2^

'di^i uj

THE

VECTOR

CALCULUS

B Y

SHAW, JAMES BYRNIE

CONSTABLE

LONDON

S4<

PREFACE.
This volume embodies the lectm-es given on the subject

The to graduate students over a period of four repetitions. of of consideration result the view is of many years point
The author has examined the various methods that go under the name of Vector, and finds that
of the

whole

field.

for all purposes of the physicist

and

for

most

of those of the

geometer, the use of quaternions is by far the simplest in theory and in practice. The various points of view are mentioned in the introduction, and it is hoped that the essential differences are

brought out.

The

tables of

com-

parative notation scattered through the text will assist in following the other methods.

The place of vector work according to the author is in the general field of associative algebra, and every method so far proposed can be easily shown to be an imperfect form
of associative algebra.

From

this standpoint the various

discussions as to the fundamental principles

stood.

may
is

be undernot

As

far as the

mere notations

go, there

much
These
is

difference save in the actual characters

employed. have assumed a somewhat national character. It

un-

foitunate that so

many

exist.

The attempt

in this

book has been to give a text to the

mathematical student on the one hand, in which every physical term beyond mere elementary teims is carefully
defined.

the other hand foi the physical student there will be found a large collection of examples and exercises
will show him the utility of the mathematical methSo very little exists in the numerous treatments of the day that does this, and so much that is labeled vector

On

which

ods.

IV
analysis
is

PREFACE
merely a kind of short-hand, that
it

has seemed

very desirable to
vectors.
of the
It will

clearly the actual use of vectors as be rarely the case in the text that any use
of vectors will be found.

show

components

The

triplexes

in other texts are very

seldom much different fiom the ordi-

nary Cartesian forms, and not worth learning as methods. The difficulty the author has found with other texts is
that after a few very elementary notions, the mathematical student (and we may add the physical student) is suddenly

plunged into the profundities of mathematical physics, as This is rarely the case, and if he were familiar with them.
the object of this text
is

to

make him

familiar with

them

by easy
It is

gradations.

not to be expected that the book will be free from errors, and the author will esteem it a favor to have all
errors

and oversights brought to his attention. He desires to thank specially Dr. C. F. Green, of the University of
Illinois, for his careful

assistance in reading the proof,

in debt to

and

for other useful suggestions.

material widely, and

of

is

Finally he has gathered his many authors for it, to all

whom

he presents his thanks.

James Byrnie Shaw.

Urban A,
III.,

July, 1922.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Chapter Chapter Chapter
I.

Introduction
Scalar Fields

II.

18

III.

Vector Fields

23 52
62

Chapter IV. Chapter

V.

Addition of Vectors
Vectors in a Plane
Vectors in Space
Applications

Chapter VI.

94
127 127 136

Chapter VII.
1.

2. 3.

4.

The Scalar of two Vectois The Vector of two Vectors The Scalar of three Vectors The Vector of three Vectors
Differentials

142
143

Chapter VIII.
1.

145 and Integrals Differentiation as to one Scalar Parameter .... 145

Two
2. 3.

Parameters

151

Differentiation as to a Vector

155 196

Integration

Chapter IX. Chapter X.

Strain

The Linear Vector Function

Deformable Bodies

218

253 253 265

Kinematics of Displacement
Stress

269

Chapter

XL

Hydrodynamics

287

VECTOR CALCULUS
CHAPTER
I

INTRODUCTION
1. Vector Calculus. By this term is meant a system of mathematical thinking which makes use of a special class of symbols and their combinations according to certain

given laws, to study the mathematical conclusions resulting from data which depend upon geometric entities called
vectors, or physical entities representable

by

vectors, or

more generally

entities of

any kind which could be repre-

sented for the purposes under discussion by vectors. These vectors may be in space of two or three or even four or

more dimensions.
of a straight line.
tion.

A geometric vector is a directed segment

It

This

is

has length (including zero) and direcequivalent to saying that it cannot be de-

fined merely
of

by one single numerical value. Any problem mathematics dependent upon several variables becomes For instance, properly a problem in vector calculus.
analytical

geometry

is

a crude kind of vector calculus.

Several sj-stems of vector calculus have been devised, differing in their fundamental notions, their notation, and their laws of combining

The lack of a uniform notation is deplorable, but there seems httle hope of the adoption of any uniform system soon. Existing systems have been rather ardently promoted by mathematicians of the
the s>Tnbols.

same nationaUty

and disagreement exists as to their and their relative logical exactness. These disagreements arise sometimes merely with regard to the proper manner of representing certain combinations of the symbols, or other matters which are purely matters of convention;
as their authors,
relative simplicity, their relative directness,
1

2
sometimes they
?j,re

VECTOR CALCULUS
due to
different views as to

what are the important

things to find expressions for; and sometimes they are due to more fundamental divergences of opinion as to the real character of the

mathematical ideas underlying any system of this

dicate these differences
2.

sort.

We

will in-

and dispose

of

them

in this work.

Bases.

We may

classify broadly the various

systems

of vector calculus as geometric

is

and
is

algebraic.

The former

to be found wherever the desire

to lay emphasis on the

spatial character of the entities

we

are discussing, such as

the

the point, portions of a plane, etc. The latter lays emphasis on the purely algebraic character of the entities with which the calculations are made, these entities
line,

being similar to the positive and negative, and the imaginary of ordinary algebra. For the geometric vector
systems, the symbolism of the calculus
is

really nothing

more than a short-hand

to enable one to follow certain

operations upon real geometric elements, with the possibility kept always in mind that these entities and the
operations may at any moment be called to the front to take the place of their short-hand representatives. For

the algebraic systems,

the

symbolism has to do with

hypernumbers, that

is,

extensions of the algebraic negative

and imaginary numbers, and does not pretend to be the translation of actual operations which can be made visible, any more than an ordinary calculation of algebra could be paralleled by actual geometric or physical operations. If these distinctions are kept in mind the different points

The best examples of geoof view become intelligible. metric systems are the Science of Extension of Grassmann, with its various later forms, the Geometry of Bynames of Study, the Geometry of Lines of Saussure, and the Geometry
of Feuillets of
Cailler.

The

best examples of algebraic

systems are the Quaternions of Hamilton, Dyadics of Gibbs,

INTRODUCTION

Mvlienions of ^McAulay, Biquaternions of Clifford, Triqiiatemions of Combebiac, Linear Associative Algebra of

Peirce.

Various modifications of these

exist,

and some

mixed systems
proper places.

may

be found, which

will

be noted in the

The idea of using a calculus of sjTubols for writing out geometric theorems perhaps originated with Leibniz,^ though what he had in mind had nothing to do with vector calcxilus in its modem sense. The first effective algebraic vector calculus was the Quaternions of Hamilton*
(1843), the first effective geometric vector calculus was the Ausdehnungslehre of Grassmann* (1844). They had predecessors worthy of mention and some of these will be noticed.

3.

H3rpernimibers.

The

real beginning of

Vector Cal-

culus

The

was the early attempt to extend the idea of number. original theory of irrational number was metric,^ and

by means of the segments of straight lines. When to this was added the idea of direction, so that the segments became directed segments, what we now call vectors, the numbers defined were not only capable of being irrational, but they also possessed quality, and could
defined irrationals

be negative or positive.
vector calculus.
If

we

Ordinary algebra is thus the first consider segments with direction

in a plane or in space of three dimensions, then we may call the numbers they define hypemtimbers. The source of the idea was the attempt to interpret the imaginary which

had been created to furnish solutions

cubic.

for

any quadratic or

The imaginary appears

early in Cardan's work.^

For instance he gives as solution of the problem of separating 10 into two parts whose product is 40, the values
o

15,

and

V
of

15.

He
use.

considered

these
dis-

numbers as impossible and

formula there appeared the

no
of

Later

it

was

covered that in the solution of the cubic

by Cardan's

sum

two

of these impossible

4
values

VECTOR CALCULUS

when the answer

actually
a:^

was
15a:

real.

as the solution of the cubic

+
V

Bombelli^ gave 4 the form

121)

.^(2

121)

^(2

4.

These
there

impossible

numbers

incited

much thought and

came about

several attempts to account for

to interpret them.
tially

them and The underlying question was essen-

sought for in concrete cases.

that of existence, which at that time was usually The real objection to the

negative number was its inapplicability to objects. Its use in a debit and credit account would in this sense give it existence. Likewise the imaginary and the complex number,

and

later others,

needed interpretation, that

is,

applica-

tion to physical entities.

Wessel, a Danish surveyor, in 1797, produced a satisfactory method^ of defining complex numbers by means
4.

This same method was later given by Argand^ and afterwards by Gauss^ in connection with various applications. Wessel undertook to go farther and in an analogous manner define hypernumbers by means
of vectors in a plane. of directed segments, or vectors, in space of three
sions.

dimen-

missed the invention of quaternions. In 1813 Servois^" raised the question whether such vectors
of the
fi -\-

He narrowly

might not define hypernumbers

form
cos

cos a-\- q cos

7
would
be.

and inquired what kind of non-reals

p, q, r

He

did not answer the question, however, and Wessel 's paper remained unnoticed for a century.

Hamilton gave the answer to the question of Servois as the result of a long investigation of the whole problem.^^
5.

He

first

considered algebraic couples, that

is

to say in our

terminology, hypernumbers needing two ordinary numerical

INTRODUCTION
values to define them, and
all

possible

modes

of combining

them

under certain conditions, so as to arrive at a similar

couple or hypernumber for the product.

sidered triples

He

then con-

1 Since sets of numbers in general. are roots of unity, he paid most attention to definitions that would lead to new roots of unity.

and

and

^I

that the couple of numbers (a, b) where a and b are any positive or negative numbers, rational or irrational, is an entity in itself and is therefore subject

His fundamental idea

is

to laws of combination just as are single numbers. For instance, we may combine it with the other couple (x, y)
in

two

different
(a, b) (a, b)

ways:

+
X

(x, y) {x, y)

= {a+x,b+y) = (ax - by, ay +

bx).

we say we have added the couples, in the we have multiplied them. It is possible In both cases if we set the couple to define division also. on the right hand side equal to (u, v) we find that
In the
first

case

second case that

du'dx

dv/dy,

du'ldy

dv/dx.

Pairs of functions n, v

which

satisfy these partial differential

equations Hamilton called conjugate junctions.

differential

The

partial

equations were

first

given by Cauchy in this

connection.

The
l

particular couples

(1, 0),

62

(0, 1)

play a special role in the development, for, in the place, any couple may be written in the form
(a, b)

first

aei

+ bez
The

and the notation of couples becomes superfluous; in the second place, by defining the products of 6i and 62 in various

ways we arrive at various algebras

of couples.

general

6
definition

VECTOR CALCULUS
would
be, using the
for

l-l
2-61

= =

Ciiii

C2iii

+ + C2122,

Cii2e2,

i-2
i2'(^2

= =

Ci2ii

C22li

+ + C2222^12262,

varying the choice of the arbitrary constants c, and Hamilton considered several different cases, different

By

algebras of couples could be produced. the c's are all zero except

In the case above

Cm =
From
62

1,

C122

1)
i

C212
it

=
it

1,

C221

1.

the character of

may
and

identical with ordinary

1,

be regarded as entirely follows therefore that

1. On the may be regarded as identical wuth the V other hand we may consider ei to be a unit vector pointing to the right in the plane of vectors, and 2 to be a unit

vector perpendicular to

1.

We have then a vector calculus

The
great merit of

practically identical with Wessel's,

Hamilton's investigation lies of course in its generality. He continued the study of couples by a similar study of triples and then quadruples, arriving thus at Quaternions.

His chief difference in point of view from those who followed him and who used the concept of couple, triple, etc. {Mulsay for the general case), is that he invariably defined one product, whereas others define usually several.
tiple

we

will

6. Multiples. There is a considerable tendency in the current literature of vector calculus to use the notion of

multiple.

vector

is

usually designated

by a

triple as

It is {x, y, z), and usually such triple is called a vector. generally tacitly understood that the dimensions of the numbers of the triple are the same, and in fact most of the

products
find

defined

homogeneity of

would have no meaning unless dimension were assumed to hold.

this

We
For

products defined arbitrarily in several ways.

b, c)

instance, the scalar produx:t of the triples (a,

and

{x, y, z)

INTRODUCTION
is

the sign depending upon the person giving the definition; the vector product of the same two az, cy, ex triples is usually given as the triple (bz
it (ax
-\-

by

-{-

cz),

obvious at once that a great defect of such that the triples involved have no sense until the significance of the first number, the second number,

ay

bx)

It is

definitions

is

and the third number

these depend
calculus

in each triple
for their

is

understood.

If

upon axes

meaning, then, the whole

is tied down to such axes, unless, as is usually the done, expressions used in the definitions are so chosen as to be in some respects independent of the particular

set

of

axes chosen.

When

these

expressions

are thus

chosen as invariants under given transformations of the axes we arrive at certain of the well-known systems of vector analysis. The transformations usually selected to
furnish the profitable expressions are the group of orthog-

onal transformations.

For instance,

it

was shown by

the invariant expressions or invariant triples are combinations of the three following:
all

Burkhardt^^ that

ax
(bz
{al
(bl
(el

-\-

by

-\- cz,

cy, ex

az,

ay
bT)y

bx),

bm

+ en)x +
-j-

(am

+
-j-

(an
(bn

ct)z,

am)x
an)x

(al

-\-

bm

-\-

cn)y

cm)z,
cti)z.

(cm

bn)u

(al

+ 6m +

A
?n

study of vector systems from this point of view has

made by

Schouten.^^

Quaternions. In his first investigations, Hamilton ras chiefly concerned with the creation of systems of
to the

lypernumbers such that each of the defining i and co above, was a root of unity.^^

units, similar

process of multiplication
multiplicand.

by

iteration

That is, the would bring back the

He was

actually interested in certain special

VECTOR CALCULUS
and if he had noticed the group researches would perhaps have extended into

cases of abstract groups/^

property his
the whole

field of abstract groups. In quaternions he found a set of square roots of 1, which he designated by i, j, k, connected with his triples though belonging to a set of quadIn his Lectures on Quaternions, the first treatise he ruples.

published on the subject, he chose a geometrical method of exposition, consequently many have been led to think of

However, the quaternions as having a geometric origin. original memoirs show that they were reached in a purely
algebraic way,

and indeed according to Hamilton's

philoso-

phy were based on steps of time as opposed to geometric

steps or vectors.

The geometric definition is quite simple, however, and not so abstract as the purely algebraic definition. According to this idea, numbers have a metric definition, a
number, or hypernumber, being the ratio of two -vectors. If the vectors have the same direction we arrive at the
ordinary numerical scale. at the negative numbers.
If

they are opposite we arrive

the same direction

If neither in

nor opposite we have a more general kind of number, a hypernumber in fact, which is a quaternion, and of which
the

ordinary

numbers and the negative numbers are

merely special cases. If we agree to consider all vectors which are parallel and in the same direction as equivalent, that is, call them free vectors, then for every pair of vectors

from the origin or any fixed point, there

Among
8.

is a quaternion. these quaternions relations will exist, which will be one of the objects of study of later chapters.

Mobius was one

of the early inventors of a vector

calculus on the geometric basis. In his Barycentrisches Kalkul^^ he introduced a method of deriving points from

other points by a process called addition, and several

INTRODUCTION
applications
is

were made to geometry. The barycentric somewhat between a system of homogeneous His addition was coordinates and a real vector calculus.
calculus

used by Grassmann.

1844 published his treatise called Die lineale Ausdehningslehre^' in which several different proc9.

Grassmann
called

in

esses

multiplication are used for the derivation of

geometric entities
processes
sort of

make

from other geometric entities. These use of a notation which is practically a

of multiplication

short-hand for the geometric processes involved.

Grassmann considered these various kinds

abstractly, leaving out of account the meaning of the elements multiplied. His methods apply to space of dimensions. In the symmetric multiplication it is possible

to interchange
result.

any two

of the factors

without affecting the

In the circular multiplication the order may be changed cyclically. In the lineal multiplication all the laws hold as well for any factors which are linear combinations of

the hypernumbers which define the base, as for

those called the base.

If

He

studies

two

species of circular

the defining units of the base are ei, 2, ea multiplication. then we have in the first variety of circular multiplication the laws
,

1'

+
0,

2^

+
Co'

63^

+
0,

4-

62

0,

,6;

6,.-.

In the second variety

1"

we have the laws

-

0,

e.cy

0,

i^j.

In the lineal genus of multiplication he studies two species, in the first, called the algebraic multiplication, we

have the law

eij

ejfi

for all

i, j.

while in the second, called the exterior multiplication, the

interchange of any two factors changes the sign of the

10
result.

VECTOR CALCULUS
Of the
latter there are

multiplication in

geometric figure dimensions of the factors, while in the other, called regressive multiplication, the dimension of the product is the
difference

two varieties, the progressive which the number of dimensions of the which is the product is the sum of the

between the sum of the dimensions

of the factors

and

the dimension of the space in which the operation takes place. From the two varieties he deduces another

kind called interior multiplication. If we confine our thoughts to space of three dimensions, defined by points, and if i, 2, 3, 4 are such points, the
progressive exterior product of two, as ci, 2, is 162 and represents the segment joining them if they do not coincide.

The product
with edges
respectively.

is

zero

if

they coincide.

The product

of this

into a third point

162,

3 is

eiez

ie23 and represents the parallelogram and the other two parallel to these

If all three

points are in a straight line the

i263e4

product

is

zero.

The

exterior progressive product

represents the parallelepiped with edges 162, i3, 164 and the opposite parallel edges. The regressive exterior product
of

i2 and ei3e4
of

is

their

common
is

point

1.

The
line

regressive
162.

product

i23 and ei24

of
is
1

their

common
26364,

The
is 6364,

complement and of i2e3 and another

first

is

defined to be

and

of

162

4.

The

interior product of

any expression

is

into the

the progressive or regressive product of the complement of the other. For instance, the

interior

and and 2
1

ei3e4
is

product of ei and 2 is the progressive product of which vanishes. The interior product of 2
the product of
2

the product of ei623 ]2e3 164 and 263 which would be regressive and be the line 6263. We have the same kinds of multiplication if the expresinterior

product of

and and

ci3e4
is

which

is

62ei34.

The

sions

are vectors

and not

points,

and they may even be

lb

INTRODUCTION

11

The interpretation is different, however. It is to see that Grassmann's ideas do not lend themselves easy readily to numerical application, as they are more closely
planes.

related to the
fact,

projective

when

translated,

most

transformations of space. In of the expressions would be

phrased in terms of intersections, points, lines and planes, rather than in terms of distances, angles, areas, etc. 10. Dyadics were invented by Gibbs,^^ and are of both the
algebraic

and the geometric character.

Gibbs has,

like

Hamilton, but one kind of multiplication. If we have given two vectors a, /3 from the same point, their dyad is a^.
This is to be looked upon as a new entity of two dimensions belonging to the point from which the vectors are drawn. It is not a plane though it has two dimensions, but is really a particular and special kind of dyadic, an entity of twodimensional character, such that in every case it can be considered to be the sum of not more than three dyads. Gibbs never laid any stress on the geometric existence of
the dyadic, though he stated definitely that it was to be considered as a quantity. His greatest stress, however,

was upon the operative character

simplest interpretation
strain.
is

of the dyadic, its various

combinations with vectors being easily interpretable.

The

from

its

use in physics to represent

Gibbs also pushed his vector calculus into space of many dimensions, and into triadic and higher forms, most of which can be used in the theory of the elasticity of crystals.

and vector multiplication he considered as functions of the dyadic, rather than as multiplications, and there are corresponding functions of triadics and
scalar

The

In this respect his point of view is close to higher forms. that of Hamilton, the difference being in the use of the dyadic or the quaternion.
11.
z

Other forms of vector calculus can be reduced to

12

VECTOR CALCULUS

these or to combinations of parts of these. The differences are usually in the notations, or in the basis of exposition.

Notations for One Vector

Greek
letters,

Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Gibbs.

Fehr,
Ferraris,

Italics,

Grassmann,_Peano,
writes
a, b, c.

Macfarlane.

Heun

Old English or German letters, Maxwell, Jaumann, Jung, Foppl, Lorentz, Gans, Abraham, Bucherer, Fischer, Sommerfeld.
Clarendon type, Heaviside, Gibbs, Wilson, Jahnke, Timerding, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

Length of a vector

T
I I

( ),
,

Hamilton, Tait, Joly.

Wilson, Jaumann, small italic,

Italic

Gans, Bucherer, Timerding. corresponding to the vector

Jahnke.

letter,

Jung, Fischer, Macfarlane.

Corresponding

Mod.

( ),

Peano, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo, Fehr.

Unit of a vector

( ), Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Peano. Clarendon small, Wilson. ( )i,

Bucherer, Fischer.
letter,

Corresponding Greek

Macfarlane.

Some

write the vector over the length.

Square of a

vector

(y.

The square
it is

is

usually positive except in Quaternions,

where

negative.

Reciprocal
(

)~S Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Jaumann.

,

TT

Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Fischer, Bucherer.

CHAPTER
1.

II

SCALAR FIELDS
Fields.
If we consider a given set of elements in we may have for each element one or more quantities

space,

determined, which can be properly called junctions of the

element.

For instance, at each point in space we may have a temperature, or a pressure, or a density, as of the air. Or for every loop that we may draw in a given space we

a length, or at some fixed point a potential due to the loop. Again, we may have at each point in space

may have

a velocity which has both direction and length, or an

magnetic intensity. Xot to multiply examples unnecessarily, we can see that for a given range
electric intensity, or a

of points, or lines, or other geometric elements,

we may

have a set of quantities, corresponding to the various

elements of the range, and therefore constituting a function of the range, and these quantities may consist of numerical
values, or of vectors, or of other hypernumbers.

When

they are of a simple numerical character they are called acalars, and the function resulting is a scalar function.

Examples are the density of a fluid at each point, the density of a distribution of energy, and similar quantities consisting of an amount of some entity per cubic centimeter, or per
square centimeter, or per centimeter.

EXAMPLES
unit of electricity is the coulomb, (1) Electricity. connected with the absolute units by the equations
1

The

coulomb

3 10^ electrostatic units

=
13

10~^ electromagnetic units.

14

VECTOR CALCULUS

The

density of electricity is its amount in a given volume, area, or length divided by the volume, area, or length
respectively.

The dimensions of electricity will be represented by [9], and for its amount the symbol 9 will be used. For the volume density we will use e, for areal density e',

for linear density e". If the distribution may be considered to be continuous, we may take the limits and find the

density at a point.
(2)
tity,

Magnetism.

we

will use for the unit of

Considering magnetism to be a quanmeasurement the maxwell,

connected with the absolute units by the equation

1 maxioell

3 10^" electrostatic units

=
Sometimes
10^

electromagnetic unit

maxwells

is

called a weber.

The symbol
[$],

fc

magnetism m, m', m".

(3)

will

be $, the dimensions
is

the densitie

Action.

This quantity

much used

in physics, thj

principle of least action being one of the

most importai

fundamental bases of modern physics.

of action are
[9<l>],

The dimension^
is

the symbol

we

shall use

A, and the

unit might be a quantum, but for practical purposes a In the case of a moving particle the joule-second is used. action at any point depends upon the path by which the
particle has reached the point, so that as a function of the points of space it has at each point an infinity of values.

function which has but a single value at a point will be called monodromic, but if it has more than one value it will
function.
ticles
field,

be called polydromic. The action is therefore a polydromic We not only have action in the motion of par-

but we find

it

as a necessary function of a
field.
is

momentum

or of an electromagnetic

(4)

Energy.

