the overlying
rocks. During crystallization of a granite the residual melt is enriched with water and all
elements which are not incorporated in the main minerals quartz, feldspars, and biotite. Thus
such enriched trace elements themselves form minerals in the pegmatite.

placer deposit
A surficial mineral deposit which is formed by the mechanical concentration of weathering
debris by tides or rivers. Typical placer minerals have a density higher than quartz, they are
considerably weathering-resistant and mostly have a hardness higher than 5.
E.g. cassiterite, rutile, zircon, diamond, gold. German: Seifenlagerstätte

pneumatolysis
Alteration of a rock by a super-critical fluid derived from a magma.

plutonic rock
Such rocks have been formed at considerable depth by the very slow crystallization of a
magma, therefore medium to coarse grained crystals are dominant. E.g. granite and gabbro.

silicates
Compounds with a crystal structure containing SiO 4 tetrahedra. The tetrahedra can be joined
through one or more of the oxygen atoms to form groups (neso, soro), chains (ino), rings
(cyclo), sheets (phyllo), or three-dimensional (tecto) structures together with other cations. -

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

The specimen is sputtered with gold or graphite to ensure electric conductivity; it is

positioned in a vacuum chamber. An electronic beam is focused on the specimen surface and
scanned across it in a raster pattern of parallel lines. The electron impact at the surface causes
the emission of secondary electrons with energies of a few tens of eV, and high energy
backscattered electrons. The intensity of both emissions is very sensitive to the angle between
primary beam and surface.
The emitted secondary electrons are collected and amplified; this signal is used to vary the
brightness of a cathode ray monitor scanned in synchronism with the primary electron beam.
Thus the SEM image shows the surface topography of the specimen at a magnification of 40
to more than 10,000 x.
 84

Suitable detectors for backscattered electrons can produce also a backscattered image, in
this case the intensity is dependent on the average atomic number of the specimen, as well as
the surface topography: local variations in chemical composition result in variations in the
contrast of the image.
Moreover, X-ray photons are emitted with wavelength and energy characteristic of the
elements in the specimen. This spectrum can be used for quantitative chemical microanalysis.
French: microscope electronique a balayage - German: Rasterelektronenmikroskop

transition elements
All elements with atomic numbers from 21 to 30, from 39 to 48, from 57 to 80, or 89 and
higher. They are all metals.

volcanic exhalations
Gases produced by a volcano; they always contain water and carbon dioxide; H2 S, HCl,
fluorides and chlorides are also frequently present.

volcanic rocks
Rocks that have been formed by the very quick crystallization of a magma at or near the
surface. Crystals are generally very fine-grained, some glass may occur. E.g. basalt.

X-ray fluorescence spectrometer

The sample is either melted with lithium borate to produce a glass disc, or very finely
powdered and pressed to a flat pellet. A characteristic X-ray spectrum of the elements is
produced by directing an X-ray of very short wavelength at this sample. This is due to specific
electronic transitions within the atoms of the substance. The emitted specific X-rays are either
separated by a monochromator and detected (wavelength dispersive spectrometer) or
determined by a detector which measures the energy of the X-ray quantum (energy dispersive
spectrometer).

X-ray powder diffraction

A monochromatic X-ray beam is directed towards a flat, fine-powdered crystalline sample.
The random orientation of the tiny crystals ensures all possible orientations between the X-ray
and crystal lattice. Appropriate rotations of the sample and the detector allow all diffracted
beams to be recorded consecutively (X-ray powder diffractometer).
The Debye-Scherrer method places the powder sample in a thin capillary of a Li-Be-borate
glass. This capillary is turned around in the axis of a cylinder, the primary X-ray beam hits the
sample perpendicular to the axis, and the diffracted beams are recorded by a film which is
fixed to the inner surface of the cylinder.
 85

Subject index

Agate mortar, 11, 71 Calcite, staining tests, 64

Air traffic regulations, 8, 15 Calcium, 26, 28, 43

Alizarin, test for aluminum, 39 Carbonate, detection, 18, 35, 43

- test for zirconium, 61, 62 Carbonate, staining, 64

Alkali hydroxides, fusion with, 31, 36, 37, 39, 43, Carbon, 43
-51, 56, 61, 71
Carborundum SiC, 43
Aluminium, test for, 32, 39
Carborundum paper, 11
Aluminum foil, 12, 16, 24, 40, 49
Cassiterite, test for, 57
Amber, 18
Cerium, 44, 45
Anvil, 71
Cesium, 47, 81
Ammonium hydroxide, 14, 15
Charcoal, 7, 8, 10, 20
Ammonium molybdate, 63
Chemicals, supply sources, 74, 75
Antimony, 18, 19, 21, 26, 55
Chemicals, transport of, 12, 15, 72
Aragonite, distinction from calcite, 64
Chlorides, detection of, 35, 46
Arsenates, 20, 34, 35
Chlorine, 34, 46, 60
Arsenic, 18, 19, 21, 26, 30, 39, 73
Chromates, formation of, 47
Aurintricarboxylic acid, 39
Chromium, 26, 29, 30, 47
Barium, 26, 28, 41
Clay dishes, formation of, 9
Beryl, identification, 42
Clay dishes, glazing of, 9, 70
Beryllium, 42
Cobalt, 22, 25, 26, 30, 47
Bismuth, 20, 21, 22, 26, 43
Cobalt glass, 27
Blank test, 9, 10, 40, 51
Colour intensity of solutions, 34, 48, 42
Blow pipe, 3, 5, 6, 7
Colour perception, 71
Borax beads, 8, 23 - 26
Coltan, 52
Boron, 26,27, 31, 41
Columbium, 30, 52
Bromine, 42, 46
Copper, 22, 25, 26, 48, 68
Bromine water, 41, 42, 63
Copper minerals, solution in ammonium carbonate,
Bunsen burner, 6, 32, 57 - 48, 68