The

unit of energy

the erg or the joule

SCALAR FIELDS

15
its

10^ ergs.

Its

dimensions are [6^7*"*],

sjTnbol will

heW.
(5) Activity.

This should not be confused with action.

in watts, sjTnbol J, dimensions [Q^T~^].

It is

measured

(6)

Energy-density.

The

s\Tiibol will

be U, dimensions
be Q, dimensions
[Q^TLr^].

le^L'T-'].
(7) Activity-density.

The symbol
is

will

[O^L-'T--].
(8)

Mass.
unit of

The
mass

s\-mbol
is

M, dimensions

The

the gram.

distribution of

mass

is

usually called a distribution of matter. The sjTnbol will be (9) Density of mass.
[e^TL-''].
(10) Potential

c,

dimensions
dimensions

of

electricity.

Symbol
SjTnbol

V,

(11) Potential

of

magnetism.

N, dimensions

(12) Potential of gravity.

2.

Levels.

Points at

Symbol P, dimensions [G^T^^l. which the function has the same

It

value, are said to define a level surface of the function.

Such surfaces are usually may named by the use of the prefixes iso and equi. For instance, the surfaces in a cloud, which have all points at the same temperature, are called isothermal surfaces; surfaces which have points at the same pressure are called isobaric surfaces;
have one or more sheets.
surfaces of equal density are isopycnic surfaces; those of equal specific volume (reciprocal of the density) are the isosteric surfaces;

those of equal humidity are isohydric surfaces. Likewise for gravity, electricity, and magnetism we have
3.

equipotential surfaces.

Lamellae.

Surfaces

are

frequently

considered

for

which we have unit difference between the values of the function for the successive surfaces. These surfaces and

16
the space between
lamellae.
If

VECTOR CALCULUS

them

constitute a succession of unit

a line from a point AtoB. point B, the number of unit lamellae traversed will give the difference between

we follow

the two values of the function at the points A and B. If this is divided by the length of the path we shall have the
rate of change of the function along the path. If the path is straight and the unit determining the lamellae
is

mean

made
any

at

to decrease indefinitely, the limit of this quotient point is called the derivative of the function at

that point in the given direction. The derivative is approximately the number of unit lamellae traversed in a
if they are close together. Geometric Properties. Monodromic levels cannot intersect each other, though any one may intersect itself.

unit distance,
4.

Any one

or

all of

points, pinch-points,

metric surfaces. the singularities

surface.

may have nodal lines, conical and the other peculiarities of geoThese singularities usually depend upon
the levels
of

the

congruence of normals to the

will

In the case of functions of two variables, the scalar levels be curves on the surface over which the two variables
Their singularities

are defined.

may

be any that can

is

occur in curves on surfaces.

5.

Gradient.

The equation
is

of a level surface

found
for inx, y,

by

setting the function equal to a constant.

If,

stance, the point

located

by the coordinates

and the function

level
is

is

f{x, y, z),

then the equation of any

w
If we pass we have

f{x, y, z)

C.

to a neighboring point on the

same

surface

du

= /(.T +

dx,

y+dy,z-\-

dz)

f(x, y, z)

0.

We may

usually find functions djjdx, df/d, df/dz,

SCALAR FIELDS
functions independent of dx, dy, dz, such that
d2i

17

df/dx-dx

+ djjdy-dy + df/dz-dz.
first

point to the second has as the lengths of its projections on the axes: dx, dy, dz; and if we define a vector whose projections are df/dx, df/dy,
dfjdz,

Now

the vector from the

which we

will call

the Gradient of

f,

then the con-

the condition that the gradient of / shall be perpendicular to the differential on the surface. Hence, if we represent the gradient of / by v/, and the differential
dition
is

du

change from one point to the other by dp, we see that dp is any infinitesimal tangent on the surface and yf is along the normal to the surface.
tiate
shall
It is

in a direction not

easy to see that if we differentangent to a level surface of u we

have

du
If

df;dx-dx

+ df/dy

dx

+ df/dz-dz =
is

dC.

the length of the differential path

ds then

we shall have*

du/ds

projection

of^fon

the unit vector in the direction of dp.

The length

of the vector

rather than the vector

itself.

v/ is sometimes called the gradient Sometimes the negative of

the expression used here is called the gradient. When the three partial derivatives of / vanish for the

same

measured by its and the direction becomes indeterminate from the first differentials. At such points there are singularities of the function. At points where the function becomes infinite, the gradient becomes indeterminate and
point, the intensity of the gradient,
is

length,

zero,

such points are also singular points.

6.

Potentials.

The

three components of a vector at a

point may be the three partial derivatives of the same function as to the coordinates, in which case the vector

may
*

be looked upon as the gradient of the integral func-

Since dx'ds, dy/ds, dz'ds are the direction-cosines of dp.

18
tion,

VECTOR CALCULUS
which
is

called a potential function, or sometimes a

force function.

For instance,

if

the

components

of the

velocity satisfy the proper conditions, the velocity is the gradient of a velocity potential. These conditions will be

discussed later, and the vector will be freed from dependence

upon any
7.

axes.

Relative Derivatives.

In case there are two scalar

functions at a point, we may have use for the concept of the derivative of one with respect to the other. This is

the

defined to be the quotient of the intensity of the gradient of first by that of the second, multiplied by the cosine
If

of their included angle.

it is

the unit lamellae are constructed,

easy to see from the definition that the relative deriva-

tive of the first as to the second will be the limit of the

average or mean of the number of unit sheets of the first traversed from one point to another, along the normal of the second divided by the number of unit sheets of the second
traversed at the same time.

For instance,

if

we draw the
and the

isobars for a given region of the United States

simultaneous isotherms, then in passing from a point A to a point B if we traverse 24 isobaric unit sheets and 10
isothermal unit sheets,
isotherm.
8.
field,

the

average

is

2.4

isobars per

Unit-Tubes.

If

there are two scalar functions in the

will

and the unit lamellae are drawn, the unit sheets

usually intersect so as to divide the space under consideration into tubes whose cross-section will be a curvilinear

parallelogram.

Since the area of such parallelogram

dsidsi CSC
6,

is

approximately

where

dsi

is

the distance from a unit sheet of the function u

to the next unit sheet,

for the function
v,

and
is

while 6

and

since

we have, Tyu

ds2 the corresponding distance the angle between the surfaces; being the intensity of the gradient

SCALAR FIELDS
of u,

19
v,

and T^v the intensity

dsi

of the gradient of
ds2

1/Tvu,

1/Tvv

the area of the parallelogram will be ll(T^uI^v sin 6). Consequently if we count the parallelograms in any plane

Fig.

1.

cross-section of the
is

two

sets of level smiaces, this

number

an approximate value

of the expression

TvuT^v

sin ^

area parallelogram

when summed over the plane cross-section. That is to say, the number of these tubes which stand perpendicular
to the plane cross-section
is

the approximate integral of the

expression T^it T^v sin 6 over the area of the cross-section.

These tubes are called unit tubes for the same reason that
the lamellae are called unit lamellae.

In counting the tubes

it

must be noticed whether the

successive surfaces crossed correspond to an increasing or to a decreasing value of u or of v. It is also clear that

when

sin 6

is

everywhere

the integral must be zero.

In

such case the three Jacobians

d(n, v)/d{y, z),

d(u, v)ld{z, x),

d{u, v)fd(x, y)

20

VECTOR CALCULUS

are each equal zero, and this is the condition that w is a function of v. In case the plane of cross-section is the X, y plane, the first two expressions vanish anyhow, since
u, V are functions of x,

y only.
levels of

one of the functions, say u, as the upper and lower parts of the boundary of the cross-section, that in passing from one of the other sides
It
is

clear

if

we take the

of the

tubes

boundary along each level of u the number of unit we encounter from that side of the boundary to the
is

opposite side
side over that

the excess of the value of

first side.

on the second
dif-

on the

If

then we count the

ferent tubes in the successive lamellae of

u between the

two
of

have the total excess those on the second side over those on the first side.
sides of the cross-section
shall
is

we

That

to say, the

number

of unit tubes or the integral

over the area bounded by level 1 and level 2 of u, and any other two lines which cross these two levels so as to produce a simple area between, is the excess of the sum between the two levels of the values of v on one side over the same

sum between

the two levels of u on the other side.

These
\

graphical solutions are used in Meteorology.

This gives the excess of the integral

vdu along the

second

line

between the two

levels of u, over the

same

in-

tegral along the first line.

It represents the increase of this

integral in a change of path

from one

line to the other.

Foi

the integral is energ}^, the number. of tubes ia of energy stored or released in the passage from one line to the other, as in a cyclone. The number of tubes
instance
if

the

amount

for

any closed path

is

the approximate

integral

tdu

around the path.

SCALAR FIELDS
EXERCISES.
1.

21

If the density varies as the distance

from a given

axis,

what are

the isopyenic surfaces?

2. A rotating fluid mass is in equilibrium under the force of gravity, the hydrostatic pressure, and the centrifugal force. What are the Show that the field of force is conservative. levels? 3. The isobaric surfaces are parallel planes, and the isopyenic surfaces are parallel planes at an angle of 10 with the isobaric planes. \Miat is the rate of change of pressure per unit rate of change of density

along a line at 45 with the isobaric planes? 4. If the pressure can be stated as a fimction of the density, what conditions are necessarj'? Are they sufficient? What is the interpretation with regard to the levels?

Three scalar functions have a functional relation if their Jacobian What does this mean with regard to their respective levels? 6. If the isothermal surfaces are spheres with center at the earth's center, the temperatvu-e sheets for decrease of one degree being 166.66
5.

vanishes.

feet apart,

and

if

the isobaric levels are similar spheres, the pressure

being given

by
log

B =

log B,.

0.0000177(2

Zo),

where
is

the pressure at Zu feet above the surface of the earth, what the relative derivative of the temperature as to the pressure, and the
jBo is
is

pressure as to the temperature? If there 7. To find the maximum of u{x, y, z) we set du = 0. a condition to be fulfilled, v{x, y, z) = 0, then dv = Q also.

also

These two equations in di, dy, dz must be satisfied for values of dx, dy, dz, and we must therefore have
du du &il dx dy' dz'
'

all

compatible

dv

dv

dv

dx' dy' dz'

which

is

equivalent to the single vector equation

VM = WW.

What
dt

does this

mean

in

terms of the levels

The

xmit tubes?

If there is also

=
8.

another equation of condition t(x, y, z) then also Q and the Jacobian of the three functions u, v, t must equal zero.

=0

Interpret.

On

the line of intersection of two levels of two different functions

If

the values of both functions remain constant.

we

differentiate

third function along the locus in question, the differential vanishing

everywhere, what

is

the significance?

22
9. If

VECTOR CALCULUS
a
field of force

has a potential, then a

fluid,

subject to the force

and such that its pressure is a function of the density and the temperaThe ture, will have the equipotential levels for isobaric levels also.
density will be the derivative of the pressure relative to the potential. Show therefore that equilibrium is not possible unless the isothermals are also the levels of force and of pressure.
[p

p{c, T),

and vp = cvv = pcVc

+ prVT.
If

then vc

0,

cvv

pr^T.]

10. If the full lines

below represent the

profiles of isobaric sheets,

and

the dotted lines the profiles of isosteric sheets, count the unit tubes between the two verticals, and explain what the number means. If

they were equipotentials of gravity and isopycnic surfaces, what would the number of unit tubes mean?

Fig.

2.

11. If u = y 12a;^ and v = y x'' + fx, find vu and vv and Ts/uTvv- sin 9, and integrate the latter over the area between x = 0^ X = 1, y = 0, y = 12. Draw the hues.

12. If

=
9

ax -\-by
is

TVMT'Vf -sin

+ cz and and integrate the

x'^

+ y^ +

z"^,

find

vm and vv and

latter expression over the surface of a

cylinder whose axis

in the direction of the z axis.

Find the deriva-

tive of each relative to the other.

CHAPTER
1.

III

VECTOR FIELDS
Hypercomplex Quantity. In the measurement of quantity the first and most natural invention of the mind was the ordinary system of integers. Following this came
the invention of fractions,

then of irrational numbers.

With these the necessary list of numbers for mere measurement of similar quantities is closed, up to the present time. Whether it will be necessary to invent a further extension of number along this line remains for the future to show.
In the attempt to solve equations involving ordinary numbers, it became necessary to invent negative numbers

and imaginary numbers. These were known and used as fictitious numbers before it was noticed that quantities also are of a negative or an "imaginary" character. We find instances everywhere. In debit and credit, for example, we have quantity which may be looked upon as of two different kinds, like iron and time, but the most logical conception is to classify debits and credits together in the One's balance is what he is worth single class balance. when the debits and credits have been compared. If the preponderance is on the side of debit we consider the balance negative, if on the side of credit we consider the balance Likewise, we may consider motion in each direcpositive.
tion of the

compass as in a class by itself, never using any measurement save the purely numerical one of comparing things which are exactly of the same kind But it is more logical, and certainly more general, together.
conception of
to consider motions in
of
all

directions of the

compass and

any

distances as

all

belonging to a single class of quantity,

23

24

VECTOR CALCULUS

In that case the comparison of the different motions leads us to the notion of complex numbers. When Wessel made

study of the vectors in a plane he was studying the hypernumbers we usually call "the complex field." The, hypernumbers had been studied in themselves before, but
his

were looked upon (rightly) as being creations of the mind

that sense correctly) as having no existence in what be called the real world. However, their deduction, might from the vectors in a plane showed that they were present;

and

(in

as relations of quantities which could be considered as alike. Again when Steinmetz made use of them in the study of

the relations of alternating currents and electromotive forces, it became evident that the so-called power current

and wattless current could be regarded as parts of a single complex current, and similarly for the electromotive forces. The laws of Ohm and Kirchoff could then be generalized so

new complex quantities. In this brief an example of the interaction of the developments of mathematics. The inventions of mathematics find instances in natural phenomena, and in some cases
as to be true for the

history we

find

furnish

new conceptions by which natural phenomena can be regarded as containing elements that would ordinarily be completely overlooked.

In space of three (or more) dimensions, the vectors issuing from a point in all directions and of all lengths furnish quantities which may be considered to be all of
the same kind, on one basis of classification.
Therefore,

they

will define certain ratios or relations

which

may

be

called

hypernumbers.

This

is

the class of hypernumbers

we

are particularly concerned with, though

we

shall occa-

notice others. Further, any which can be represented completely for certain purposes by vectors issuing from a point we will call vector quantity.
sionally

kind of quantity*

VECTOR FIELDS
^

25
motions,
velocities,

;ch

quantities,

for

instance,

are

celerations, at least in the

Newtonian mechanics,

forces,

iiomenta, and

many

others.

The

object of

VECTOR CAL-

,CULUS

to study these hypernumbers in relation to their corresponding quantities, and to derive an algebra capable
is

of handling

them.

do not consider a vector as a mere triplex of ordinary numbers. we shall consider two vectors to be identical when they represent or can represent the same quantity, even though one is expressed by a certain triplex, as ordinary Cartesian coordinates, and the
Indeed,
other
In'

We

another triplex, as polar coordinates.

The numerical method

of defining the vector vrUl be considered as incidental.

2.

Notation.

We
will

shall represent vectors for the

letters.

most

part by Greek small

in Electricity,
svTnbols,
it

be more

Occasionally, however, as convenient to use the standard

which are generally Gothic type.

As indicated

on page 12 there is a great variety of notation, and only one principle seems to be used by most writers, namely
that of using heavy type for vectors, whatever the style of In case the vector is from the origin to the point type.
(x, y, z) it

may

be indicated by

while for the

same point given by polar coordinates

Pr,
<F,

r, (p,

we may use
J

In case a vector
will indicate it

is

given by

its

components as X, Y,
z

Z we

by
?x,
r,

tion

Equivalence. All vectors which have the same direcand same length will be considered to be equivalent. Such vectors are sometimes called free vectors. The term
3.

vector will be used throughout this book, however, with no other meaning.

26

VECTOR CALCULUS
In case vectors are equivalent only when they lie on the line, and have the same direction and length, they

same
will

be called

glissants.

must be considered
same point and
resultant

A force applied to a rigid body to be a glissant, not a vector. Ii

when they
be called
start at the

case vectors are equivalent only

coincide, they will
of a

moment

system

of glissants

Th< with respect to a

radials.

point

IS

a radial from A.
of

The equivalence

two vectors

i8

implies the existence of equalities infinite in number,

their projections

foi:

on any other

lines will
is

infinite set of equalities,

however,

then be equal. The reducible in an infinitj

of

ways

may
ocx

to three independent equalities. write either

fix,

For instance, wt

oiy

fiy,

oiz

fi^,

or ar

Br,

a^

/3^,

a^

/3,

The equivalence

of

two

glissants implies sets of equalities

reducible in every case to five independent equalities. Th? equivalence of two radials reduces to sets of six equalities,

is

Closely allied to the notion of radia that of vector field. A vector field is a system of vectoi
4.

Vector Fields.

each associated with a point of space, or a point of a surfacCj or a point of a line or curve. The vector is a function o:
the position of the point which is itself usually given by The vector function may be monodromic oi vector, as p.

polydromic.
fields.

We

will consider

some

of the usual vectoi

EXAMPLES
p [L], This will usually be indicatec a function of a single parameter, as t^ by p. the points defined will lie on a curve;* in case it is a functioi
(1)

Radius Vector,
In case
it is

We

are discussing mainly ordinary functions, not the "pathologic

type."

VECTOR FIELDS
of

27

surface.

two parameters, u, v, the points defined will lie on a The term vector was first introduced by Hamilton

in this sense.

When we

say that the

field is p,

we mean

that at the point whose vector is p measured from the fixed origin, there is a field of velocity, or force, or other quantity,

whose value at the point

(2) Velocity,

is p.

ity

Usually we will designate velocIn the case of a moving gas or cloud, each particle has at each point of its path a definite velocity, so that we

a [LT~^].

by a.

can describe the entire configuration of the moving mass at

any instant by stating what function cr is of p, that is, for the point at the end of the radius vector p assign the velocity

The path of a moving particle will be called a At each point of the path the velocity c is a trajectory.
vector.

tangent of the trajectory.

we lay off from a fixed point the vectors a which correspond to a given trajectory, their terminal points will lie on a locus called by Hamilton the hodograph of the
If

trajectory.

For instance, the hodographs of the orbits of

first
it

the planets are circles, to a

multiply a by

approximation. If we the dimensions of length, namely an infinitesimal length along the tangent of the the trajectory trajectory, the differential equation of
dt,

which gives

becomes
dp

adt.
t

The

integral of this in terms of

gives the equation of the

trajectory.
(3j

Acceleration.
^

t[LT~-].

An acceleration field is

simi-

tion

The acceleraelocity field except in dimensions. the rate of change of the vector velocity at a point, consequently, if a point describes the hodograph of a trajeclar to a
is

tory so that

its

radius vector at a given time

is

in the trajectory at that time, the acceleration will

3

the velocity be a

28

VECTOR CALCULUS
will

tangent to the hodograph, and its length of the moving point in the hodograph.
indicate acceleration.
(4)

be the velocity
will use r to

We

Momentum

Density.

[$eL~^].

This

is

a vector

function of points in space and of some number which can be attached to the point, called density. In the case of a
cloud, for instance, each point of the cloud will have a velocity and a density. The product of these two factors will be a vector whose direction is that of the velocity and

moving

whose length is the product of the length of the velocity and the density. However, momentum density without matter and without motion. In electroexist may
vector

dynamic

fields,

of a single point charge of electricity

such as could exist in the very simple case and a single magnet

momentum

pole at a point, w^e also have at every point of space a density vector. This may be ascribed to the

hypothetical motion of a hypothetical ether, but the essenIf we calculate the tial feature is the existence of the field.

momentum density on the from a to a curve point ^ to a point B, the given tangent value of the integral is the action of an infinitesimal volume,
integral of the projection of the

integration

an action density, along that path from A to B. over a given volume would give the
all

The
total

action for

would be a minimum

the particles over their various paths. This for the paths actually described as
possible

compared

with

paths.

Specific

momentum

is

momentum density of a moving mass. Y [$0L~^]. The volume integral of (5) Momentum. momentum density or specific momentum is momentum,
j

Action
(6)

the line-integral of momentum. Force Density. F [^OL-'T-']. If a

is

field of

momen-

density is varying in time then at each point there is a_ vector which may be called force-density, the time derivative

tum

VECTOR FIELDS
of the

29
in fields

momentum

density.

Such cases occur

due

to

intensity

moving electrons or upon electric

Force.

in the action of a field of electric

density, or magnetic intensity

on

magnetic density.
(7)

[^OL-^T-^].
It
is

The

unit of

force has re-

the volume integral of force The time integral of a field of force is momentum. density. In a stationary field of force the line integral of the field
ceived a name, dyne.

path is the difference in energy between the points at the ends of the path, or what is commonly called In case the field is conservative the integral has the work.
for a given

same value

for all paths

(which at least avoid certain

points.
field is a
field of a force-

singular points),

and depends only on the end

gradient
If

This takes place when the

function, or a potential function.

we

project the force

upon the velocity

at each point where both fields exist,

is

the time integral of the scalar quantity which

the product

of the intensity of the force, the intensity of the velocity

and the cosine

the point,
(8)

of the angle

between them,

is

the activity at

Flux Density.

12

[DT-^.

In the case of the flow of

an entity through a surface the limiting value of the amount that flows normally across an infinitesimal area is a vector whose direction is that of the outward normal of the surface, and whose intensity is the limit. In the case of a flow not
normal to the surface across which the flux
is

to be de-

nevertheless define the flux density as above. termined, The flux across any surface becomes then the surface
integral of the projection of the flux density on the normal of the surface across which the flux is to be measured.
is an example of a vector which depends an The upon area, and is sometimes called a bivector. notion of two vectors involved in the term bivector may

we

Flux density

30

VECTOR CALCULUS

be avoided by the term cycle, or the term feuille. It is also called an axial vector, in opposition to the ordinary
vectors, called polar vectors.
in the sense that
it is

surface.

The

The term axial is applicable the axis or normal of a portion of a portion (feuille, cycle) of the surface is
its

traversed in the positive direction in going around boundary, that is, with the surface on the left-hand.

If

the direction of the axial vector

is

reversed,

we

also traverse

the area attached in the reverse direction, so that in this sense the axial vector may be regarded as invariant for

The

such change while the polar vector would not be invariant. distinction is not of much importance. The important
is

that of areal integration for the flux density or any other so-called axial vector, while the polar vector is subidea
ject only to linear integration. in the difference

We

meet the

distinction

below between the induction vectors and

the intensity vectors.

(9)

Energy Density Current.

R [^L-^T'^].

When
it,

an
it

energy density has the idea of velocity attached to becomes a vector with the given dimensions. In case we consider it as of the nature of a flux density.
(10)

suclj

Energy Current.
is

[^eT'^].

If

density current

multiplied by an area

a vector of energj we arrive at ai

energy current.

Density Current. J [QL-^T-^]. A number of moving electrons will determine an average density
(11) Electric

per square centimeter across the line of flow, and the product

an electric density current. added the time rate of change of electric induction, which is of the same dimensions, and counts as an electric density current. The unit is the ami^m (12) Electric Current. C [07^-^].
of this into a velocity will give
this

To

must

also be

=
of

3-10^

e.s.

units

10~^ e.m. units.

This

is

the product

an

electric density current

by an area.

VECTOR FIELDS
(13)

31

there

is

Magnetic Density Current. G [^L-'T-^. Though usually no meaning to a moving mass of magnetism,
magnetic induction
current, similar to electric

nevertheless, the time rate of change of

must be considered to be a
current density.
(14)

Magnetic Current.

[^f"^].
e.s.

The

unit

is

the

1 e.m. unit 3 W^ heavydde ena of magnetic leakage we have a real example of what be called magnetic current.

units.

In the phenom-

may

Both

electric current

and magnetic current may

if

also be

the corresponding flux densities scalars. are integrated over a given surface the resulting scalar values would give the rate at which the electricity or the

For instance,

magnetism

In is passing through the surface per second. such case the symbols should be changed to corresponding
capitals.
(15) Electric Intensity.

Roman
charge

E [^L-^T~^].

When an
is

electric

is

present in

any

portion of space, there

at each

point of space a vector of a field called the field of electric

intensity.

The same

situation

happens when

lines

of

magnetic induction are moving through space with a given The electric intensity will be perpendicular to velocity. both the line of magnetic induction and to the velocity it has, and equal to the product of their intensities by the
sine of their angle.

The
and
is

electric intensity is of the

its flux,

or surface integral over

nature of a polar vector any surface has no

meaning.

Its line integral along

called the difference of voltage

any given path, however, between the two points at

the ends of the path, for that given path. The unit of voltage is the volt =l-10~- e.s. units = 10^ e.m. imits.

The sjTnbol for voltage is V [^T~^]. the same as for scalar electric potential,

Its

dimensions are

or magnetic current.

32

VECTOR CAI^CULUS
(16) Electric Induction.

[QL~^].

The

unit

is

the line

This vector usually has the same direction as electric intensity, but in non3-10^
e.s.

units

10~^ e.m. units.

isotropic media, such as crystals, the directions

It is

do not agree.

a linear function of the intensity, however, ordinarily

indicated

by

D =

K(E)

where

k is

the symbol for a linear operator which converts

vectors into vectors, called here the permittivity, [Q^~^L~^T],

measurable in farads per centimeter. In isotropic media K is a mere numerical multiplier with the proper dimensions, which are essential to the formulae, and should not be
neglected even

when

I.

The

flux

is

measured
field

in

coulombs.
(17)

Magnetic Intensity.

[eL'^T-^].

The

due to

traversing a wire,

the poles of permanent magnets, or to a direct current In case is a field of magnetic intensity.

we have moving
flux

lines of electric induction, there

is

field of

magnetic intensity.

It

is

of a polar character,

and

its

through a surface has no meaning. The line integral between two points, however, is called the gilbertage between
the points along the given path, the unit being the gilbert = 1 e.m. unit = S 10^^ e.s. units. The symbol is [QT~^]'

Its

dimensions are the same as those of scalar magnetic

potential, or electric current.

(18)

Magnetic Induction.
1

[^L~^].
units.

gauss

e.m. unit

3-10^

e.s.

The The

unit

is

the
is is

direction

usually the same as that of the intensity, but in any case given by a linear vector operator so that we have

B where
/j.

= m(H)

is

per centimeter.

the inductivity, [^Q~^L~^ T], measurable in henrys The flux is measured in maxwells.

VECTOR FIELDS
19)

33

Vector Potential of Electric Induction.

[67"^].
field in

A
a

tor field

may

be related to another vector

the other.

certain

manner

to be described later, such that the first

jJoteniial of

can be called the vector

This

20) Vector Potential of

is

Magnetic Induction.

[^L~^]-

derivable from a field of magnetic induction.

line-integrable.

This

and the preceding are

(21)

Hertzian Vectors.

G, $.

These are

line integrals of

the preceding two, and are of a vector nature. 5. Vector Lines. If we start at a given point of a vector field and consider the vector of the field at that point to be the tangent to a curve passing through the point, the field will determine a set of curves called a congruence, since there

be a two-fold infinity of curves, which will at every point have the vector of the field as tangent. If the field
will
is represented by a, a function of p, the vector to a point of the field, then the differential equation of these lines of

the congruence will be

dp

adt,

parameter. From this we can determine the equation of the lines of the congruence, involving an arbitrary vector, which, however, will not have

where

dt is a differential

more than two

field is

essential constants.
<t

is

given by p, a constant unit vector.

then dp

For instance, if the = ae', where pdt, and p

the

The

lines are, in this case,

rays emanating from the origin. The lines can be constructed approximately by starting at any given point, thence following the vector of the field
for a small distance,

the

new vector
line.

of the field a small distance,

from the point so reached following and so proceedThis will trace approximately a if the field

mg
is

as far as necessary.

vector

Usually the curves are unique, for

all

monodromic at

points, or at points in general, the

34

VECTOR CALCULUS

curves must be uniquely determined as there will be at any point but one direction to follow. Two vector lines may
evidently be tangent at some point, but in a monodromic field they cannot intersect, except at points where the intensity of the field
of indeterminate
is

zero, for vectors of zero intensity are

Such points of intersection are singular points of the field, and their study is of high importance, not only mathematically but for applications.
direction.

In the example above the origin is evidently a singular = 0, and its direction is indetermipoint, for at the origin c
nate.
6.

Vector Surfaces, Vector Tubes.

In the vector

field

we may select a set of points that lie upon a given curve and from each point draw the vector line. All such vector
lines will lie

upon a surface

called a vector surface, which in

case the given curve is closed, forming a loop, is further It is evident that the vector particularized as a vector tube.
lines

dp

are the characteristics of the differential equatioi adt, which in rectangular coordinates would be

equivalent to the equations

dx

dy

dz

In case these equations are combined so as to give single exact equation, the integral will (since it must contain a single arbitrary constant) be the equation of a family
of vector surfaces. of

The vector

lines are the intersections,

two such

families of vector surfaces.

The two

families

may

be chosen of course in infinitely

many

different ways.

Usually, however, as in Meteorology, those surfaces are chosen which have some significance. When a vector

tube becomes infinitesimal

7.

its

limit

is

a vector

line.

Isogons.

If

we

locate the points at which a has the

VECTOR FIELDS

35

same
the
all

direction, they determine a locus called

an isogon

for

For instance, we might locate on a weather map the points which have the same direction of the wind.
field.

If

isogons are constructed in

any way

it

matter to draw the vector

lines of the field.

becomes a simple Machines for

the use of meteorologists intended to mark the isogons have been invented and are in use.* As an instance consider the vector field

{2x, 2y,

z).

An isogon with the points at which a has the direction whose

cosines are
I,

m, n

is

given by the equations

:

2x
or

2y
2y

I :

m
=

n
nt.

2x

It,

mt,

It follows that the vector to

any point
(0, 0,

of this isogon

is

given by

t{l,

m, n)

3n0.
to

That

is

to say, to

draw the vector p

any point of the

isogon

we draw
its

then from

from the origin in the direction given, outer end draw a parallel to the Z direction
a ray

backward three times the length of the Z projection of the segment of the ray. The points so determined will evidently lie on straight lines in the same plane as the ray and its projection on the XY plane, with a negative slope twice
the positive slope of the ray. The tangents of the vector lines passing through the points of the isogon will then be The vector lines are drawn apparallel to the ray itself.

proximately by drawing short segments along the isogon parallel to its corresponding ray, and selecting points such that these short segments will make continuous lines in
ologie (1909), no. 6, pp. See plates, p. 50.

*Sandstr6m: Annalen der Hydrographie und Maritimen Meteor242 et.seq. Bjerknes: Dj-namic Meteorology.

36

VECTOR CALCULUS

method.
figure

passing to adjacent isogons. The figure illustrates the All the vector lines are found by rotating the

about the

X axis
Z

180, and then rotating the

axis

figure

so produced about the

through

all

angles.

Fig.

3.

8. Singularities. It is evident in the example preceding that there are in the figure two lines which are different from the other vector lines, namely, the Z axis and the line

which

is

in the

XY

plane.

Corresponding to the latter

would be an

plane passing through the origin. These lines are peculiar in that the other vector lines are asymptotic to them, while they are themselves
vector lines of the
field.

infinity of lines in the

XY

method

of studying the vector

lie

lines in the entire extent of the

plane in which they

was

used by Poincare.

It consists in placing a sphere tangent

II

VECTOR FIELDS

37

Lines are then drawn from the to the plane at the origin. center of the sphere to every point of the plane, thus giving

two points on the sphere, one on the hemisphere next the on the hemisphere plane and one diametrically opposite at The the from infinity in the plane points plane. away
correspond to the equator or great circle parallel to the In this representation every algebraic curve in the plane.
plane gives a closed curve or cycle on the sphere. In the present case, the axes in the plane give two perpendicular great circles on the sphere, and the vector lines will be
loops tangent to these great circles at points where they These loops will form in the four lunes cross the equator.
of the sphere a

system of closed curves which Poincare

calls

to a topographical system. the system, being the limit of the loops as they grow narrower. The two great circles corresponding to the axes
also belong to the system, being the limits of the loops as

The equator evidently belongs

they grow larger. If a point describes a vector line its projection on the sphere will describe a loop, and could never leave the lune in which the projection is situated.

The

points of tangency are called nodes; the points which

represent the origin, and through which only the singular vector lines pass, are called fauces.

The simplest singular lines depend 9. Singular Points. upon the singular points and these are found comparatively simply. The singular points occur where
a
Since

=
have the

or

0-

00

pressions

a by any exsame, we may equally suppose that the components of a are reduced to as low terms as possible by the exclusion of common factors of all of them. We will consider first the singular
of

we may multiply the components

and
still

lines of the field the

38

VECTOR CALCULUS

points for fields in space, then those cases which have

lines

every point of which is a singular point, which will include the cases of plane fields, since these latter may be considered to represent the fields produced by moving the
itself.

plane field parallel to Poincare is as follows.

(1)

The

classification given

by

Node.

At a node there may be many

lines leave the point.
it is

directions
is
or

in

which vector
origin,

An example
0,

p.

At the

easy to see,

<r

and

it is

not possible

to start at the origin

and follow any

There
is

definite direction.

In fact the vector

lines are evidently the rays

from

the
at'

origin in all directions.

no other singular point

consider
all

the rays in one and for this construct the any plane, sphere of plane projection, we see that the lines correspond to great circles a finite distance.
If,

however, we

pass through the origin and the point diametrically opposite to it. This ideal point may be considered to be another node, so that all the vector

on the sphere which

all

lines
line

run from node to node, in

in a

this case.

Every vector

which does not terminate

Faux.

node

is

a spiral or a cycle.

(2)

From
all

a faux* there runs an infinity of vectoi

lines

which are

on one

surface,

and a

single isolatec

vector line which intersects the surface at the faux.

surface
is

The

a singular surface since every vector line in it the faux is a singular line. The singular surface through is approached asymptotically by all the vector lines not
singular.

An example
The
*
is

is

given by

{x, y,

z).

vector lines are to be found

in the four

hy drawing

all

equilateral

hyperbolas
Latin.

quadrants of the
col,

ZX plane, and thei

pass, for

Poincar^ uses the term

meaning mountain

which fauj

VECTOR FIELDS

39

Evidently all rotating this set of lines about the Z axis. are singular lines, as plane from the origin rays in the

XY
Z

well as the

axis.

through them

Where fauces occur the singular lines are asymptotes for the nonsingular lines. If

Fig. 4.

we

consider any plane through the

will project

axis,
its

equilateral hyperbolas

onto

the system of sphere as cycles

tangent on the equator to the great circles which represent the singular lines in that plane. From this point of

view we really should consider the two rays of the Z axis as separate from each other, so that the upper part of the Z
axis

and the singular ray perpendicular to it, running in the same general direction as the other vector lines, would constitute a vector line

with an angle.

Such a vector

with a discontinuity of direction, or line to which the others are

tangent at points at infinity only is a boundary line in the sense that on one side we have infinitely many vector lines

which form cycles (in the sense defined) while on the other sides we have vector lines which belong to different sys-

tems of

cycles.

40

VECTOR CALCULUS

A simple case of this example might arise in the inward flow of air over a level plane, with an ascending motion which increased as the air approached a given vertical
line,

becoming asymptotic to
fire in

this vertical line.

In

fact,

the center of a circular tent open at the bottom for a small distance and at the vertex, would give a motion

a small

to the

smoke

closely approximating to that described.

singular line

spiral or part of a cycle

from a faux runs to a node or which returns to the faux.

is

else is a

An example
a

that shows both preceding types

the

field_

(x^

-\-

y^

1,

bxy

5,

mz).

Fig.

plane the singular points are at infinity as follows at the negative end of the axis, and B at the positiv end, both fauces; C at the end of the ray whose directioi

In the

Xy

A
is

tan~^

2, in

the

first

quadrant,

direction tan~^ 2 in the third quadrant;

at the end of the ray at the end of thi

VECTOR FIELDS

41

2 in the fourth quadrant; and F ray of direction tan~^ 2 in the second quadrant, of tan~^ of the end the at ray lines run from E to Vector these four being nodes.
division line from

separated from the rest of the plane by an asj-mptotic B to D; from C to D on the other side
of this division line, separated

from the third portion of line from C to A; and division an the plane by asymptotic from C to F in the third portion of the plane. The figure shows the typical lines of the field. At a focus the vector lines wind in asymp(.3) Focus.
totically, either like spirals

wound towards

the vertex of a
of its

spindle produced

by rotating a curve about one

tangents, one vector line passing through the focus, or they are like spirals wound around a cone towards the

Fig.

6.

vertex.

As an example
0-

(.r+

y,

x,z).

The Z axis
is

is a single singular line through the origin, which a singular point, a focus in this case. The plane contains vector lines which are logarithmic spirals wound in

XY

towards the origin.

The

other vector lines are spirals

42

VECTOR CALCULUS
of revolution, their projections

wound on cones
would have

on
az

XF
we

being the logarithmic spirals.

different surfaces

By
1

changing

z to

depending upon whether

<

or

<

a.

In case a spiral winds in onto a cycle, the successive

turns approaching the cycle asymptotically, the cycle is In this example the line at infinity called a limit cycle.
in the
is

XF plane, or the corresponding equator on its sphere,

It
is

a limit cycle.

clear that the spirals

on the cones

wind outward
cycles.

also towards the lines at infinity as limit

this

From

example

it

is

plain that vector lines

which are

spiral

may

start asymptotically

from a focus and

be bounded by a limit cycle. The limit cycle thus divides the plane or the surface upon which they lie into two

mutually exclusive regions. Vector lines may also start from a limit cycle and proceed to another limit cycle.

As an example of vector
field

lines of

both kinds consider the

Fig.
<j

7.

if'

1, r^

Ij tnz),

where the

XY

component is in the direction of a ray in th( plane from the origin, the second perpendicular t(
first

VECTOR FIELDS
this in the

43
parallel to the

AT plane, and the third

is

Z axis.

The vector

lines in the singular plane, the

XY

plane, are

spirals with the origin as a focus for one set, which wind around the focus negatively and have the unit circle as a

limit cycle, while another set

in the opposite direction,

wind around the unit

circle

having the
r~^

line at infinity as a
first set is r~^

limit cycle.

The

polar equation of the

is r

=
is

e^"^, of

the second set

all

e^'^'^.

An example with
the field

the preceding kinds of singularities

Fig. 8.
(7

( [r^

\){f

9)], (r^

2r cos Q

8),

mz)

with directions for the components as in the preceding example. The singular points are the origin, a focus; the
point
Q

cos"^ \), a node; the point B {r 3, cos~^ \), a faux. The line at infinity is a limit
(r
.3,

cycle, as well as the circle r

line.

1,

which

is

also a vector
is

The

circle r

is

a vector line which

a cycle,

44

VECTOR CALCULUS
and returning
first

starting at the faux, passing through the node

to the faux.

The

vector lines are of three types, the

being spirals that wind asymptotically around the focus, out to the unit circle as limit cycle; the second start at the

node

and wind

in

on the unit

circle as limit cycle;

the

third start at the node

finity as unit cycle.

and wind out to the

set dip

line at in-

The second

down towards

the

exceptional vector lines are the line at infinity, the unit circle, both being limit cycles; the circle of radius
faux.
3;

The

a vector

line

which on the one side

starts at the faux

winding in on the unit circle, and on the other side starts at the faux B winding outward to the line at infinity ag
limit cycle.

the regions. figure exhibits the typical curves. This type of singular point has passing (4) Faux-Focus.

The The

last

two are asymptotic division

lines of

through
of spirals

it

a singular surface which contains an infinity having the point as focus, while an isolated vector

line passes

through the point and the surface.

the
field

No

othei

surfaces through the vector lines approach the point.

An

instance

is

(x, y,

z).

The Z
is

axis is the isolated singular line, while the plane the singular plane. In it there is an infinity of spirals with the origin as focus and the line at infinity as limi^
All other vector lines
lie

XY
=

cycle.

on the surfaces
is

rz

const

These do not approach the origin. At a center there (5) Center.

a vector line passing

through the singular point, and not passing through this singular line there is a singular surface, with a set of loops

There

or cycles surrounding the center, and shrinking upon it. is also a set of surfaces surrounding the isolated
.iic

singular line like a set of sheaths, on each of which there

vector lines winding around helically on

it

with a decreasinu

VECTOR FIELDS

45

which they pitch as they approach the singular surface, we instance an As therefore approach asymptotically.

have the

field
<j

{y,

X, z).

The Z
the

axis

is

the singular isolated vector line, the

surface, circles
origin the
it,

XY plane

singular

concentric to the

singular vector lines in

the other vector lines

circular

lie

and on

cylinders

about the

axis,

approaching the

XY

plane asymptotically.

The method
the

of determining

character of a singular point will be considered later

in connection

with the study

is

Fig. 9.

of the linear vector operator.

singular point at infinity

10. Singiilar Lines.

either a

node or a faux.
not occur alone

Singularities

may

but

may

singular point.

be distributed on lines every point of which is a This will evidently occur when a = gives

three surfaces which intersect in a single line. The different types may be arrived at by considering the line of
singularities to be straight,
lines

and the surfaces

of the vector

with the points of the singular line as singularities to be planes, for the whole problem of the character of the
singularities is a problem of analysis situs, and the deformation will not change the character. The types are then as follows
:

(1)

Line of Nodes.

Every point
is
o-

of the singular line

(x,

is

node.

simple example

y,

0).

The
and

vector
parallel

lines are all

rays passing through the

axis

to the

XY plane.

46
(2)

VECTOR CALCULUS
Line of Fauces. There are two singular vector through each point of the singular line. As an instance
y, 0).

lines

(x,

The

lines

through the
all

axis parallel to

the

and the Y axes are singular, on lying hyperbolic cylinders.

(3)

other vector lines

Line of Foci.

The

points of the singular line are

approached asymptotically by spirals. As an instance a = (x -\- y, y The vector lines are logarimithic X, 0). in to the spirals planes parallel plane, wound around the

XY

axis
(4)

which

is

the singular

line.
is
cr

Line of Centers.
lines are the

simple case

(y,
it

x, 0).

The vector

Z axis and all

circles

with

as axis.
is

11. Singularities at Infinity.

The character

of these

determined by transforming the components of a so as to

space
bring the regions at infinity into the finite parts of the we are considering. The asymptotic lines will then

have

in the transformed space

nodes at which the

lines are

tangent to the asymptotic line. 12. General Characters. The problem of the character of a vector field so far as it depends upon the vector lines

and
the

their singularities
is

is

of great importance.

Its general

resolution

due to Poincare.
des

In a series of

memoirs

in

Journal

Mathematiques* he

investigated

the

qualitative character of the curves which represent the characteristics of differential equations, particularly with

the intention of bringing the entire set of integral curves into view at once. Other studies of differential equations
usually relate to the character of the functions defined at
single points

and

in their vicinities.
is

The

chief difficulty

of the

more general study

These with the

field into

to ascertain the limit cycles. asymptotic division lines separate the

independent regions.
j

Ser. (3) 7 (1881), p. 375; ser. (3) 8 (1882), p. 251; ser. (4) 1 (1885), p. 167. Also Takeo Wado, Mem. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, 2 (1917) 151.

VECTOR FIELDS

47

The asymptotic

division lines appear

on meteorological

maps as lines on the surface of the earth towards which, or away from which, the air is moving. They are called in the two cases lines of convergence, or lines of divergence,
respectively.
If

node the node

may

a division line of this type starts at a be a point of convergence or a point of

The line will then have the same character. divergence. The node in other fields, such as electric or magnetic or heat
flow,
is

a source or a sink.
is

If

a division line starts from a

often called a neutral point. A focus may be also a point of convergence or point of divergence. In
faux, the latter

the case of a singular line consisting of foci, the singular line may be a line of convergence or of divergence; in the first
case, for instance, the singular line
is

the core of the anti-

cyclone, in the latter case, the core of the cyclone.

The
lines

limit cycles

which are not at

infinity are division

in the field.

which enclose areas that remain isolated

Such phenomena as the eye of

the cyclone illustrate the oc-

currence of limit cycles in natural phenomena. The limit cycle may be a line of convergence or a line of divergence, the air in the first case flowing into the line as^Tnptotically

from both inside and outside, with the focus serving as a source, and in the other case with conditions reversed.

The practical handling of these problems in meteorological work depends usually upon the isogonal lines: the lines
which are
loci of

equidirected tangents of the vector lines

of the field.

These are drawn and the infinitesimal tangents drawn across them. The filling in of the vector lines is then a matter of draughtsmanship. The isogonal
lines
will

themselves have singularities and these will

enable one to determine somewhat the singularities of the vector lines themselves. Since the unit vector in the
direction of

is

constant along an isogon

it is

evident that

48

VECTOR CALCULUS

the only change in <j along an isogon is in its intensity, that is, a keeps the same direction, and its differential is
therefore a multiple of a, that
differential
is,

the isogons have for their

equation

da
Consequently, when
singular point.
o-

=
or

adi.

the isogon will have a It does not follow, however, that all the
cr

co

singular points of the isogons will appear as singular points such as are described above for the vector lines. When

the differential equation of the isogons

is

reduced to the
'

standard form
dp

rdu
c,

we

shall see later that r will

be a linear vector function of

and that a
so that ipa

linear vector function

may have
Some

zero directions,

0,

without a

0.

of the

that

may happen
Node

are the following, from Bjerknes'

phenomena Dynamic

Meteorology and Hydrography.

1.

of Isogons.

These

may

See his plates 42a, 426. be positive, in which

case the directions of the tangents of the vector lines will increase (that is, the tangent will turn positively) as succes-

taken in a positive rotation about the node, be negative in the reverse case. The positive node of the isogon will then correspond to a node, a focus, or a center of the vector lines. The negative node of the isogon
sive isogons are

or

may

will
If

correspond to a faux of the vector lines. the isogons are parallel, having, therefore, a node at

infinity in either of their directions, the vector lines ma}'

have asymptotic division lines running in the same direction, or they may have lines of inflexion parallel to the
isogons.
2.

may

Center of Isogons. When the isogons are cycles they to correspond very complicated forms of the vector

VECTOR FIELDS
lines.

49

Several of these are to be found in a paper

by Sand-

strom, Annalen der Hydrographie und maritimen Meteorologie, vol. 37 (1909), p. 242, Uber die Bewegung der
Flussigkeiten.
* 1.