Butane burner, butane torch, 6, 7, 25 Corundum mortar, 71

Cadmium, 21, 44, 73 Comminution, 71

 86

Curcuma paper, see turmeric paper, 41, 61, 62 Internet, mineral data, 70

Density determination, 69 Iodine, 46, 49, 63

Decripitation, 17 Iridium, 54

Diamond, 43 Iron, 22, 25, 26, 48

Diamond file, 11 Iron oxide, selective dissolution of, 34

Dimethylglyoxime, 53, 55, 62 Lanthanides, 44

Dolomite, staining test, 64 Lanthanum, 46

Dropper, 14, 15 Lead, 20, 22, 24, 26, 54

Earth´s crust, composition of, 39, 82 Lithium, 26, 28, 50, 81

Ferric iron, 49 Mafic minerals, 82

Ferrous iron, 49 Magnesia rods, 8, 24, 27, 37

Filter paper, 38 Magnesia furrows, 9, 13, 29, 37

Finger protectors, 16 Magnesite, staining test, 64

Fluorescence, 34, 59, 65, 66 Magnesium, 50, 51

Fluorine, 18, 31, 48 Magnet, transport of, 71

Fusion melts, a survey of, 36, 37 Manganese, 29, 51

Gallium, 62 Manganese oxides, selective dissolution of, 34

Germanium, 62 Mercury, 18, 19, 20, 49, 74

Glass rod, 11, 47, 61 Metallic beads, 20, 21, 23, 36

Glass tubes, cutting of, 11 Metamict minerals, 17, 82

- bending of, 19
Microcosmic salt, 12, 13, 23
Gold, 22, 40, 74
Molybdenum, 22, 26, 30, 52
Gossan, 20, 21, 40, 82
Neodymium, 25, 44, 46
Graphite, 24, 43
Nickel, 22, 25, 53
Hardness, determination of, 69
Niobium, 52
Health risk, by minerals, 73
Osmium, 54
Hydrogen peroxide, substitute by denture cleaning
tablets, 14 Palladium, 54, 55
- substitute by sodium perborate, 14
- reaction with V, 60 Periodic table of elements, 80
- test for Ti, 58, 61
- test for Ce, 45 Phosphate beads, 23 - 26
- test for Zr, 61
ICP, 3, 82 Phosphorus, 26, 31, 53

Indium, 62 Platinum, 8, 54
 87

Platinum wire loop, 8, 24, 27, 59 Strontium, 26, 28, 41, 58

Plastic, stability of, 72 Sulphates, detection of acid insoluble, 30, 55

Polariscope, 73 Sulphides, detection of acid insoluble, 30, 31, 55

Polarizing foil, 74, 75 Sulphur, 30, 31, 55

Potassium, 26, 28, 50, 81 Sulphur dioxide, detection of, 18

Praseodymium, 25, 44, 45 Tellurium, 20, 21,30, 58, 73

Potassium iodide/starch paper, 42, 62 Tantalum, 52, 58

Pyrolusite paper, 18, 62 Thallium, 26, 62, 69

Quinalizarin, 42 Thenard´s blue, 32

Rare earth elements, (REE), 44 Thermoluminescence, 17

Reducing flame, for beads, 25 Thorium, 44, 46

Refractive index, 73 Tin, 22, 57

Rhodium, 54 Titanium, 26, 30, 58, 61

Rinmann´s green, 32, 61 Tungsten, 26, 30, 60

Rubidium, 47, 81 Turmeric paper, 41, 61, 62

Ruthenium, 54 Uranium, 26, 30, 59, 68, 73

Sapphire file, 11 UV sources, 59, 65

Scandium, 44, 45 Vanadium, 26, 30, 59, 60

Scanning electron microscope, 3, 4, 83, 84 Watch glass, 10, 11, 12

Selenium, 18, 19, 21,30, 56, 73 Water bath, 10, 72

Silicates, structure, 35, 83 X-ray powder diffraction, 3, 4, 84

Silicon, 23, 24, 31, 56 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 3, 4, 84

Silver, 22, 39 Yttrium, 44

Silver dish, 61, 71 Zinc, 21, 32, 60, 61

Sodium, 27, 52, 81 Zinc ferrocyanide paper, 48, 63

Spectroscope, with grating, 42, 72, 75 Zinc sulphide paper, 63

with prism, 42, 44, 46, 72 Zirconium, 61

Spot test plates, 9, 70

Stannous chloride, 24, 25, 60, 63

Steel mortar, small, 71

Streak plates, 9, 11, 70

 88

Acknowledgements

My cordial thanks are due to

- my wife Marianne for enduring patience and encouragement,

- Mrs. Anne Beck, who polished up my inimitable English,
- Mrs. Eva Logemann, who prepared the black and white sketches,
- Dipl.Geol. Ralf Gruender for much help in electronic data processing,
- and to my son Jan for preparing the normal spectra.

Furthermore I wish to acknowledge the able technical assistance of Mrs. Eveline Siegmann,
as well as the helping hands from time to time of
- Mrs. Rosemarie Eichhorst (lab),
- Mrs. Christiane Behr (preparation), and
- Mr. Franz Wichmann (mechanics).

The idea to prepare this text was triggered by my late friend Dr.York Moore-Levy
(1924 - 1997) during his work at the Geological Survey of Ireland.