EXERCISES*
ct),

To be

solved graphically as far as possible. translation field is given by v = {at, bt,

what are the vector

Iz,

the isogons, and the singular itie.s? 2. A rotation field is given by <r = (mz ny, nx what are the isogons, singularities, and vector fines?
lines,
3.
is

ly

mx),

given by
4.

A field of deformation proportional to the distance in one direction = {ax, 0, 0). Determine the field. A general field of linear deformation is given by = {ax + by + cz, fx+gy + hz, kx + ly + mz).
<r

<r

determine the various kinds of

fields this

may

represent according to

the different possible cases. 5. Consider the quadratic field*

ff

(i*

y*

2*,

2xy, 2xz).
yx, zx
is

6. 7.

stationary in a rotating fluid contained in a cylindrical vessel with vertical axis of rotation?
8.

Consider the quadratic field a = {xy xz, yz TVTiat are the Unes of flow when the motion

zy).

Consider the various

is

values of a, which
their polar radii.

fields <r = {ay x, y ax, b) for different the tangent of the angle between the curves and What happens in the successive diagrams to the

isogons, to the
9.

urves?
v.-xrious fieldsf

Consider the

a
is

(l,/(r

a),

b)

where

r is the

polar ladius in the

XY

plane, a

constant, and

/ takes the various

tan x.

foims
/(x)
10.

x, X*, X*, x"*, x^",

<r

x"S

x~^} ^'j log ^> sin x,

r), b)

Consider the forms

(1,

f{ax sin

where

/(x)
11. In

sin X, cos X, tan x.

various electrical texts, such as Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, and others, there will be foimd plates showing the lines of
various
fields.

Discuss

Bjeiknes'
*

Djnamic

these. Also, the meteorological Meteorologj', referred to above.

Sci.,

mj\ps

in

See Hitchcock, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and See Sandstrom cited above.

i2 (1917), No.

7,

pp. 372-454.
t

50

VECTOR CALCULUS

12. In a funnel-shaped vortex of a water-spout the spout may be considered to be made up of twisted funnels, one inside another, the

space between the surfaces being a vortex tube. In the Cottage City water-spout, Aug. 19, 1896, the equation of the outside funnel may be

taken to be
(x2
-I- 2/2)z

3600.

In this
tubes,

X,

and

y are measured horizontally in meters from the axis of the z is measured vertically downwards from the cloud base,

is 1100 meters above the ground. The inner surfaces have the same equation save that instead of 3600 on the right we have 3600/(1.6010)^"; that is, at any level, the radius of a surface bounding a tube is found from the preceding radius at the same level by dividing by the number whose logarithm (base 10) is 0.20546. From meteorological theory the velocity of the wind on any surface is given by

which

{Cr, Crz,

2Cz)

where the first component is the horizontal radial component, the second is the tangential, and the third is the vertical component. C varies for the difTerent surfaces, and is found by multiplying the value

by the square of the number 1.6010. In BigeAtmos'pheric Radiation, etc., p. 200 et seq., is to be found a set of tables for the various values from these data for different levels. Charfor the outside surface
lo-w' s

acterize the vortex field of the water-spout.

13.

For a dumb-bell-shaped water-spout,

(x^
-\-

likewise, the funnels

have
>

the equation
i/) sin az

const/A

where

varies

from surface to surface just as

is

in the preceding

problem.

The
o-

velocity

given-by
cos az,

Aar

Aar

sin az, 2

sin az),

the directions being horizontal radial, tangential and vertical. For the St. Louis tornado. May 27, 1896, the following data are given. Cloud base 1200 meters above the ground, divided into 121 parts
called degrees, the

ground thus being at 60, and az being

in degrees.

The values

of

are for the successive funnels

f
t

0.1573, 0.4052, 1.0437, 2.6883, 6.9247, 17.837.

Characterize the vector lines of this vortex

14.

field.

In the treatise on The Sun's Radiation, Bigelow gives the followfor a funnel-shaped vortex data ing

rh = 6400000/C

fromW^

PLATE

PLATE

11

VECTOR FIELDS
at 500 kilometers z

51

500, r

60474, 26287, 11513, 5023, 2192, 956.

aiKm/sec)
Calculate for

{Cr, Crz,

2Cz).

2=0,
The

500, 1000, 2000, 5000, 10000, 20000, 30000, 40000, 50000.

results of the calculations give

a vortex

field

agreeing with Hale's

observations.

The vector lines in the last three problems lie on the funnel surfaces, being traced out in fact by a radius rotating about the axis of the vortex, and advancing along the axis according to the law
20 26

= = az

+C
C

for the funnel, for the dumb-bell.

-\-

15. Study the lines on the plates, which represent on the first plate the isogons for wind velocities, on the second plat the corresponding characteristic Unes of wind flow. The date was evening of Jan. 9, 1908.

European and American systems of numbering directions are shown the margin of plate 1. See Sandstrom's paper cited above.
13.

in

Congruences.

^Ye

still

have to consider the relations

of the various vector lines to each other, noticing that the

vector lines constitute geometrically a congruence, that is, a two-parameter system of curves in space. The consideration of these matters, however, will have to be post-

poned to a

later chapter.

CHAPTER

IV

ADDITION OF VECTORS
1. Sum of Vectors. Geometrically, the sum of two or more vectors is found by choosing any one of them as the first, from the terminal point of the first constructing the

second (any other), from the terminal point of this constructing the third (any of those left)
till all

and so proceeding
in

have been successively joined to form a polygon

space with the exception of a final side. If now this last side is constructed by drawing a vector from the initial
point of the
so
first

drawn

is

called the

to the terminal point of the last, the vector sum of the several vectors. In

case the polygon is already closed the sum is a zero vector. When the sum of two vectors is zero they are said to be
opposite,

and

subtraction of a vector consists in adding

its

opposite.
It is evident from the definition that we presuppose a space in which the operations can be effectively carried out. For instance, if the space were curved h'ke a sphere, and the sum of two vectors is found, it would

evidently be different according to which is chosen as the first. The study of vector addition in such higher spaces has, however, been considered.
2.

Encyclopedie des sciences malhematiques,

Tome

IV, Vol.

2.

Algebraic Sum.
it

In order to define the

is

sum without

reference to space, numbers that are

the

necessary to consider the hyperalgebraic representatives of the

geometric vectors.
set of

We

must indeed

start with a given

hypernumbers,

which are the basis of the system of hypernumbers we intend to study. These are sometimes called imaginaries,
because they are analogous to V
r>2

1.

In the case of three-

ADDITION OF VECTORS

53

dimensional space there are three such hypernumbers in the We combine in thought a numerical value with basis.

each of these, the field or domain from which these numeriFor incal values are chosen being of great importance.
stance,
;

the

we may limit our numbers to the domain of domain of rationals, the domain of reals, or

integers,

to other

more complicated domains, such as certain algebraic fields. We then consider all the multiplexes we can form by putting together into a single entity several of the hypernumbers just formed, as for instance, we would have in threedimensional space such a
p

compound

as

,1

(Xi, y2, 263).

'

using the base hypernumbers e it is no longer necessary to use the parentheses nor to pay attention We drop the use of the comma, to the order of the terms.
Since

we

are

now

however, and substitute the

write

sign, so that

we would now

= Xi+

yei

+ 23.
sum
of several

We may now

easily define

the algebraic

hypernumbers corresponding to vectors by the formula

Pi

5^
t

pi

= =

Xiei

+ y%^ + Zi3, = + 2z,3. ZxiCi +

i

1, 2,

m,

2?/,e2

This definition of course includes subtraction as a special

case.
It is clear

from

this definition that to correspond to the

it is

geometric definition,
sideration.

necessary that the units

corre-

spond to three chosen unit vectors of the space under con-

They need not be

orthogonal, however.

The

coefficients of the e are

then the oblique or rectangular coordinates of the point which terminates the vector if it
starts at the origin.

54

VECTOR CALCULUS

3. Change of Basis. numbers of the system

We may
in

define all the hyperterms of a new set linearly related

if

to the original set.

61
2

For instance,

we

write

63

= = =

+ + asioji +
ttnai

0120:2
a22Ci2 a32a;2

a21l

+ ai33, + + a33a3,
a23<X3,

then p becomes
P

=
It

(anx

a2iy

+
is

(anX

+ +

aziz)ai
222/

+
if

322)a2

(anX

023^

a33z)a3.

evident then that

linear

singular

we transform the es by a nonhomogeneous transformation, the coefR

basis hypernumbers, a, are the transform:

cients of the

new

of the original coefficients

under the contragredient

is

tran;

formation.

Inasmuch as the transformation

a

linear,

the transform of

sum

will

be the

original
is

sum.

sum of the transforms of the terms of the The transformation as a geometrical procesi

equivalent to changing the axes. This process evident! gives us a new triple, but must be considered not to giv<
us a

new hypernumber nor

new vector.

Indeed, a vecto

cannot be defined by a
is

triple of

numbers alone.

Then

also either explicitly stated or else implicitly understood

on the geometric side a definite set of axe such that the triple gives the components of the vecto along these axes. It is evident that the success of an
to be a basis, or

choice of

system of vector calculus must then depend upon th modes of combination which are not affected b

the change from one basis to another. This is the case with addition as we have defined it. We assume that we

may
basis
If

express any vector or hypernumber in terms of any we like, and usually the basis will not appear.

the transformation

is

such as to leave the angles be

ADDITION OF \t:ctors

55

tween

ci,

e^,

cs

the same as those between ai, a^, as, the

second trihedral being substantially the same as the first rotated into a new position, with the lengths in each case

remaining units, then the transformation is called orthogWe may define an orthogonal transformation algebraonal.
ically as one such that if followed by the contragredient transformation the original basis is restored. 4. Differential of a Vector. If we consider two points at a small distance apart, the vector to one being p, to the

other

p',

p'

p,

and the vector from the first to the second, Ap where Ap = As-e, e being a unit vector in the

direction of the difference,

we may then
6

let

one point ap-

proach the other so that in the limit

tion,

takes a definite posi-

say a, and

w^ may

write ds for A*, and call the result

the differential of p for the given range over which the p' In the hypernumbers we likewise arrive at a hyperruns.

number
dp

dxi

dye2

dziz,

where now ds
of dx, dy, dz,

is

a linear

homogeneous
{dsr

irrational function
in case
ei,
2, 3

which

=
is

rfz/^

+ dz-)

form a trirectangular system of

units.

The quotient
sents the time.

dpjdt

The

the velocity at the point if t repreunit vector a is the unit tangent for

a curve.

We

generally represent the principal normal and

the binormal

by /3, 7 respectively. WTien p is given as dependent on a single variable parameter, as t for instance, then the ends of p may describe a curve. We may have
form the coordinates of p alone dependent upon the parameter, or we may have both the coordinates and the basis dependent upon /. For instance, we may express p in terms of 1, 2, ta which are not dependent upon
in the algebraic

but represent fixed directions geometrically, or we may express p in terms of three hypernumbers as co, r, f which
t

56

VECTOR CALCULUS

themselves vary with t, such as the moving axes of a system In relativity theories the latter method of reprein space.
sentation plays an important part. 5. Integral of a Vector. If we add together n vectors and divide the result by n we have the mean of the n vectors,

which

may

be denoted by

p.

If

we

select

an

infinite

number

of vectors

and

find the limit of their

sum

after

the differential of the parameter by multiplication by which they are expressed, such limit is called the integral
dt,

of the vector expressed in terms of

definite values in the integral

t,

and

if

we

give
result

and subtract one

two from

the other, the difference

the first value of
t

is

the integral of the vector from

second.

to

the

More

generally,

if

we

number, by a corremultiply a sponding series of differentials, and find the limit of the sum of the results, such limit, when it exists, is called the
series of vectors, infinite in

integral of the series.

the usual difficulties

In integration, as in differentiation, met in analysis may appear, but as

they are properly difficulties due to the numerical system and not to the hypernumbers, we will suppose that the reader is familiar with the methods of handling them.

The mean
some

in the case of a vector

is

sequence of values
of differentials

the quotient of

which has an infinite the integral taken on

integral of the set
will

set of differentials, divided

itself.

by the

The examples

illustrate

the

use of the mean.

EXAMPLES
(1)

The

centroid of

an

arc,

an area, or a volume

is

found

by integrating the vector p itself multiplied by the differential of the arc, ds, or of the surface, du, or of the volume
dv.

The

integral

is

then divided by the length of the

arc, the area of the surface, or the volume.

That

is

-_ -

flp{s)ds a
,

^^ or

ffpdu A
-

^^ or

fffpdv
:^

ADDITION OF VECTORS
(2)

57
in the following

An example of average velocity is found

II,

(Bjerknes, Dynamic Meteorology, Part vations of a small balloon.

z

page 14) obser-

= Ht. in Meters
77

^z

Direction

Velocity
(m/sec.)

Products

680 960 1240 1530 1810 2090 2430 2730 3040 3400 3710 4030 4400

603 280 280 290 280 280 340 300 310 36C 310 320 370

S.

S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S. S.

50 E. 57 E. 36 E. 28 W. 2 W. 2 W. 35 W. 53 W. 69 W. 65 W. 53 W. 58 W. 37 W.

3.4 4.0 5.3

1.5 1.8

2050 1120
1484 435 504 560 510 540 558 1080 868 1408 3773

2.0
1.5 1.8 1.8

3.0 2.8 4.4 10.2

To average
tion that the
vertically

on the assumpwas uniform the distances upward velocity can be used to measure the time. We therefore
the velocities
notice that

we

multiply each

velocity by the difference of elevations corresponding, the products being set in the last column. These numbers are then taken as the lengths of the vectors

sum
,

whose directions are given by the third column. The of these is found graphically, and divided by the total
upward, that
is,

difference of distance

4323.

In the same
in order

manner we can

find graphically the averages for each 1000

meters of ascent.

We may now make

a new table

to find other important data, as follows:

Pressure (m-bars)
Spec.

Heiglit

Dens, (ton/m*)

Veloc.

Momentum
.sec.)

(ton/m*

4000. 3000. 2000. 1000.

75.
5

622 705 797 899 1003

0.00083 0.00092 0.00102 0.00112

3.8 1.6 2.4 3.7

0.0032 0.0015 0.0025 0.0041

58

VECTOR CALCULUS
find the average velocity

between the 1000 m-bar, the 900 m-bar, the 800 m-bar, the 700 m-bar, and the 600 m-bar. The direction is commonly indicated by the integers

We now

from

to 63 inclusive, the entire circle being divided

into 64 parts, each of

24, etc.

5f.

East
is

is 0,

North

is

16,

NW.

is

The

following table
Spec. Vol.

found.
Spec.

Pressure

Height

(my Ton)
1217 1087 981 890 890

Direction

Veloc.

Momentum
0.0043 0.0016 0.0024 0.0042 0.0040

600 700 800 900 1000

1002.6

4274 3057 1970 989

99 76

5.2

1.7

20 25 25

2.4 3.7 3.4

Of course,
ities

specific momenta should be averaged like veloc but usually owing to the rough measurements it ^

sufficient 2 to
velocities.

find

specific

momenta from

the

avera^

ADDITION OF VECTORS

59

EXERCISES
above the following observations taken at places Average mentioned (Bjerknes, p. 20), July 25, 1907, at 7 a.m. Greenwich time.
1.

as

Isobar

Dyn. Ht.

60
2. If

VECTOR CALCULUS

I
the direction of the wind

average direction found?

tions.

registered every hour how is the Find the average for the following observais

Station

ADDITION OF VECTORS
4.

61

Find the resultant attraction at a point due to a segment of a of density which varies straight line which is (a) of uniform density, (6) What is the mean attracis the square of the distance from one end.
jon in each case?
5.

Show

that p

ta

jquation of the tangent is p rom a given point are given

9

+ ^Pfi is the equation of a parabola, that the = ha + + x(a + ti0), that tangents
ifi*/3

by

<

= pa z0 independent of q so that all points of the line p lave corresponding chords of cont-act which are parallel. If a chord to pass through the point aa 6/3 for differing values of p, then = pa = b and the qff hes on the line p mo\-ing point pa 1 ap \- {ap b)P, whose direction is independent of b. 6. If a, /3, 7 are vectors to three collinear points, then we can find
iirection

9/3,

the chord of contact

is

= p p =

it

V
g/3

(p*

2q), the point

being

+ y{a + p/3)

which has a

iu-ee

numbers

a, b, c

such that

aa
1.

+ b0 + cy =0=a+b+c.

In problem 5 show that if three points are taken on the parabola rresponding to the values U, h, h, then the three points of intersection f the sides of the triangle they determine with the tangents at the
vertices of

the triangle are collinear.

Determine the points that divide the segment joining A and B, the ratio I : m, both internally and exKnnts with vectors a and /3, emaUy. Apply the resiilt to find the polar of a point with respect to
8.

given triangle, that

liat are

is, the line which passes through the three points harmonic on the three sides respectively with the intersection a line through the given point and the vertex opposite the side. 9. Show how to find the resultant field due to superimposed fields. 10. A cvu-ve on a surface is given hy p = u{u, v), u = /(w), study the

lifferential of p.

CHAPTER V
VECTORS IN A PLANE

make

Two Vectors. We purpose in this chapter to a more detailed study of vectors in a plane and the hypernumbers corresponding. In the plane it is convenient
1.

Ratio of

some assigned unit vector as a reference for all others in the plane, though this is not at all necessary in
to take

most problems.

In fact we go back for a moment to the fundamental idea underlying the metric notion of number.

According to this a number is defined to be the ratio between two quantities of the same concrete kind, such as
the ratio of a rod to a foot.
of vectors, regarding
it
is

If

now we

consider the ratio

them

as the

clear that the ratio will

same kind of quantity, involve more than merely

numerical ratio of lengths. The ratio in this case is in fact what we have called a hypernumber. For every pair of vectors p, ir there exists a ratio p tt and a reciprocal
:

ratio

TT

p.

This ratio we

will

designate by a

roman

character
q

IT

p/tt

P
TT

That
2.

is

to say,

we may

substitute p for
If

qir.

we draw p and ir from one point, they will form a figure which has two segments for sides and an angle. (In case they coincide we still conComplex Numbers.
sider they

the

initial

have an angle, nameh' zero.) side and x is the terminal

tt
:

In this figure p
side.

is

Then

their

complex ratio is as a multiplier,

sides in the

p.

Since this ratio

clear that
if

is

to be looked upon
to reduce the

it is

we were

same proportion, the

62

ratio

would not be changed.

VECTORS IN A PLANE

63

A change
However,

of angle would, however, give a different ratio. we will agree that all ratios are to be considered

as equivalent, or as

we

shall usually say, equal, not only

when the figures to which they correspond have sides in the same proportion, but also when they have the same angles and sides in proportion, even if not placed in the piane in the same position. For instance, if the vectors

AB, AC make a triangle which DE, DF, if we take the sides in

Af^'

is

similar to the triangle

this order,

then we

shall

consider that whatever complex or

into

hypernumber
into

multiplies

AB

will also

multiply

DF

DE.
it

This axiom
differentiates

of equivalence is
this particular

not only important but

hypernumber from others which might just For instance, the Gibbs a- well be taken as fundamental. dyad of tt p is equally a hypernumber, but we cannot
:

any other vectors than mere multiples the Gibbs dyad we have a in the ordinary comthan more restricted hypernumber plex number which has been just defined, and which is a If we have special case of the Hamiltonian quaternion. a Gibbs dyad q, we can find the two vectors tt and p save
substitute for
of
TT

tt

or p

or p.

It is clear that in

as to their actual lengths.

q

But with the complex number

we cannot

find
is

tt

vector there

another in the ratio

and p further than to say that for every In other words the q.

tion of the figure

only transformations allowed in the Gibbs dyad are translaor magnification of it. In the AB,

AC

Hamiltonian quaternion, or complex number, the transformations of the figure AB, AC may be not only those just mentioned but rotation in the plane.
In order to find a satisfactory form for the hypernumber which we have characterized, we further notice that if q we change the length of t in the ratio m then we must

change q in the same

ratio,

and

if

we

set for the ratio of the

64

VECTOR CALCULUS

length or intensity of

to that of p the

number

r, it is

evi-

dent that we ought to take for q an expression of the form

q

r<p(d),
6,

where
only.

<p(d)

is

a function of
if

Further

we

the angle between p and x, notice that we now have

TT

r<p(d)p,

where the

first factor affects the change of length, the second the change of direction, it is plain that for a second multiplication by another complex number q' = r'<p{d'),

we should have
tt'

r'r<p(d')(p(e)p

r'r(p(d'

e)p.

Whence we must

consider that

These expressions are functions of two ordinary numerical parameters, dj 6', and are subject to partial differentiation,
just like
6,

any other expressions. Differentiating first then as to 6', we find {(p' being the derivative)
^'{d)<p{e')

as to

cp\d

d')

=
_

<p'{e')^{B),

whence
<py)
<p{d)

<p'{d')

'

<p(d')

where kis a constant and does not depend upon the angle at It may, however, depend upon the plane in which the vectors lie, so that for different planes k may be, and
all.

in fact

is,

different.

Since,

when

6=0

the hypernumber becomes a mere

^'(0)

numerical multiplier,

k<p{0).

If

now we examine
<p{6)

the particular function

cos 6

-\-

k sin

6,

VECTORS EN A PLANE
which gives

65

Im
^ft

<p\d)

sme+

k cos e

A-

cos ^
if

+ F sin
A-^

6,

find all conditions are satisfied

we take

1.

^e

may then properly use this function to define (p. This very simple condition then enables us to define hypernumbers of this kind, so that we write
q

r(cos 6
1.

-\-

k sin

d)

cks 6

re,

where
3.

k-

Imaginaries. It is desirable to notice carefully here that we must take k^ equal to 1, the same negative

This is important view from which the because there are other points of character of k and F would be differently regarded. For
instance, in the original paper of Hamilton,

number that we have always been using.

Algebraic a linear as regarded equivalent, the converts which substitution or operator, couple (a, b)
Couples, the
k, or
its
is
(

On

into the couple

b, a).

While

it is

true that

we may

so

regard the imaginary, it becomes at once obvious that we must then draw distinctions between 1 as an operator, and
1

as a
-f-

1, and indeed for any expression number, and so for In fact, such distinctions are drawn, and we find yi.

these operators occasionally called matrix unity, etc. From the point of view of the hypernumber, this distinction is

Hypernumbers are extensions of the number system, similar to radicals and other algebraic numbers. The fact that, as we will see later, they are not in general commutative, does not prevent their being an extension.
not possible.
4.

Real, Imaginary, Tensor, Versor.

q

In the complex

number

cos 6

-\-

r sin

d-k

the term
Rq.

cos 6

is

called the real part of q

and may be written

The term

r sin ^ ^ is called

the imaginary part of q

66

VECTOR CALCULUS
Iq.

and written
written Tq.
versor of q

The number r is The expression cos

f/g.

called the tensor of q

d

and

sin d-k

is

called the

and written

Therefore,
Tqllq.
-\-

q= Rq+ Iq=
If
(/

appears in the form q

a,

bk

we
b^},

see at once that

d

Rq

Iq

bk,

Tq

yl (a^

tan-^fe/a.

5.

Division.

g~V.

It

If we have ir qp, then we becomes evident that

also

write

Rq-'

= RqKTqf,

Iq-'

= - IqKTq)\
cos 6
sin d-k.

Tq-'

IjTq,

Uq~'
6.

Conjugate, Norm. The hypernumber q = Kq = Rq Iq is called the conjugate of q. If q belongs to the figure AB, AC, then q belongs to an inversely similar triangle, that
is,

a similar triangle which has been reflected in some

called the

straight line of the plane.

is

norm

of

q.

It

The product qQ = Nq = {Tqf also has the name modulus of q,

complex variables.

particularly in the theory of functions of

Evidently,
tlq

i(q

q),

Iq

= Uq -

q),

q-'

~qlNq,

Uq-'

Uq.

7.
it is
is

Products of Complex Numbers.

clear that the product of
s,

From the definitions

q, r,

two complex numbers

a complex number

such that

Ts= TqTr^ Zr, Z_s= zq+ - Tlqlr, = Rqr Rrq = RJji? = Rrq = RqRr Rqr = Rqr = Rrq = Rrq = RqRr + Tlqlr, = Rqlr + Rrlq, = Irq = = Iqr Irq Iqr = = = = Rqlr. Rrlq Iqr Irq Irq Iqr
Hence
if

Rqr

=? 0,

the angles of q and

or have 270

r are

for their

complementary sum.

VECTORS IN A PLANE
If

67
In particular

7?^?

= = =

0,

the angles differ by 90. we may take r = 1

.

If If
S.

Iqr

0, 0,

Iqr

the angles are supplementary or opposite. the angles are equal or differ by 180.

Continued Products.
(qrs-

We need only = (i- -srq). -z)

to

notice

that

It is

not really necessary to reverse the order here as the

these

products are commutative, but in quaternions, of which numbers are particular cases, the products are not
usually

commutative, and the order must be as here

If

written.
9.

Triangles.

j3,

y,

8, e

are vectors in the plane,

5

and

=
then the triangle of

g/S,

qy,

B, e is similar to
c

that of y,
qy,

5,

while

if

g/3,

the triangles are inversely similar. These equations enable us to apply complex
certain classes of problems with great success.
10.
is

numbers to
a vector

Use

of

Complex Numbers as Vectors.

If

in the

taken as unit, every vector in the plane may be written form qa, for some properly chosen q. We may

therefore dispense with the writing of the a,

and talk

of

the vector
unit a.

q, always with the implied reference to a certain This is the well-known method of Wessel, Argand,

Gauss, and others.

However,

it

should be noticed that

we have no occasion

to talk of g as a point in the plane.

EXAMPLES
(1)

Calculate the path of the steam in a two- wheel tur-

bine from the following data. The two wheels are rigidly connected and rotate with a speed a = 400oo ft./sec. Be-

68

VECTOR CALCULUS

tween them are stationary buckets which turn the exhaust steam from the buckets of the first wheel into those of the

The friction in each bucket reduces the speed The steam issues from the expansion nozzle at a speed of j8 = 220020. The proper exhaust angles of the buckets are 24, 30, 45. Find the proper entrance angles
second wheel.

by 12%.

of the buckets.

7 =
5

relative velocity of

steam at entrance to
steam,

first

wheel.

= =
= = = =

22OO20

400o
of

183024.3.

velocity

issuing

88%

of

preceding,

=
5

I6IO156.

entrance velocity to stationary bucket.

+a=
= =

1610i56

400o

=
=

1255i48.4.

r
6

exit

110530.

entrance to next bucket

78O44.3.

a =

IIO530

400o

7]

exit

690i35.

Absolute exit velocity

690i35

400o

495ioo.

Steinmetz, Engineering Mathematics.

(2). We may suppose the student is somewhat familiar with the usual elementary theory of the functions of a complex variable. If w is an analytic function of z, both

complex numbers, then the

as a function of x, y or u,

real part of w,

Rw, considered

termine

z,

will give

u, V plane.

v, the two parameters which dea system of curves in the x, y, or the These may be considered to be the transforma-

tions of the curves

parallel to the

Rw =

const,

which are straight

plane.

lines

axis in the

Similarly for the

imaginary part.
other,

The two

sets will be orthogonal to each

smce the slope

,

01 the nrst set will be

-^

and

1*1 of the

dTIw
ox
.,

other set

/
/
I

dTIw
t^
.

r>ut

these are

ay

VECTORS IN A PLANE
negative reciprocal, since

69

dRw _ dTlw
dx
dy

dRw _ _ dTIw
dy

dx

EXERCISES
1. If a particle which has a velocity given by is
<r

moving with the velocity 12028 and enters a

medium

+ 36 sin

[p, Ols",

what

be its path? 2. The wind is blowing steadily from the northwest at a rate of 16 ft ./sec. A boat is carried round in circles with a velocity 12 ft ./sec. divided by the distance from the center. The two velocities are com= 4o. pounded, find the motion of the boat if it starts at the point p
will
3.

12i8o, the
is

slow stream flows in at the point 120" and out at the point Unes of flow being circles and the speed constant. A chip

floating

on the stream and

is

blown by the wind wath a velocity

is

Find its path. 4. If a triangle is made with the sides q, r then jR.gr the vertex with reference to the circle whose diameter
640.
side.
5.

is

the power of the opposite

The area of the triangle is \TIqf. The sum q -\- r can be found by drawing vectors

qa, ra.

6.

How

is

qr constructed?
is

g??

7. If

OAE
ABC

a straight line and

OCF

another, and

if

EC
If O,

and

AF
C

intersect in B, then

OABC + OCAB + OBCA

0.

A, B,

are concycUc this gives Ptolemy'^ theorem.

8. If
is

a triangle and

LM

a segment, and

if

we construct

LMP similar to ABC, LMQ similar to BCA, and LMR

then

similar to

CAB,

PQR is

similar to

CAB.
number x

9. If

as a variable parameter,

the variable complex number u depends on the real by the linear fractional form

ax
ex

-\-\-

d
will

then for different values of x the vector representing u

terminate on

circle.

For

if

we construct
-

70
this reduces to
(cx/d),

VECTOR CALCULUS
hence the angle of w, which
dfc
<x)
is

u a/c and u b/d, is the angle of Hence the circle goes through a/c (x=
10. If

and and b/d

,

is

the angle between therefore constant.

(x

=0).

_ ^ ~
where x
is

x(c

~k(c

b)a
6)

+ b(a c) + (a - c)

a variable real parameter, then the vector representative of

circle

u
a,

will

terminate on the
b,

through A, B, C, where
c.

OA

represents

OB represents
11.

and

OC represents

Given three

circles

center,

any point

with centers Ci, d, Cz, and their radical in the plane, then the differences of the powers of

with respect to the three pairs of circles are proportional respectively to the projections of the sides of the triangle C1C2C3 on OP. 12. Construct a polygon of n sides when there is given a set of points, Cn which divide the sides in given ratios Oi 61, 02 62, Ci, C2, ,
, : :

an

bn-

If

the vertices are

Ji,

^2,

in,
,

at the ends of vectors 71, 72,

aiii

7n,

and the points we have

Ci, C2,

are

+ bi?2 =

7i(ai

+61)

a^ +

6?, = 7(an

+ 6).
is

solution of these equations will locate the vertices. solution ambiguous or impossible?

The

When

the

13. Construct two directly similar triangles whose bases are given vectors in the plane, fixed in position, so that the two triangles have a common vertex. 14.

Construct the

common

vertex of two inversely similar triangles

whose bases are given.

AC are given and

Construct a triangle ABC when the lengths of the sides AS and the length of the bisector AD. IG. Construct a triangle XYZ directly similar to a given triangle PQR whose vertices shall be at given distances from a fixed point 0. Let the length of OX be a, of OF be b, and of OZ be c. Then is
15.

anywhere on the

circle of radius

a and center 0.

We

have

XY/XZ

= PQ/PR,

that

is,

OY -OX ^ PQ
~OZ-OX

PR'

whence we have

We

draw
-{-

KO

OXQR + OYRP + OZPQ = 0. OXK directly similar to RPQ giving KO/OX = QR/RP = 0, that OY + OZ

and

is,

YK.Ozl'l

^'ECTORS IN A PLANE
la

71
b,

KOY

we have the base

KO

and the length

OY =

and length of

PQ YK =c length RP length We
can therefore construct
17.

KOY and the problem is solved.

from which the three Find a point imder given angles.

The hydrographic problem.

es of a given triangle

ABC are seen

XB/XA = ycksO, XC/XA =

Eliminate
that

2 cks ^.

XB
Z

=XA+ AB, XC = XA+ AC.

Find

XA giving 2 cks ABU = Z AXC,

1/

ipBA
Z

+ y cks d-AC = BC.

Z AXfi, then A A UB.

U such
v?.

ACU =

BU =

z cks

BA,CU =
18.

cks

OCA.

Construct

ACX directly similar to

Find the condition that the three hnes perpendicular to the three vectors pa, qa, ra at their extremities be concurrent. We have p + xkp = q + ykq = r + zkr. Taking conjugates zkr. Eliminate x, y, z from the four ykq = r xkp = p
lations.
19. If

raj' at

angle

/3

is

reflected in
is

ray

is

in the direction

whose angle
is

2a

a mirror at angle a the reflected ^. Study a chain of mirrors.

independent of some of the angles. is a and a point P is distant y from the line, and from P as a source of light a ray is reflected from the qa, then the reflected ray has for line, its initial direction being

Show

that the final direction

20.

Show

that

if

the normal to a line

equation

2ya

+ (qa =

p.

For further study along these

Application des Equipollences.
11.

lines, see

Laisant: Theorieet

Alternating Currents. We will notice an application of these hypernumbers to the theory of alternating currents and electromotive forces, due to C. P. Steinmetz.
If

an alternating current
/

is

given by the equation

7o cos 27rf(<

h),

the graph of the ciu-rent in terms of f is a circle whose diameter is Iq making an angle with the position for t = Q 6f 2irjti. The angle is called the phase angle of the cm-rent.
If

two such currents

of the

same frequency

are superim-

72
posed on the same

VECTOR CALCULUS
circuit,

say

= = r
7

W
7o'

Jo cos 2Tvj{t

- ti), COS 27r/(< = =

tx'),

we may

set
7o cos 27rf<i

h sin 2Trfti
which also has
vector

+ +

cos 2xfii'

7o" cos 2Trfh.

7o' sin 2Trfh'

7o" sin

27r/^2,

1"=
for its

Io"cos27rf(t-t2),
circle,

graph a

sum

of the diameters of the other

whose diameter is the two circles. We

may then
type and

fairly represent alternating currents of the simple

same frequency by the vectors which are the diameters of the corresponding circles. The sam^
of the

may
If

be said of the electromotive

forces.

represent the current and the electromotive force on the same diagram, the current would be indicated by

we

yellow vector (let us say) traveling around the origii with its extremity on its circle, while at the same time tl
electromotive force would be represented by a blue vect( travehng with the same angular speed around a circl^

with a diameter of different length perhaps. The yelloi and the blue vectors would generally not coincide, but thej

would maintain an invariable

sidered to be represented
times.

angle, hence,

if

each

is

coi

by a vector, the ratio of thea vectors would be such that its angle would be the same fc
all

This angle

is is

called the angle of lag, or leac

according as the

E.M.F.

behind the current or ahead of

is

it.

The law connecting

the vectors

E=
where
diameter of
of its circle,
its circle,

ZI,

E is the electromotive force vector, that is, the vector

7
is

the current vector, the diameter

7<|{

and

is

a hypernumber called the imfedand

VECTORS IN A PLANE
[<l>

73

9],

measured

in ohms.

The
being
r

scalar part of

is is

the

resistance of the circuit, while the imaginary part

the

reactance, the formula for

Z=
The value
of

xk.

is

2irjL,

where/ is the frequency,

in henrys, or
[1

[7^*],

and

L is the inductance, C is the 'permittance,

e.s.

^Q~^T],
units,

l/2xfC where

[QT^~^], in farads.
It

farad

=9-10"

units

10~^

e.m.

units

10^ e.m. units.]

is

and 1 henry = ilO~" e.s. to be noticed that reactance

is

due to the capacity of the circuit that due to inductance.

opposite in sign to

The law above

is

called the generalized

may

also generalize Kirchoff's laws, the

Ohm's law. We two generalizations

being due to Steinmetz, and having the highest importance, inasmuch as by the use of these h\'pernumbers the same tj-pe of calculation may be used on alternating circuits as

on direct
is

circuits.
:

The

generalization of Kirchoff's laws

as follows
(1)

The vector sum

is

of all electromotive forces acting in

if

closed circuit

zero,

resistance

and reactance

electro-

motive forces are counted as counter electromotive forces.

(2)

The vector sum

is

of all currents directed toward a

distributing point
(3)

zero.

In a number of impedances in series the joint impedance is the vector sum of all the impedances, but in a
parallel

of

impedance)

connected circuit the joint admittance (reciprocal is the sum of the several admittances.
of lag or lead, as the angle

of a

The impedance gives the angle hypernumber of this type.

We desire to emphasize the fact that in impedances we have physical cases of complex numbers. They involve complex numbers just as much as velocities involve positive

74

VECTOR CALCULUS

tive.

Of negative velocity, or rotations involve positive or negamay also affirm that the complex currents and

We

physical existences, every current implying a power current and a wattless current whose values lag 90 (as time) behind the power current.

electromotive forces

are real

The power electromotive

force is merely the real part of the complex electromotive force, and the wattless E.M.F. the imaginary part of the complex electromotive force, both

being given by the complex current and the complex

impedance.

We find at the different points of a transmission line that the complex current and complex electromotive force satisfy the differential equations
dllds

{g-\-

Cuk)E,

dE/ds

(r

Lo^k)!.
is

The
r is

letters

stand for quantities as follows: g

mhosjmile\
co

ohms/mile,

is

farads/mile,

is

henrys/mile.

2t.

Setting 711"= {r+ L(^k)(g P = (r Cirk), Co^k), Lo)k)/(g so that is [L~^] while / is ohms/mile, the solution of the'

equations

is

E= I =
=

Eq cosh ms
lo cosh ms

-\-

IIq

sinh ms,

l~^Eo sinh ms,

is,

where Eo and
If

7o are the initial values, that

where
cosh

s
h,

=
I

0.

Eo ZqIq and then sinh h we have

set

we

set

Zo

= Z

E = Z cosh

(ms

+
I

A)7o,

l~^Z sinh (ms

h)Io,

E= E=
I

coth {ms

h)I,

sech h cosh (ms csch h sinh (m^

+ h)Eo, + h)Io.
initial station
is,

To

find

where the wattless current of the

set /

has

become the power current we

sinh (ms
-\-

klo, that
h.

h)

k sinh

VECTORS IN A PLANE

75

The value

of s

must be

real.

EXAMPLES
(1)

Let

2 ohms/mile,

0, 0)

= =

2000,

L = 0.02 henrys/mile, C = 0.0000005 farads/mile, = uL 40 ohms/mile, conductor

reactance,
r

+ + +

Lo:k

40^ ohms/mile impedance

=
coC g

40.587.15.

0.001 mhos/mile dielectric susceptance. Co)k 0.00 U- mhos/mile dielectric admit-

tance
(g

Coik)-'

= =

0.00190.
lOOO/j-i

1000270 ohms/mile
dielectric

to2

= =

0.0405177.15O,

m=
/

impedance.

0.200188.58,

40500_.2.85,

= =

201.25-,. 43.
0)

Let the values at the receiver

(s

be

Eo = lOOOoo volts, 7o = Ooo. Then we have E = 1000 cosh 50.200188.58, for * = 100 E= 1000 cosh 20.0l88.58 = 625.945 92, / = 2.7727, for * = 8 E = 50.01 126. 85, = for * 16 E = 1001i8o.3, = for 5 15.7 E = 1000i8o, a reversal of phase, for s = 7.85 E = 090.

At points distant 31.4 miles the values are the same. If we assume that at the receiver end a current is to be
maintained with

h=
E=
I

5O400

with

Eo

lOOOoo,

= hts= lOOE =

1000 cosh 50.200188.58 1006238.57 Sinh 50.200188.68, 5040 cosh sm 5i.43 sinh sm.

10730x1355.

MacMahon,

Hyperbolic Functions.

76
(2)

VECTOR CALCULUS
Let ^0

i
r

10000,

7o

6613.50

Cic
(3)

0.00020

1, ^ period 221.5 miles, coL

0.00002

4.

The product
is

P = EI
The

represents the power of the

fre-

alternating current, with the understanding that the

quency

doubled.

real or scalar part

is

the effective

power, the imaginary part the wattless or reactive power. The value of TP is the total apparent power. The cos z P is the power factor, and sin z ^ is the induction factor.

The

torque, which is the product of the magnetic flux by the armature magnetomotive force times the sine of their

angle is proportional to TIP, where E is the generated electromotive force, and I is the secondary current. In
fact,

the torque is TI EI p/2Trf where p poles (pairs) of the motor.

-

is

the

number

of

12.

lines

Divergence and Curl. In a general vector field the have relations to one another, besides having the

peculiarities of the singularities of the field.

The most

important of these relations depend upon the way the lines approach one another, and the shape and position of a

moving

cross-section of a vector tube.

field

There

is

also at
a

each point of the

direction,

and

this will

an intensity of the field as well as change from point to point.

If

Divergence of Plane Lines.

of the field of a vector distribution in a plane,

easily

we examine the drawing we may

measure the rate of approach of neighboring lines, Starting from two points, one on each line, at the intersection of the normal at a point of the first line and the second

line,

we follow the two lines measuring the distance apart on a normal from the first. The rate of increase of this normal distance divided by the normal distance and the
distance traveled from the initial point is the divergence qj the lines, or as we shall say briefly the geometric divergent
of the field.
It
is

easily seen that in this case of a plaiv.

VECTORS IN A PLANE
ield it is

77

merely the curvature of the curves orthogonal

field.

o the curves of the

For instance, in the figure, the tangent to a curve of the The neighboring ield is a, the normal at the same point /3.
liirve

goes through C. The differential of the normal, and hich is the difference of

BD

iC, divided

by AC, or BD,

is

the

ate of divergence of the second curve rem the first for the distance AB.
lence,
nil
if

we a

also divide

by

AB

we

have the rate of angular turn of

in

moving to the neighthe one from C. This rate of angular turn >oring curve, >f the tangent of the field is the same as the rate of turn of
he normal of the orthogonal system, and ure of the normal system.
is

he tangent

thus the curva-

Curl oj Plane Lines. If we find the curvature of the riginal lines of the field we have a quantity of much imThis K)rtance, which may be called the geometric curl.
ust be taken plus

onvex

side of the curve

he tangent, Curl is really a vector, but for ingle with the tangent. he case of a plane field the direction would be perpendicular

when the normal to the field on the makes a positive right angle with and negative when it makes a negative right

o the plane

for the curl at every point,

and we may con-

ider only its intensity.

yell

Divergence of Field. Since the field has an intensity as as a direction, let the vector characterizing the field
(T

)e

= Taa. Then th6

rate of change of

Ta

in the direc-

ion of a, the tangent, is represented by daTa. Let us low consider an elementary area between two neighboring
lurves of the field,
iisider

TV as an

and two neighboring normals. If we intensity of some quantity whose amount

78

VECTOR CALCULUS

depends also upon the length of the infinitesimal normal curve, so that we consider the quantity Ta-dn, then the
value of this quantity, which we will call the transport of the differential tube (strip in the case of a plane field),

Ta being the density

tion,

of transport, will

would be Ta'dn' - Tadn. But Ta' = T<j+ dja-ds and dn' = dn -{- ds-dn times the divergence of the lines.
Therefore, the differential of the transport will be (to terms of the first order) ds (Ta

cross-sections of the tube,

and

for the case

vary for different under considera-

dn
ds

X dnX

.^

Hence, the density of this rate of change of the transport is Ta times the divergence the rate of change of Ta
.

times divergence

+ d^ Ta) +

along the tangent of the vector line of the field. This quantity we call the divergence of the field at the initial point, and

sometimes

it

will

be indicated by div.

a,

sometimes by

It is clear <SV(r, a notation which will be explained. that if the lines of a field are perpendicular to a set of straight lines, since the curvature of the straight lines is zero, the

divergence of the original lines is zero, and the expression, reduces to d^Ta. Curl of Field. We may also study the circulation of the! vector a along its lines, by which we mean the product ofj
the intensity Ta by a differential arc, that is. Tads. Or the neighboring vector line there is a different intensity^l The differential Ta', and a different differential arc ds'.
of the circulation
is

easily

found in the same manner as

the divergence, and turns out to be

{d^Ta

-jr

Ta

curl of the vector lines).

This quantity we shall call the curl of the field, written which notation sometimes curl a, and more frequently

Wa,

will

be explained.

VECTORS IN A PL.\NE
It is

79

evident that the curl of a

is

the line integral of the

Tads around the elementary area, for the parts contributed by the boundary normal to the field will be zero. Hence,

we may say that

area enclosed.
is

curl

is

the limit of the circulation of a

around an elementary area constructed as above, to the

We

will see later

that the shape of the area

not material.

Likewise, the divergence is clearly the ratio to the elementary area of the line integral of the normal component of a along the path of integration. We will see that this also
is

is

independent of the shape of the area. Further, we see that in a field in which the intensity of a constant the divergence becomes the geometric divergence

times the intensity Ta, and the curl becomes the geometric
curl times the intensity Ta.

Divergence and curl have

analysis in its applications to

many

applications in vector

geometry and physics.

These
simple
in the

appear particularly

in the applications to space.

is

example of convergence or divergence

shown

changing density of a gas moving over a plane. A simple case of curl is shown by a needle imbedded in a moving
viscous fluid.

The angular

rate of turn of the direction of

one-half the curl of the velocity. If the general equation of a given 13. Lines as Levels. set of curves is

the needle

is

u{x, y)

c,

these curves will be the vector lines of an infinity of fields, for if the differential equation of the lines is

dxlX
then we must have

dylY,

Xdujdx
and
for the field
<r

Ydu/dy
-\-

= Xa

}%

80

VECTOR CALCULUS
evidently choose

We may

arbitrarily

and then
if
<ri

find

uniquely from the equation. field so determined, any other

0-

However,
field is of

is

any one

the form

(TiR{x, y).

The orthogonal
equation

set of curves

would have
c

for their finite

v{x, y)

and

for their differential equation

Xdvjdy
If

Ydv/dx

0.

we use a uniformly to represent the unit tangent of = ka. u the set, and /3 the unit tangent of the v set, then j3 The gradient of the function u is then d^u-fi, and the is But the gradient d^v-a. gradient of the function It of u is also (Ux, Uy) and of v is (Vx, Vy) = {uy, Ux).
?j

follows that the tensors of the gradients are equal.

In

fact,

writing

Vw

for gradient u,
fields

we have

V^ = ^Vw. We also

have

for

whatever

onal lines for u curves, a

or also

belong to the two sets of orthogr\/v, for the v curves, a' = sVw,

we may

write
ta,

Vv =
14.

Vu =

tfi,

0-

Ta-ot.

Nabla.

The symbol

is

called nabla,

and evidently

be written in the form ad/dx ^d/dy for vectors in a plane. We will see later that for vectors in space it yd/dz, where a, ^, y are may be written ad/dx ^d/dy the usual unit vectors of three mutually perpendicular

may

directions.

However,

this

form of
all

differential operator is
fact,

not at

this very important a necessary form. In

if a and /3 are any two perpendicular unit vectors in a plane, and dr, ds are the corresponding differential distances in these two directions, then we have

V=

adidr

+ ^djds.

VECTORS IN A PLANE
For instance,
usual
if

81
r, d,

functions are given in terms of

the

polar

coordinates, then
for
is
:

V=

Upd'dr

kUpd/rdd.

The proof that

form
is

any orthogonal
left

set of curves a similar

possible,

to the student.
is

In general,

is

defined as follows

a linear differentiating vector with the variable vector p as follows: connected operator Consider first, a scalar function of p, say F(p). Differentiate

by giving p any arbitrary differential dp. The result is linear in dp, and may be looked upon as the product of the length of dp and the projection upon the direction of
this

dp of a certain vector for each direction dp.

If

now

these

vectors so projected can be reduced to a single vector,

this
is

by definition VF.
origin,

For instance,

if i^ is

the distance

from the
is
,

then the differential of

in

the projection of dr in a radial direction

any direction upon the direcIn the case

In case the
as a poly-

tion of differentiation.
of plane vectors,
differential of

Hence,
lie

V Tp =
we

Up.

'

VF will
is

in the plane.

polydromic,

define

VF

dromic vector, which amounts to saying that a given set of vectors will each furnish its own differential value of dF.

In some particular regions, or at certain points, the value may become indefinite in direction because the jof

VF

differentials in all directions vanish.

'

Of course, functions

can be defined which would require careful investigation as to their differentiability, but we shall not be concerned
with such in this work, and for their adequate treatment reference is made to the standard works on analysis.

We

must consider next the meaning

It is evident that
if

of

as applied to

vectors.

is

to be a linear

and there-

then such an expression as V(r must have the same meaning as VXa V 7/3 VZy if 0" = Xa F/3 -J- Zy, where a, j8, y are any independent
fore distributive operator,

constant vectors.

This serves then as the definition of

82

VECTOR CALCULUS

Vo-, the only remaining necessary part of the definition is the vector part which defines the product of two vectors.

This will be considered as

15.

we

proceed.

Nabla as a Complex Number. We will consider no\ p to represent the complex number x yh, or Vg, and thai all our expressions are complex numbers. The prope^ for V becomes then expression

V=
u, V,

didx

kdjdy
let

Updidr

kUpd/rdd.

In general for the plane,

p depend upon two parameter

and

let

dp
If
o-

pidu

+ p2dv.
v,

is

a function of p (generally not analytic in the usus

sense)

and thus dependent on

da

u,

we

will

have

dcrldu'du-\kpi,

da/dvdv
is

= R-dpV -(x.
pi, th^
kf.

If

we multiply dp by
perpendicular to
pi,

which

perpendicular to

real part of
is

both sides

will

be equal and we have, since

Rkpidp

dvRkpip2,

and

similarly

Rkpidp

duRkp2Pi

duRkpip^
the imaginary pal

since the imaginary part of piP2 equals

of P2P1.

Substituting in
dff

dcr

we have
kpi

R-dp

_|_

kpi

d
^

(-

Rkpipidu
is

Rkpip^dv
exactly

The

expression in

(),

however,

what we have

de-

above as V, and thus we have proved that we may in the form corresponding to dp in terms of u and v write
fined

V=

k(p2dldu

pid/dv)IRkpip2.

In case pi and p2 are perpendicular the divisor evidently

VECTORS IX A PLANE

83

reduces to it Tpi Tp^ according as p2 is negatively perpendicWe may write :!ar to px or positively perpendicular to it.
in this case in the
kpi- TpijTpi)
,_,

form

(since pt

^
5
-

kpi- Tpz/Tpi or

p\

p2

_i

_i

Tpi^du^ Tp2^dv
In any case we have Also in any case

dF = RdpS7F,

dv du^ da = Rdp\7

-o".

"^u-d du Vvd/dv. IG. Curl, Divergence, and Nabla. Suppose now that a is the complex number for the unit tangent of one of a set of vector lines, and /3 the complex number for the unit
tangent of the orthogonal set, at the same point. The ciu-vature of the orthogonal set is the intensity of the vector
rate of change of
is

V=

B along the orthogonal curve.

But

this

the

same as the

rate of change of the unit tangent

as

we pass along the orthogonal curve from one vector

line to

an adjacent one. The differential of a is perpendicular to a, and hence parallel to the direction of 0. Hence this
curvature can be written

R-fiiRfiV-a).

R- a(R-a\i^)a, since the a has no component to this term is and a, zero, parallel may be added to the preceding without affecting its value. Hence the curvature
if

But

we

also consider the value of

differential of

in the direction of

of the

orthogonal set reduces to

R(aRaV
This
If
is

+ fiR^V)a = RVa.

the divergence of the curves of a. now <r = Taa, we find from the definition of the
it is

divergence of a that

merely

RVa,
Considering in the same manner the definition of curl of <r,

84

VECTOR CALCULUS
find
it

we

reduces to

R- k\7<T, and

if

we multiply this by h,

so that

we have
curl
(T

kKkS/a^I-Va-,
to the expression for the

we

see at once that

when added

divergence of

a we have
div-o-

+ curl

a-

Vo-.

The
of a,

real part of this expression

is

therefore the divergence

a.

and the imaginary part

is

the curl of

This

will

agree with expressions for curl and divergence for space of three dimensions. We have thus found some of the

remarkable properties of the operator 17. Solenoidal and Lamellar Vector Fields.
.

When
is

the

divergence of
solenoidal.
If

is

everywhere zero, the

is

field is said to

be

the curl

everywhere

zero, the field

called

lamellar.
18. Properties of the Field.

Let a set of curves w

set v

be
<t

considered, and the orthogonal be expressed in the form

a,

and

let

the

field

= ZVw + YVv,

where

it is

points to be considered.

assumed that the gradients Vw, We have then

exist at all

diva =
The

RVa =

RvXVu+ RvYVv _ + XRVVU+

is
it is

_
YRVVv.

expression In case it vanishes

RvVu

called the plane dissipation of u. evident that u satisfies Laplace's

equation, and

is

therefore harmonic.

We also have
curl
<T

7- Vo-

kRkvXVu

kRkvYVv,

the other parts vanishing.

VECTORS
Since

A PLANE
sets of curves

85

we have chosen orthogonal

we may

write these in the forms

6iva= iTVuydX/du+ (TwYdY/dv

+ XRVVu +
curl
<T

YRVVv,
u
curves,

= (TVu){TVv){dYfdu
0,

dXldv)k.
o-

In case we have chosen the lines of then

for the

X=

and

0-

div(r=
0-

Vc YRVVV+
1'

(TwydY/dv,

= TVuTVv dY/du-k. curl We notice that curl Vu = 0, curl Vc = 0, div-fcVw = div-^Vr = 0, kVu = VvTVu/TW, and for

0,

y=
we have

TVu/TW,
d log iTVu/TVv)/du, d log {TVv/TS/u)ldt.

iTVu)-^RVVu =

(TwrmvVv
<r.

conclusions as to the types of B. O. curves and Peirce, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts (Cf. and Sci., 38 (1903) 663-678; 39 (1903) 295-304.)
(1)

We may now draw some

The

field will

be solenoidal

if

div-c

0,

hence

d log Y(dv which

= - RVW/TVv',
g/(u. r)

may

be integrated, giving

Y=
If c is

ff()^

harmonic,

5^ is

a function of
cr

u only and a
0,

= (/(w) Vi>.

(2) If the field is lamellar, curl

and

F is a function

of T only, so that
(3)

a
is

= H{c)Vv = VLiv).
both solenoidal and lamellar,

If

the field

RVVLit) =
which
is

0,

whence

RVVvKTwf = f(v),
Hence

a condition on the character of the curves.

86
it is

VECTOR CALCULUS
not possible to have a solenoidal and lamellar
If
fiel

with purely arbitrary curves.

(4)
is

the

field

is

solenoidal

and

Tc,

the

intensity

a function of

d log Y/dv

= -

alone, Y = dTVv/TVvdv =

p(u)/T'^v, and therefor

- RVW/TW^

when

2RVVV =
which
is

d{T\7vfldv,

a condition on the curves.

An example

is

th^

cross-section of a field of magnetic intensity inside an in

finitely long cylinder of revolution

which

carries lengthwisi

a steady current of electricity of uniform current density (5) If <T is lamellar and Tcr is a function of v only, TS7v .=
g(v).

An example
is

is

the field of attraction within a

homogeneous,
condition
(6)

infinitely long cylinder of revolution. a restriction on the possible curves.

field is

The
only,

If

the
is

lamellar

and Ta a function

of

since

TW =
(7) T(T

a function of v only, d log

TVv/du =

k{u), or

l{u)lm{v).

This restricts the curves.

If

the field

is

solenoidal

and Ta a function

of v only,

=_p(v)TVv.

Therefore d log Ta/dv

d log

TVa/dv

RWv/{TVvY.

Hence

either both sides are constant

or else both expressible in terms of v. If the field is not lamellar also, TVv must then be a function of u as well as
of
V.

(8)

If

the field

is

lamellar and has a scalar potential

function, that is, o- = V-P, then since a = q{v)^v, we must have P a function of v only, and tr = P'Vv. From this
it

follows that diver

(9) If

= P'(v)RVW +

P"{v){T\/vf.

the field

is

is

V only,

lamellar only if while <r is solenoidal only

= a/TVv, and a a, Y uniform, Ta TVv is either constant or a function of

if

we have

2RVVV =

d{T\7vfldv.

VECTORS IX A PLANE
(10)

87

Whatever function u

is,

the u lines are vector lines

for the vectors ^

j{u)U\7v, ^
77

g(v)UVv, or

Hu, t)UVt.
Ta
it

(11) If the field

is

solenoidal,

a function of

only,

and the u curves are the

takes the form

lines of the field,

then the curl

k divA-cr, whence

has the form

k[b(u)RvVu
^^

6'(w)(rvw)'l,
If

here 6

may

a function of

be any differentiable function. v, the form of the curl is

Ta

is

also

k[b(u,
(12) If

v)RVVu

+ db(u, T)/duiTVuf].

Ta

is

a function of u only, the divergence takes

the form

diver
(13)
If

= TalRvVv/TVv a function of v only

dTVt/dv].

Ta

is

19.

= - kTaTVu/TVT'dTVvfdu. Continuous Media. When the field is that

cm-loIf

of the

velocity of a continuous

medium, we have two cases to

take into account.

the

medium

is

incompressible

it is

Incompressibility that the density at a point remains invariable, and

is c,

called a liquid, otherwise a gas.

means
if

this

then from

dc'dt= dc/di

RaVc, =

dc.'dt

RVica)

- cRVa

we

see that the first

two terms together vanish, giving the

equation of continuity, since they give the rate per square centimeter at which actual material (density times area,
since the height
is

constant)
dc/dt

is

changing.

Hence

in this case

cR^a.

This gives the rate of change of the density at a point moving with the fluid. Hence if it is incompressible, the
velocity
is

solenoidal,

RVa =0.

88
This

VECTOR CALCULUS

may

also be written curl

ka)

0,

hence

ha

= VQ,
there
is

and a

= ^VQ,
Q

which shows that

for every liquid

a function

called the function of flow.

It

When curl ^ = 0, we have seen that ^ is called lamellar. may also be called irrotational, since the curl is twice the

angular rate of rotation of the infinitesimal parts of the medium, about axes perpendicular to the plane, and if
curl ^

there

is

no such rotation.

Curl

is

to density, being a density of rotation

field is

when

analogous the vector

a velocity

field.
is

The

circulation of the field

any path from a point ^ to a point B. Xdx + Ydy, and is exact when
dXldy

the integral J'Radp along This is the same as

dY/dx.

But

this gives exactly the condition that the curl should

vanish. Hence if the motion is irrotational the circulation from one point to another is independent of the path. In this case we may write c = where P is called the

VP

velocity potential.

When

is

irrotational, the lines of

If

Q have

as orthogonals

the lines of P.

the motion

is

rotational, these orthogonals

If

are not the lines of such a function as P.

the motion

is

= 0, and P must irrotational, we have for a liquid, be harmonic. Hence if the orthogonal curves of the Q
curves can belong to a harmonic function they can be curves of a velocity potential. If a set of curves belong to the

RwP
0,

harmonic function
the curl of

u,

then
is

RWu =

and

this

shows that
is

JcVu

zero,

whence Rdp(

kS7u)

exact

where kVu. From this we have Vm k\7Q for the condition that the orthogonal curves belong to a harmonic function. This however gives the equation
dv,

= =

Vv =

TVu = TvQ. We may assert then for a liquid that there

is

always a function of flow, and the curves belonging

to

VECTORS IN A PLANE
this function are the vector lines of

89

the velocity, the in-

tensity of the velocity being the intensity of the gradient of

If the orthogonal curves belong to function which has a gradient of the same intensity, both functions are harmonic, the function of the orthogonal set

the function of flow.

a

i.~:

a velocity potential,

We

have a simple

and the motion is irrotational. means of discovering the sets of curves

is

that belong to

harmonic functions, as

well

known

to

students of the theory of functions of a complex variable,

and the imaginary part of an analytic function complex variable are harmonic for the variable coThat is to say, if p = a* + yk, ordinates of the variable. = = md ^ /(p) u + vk, then u, v are harmonic for .r, y. The condition given by Cauchy amounts to the equation where ^ is a complex number. Vu = k\7v, or V^ = [t is clear from this that the field of ^ is both solenoidal and amellar, a necessary and sufficient condition that ^ be an
>ince the real
of

malytic function of a complex variable. In this case ^ ?alled a monogenic function of position in the plane. It 'lear that ^ = \7H where is sl harmonic function.

is is

:o

In case there are singularities in the field it is necessary determine their effect on the integrals. For instance, if

field a and select a path in it, from A to B, or a flux the of a through the path is the integral of the cop, projection of a on the normal of the path, that is, if the path
.ve

have a

a curve given

by

dp, so that the projection

is

is

Ra(

kdp),
It
is

fhe integral of this

vVTitten

the flux through the path.

^ = fA^{- R^kdp) =

kfladp.
shows that

In the case of a liquid the condition RS7(r

integrable over any path from A to B, ivith the same value, unless the two paths enclose a singuIn the case of a node, the integral around arity of the field.
:he expression
is

90

VECTOR CALCULUS
is

a loop enclosing the node

or sink at the node.

called the strength of the source

imagine a constant supply the to the of enter plane or to leave it at the node, liquid and be moving along the lines of the field. Such a system

We may

was
If

called

by

Clifford a squirt.

the circulation

will usually

is taken around a singular point it have a different value for every turn around the

point, giving a polydromic function.

These

peculiarities

must be studied

carefully in each case.

EXERCISES
1.

From

= Ap" we find in polar u = Ar" cos nO,

coordinates that
v

= Ar"

sin nB.

These functions are harmonic and their curves orthogonal. Hence if we set a = \/u or a == ^v,we shall have as the vector lines of o- the v curves or the u curves. What are the curves for the cases n = 3,

2,-1,
2.
3.

1, 2,

3?

What
log
p,

are the singularities?

^

Study

and

= A

log (p

a)l{p

+ a).
.

Consider the function given impUcitly by p = $ + e This represents the flow of a liquid into or out of a narrow channel, in the sense that it gives the lines of flow when it is not rotational. 4. Show that o- = Ajp gives a radial irrotational flow, while o- = Aklp What is true of a = Akp? The gives a circular irrotational flow.
last is Clifford's Whirl.
5. Study a flow from a source at a given point of constant strength to a sink at another point, of the same strength as the source. 6. If the lines are concentric circles, and the angular velocity of any particle about the center is proportional to the n-th power of the radius

of the path of the point,

velocity.

show that the

curl

is

Kn +

2) times the angular

7. A point in a gas is surrounded by a small loop. Show that the average tangential velocity on the loop has a ratio to the average normal velocity which is the ratio of the tensor of the curl to the

divergence.
8. What is the velocity when there is a source at a fixed origin, and the divergence varies inversely as the n-th power of the distance from the origin. [The velocity potential is A log r B(n 2)"V~".] 9. Consider the field of two sources of equal strength. The lines are

for irrotational motion, cassinian ovals, where,

if r, r'

are the distances'

w
VECTORS IN A PLANE
fom the two sources
such that
Tff

91

= /l^ Q = A log h B, the velocity (foci) and rr' ATp/h^, the origin being half way between the foci; he orthogonal curves are given by m = iA[w/2 (O 61)] where 9, are the angles between the axis and the radii from the foci, that is bey are equilateral hj-perbolas through the foci. The circulation

pout one focus is irA, about both 2xA. 10. If the Unes are confocal ellipses given by

p is the perpendicular log the center upon the tangent of the ellipse at any point, then the = c*)L and elocity at the point is such that T<t The potential function is he direction of o- is the unit normal.
ben

Q =A

+ yV(M - c2) = (Vm+ V(m c*)) + B. If

xVix

1,

om

Ap/VKm

B' V v/c. V is the semi-major axis. What happens at the foci? the stream lines are the hj-perbolas of the preceding, then = 2A V (j'/Ox On the v)) times the imit normal of the hjTjerbola. haK way ne p = yka there is no velocity, at the foci the velocity is , etween it is 0. The lines along the major axis outside the foci act
sin"^
J*

11. If

ke walls.
12. If e

we

write for brevity Ui for

TVu, and

I'l

for TVi',
v

have whether the u curves are orthogonal to the

show that curves or not,

- =
'

ui^d^du^

+ Vi^d^/&v^ +

VVud/du

+ '^S/vd/dv + 2RVuVvd^/dudv.

re

the sets of curves are orthogonal the last term vanishes; if u and v harmonic the third and fourth terms drop out; if both cases happen, hly the first two terms are left.
13.

In case of polar coordinates, S/r

Up,

VO =

r~^kp

and

14.

gas

a source.
le

center.

moves in a plane in lines radiating from the origin, which The divergence is a function of r only, the distance from Find the velocity and the density at any point.
a

pfir),

RV<r =

e{r)

2/(r)

+ rf'{r),

id
fir)

A/r2

+ r-^fre{r)dr.
=
rf(r)d log c/dr.

o determine

c,

i2V log ca
15.

= -

e{r)

f{r)Rp\7 log c

that in the steady flow of a gas we may find an integrating = = RS/ar = curl- kc<r, ctor for Rdpka by using the density, [dcjdt
id Rdpkcff is exact.]
16.

Show

fluid is in
is

he curl
illy.

known

at each point

steady motion, the lines being concentric circles, and the tensor of <r is a function of r

Find the

velopit^' 9.nd tljg divergence.

92
17.

VECTOR CALCULUS
Rotational motion, that
is

field

which

is

not lamellar,

is also

called vortical motion.

may

points at which the curl does not vanish be distributed in a continuous or a discontinuous manner. In
finite

The

fact there

may be only a have the following:

(X

number

of them, called vortices.

W-

= kvQ, V VQ = T curl a = 2co, Q = 7r-iyy*w' log rdx'dy' + Qo,

w' denotes w at the variable point of the integration, r is the variable distance from the point at which the velocity is wanted, and is any solution of Laplace's equation which satisfies the bounda;

where

(,

conditions.
If

the mass

is

unlimited and

is

stationary at infinity

we have

<r

k/irffo>'(p

p')/T{p
I

p'Y-dx'dy'.
f

single vortex filament at

p' of strength

would give the velocity

l/2^-{p

p')IT{p

-p'y.
1

If we multiply the velocity at each point p at which there is a vortex the strength, and integrate over the whole field, we find the sum is zer There is then a center of vortices where the velocity is zero, somethii; Instances are like a center of gravity.
(1)

single vortex of strength

I.

The vortex

point will remain

of

and points distant from it r will move on concentric the vortex as center, and velocity lf2Trr. The circulation
rest,

circles wit

any

loo

surrounding the vortex

is

of course the strength.

They will (2) Two vortices of strengths li, h. common center of gravity of two weighted points at
apart a, the weights being the two strengths. each is
27ra2

rotate about

th

the fixed distanc

velocity
c

The angular

given by n^n'^ = const. Whei at infinity, and the vortices remain a fixed dis tance apart, moving parallel to the perpendicular bisector of this segmen Such a combination is called a vortex pair. The strean joining them.

The stream
l^

lines of the field are

is

I2

the center

the accompanying velocity are coaxal circles referred to thi moving points as limit points. The plane of symmetry may be takei as a boundary since it is one of the stream lines, giving the motion of of th single vortex in a field bounded by a plane, the linear velocity vortex being parallel to the wall and \ of the velocity of the liquid alom the wall. The figure suggests the method of images which can indeei be applied. For further problems of the same character works 01
lines of

Hydrodynamics should be consulted.

VECTORS IN A PLANE

93

iijiiKs

Liquid flows over an infinite plane towards a circular spot where out at the rate of 2 cc. per second for each cm.^ area of the leaky lion. The liquid has a uniform depth of 10 cm. over the entire ne field. Find formulas for the velocity of the hquid inside the ion of the leaky spot, and the region outside, and show that there is
otential in both regions.
r = iVp in spot, 40/p outside, outside.

P =

^qpp in spot, 40 log Tp

20 log

Find the flux through a plane area 20 cm. long and 10 cm. high, whose idle line is 5 cm. from the center of the leaky spot, also when it is cm. from the leaky spot. Find the divergence in the two regions.
Franklin, Electric Waves, pp. 307-8.
19.
B

Show

that in an irrotational motion with sources and sinks, the

of flow are the orthogonal curves of the stream lines of a correspondfield in which the sources and the sinks are replaced by vortices of

aigths the same as that of the sources and sinks, and inversely, For sources and earn lines and levels change place as to their roles.

ksQ =
20.

l/2ir--Ehdi,

P =

l/27r-S log n'l.

Vector Potential.
(7

jress

In the expression a = VA-Q we as a vector derived by the operation of upon

kQ, the latter being a complex number. may extend our terminology and call
lential of a.

In such a case

kQ the

vector

vector

may

be derived from more than

vector potential.
tential it is

In order that there be a vector

necessary and sufficient that the divergence a vanish. Hence any liquid flow can have a vector tential, which is indeed the current function multiplied
k.

It is clear that

Q must

be harmonic.

CHAPTER

VI

VECTORS IN SPACE

We have seen that in a plane the figure two directed segments from a vertex enables us to define the ratio of the two vectors which constitute the sides when the figure is in some definite position. This
1.

Biradials.
of

made up

ratio

common to all the figures produced by rotating the about a normal of the plane through its vertex, and figure it translating anywhere in the plane. We may also reduce the sides proportionately and still have the same ratio.
is

The
If

ratio

is

a complex

number

or,

as

we

will

say in general,

a hypernumber.

now we

consider vectors in space of three dimensions,

we may

same manner a set of hypernumbers which are the ratios of the figures we can produce in an analogous manner. Such figures will be called
define in precisely the
hiradials.

To each

biradial there will correspond a hyper-

number.

Besides the translation and the rotation in the

plane of the two sides of the biradial, we shall also permit the figure to be transferred to any parallel plane. This amounts to saying that we may choose a fixed origin, and

whatever vectors we consider

in space,

we may draw from

the origin two vectors parallel and equal to the two considered, thus forming a biradial with the origin as vertex.

Then any such

number.

biradial will determine a single hyper-

Further the hypernumbers which belong to the biradials which can be produced from the given biradial by rotating it in its plane about the vertex will be con94

sidered as equal.

VECTORS IN SPACE

95

The hypern umbers thus defined

vve

are extensions of those

have been using

in the preceding chapter, the

new

eature being the different hypernumbers k which we now need, one new k in fact for each different plane through the jiven vertex. This gives us then a double infinity of

hypernumbers
2.

of the

complex type, r-cks

6,

where the
de-

double infinity of k's constitute the

new

elements.

Quaternions.

The hypernumbers we have thus

fined metrico-geometrically involve four essential parameters in whatever way they are expressed, since the

biradials involve

more.

two and the plane in which they lie two Hence they were named by Hamilton Quaternions.

In order to arrive at a fuller understanding of their properties and relations, we will study the geometric properties
bf biradials.

In the
is

first

place
its

involved in

consider any given biradial, there quaternion, just as for the complex number
if

we

in

the preceding chapter,

two

parts, a real part

and an

imaginary part, and we can write the quaternion in the form

q
(where

cos

J*

sin 6 -a,

to what was written k in the preceding a tehapter, h\-pernumber determined solely by the plane of the biradial. On account of this we may properly represent a by a unit normal to the plane of the biradial,

a corresponds
and
is

iso

if the angle of the biradial is considered to be the of the normal is such that a rightdirection positive, handed screw motion turning the initial vector of the

taken that

'biradial

into the terminal vector in direction

would

in-

ivolve

which

an advance along the normal in the direction in it points. It is to be understood very clearly that

the unit vector

'entities,

a and the hyper number a are distinct one merely representing the other. The real

96
part of q
is

VECTOR CALCULUS
called, according to

Hamilton's terminology, the

The imaginary part is q, and written Sq. on account of the representation of a as a vector, the vector part of q and written Vq. The unit a is called the unit vector of q and written UVq. The angle oi q\sd and
scalar part of
called,

written

Aq.

The number

which

is

the ratio of the

lengths of the sides of the biradial is called the tensor of q, and written Tq. The expression cos 6 -{- sin ^-o; = cas-d
is

called the versor of

q,

and written

TJq.

Sq
of

is

a quaternion for which 6

or

180, Vq
is

is

quaternion for which 6

90

or

270.

Tq

a quaternion

0,
3.

and sometimes

being always positive, a is a quaternion of 6 called a right versor.

of Quaternions.

= 90,
sum
of

Sum

In order to define the

two quaternions we define the sum of two biradials first. This is accomplished by rotating the two biradials in their planes until their initial lines coincide, and then diminishing
or magnifying the sides of one until the initial vectors are

exactly equal and coincide. This is always possible. We then define as the sum of the two biradials, the biradial

whose

initial

vector
is

is

the

terminal vector
vectors.

the

common vector of the vector sum of the two

two, and

terminal

corresponding quaternions is then the quaternion of the biradial sum. Since vector addition is commutative, the addition of quaternions is

The sum

of the

commutative.

and vector parts of the quaterthat prove they can be added separately, the scalar parts like any numbers and the vector parts like
Passing
to the scalar
nions,

now

we

will

vectors.

In the figure

let

OC/OA, and
T'g-sin

oi q-\-

rhe OD/OA.
off as

the biradial of q be OB/OA, of r be Let the vector part of q,

zq-UVq

be laid

a vector Vq perpendicular

VECTORS IN SPACE
to the plane of the biradial of
q,

97
similarly for Vr.

and

Then we
q
-\-

are to

representation
r

show that I (</ + r) Vr in the and that this represents the vector part of
definition.
It
is

= Vq -\-

according to the

evident that

B'

Fig. 12.

OB = OB'

B'B, the
to

first

vector along

OA, the second

C'C,

perpendicular the first part along

third

OA.
to

Also

OC = OC" + C'C +
parallel to

OA, the second

the

B'B, and the

perpendicular

plane

of

OB +00=^ OD, where OD = OD" OD" = OB' + OC", D"D' = B'B +

Hence the
scalar part
is

OAB. The sum D"D' + D'D, and

2)'Z>

C"C",

C'C.

biradial of the

the ratio of

sum is OD/OA, where the OD" to OA. This is clearly the

and
r,

sum

of the scalar parts of q

and
Sr.

S{q

+r) = Sq+

vector part of the quaternion for OD/OA is the ratio to OA in magnitude, and the unit part is represented by a unit normal perpendicular to OD" and D"D.
of

The

D"D

But
the

D"D = B'B
sum

of the ratios of

C"C, and the TRtio of D"D to OA equals B'B and C'C to OA. If then we

the vector

which is perpendicular to OA, draw, in a plane through Vq along the representative unit normal of the
plane
of

OAB, and
B'B
to to

of a length to represent the numerical

ratio of

OA, and

likewise

C"C

OA

laid off along the representative unit

Vr to represent the ratio normal

98

VECTOR CALCULUS

to the plane OAC, because D"D is parallel to this plane, as well as B'B and C"C, the representative unit vector of
q
-\-

r will lie in

the plane, and will be in length the vector

Vr, that

sum
tive,

of

Vq and

It follows at

is V(q r) as shown. once since the addition of scalars

is

associa-

and the addition

of vectors

is

associative,

and the two

parts of a quaternion have no necessary precedence, that the addition of quaternions is associative.
4.

Product of Quaternions.
likewise

To

define the product of

quaternions we case however we

utilize
initial

the

biradials.

In this

vector of the multiplier bring the to coincide with the terminal line of the multiplicand, and

define the product biradial as the biradial

whose

initial

th^ terminal vector

vector

is

initial
is

vector of the multiplicand, and the the terminal vector of the multiplier.

In the figure, the product of the biradials OB/OA, and

Fig. 13.

OC/OB,

is,

writing the multiplier

first,

OC/OB OB/OA = OC/OA.

It
is

clear that the tensor of the product

is

the product of

the tensors, so that

T-qr=
It follows that

TqTr.

U-qr
It is
will

UqUr.

evident from the figure that the angle of the product be the face angle of the trihedral, AOC, or on a unit sphere would be represented by the side of the spherical

I'ECTORS IN SPACE
triangle corresponding.
It
is

99

clear too that the reversal of

the order of the multiplication will change the plane of the product biradial, usually, and therefore will give a

quaternion with a different unit vector, though all the other numbers dependent upon the product will remain the same.

However we can prove that

is

associative.

In this proof we

multiplication of quaternions may leave out the tensors

versors. The proof is due to Hamilton. the vectors are all taken the since biradials, represent as unit vectors, we draw only an arc on the unit sphere,

and handle only the

To

from one point to the other, of the two ends of the two unit
vectors of the biradial.
of q

Thus we represent the

biradial
its

by CA,

or, since the biradial

may
ED.
is

be rotated in

plane about the vertex, equally by volved are shown. The product qr from the definition, or equally by
to prove
is

The

others in-

represented

by FD,

LM.

What we have

that the product p-qr'is the same as the product are and pg-r, that is, we must prove that the arcs on the same great circle and of equal length and direction.

KG

LN

MB

Since
points

FE = KH, ED = L, C, G, D are on

CA,

HG =

CB,

LM =

FD, the
cyclic

a spherical conic,

whose

planes are those of

L,

AB, FE, and hence

and with LM intercepts on AB That is, it passes through N, or KG and

passes through an arc equal to AB.

KG

LN are arcs of the

100

VECTOR CALCULUS
circle,

same great
5.

and they are equal,

for

G and L are points

in the spherical conic.

dials

Trirectangular Biradials. A particular pair of birawhich lead to an interesting product is a pair of which

the vectors of each biradial are perpendicular unit vectors, and the initial vector of one is the terminal of the other,
for in such case, the product
is

a biradial of the same kind.

tri-

In fact the three lines of the three biradials form a

rectangular
trihedral.
If

the quaternions of the three

Fig. 15.

are

i, j,

k,

then we see easily that the quaternion of the

OC/OB is represented completely by the unit vector marked i, the quaternion of OA/OC by j, and of OB/OA by
biradial
k.

The products
ij

are very interesting, for

k,

we have
j,

jk

i,

ki

and

if

we

place the equal biradials in the figure

ji

we
j.

also

have

k,

kj

i,

ik

Furthermore, we also can see easily that, utilizing the

common

notation of powers,
^2

= -

1,

j2

^ _

i^

P= -

1.

evidently possible to resolve the vector part of any quaternion, when it is laid off on the unit vector of its plane as a length, into three components along the direcit is

Since

tions of

i, j,

k,

and since the sum

of the vector parts of

VECTORS IN SPACE

101

quaternions has been shown to be the vector part of the sum, it follows that any quaternion can be resolved into
the parts
q

= w

-\-

xi

-{-

yj \- zk.

These h\'pernumbers can easily be made the base of the whole system of quaternions, and it is one of the many methods of deriving them. Hamilton started from these.

The account
friend,

of his invention

is

contained in a letter to a
(Philosophical

which should be consulted.

It

Magaif

zine, 1844, vol. 104, ser. 3, vol. 25, p. 489.)

6.

Product of Vectors.

becomes evident at once

we

consider the product of two or two quaternions whose scalar parts are zero, that we may consider this product, a quaternion, as the product of

vector parts of quaternions,

the vector lines w^hich represent the vector parts of the

quaternion factors.

From

this point of

view we ignore

the biradials completely, and look upon every geometric vector as the representative of the vector part of a set of

quaternions with different scalars, among which one has zero scalar. From the biradial definition we have

VqVr = S VqVr

V- VqVr

equal to the quaternion whose biradial consists of two vectors in the same plane as the vector normals of the

Fig. 16.

102
biradials of Vq,

VECTOR CALCULUS

Vr and perpendicular to them respectively. In the figure the biradial of Vr is OAB, and of Vq is OBC, and of VqVr is OAC. If then we represent the vectors by
Greek
letters

whether meant to be considered as

lines or

= Vr, then the quaternion Vq, (3 a^ has for its angle the angle beand for its normal the direction OB. tween jS and a 180, If we take UVa^ in the opposite direction to OB, and of
as vector quaternions, a which is the product of

unit length, so as to be a positive normal for the biradial

/5

in that order,
/3,

then we

shall have, letting 6

be the angle

from a to

a^=

TaTl3(- cos

UVafi

sin d).

We can write at once then the fundamental formulae = - TaTfi cos d, V-ajS = TaTjS-sm 6- UVafi. S-afi
From
this

form

it is

clear also that

any quaternion can

be expressed as the product of two vectors, the angle of the two being the supplement of that of the quaternion,
the product of their lengths being the tensor of the quaternion, and their plane having the unit vector of the quaternion as positive normal.
If

now we
a

consider the two vectors

a and fi to be

resolved

in the forms

ai-\- hj

-\-

ck,

li -\-

mj

nk,

k have the significance of three mutually trirectangular unit vectors, as above, then since Ta Tfi cos 6 = al-\- hm-\- en, and since the vector Ta TjS sin 6 UVa^

where

i, j,

is

(bn

cm)i

+
en)

(cl

an)j

(ain

hl)k,

we have
ajS

{al

-\-

bm

(bn
-\-

cm)i
(el

an)j

(am

bl)k.

^-ECTORS IN SPACE

103

But

if

we multiply out the two

distribiitively,

expressions for a and /3 the nine terms reduce to precisely these.

Hence we have shown that the multiplication of vectors, and therefore of quaternions in general, is distributive when they are expressed in terms of these trirectangular systems.
easy to see however that this leads at once to the general distributi\dty of all multiplications of sums.
It is
7.

Laws

of Quaternions.

We see then that the

addition

and multiplication of quaternions is associative, that addition is commutative, and that multiplication is distributi\e

over addition.

^lultiplication

is

usually

not

commutative.

division, but if we now consider a biradial as not being geometric but as being a quaternion quotient of two vectors, we find that

We

have yet to define

differs

from

a/3

only in

lla^'ing its scalar of opposite

T^jTa instead of TaT0. It is to be noticed that while we arrived at the hj-pernumbers called quaternions by the use of biradials, they could have been found some other way, and in fact were so first found by Hamilton, whose original papers should be
-ign,
its

and

tensor

is

consulted.

Further the use of vectors as certain kinds of

quaternions is exactly analogous, or may be considered to be an extension of, the method of using complex numbers In the plane the vectors instead of vectors in a plane.

some unit vector chosen for all the plane, by the complex number. In space a vector is the product of a unit vector (which would have to be drawn in the
are the product of

fourth dimension to be a complete extension of the plane) by the h^'pernumber we caU a vector. However, the use of
the unit in the plane

was seldom required, and

refer to the unit 1,

likewise in

space

we need never

from which the

in

vectors of space are derived. On the other hand, just as the plane all complex numbers can be found as the ratios

104

VECTOR CALCULUS

an infinity of ways, so all quaternions can be found as the ratios of vectors in space. All vectors are thus as quaternions the ratios of perpendicular
of vectors in the plane in

vectors in space.

multiplication is always of vectors as quaternions and not as geometric entities. In the common vector systems other than Quaternions, the scalar part of

And

the quaternion product, usually with the opposite sign, and the vector part of the quaternion product, are looked upon as products formed directly from geometric con-

In such case the vector product is usually defined to be a vector in the geometric sense, perpendicular Therefore it is a function of to the two given vectors.
siderations.

the two vectors and

all.

is

not a number or hypernumber at

In these systems, the scalar is a common number, and of course the sum of a number and a geometric vector
is

an impossibility.

It

seems clear that the only defensible

is

logical

ground for these different investigations

that of

the hypernumber. It is to be noticed too that Quaternions is peculiarly applicable to space of three dimensions, because of the

In a duality existing between planes and their normals. space of four dimensions, for instance, a plane, that is a
linear extension

similar figure of

dependent upon two parameters, has a two dimensions as normal. Hence, corresponding to a biradial we should not have a vector. To reach the extension of quaternions it would be necessary to define triradials, and the hypernumbers corresponding to them. Quaternions however can be applied to four dimensional space in a different manner, and leads to a

The products

very simple geometric algebra for four-dimensional space. of quaternions however are in that case not
sufficient to express all the necessary geometrical entities,

and recourse must be had

to other functions of quaternions.

VECTORS IN SPACE

105

In three-dimensional space, however, all the necessary expressions that arise in geometry or physics are easily quaternions has the great advantage over other systems that it is associative, and that division is one of its processes. In fact it is the most complex system
found.
I

And

of

numbers
8.

in

which we always have from

0, or

conclusion

P=

Q =

PQ =

the

0.*

Formulae.

It is clear

that

if

we

reverse the order of

the product ajS

we have
/3a

Sal3

T a/3.

This
I

is

called the conjugate of the quaternion a(3,

and

written iT- a/3.

We

see that

SKq = Sq= KSq,

\

VKq = - Vq = KVq.

Further, since
qr

SqSr

+ SqVr +
SqVr

SrVq

VqVr,

we have

K-qr=
From
this

SqSr

SrVq

VrVq = KrKq.

important formula

many
Kqn(

others flow.

We

have

at once

K-qi'

-qn

Kqi.

And

for vectors

KaiSince

-an

)"a-

-ai.

Sq

i(9

Kq),

Vq

^(q

Kq),

we have therefore
(S-aiS-Cii-a-in

a2_i
-a-in

V-ai\ *

-ai-

-aon-l

= Ki* = |(1* = 2(1* = K"l-

2n

ocon-

-ai),
' '

"2n-l
a2n
2n-l

Oitn-\OC2n'

OCl)

Oil),
'
'

+ a2n-l-

OC\)

Consult Dickson: Linear Algebras, p. 11.

106

VECTOR CALCULUS

In particular
2Sal3

2Vafi
It

= =

al3-\- jSa,

a/3

fia,

= al3y 2Va^y = a^y +

2Sa^y

y^a,
yjSa.

should be noted that these formulae show us that both

the scalar and the vector parts of the product can them-

j simply a statement again of the fact that in quaternions we have only one kind of multiplication, which

selves always be reduced to combinations of products.

This

is

is

distributive

We

and associative. see from the expanded form above

S-qr

for

qr that

S-rq.

Hence, in any scalar part of a product, the factors permuted cyclically. For instance,

may

be

S-a^

S-^a,

S-a^y

S-a^yd

= S-^ya = S-^yda =
.

S-ya^,

From

the form of

Sq
hence we have

h(q

Kq),

Sq

= SKq; =

Sa^

S^a,

Sa^y

= -

Syfia,

Sa^yb

Sby^a,

et<

From

the form of
Vafi

VKq =
Vfia,

Fg we
Vafiy

see that

= -

Vafiyd

V8y^a,

= Vyfia, Va^yde = Vedyfia

do not have a simple relation between V-qr and but we have the fact that they are respectively the V-rq,

We

sum and
If a: =

the difference of two vectors, namely.

SqVr

SrVq,

/3

VVqVr, then jS is perpendicular

Vrq

to a,

and
Vqr

=a

-\- 13,

ex

13,

VECTORS IN SPACE
It
is

107

obvious that TVqr

= TVrq

and that

Zqr

/.rq

tan-i TVqr/Sqr. The product of q

We

planes and Kq is the square of the tensor of indicate the unitary part of q, called the versor of

The

differ.

q.
q,

by Uq.
q

We
"

have then the formulae

ix

= 2V+
.

+ jy
I

-\- Icz, 2

Kq = w
TTr.

ix

jy

kz,

^2

^
w,

^ _L

w+ix + jy+kz
Tq
ix i^ fr ix

Sq

Yq =

{TVqf = x'^-f-^z',

UVq =

+ jy + kz, + jy +
I

tti

k-z

TVq
r'

{TVUqf = {x'+f-V z^)Kv^ + ^2 + cos- /. q = w/Tq = S- Uq,

sin-Z

2^),

q= TVqlTq=
=
is

TVUq,

Z-g
The product
qr

tan-i TVqfSq.

of

two quaternions
yy'
zz'

unc'

xx'

+ i{wx' +
z'x)

w'x

+ yz'

y'z)

+ j{wy' + w''y +
From
the formula Tqr

zx'

+
=
rg-Tr

k{wz'

+ w'2 + xy'

x'y).

we have

a noted identity

=
'

(un/j'

xx'

yy'

zz'Y

+
!

(w?2/'

w'y

2j;'

+ w'x + yz' z'xY + (?z' + w'z + xy'

-\-

{wx'

y'z)*

x'yY.

This formula expresses the sum of four squares as the product of the sums of four squares. It was first given by

The problem of expressing the sum of three squares as the product of sums of three or four squares and the sum of eight squares as the product of sums of eight squares
Euler.

has also been considered.

108

VECTOR CALCULUS

9.

Rotations.
for the

We

see

from the adjacent

^

figure that

we

have

product
qrq

a quaternion of tensor and angle the same as that of r. But the plane of the product is produced by rotating the
plane of r about the axis of q through an angle double the angle of q. In case r is a vector /3 we have as the product a vector ^' which is to be found by rotating conically the vector ^ about the axis of g through double the angle of q.
It
is

obvious that operators* of the type qOq~^,

quaternions,
operator
is

'''Or~\

which are called rotators, follow the same laws of multiplication as

since

q(rOr~^)q~^

gr()[gr]~^

gaussian
multiplier,

and
is
if
jS'

is

a rotator multiplied by a numerical called a mutation. The sum of two

mutations

not a mutation.

we

see that

of afia~^

As a simple case of rotator reduces to a vector a we have as the result q the vector which is the reflection of /3 in a.
j3

The

reflection of

in the plane

normal to a

is

evidently

a^a~^.

EXAMPLES
(1)
*

Successive reflection in two plane mirrors

is

equivalent

qOq~^ represents a positive orthogonal substitution.

VECTORS IN SPACE

109

to a rotation about their line of intersection of double their

angle.
all pera common 2h in to number, plane, pendicular making is equivalent angles in succession (exterior) of cpn, (P2z, <Pzi-

(2)

Successive reflection in a series of mirrors

to a rotation about the normal to the given plane to

all

which
2 (^12

are orthogonal, through

^4
(3)

<P2h-i, 2h)

an angle 6 = 2h t which is independent

of

the

alternate angles.

Study the case of successive reflections in mirrors in space at any angles. (4) The types of crystals found in nature and possible under the laws that are found to be true of crystals, are
solids

such that every face

may

be produced from a single

given face, so

far as the angles are concerned,

:

by the

following op9rations
I,

the reversal of a vector, in quaternion

form
A, rotation about an axis

a"Oa~".
a"()a"~".
j3

lA, rotatory inversion about a S, reflection in a plane normal to

/3()]S~^

/3()/3.

The 32 types
sive
Triclinic

of crystals are

then generated by the succes:

combinations of these operations as follows

Ci

AsjTQmetric
CentrosjTiunetric

1.

Ci
Monoclinic

1,-1.
1, 1,

Digonal polar dh Digonal equatorial Orthorhombic C2r Didigonal polar Di Digonal holoaxial Dih Didigonal equatorial ....

C, Ci

Equatorial

pQff.

a()a~^.

1,

a()a~S

()

1, a{)a.~^, /3()/3,

Sot^

1,
1,

a{)a-^, /3()/3-, 5a/3

ot{)ar^,

= 0. = 0.
(),

5a/S

0Op-\

0,

A =
Tetragonal
.

ai/2()a-i/2.

Ct Tetragonal alternating .1, A. Did Ditetragonal alternating.!, A, Ct Tetragonal polar 1, A.

/3()/3~i.

110

VECTOR CALCULUS
Cih Tetragonal equatorial Civ Ditetragonal polar
.

A, (). A, /3()/3. Di Tetragonal holoaxial .... 1, A, /3()/3~i. Dth Dietragonal equatorial .1, A, a{)a, /3()/3~^ Rhombohedral Cz Trigonal polar 1,B, where B is a^i^Oa~^'^. B. Czi Hexagonal alternating A, B,
.

.1,
1,

Czv Ditrigonal polar Dj Trigonal holoaxial

1,

1,

B, B,

/3()|S.

j8()/3-i.
/3()/3~i,

Dsd Dihexagonal alternating.!,

B,

tOy,

bisects Z0,

-6/3.

Hexagonal

Cu

Trigonal equatorial
. .

Dsh Ditrigonal equatorial Ct Hexagonal polar Cih Hexagonal equatorial Civ Dihexagonal polar

(). 1, B, A, B, aQa, 1,C, where

j8()/3~i,

C =

a}-'^Ocr^'^'

<

A, C, aQa.
1,

\
'

C, ^{)fi, where Sa^ = 0, j8 bisects angle of 7 and

Cy,

Say =

0.

Di Hexagonal
Regular

holoaxial

A, C,
.1,
1,

/3()/3~i.

Dth Dihexagonal equatorial.

C,

aQa,
Sfiy

/3()/3~^
/3()j8-i,

Tesseral polar

a()a-i,

Sa0
fi

where

= Sya = 0, L L = (a +

+
Tft

Tesseral central

1,

t)()(+/S + 7)-^ aQa-^ /SQ/S-i, 707-1,

aQa'^,
/3()j8-i,

L, aOa.

Td Ditesseral polar. ...

Tesseral holoaxial

1,

707"^
7()7-\

L,
1,

(a+/3)()(a+^).
()-*,
/3()/3-i,

L, {a

+ fi)Oia + 0)-K

Oh

Ditesseral central

1,

aOa'S
L,
a()a!.

i3()/3-i, 707-^ (a+^)()(a+^)S

The student should work out

operators and
various faces.
Ref.

in each case the full set of

locate vectors to equivalent points in the

Hilton, Mathematical Crystallography, Chap.

IV-

VIII.
(5) Spherical

Astronomy.

We

have the following nota-

tion:

X
h

is is

a unit vector along the polar axis of the earth, the hour-angle of the meridian.

VECTORS IN SPACE

111

L= i = = j
k

COS A/2

+ X sin A/2,
=
i

unit vector to zenith,

unit vector to south,

unit vector to east, \
latitude,
sin
I

=
=

j cos

/,

where

is

jj.

unit vector to intersection of equator

and meridian,

H
d
5 z .4

cos

-h j sin

I,

S\n

Sk\

Skfx

0,

= = =

declination of star,
unit vector to star on the meridian

= \smd -\-

fi

cos d,

azimuth,
altitude.
h, 8

At the hour-angle

becomes
5'

5'

=
tan

L~^8L.

The

vertical plane

through

cuts the horizon in

z

iVi8'

jSj8'

+
is

kSkd',

=
and

Skb'jSjb'.
Sib'

At The prime
circle is

rising or setting z

found from the condition

is

0.

vertical circle

through

k.

The 6-hour

through X and FX/x.

a
t

li

It

La

X
s

= = = = = = = = = =

right ascension angle, sidereal time in degrees,

t-\- a,

cos </2

+ X sin
X

</2,

cos a/2 H-

sin o/2,

pole of ecliptic,
first

point of aries

vernal equinox

Lr^fiLt,

longitude,
latitude,

cos 8/2

sin 5/2.
I,

Problems.

Given

d, find
Sfib'

A
0.

and

on 6-hour

circle.

I, /, I,

d, find d, find

h and z on horizon.

A.

d, A, find h

and
-\-

z,

b'

=
z.

L~^bL

cos

+ j cos z

k sin

112

VECTOR CALCULUS
/,

d, h, find

a and
(6)

d, find

and z. s and h.
light

The laws of refraction of index n into a medium of index n'

from a medium

of

are given

by the equation

nVva = n'Vva'
where
v,

a, a' are unit vectors along the

normal, the

incident, and the refracted ray. The student should show that

^|(i

5^^-)

.vVva.

Investigate two successive refractions, particularly back into the first medium.
(7)

It

is

easy to show that

j8

if

and

are

any two quater-

nions,

and

F- VqVr, we

may

write

(8)
q{q~'^

For any two quaternions

d- r~^)

(r

it

q)r~'^,

and

=
-zL
q r

r(r db q)~^q.

given quaternions we can find a quaternion q that will give three vectors when multiplied by a, h, That is, we can find q, a, /3, y such that c resp.
(9)

If a, b, c are

aq

a,

bq

|S,

cq

y.

(R. Russell.)

We
{q

have a

V
=

Vc/aVa/b,

etc., or

multiples of these.

(10) In a letter of Tait to Cayley, he gives the following:

r)

(q

r)''

(qfryrOr-^q/r)-^

=
{Vq-\-

q(q~^ryO(q~^r)-^q~^

qh'^q\)q~h-^q~\

Vr){Wq+

Vr)-'

{qlrfih{)r-\qlrr^l\

r
where tan xA

VECTORS IN SPACE

113
sin 2la sin w/S
/3)

+
2c

cos

2la

cos

TO/3

a sin Al(a cos = 2(a cos

A
a

+ sin
10.

2la cos w/3

+ 1), c + 6 cos
j8).

(6

sin

/3),

2a sin a/ (6 sin

Interpret these formulae.

Products of Several Quaternions. some useful formulae from the preceding.

If

We

will

develop

we multiply

afi-fia

we have

Since

Sax

0, if

ar

is

a scalar,

Sa^y = SaVfiy,
Since

Sa^y8
/3a,

SaVfiyd,

etc.

21

a/3

a/3

25a/3

AVaVPy =
For

a/37

7/^

/3Ta

= a/3 + ^a, y^a = 2(y^a

=
25/37 -a

ay^)
yafi).

2 (7,3a

+ 7aj3
a/37

ayfi

/37

7/3a

= 2aS^y =

+ "7/3,

whence
Therefore

FaF/37
Adding to each
side

7<Sa^

fiSay.

aS^y, we have

Va^y = aSPy
Since
/3

pSya

ySoc^.

a-'afi,
/3

/3

a-^5a^

+ a'Wa^,

which resolves

along and perpendicular to a,

Sqrq-'

Sr

^Srg-S

Vm~' =
That
is, if

hiqrq-'
we

Kq-'KrKq)

=
rotate the

^(Q^Q~^

qKrq~^)

= qVrq~K

field,

Sr and

TVr

are invariant.

114

VECTOR CALCULUS

Hence

Va^y
if

Vfiya are in a plane with

Va^yaa'^ = aV^ya-a~^ and Vafiy, a and make equal angles with a.

y,

For instance

a,
13,

fi,

Vafiy, Vfiya, Vyafi intersect a

Va^y, V^ya, Vyaj3, a being opposite to Vya^, etc. Evidently if a\, oi2- -oin are n radii of a sphere forming a polygon, then
'

sphere, then a,

bisect the sides of the triangle

they bisect the sides of the polygon, given by Vaia^ This exVa^az- -an, Va^VanOii- -an-i. an(Xia2, In plains the geometrical significance of these vectors.
,

any vector a and quaternion q, the vector a bisects the angle between Vqa and Vaq, that is to say we construct Vqa from the vector Vaq by reflecting it in a. The same
fact for
is

true for
'v

any product, thus ^yde

-va
is

is

different

from

a^ybe
ci

only in the fact that its axis

the reflection in

of the axis of the latter.

q^qz'
-qnq-i differs

from qiq<2,- -qn only in the fact that has been rotated negatively about the axis of q\ through double the angle of qi. Indeed
its axis

92?3-

'qnqi

q~\qiq2-

qn)q\-

If

V(Va^)Vy5

we apply the formula for expanding VaVfiy to = V{Vy8)Va^ we arrive at a most im-

portant identity:

V-VafiVy8

dSajSy

= - V'VybVa^ =
see that for

ySa^d

aS^yb

^Sayb.

From

this equality

we

any four vectors

ySajSb.

bSal3y

aSjSyb

+ ^Syab +

This formula enables us to expand any vector in terms of

bSal3y

any three non-coplanar vectors. Again - V^ySab = V-aV(Vfiy)b

= -

V-aVbVfiy

VafiSyb

VayS^b.

VECTORS IN SPACE

115

^We have thus another important formula

dSoc^y

= Va^SyS

VfiySaS

VyaSfiS,

enabling us to expand any vector in terms of the three normals to the three planes determined by a set of three Since vectors, that is, in terms of its normal projections.
aSfiyd

= V^ySad = VayS^S

+ +

Vy8Sa^
VySSafi

VSfiSay

and

^Sy8a

V8aS^y,

we have
VVafiVyS

= VaSS^y + V^ySad at once

VaySfiS

VfidSay.

From

this

we have

an expansion

for VafiyS,

namely

Va^yd = Va^Syd - VayS^d

Also easily

+ VadS^y + SafiVyS - SayVfiS +

SadVfiy.

= Sa^Syd - SayS^d + SadSfiy. SVa^VyS = Sa8S^y - SayS^8. V-a^- Sy8 = yS VafiVSe - 8S Va^Vye + eS
Sa^y8

VafiVyS

y Say
Sfiy

Sa8 Sp8
lie

Sae
Sfie
/.

In the figure the various points

on a sphere of radius

The vectors from the center

corresponding Greek letters. midpoints of the sides of the
is

be designated by the The points X, Y, Z are the

will

AABC. From

the figure

it

evident that
^/iS

t/^

iylpy",
t/a

vh = =

ct/v

(/7)''^

08/)'^'.

Whence

116

VECTOR CALCULUS

where

V
and the
if

= ^r^,
Also pfp~^

axis of

is

rt a.

'fi^^^i^yf^ ,

so that

the pole of the great circle through then the rotation pOp~^ brings ^ to the same position as the rotation
is

XY

around
into
^'

OP

through twice the angle of

rj^^.

Since ^ goes

by a rotation about OA as well as one about OP, this means that the new position OZ' is the reflection of OZ in the plane of OP A. The angle of p is then ZAL or ZAP a. The angles of L and or according as the axis is + are right angles, and if we draw CN perpendicular to

ZFthen

ANCY = ALAY,
and

ANCX = AMBX,
APB angles at A
is isosceles.

AL = BM = CN

and

Hence the equal exterior = ZBM = 1(^ + C). Draw PZ, then zZPA

and

are

ZAL

5+

= ^ML = XY
angle
7]^^

= Zv^"- for it =lzBPA = XN and NY = YL. The since MX between the planes LAP and ZOP is thus the biradial
also f
is

and

the biradial whose angle

is

that of the

VECTORS IN SPACE
planes OAZ, ZOP, so that equal to Z P, hence

117

ZOA

and

AOL

make an

angle

Zp = i(A-hB+C).
iPurther

pa-i

77/7T/^r/

(/t)'^(t//3)^'^(/3/)^/2
tt)

p..

The angle
is

of p' is thus |(^ + 5 + C -

S/2 where

the spherical excess of AABC. Consider the quaternion p = 7]^^^

is

=
is

Tj^f .

The conangle
sin

jugate of p

iip
C).

f^T/,

whose

axis

also
f^?/

a and

|(^ + 5 + a cos 2/2.

Thus the quaternion

= -

2/2

Shifting the notation to a

for

more symmetric form we have

any three vectors

ociaoaz

=
is

sin

2/2

UVaia2az cos 2/2

=
where 2
of

cos ^a

k sin

^<r,

whose

sides are Ai, A2,

the spherical excess of the triangle the midpoints A3 and a is the sum of the angles

of the triangle.

Hence

Saia2a3
It
is

cos ^a,

Faia23

UVaia2a3

sin ^a.
is

to be noted that the order as written here

for a

positive or left-handed cycle

from ^1 to

-^2

and A3.

Since

is

the solid angle of the triangle,

of half the solid angle

and

S-aia2a3 is the sine TVa\a2Ci3 is the cosine of half

points of the

the solid angle,

If

made by ai, a2, as. now we have several points as the middle
say aia2is

sides of a spherical polygon,

and the vertex

between a\ and

drawn as diagonals

taken as an origin for spherical arcs to the vertices of the polygon, then for
if

the various successive triangles the successive diagonals

we

call

the midpoints of

118

VECTOR CALCULUS
axis to the origin

we have, taking the

and which
is

which we

will call k,

the

common

axis of all the quaternions

made

up by the products

of three vectors
tn-z(Xn-ian

aia2ri tif^stz t2<Xi^z

y~^aia2a3
is

a.
of the

The sum
angles of
if

of the angles of the

all
is

polygon

the

sum

the triangles into which

it is

divided, so that

this

sum

a we have for any spherical polygon

-oin

ia2'

)"~^[cos (r/2

k sin o-/2].

We are able to say then that if the midpoints

of a spherical

of the sides

polygon are
Saia2'

ai, a2,

-an,

then

-an
;

cos

(r/2,

where a

is

the

sum

of the angles the vertices of the

polygon

are given

by
UVaia2'

-an,

UVaoaz-Oin-l,

-anOCi,

UVan-

each being the vertex whose sides contain the first and last vectors in the product; and the tensors of these vectors are each equal to sin a/2.

The

expression

Sa^y

is

called

the

first

staudtian of

a/37, the second staudtian is

SVapVfiyVya/TVa^TVfiyTVya

= S^a^y/TVa^TV^yTVya,
which
is

evidently the staudtian of the polar triangle.

S-<xi-

-an

TV -ai'
worked out thus
vanishing.
far,

-an

tan ^ solid angle.

We will summarize here the significance of the expressions

and
in particular the

meaning

of their

\-ECTORS IN SPACE

119

Sa^

is the product of TaTfi by the cosine of the angle It vanishes only if they are perbetween a and /3.

pendicular.

Va^ is the vector at right angles to both a P whose length is TaT^ multiplied by the sine of their angle. It vanishes
only
if

they are parallel.

the volume of the parallelepiped of a /3 7, taken Socfiy It vanishes only if they are all parallel to negatively.
is

one plane.
Vafiy, VafiyS,

these vectors are the edges of the polj^hedral giving the circumscribed polygon, and if the expression vanishes, we have by separating the quaternion,
VafiyS-

aSfiyd-

VaVfiyd-

0.

Hence a
all

By changing

and SfiySequals zero. the vectors cyclically we have n vectors of which have a zero tensor, so that each edge is the
is

the axis of fiyS-

axis of the quaternion of the other n

taken

cyclically.

This quaternion in each case has a vanishing scalar. n = 3, a jS 7 are a trirectangular system.
n

shown by the four vanishThe angle a^ = angle y8. ing scalars. 5, the edge T^aiS7 is parallel to VSe and cyclically
4,
j8

are coplanar,

similar parallelisms hold.

We have

in all these cases the

sum

of the angles of the

circumscribing polygon a multiple of 27r and it satisfies the inequality 3 (re 2) tt is greater than

a which
that
if

is greater than (n 2)x. It is evident the polygon circumscribed has 540 the

vectors
Safiy8
>

lie

in

0.

If
is

=
at
0,

J'afiyd,

one plane. then

Vcx^ySe

0,

and the
is

preceding case
aia-z-

hand

for the five vectors.

an

the

sum

of the angles of the polygon

an odd multiple of

tt.

120

VECTOR CALCULUS
EXERCISES = S-VafiVfiyVya {SaPy^ V-Va0V0yVya = Vafiiy'^SaP - SfiySya) S{a + |8)(/3 + 7)(t + a) = 2Sa0y.
5-F(a

1.

+ +
)(

2. 3.

+ |8)(^ + y)V{fi + 7)(t +

= 5
e

)F(t

4. 5.

iS-F(Fa|8F)37)(F|87F7)F(F7aFa^)
<S-5ef 16(iS-a/37)S

= -

= - US-a8yy.

|8)

{S-a^yY.

where

r
6.

= ViV[a + = F(F[|8 + = F(F[7 +

S{xa

+ yfi+ zy){x'a

+ 7][7 + + + + i8]F[a + + 7]). + y'0 + 3'7)(a;"a + y"^ + z"y)

t][7
][

m+ +

y]V[^ ]F[7

]),

][

/3]),

/3][^

X
S-a0y,

VECTORS IN SPACE
13. If 5 = !! succession in a, a_i,
ttn

121

simple reflection of p in will be on the line of p itself.

if we reflect an arbitrary vector in when Sq = the final position will be a a fixed vector, and if F5 = the final position

then

atai

Sinular statements hold

if

the reflections
.

are in planes that are normal resjiectively to

a,

au

11.

Functions.

We
is

notice

some expressions now

of the

nature of functions of a quaternion.

ing identity
(tt/S)"

We have

the follow-

which

useful

OSa)"

(a/3

+ /8a)[(a/3)"-i] - afifia[(a^Y-^

=
Whence
2"5"a/3

25a/3[(/3)"-i

08a)"-i]

03a)-2]

^^^[(a/S)"-^

+
=
(afi

(/3a)"-=^].

+ /3a)" =

[(a/3)"

03a)"]

il(n

1;!

2S(afir

+ ,,,
l!(7i

""

1)!

,,V/3^>S(a/3)"-^-

-.

This implies the familiar formula for the expansion of cos" 6 in terms of cos nd, cos (n 2)6, and we can write as the reverse formiJa
iS(aj8)"

(-)"/2[a"/3"

- n^S'afi-a^-^^''l2\ + n\n^ - 22)SV-''"^/3"-'/4! .

n even

(- ) (-i)/2[Sa^

n(n2

an-i/3"-Vl

P)S3/3-a"-3|3"-V3!

n odd.

Likewise
TV^ccfi

(-l)"/22"-i[S(a/32"

(2n)!

l!(2n-

S(a^"-Wi82+
1)!

122

VECTOR CALCULUS

i2nl\{2n-

1)1

TV{a^Y^-^
2)!

H-

(_l)(n-l)/2^

71(71"

(^2

- 22),S3a/3a"-''/3-V3! + _ 12)^2^^. n-3^n-3/2! +

=
1

n even
71

odd.

Since
axis
Tl3

jS/a is

a quaternion whose powers have the same

fi/a)~^

we have

(1

+ jS/a +
+

(/S/a)^

when

<

Ta, and

taking the scalar gives the well-known

formula

S
Likewise

a = -^ a
p

S^/a

S(l3lar

TV-^= afi

TVl3la+ TV{^/ay

If

we

define the logarithm as in theory of functions of a

complex variable we have

log (1

13/a)

= log r(l - /3/a) + log U(l = - ^la - Wloif - Wloif

(S/a)
.

Therefore
log

f (1

a-

= -

S^/a

- ^SW/aY TVl3/a

fi

TV

log (1

iS/a)

+ ^ TV US/ay-

Again
T(a

13)-'

Ta-'

- f (1 -

^/a)-'

Ta-'[1

+
+

Pi(-

SUl3/a)Tl3/a

P^i- SWla)rp/a

where Pi P2 are the Legendrian polynomials. Evidently for coaxial quaternions we have the wholt
theory of functions of a complex variable applicable.

VECTORS IN SPACE
12. Solution of
If

123

Some Simple

Equations.

ap = a then p = a~^a. (1). = a then we set Vap = ^ where f is any vector (2). If Sap perpendicular to a, and adding, p = aa~^ + ~Y. = then Sap = x where x is any scalar, and (3). If Vap adding we have p = a~^^ -\- xa~^. = y then SaVap^ = Sa^pjS = (^Sp^ = Say (4). If Vap^ = and S^Vapfi 0^Sap = S^y. Now
fi

Vapfi

aS^p

pSa^

+ ^Sap
yySap.
is

and substituting we have

p

[a-i<Sa7
if

+ ^'S^y =
0.

The

solution fails

Safi

In this case the solution

= - a-^S^^y - ^^Sa-^y

xVap,

X any

scalar.

(5). If

Vafip

= y

then

SafipSafi

Sa/37

and

Sa^p

Safiy/Safi.

Adding to

Vafip,

we have

o/Sp =,

Sa^y/Safi and p

/r^a-^7

(6). If

Sap
Sap

=
=

a,

S/3p

=
b,

6,

then

+ ^'^a-^Safiy/Sa^. = xVa^ + F(a/3 oc'0'p

then

6a)Fa|8.
(7).

If

a, iSjSp

Syp

c,

pSafiy
(8).

aF/37

6T'7a

cVafi.

If 9a9~^

|8

then 9

(x^

?/)/(a

/3)

where x and

y are any
q

scalars.

Or we may write

u-\- T(a

/3)

wVafi

where
8,

wSa{a

/3).

(9). If

qaq-^

= -

7, q^q'^

then

Jl
L

m-)(5-^) 1
^S(7 +
a)(5-/3)J

124
(10). If qaq-^

VECTOR CALCULUS

^,

q^q'^

rj,

qyq'^

f,

then

S-q{^

-a) =
is

0,

S-qiv

i?)

0,

S-q{t

t)

0,

hence Vq

coplanar with the parentheses, and

we have

x{^

-a)
2Sy(v

+ y(v ^)
:

i8)

+ 2(f a)
:

7)

where

x:y:z= The

2Sy{^

S{^

a){'n

^).

six vectors are

not independent.

Vq

is

easily

found

and thence Sq from

qa
(11). If (p

^q.

a)-'
let

(p

^)-i

(p

7)-i

(p

5)-i

=
(p'

0,

then
a')-'

if

we
1

([(P

5)-i

(p

5]

[(or

5)-'

5])

=
where
5,

5)(p

a)~\a

8), etc.,

p,

from D, the extremity of to the inverses with respect to D, of the extremities of a, fi, 7, then
p', a',
j8',

7' are the vectors

(p'

a')-'

ip'

fiT'

(P'

- iT' =

0.

Prove that
/

^'

_
p.

y'

-^' _

'-a'
whence
p'

p'-Y
a)-'

^ y _ r y _^/ y'-a' ly' - a' \

p'

-ii/2
'

and

(12). If {q

{q

b)-'

d)

(9

(R. Russell.)
c)-'

(q

=
{q

d)-\

0,

we

set

d){q'

d)

= {a-

d){a'

= (b - d){b' - d) = (c- d){c' - d) =

f
1,

VECTORS[_^IN SPACE

125

thence

- d)-' - (q- a)-' =(q- d)-'(a - d)(q - a)"^ - d)-' [{a - d)Kq - a) + (b - d)l(q -b)-(c- d)l(q - c)] (q = iq' - aT' + iq' - bT' - iq' " cT'
(q

and we have
(6'

q'

from
c')

c')l{q'

iq'

- h')i{q' - a') - c') = [{b' c')Ka'

=
{q'

c')l{a'

c')]K

(R. Russell.)
13. Characteristic
*

Equation.

If
(f

we
S^q

write

and square both whence

g2

sides

we have

q=

Sq-{-

Vq

+
=

(Vqy
0.

+ 25^- Vq

2qSq

S'q

V^q

This equation

is

called the characteristic equation of

q.

The

coefficients

2Sq

and

S'q

- Vq = Tq
to say, are also the
is

are the invariants of q; they are the same, that

if

subjected to the rotation t{)'^~^- They Kq is substituted for q. Hence they will not define q but only any one of a class of quaternions which may be derived from each other by the group of all rotations of the
g
is

same

if

form
j

by taking the conjugate. The equation has two roots in general,

r{)r~'^

or

Sq

TgV

and

Sq

Tq^l

1.

Since these involve the

1 it

leads us to the algebra of

biquaternions which we do not enter here, but a few remarks will be necessary to place the subject properly. Since the invariants do not determine q we observe that we must also have UVq in order to have the other two

parameters involved.

126
If

VECTOR CALCULUS

we look upon UVq

as

roots of the characteristic equation in the

known then we may write the number field of

^S^

quaternions as Sq

TVqllVq and
q

TVqUVq

or

and

Kq.
all

If

we

set q-\- r for q

and expand, afterwards drop

the

terms that arise from the identical equations of q and r separately, we have left the characteristic equation of two
quaternions,

which

will

reduce to the

first
is

form when they

are

made

to be equal.

This equation

qr+rq- 2Sq-r- 2Sr'Vq + We might indeed start with this

whole algebra from
it.

2SqSr

2SVqVr =

0.

equation and develop the

We may

write

it

qr+ rq14.

2qSr

2rSq

^Sq-Sr
of

S-qr-\- S-rq

which involves only the scalars

q, r, qr,

and

rq.

Biquaternions. eters involved in q can be imaginary or complex then Thus if division is no longer unique in certain cases.

We should notice that if the param-

we have

as possible solutions
zb 9

Q =
If
g2

and

also

Q =

V (- \)UVq-q.

Vq

and we have and Vq = Q then TFg = and scalar x is where V i, j are any 1) any x{i-\- j

two perpendicular unit vectors.

CHAPTER

VII

APPLICATIONS
1.
1.
is

The Scalar of Two Vectors

The
scalar of the product of

Notations.

a product.

defined independently by In such cases the definition

writers

two vectors on vector algebra, as

is

usually given for

the negative of the scalar since this is generally essentially A table of current notations is given. If a and |3 positive. define two fields, we shall call S-a^ the virial of the two
fields.

S-a/S

q:

jS

Grassman, Resal, Somoff, Peano, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo, Timerding. Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung, Fischer.

a-^
aj3

Heaviside, Silberstein, Foppl, Ferraris, Heun, Bucherer.

(a/3)

Bucherer,
Henrici.

Gans,

Lorentz,

Abraham,

a 1/3
Cos a^

Grassman, Jahnke, Fehr, Hyde.

Macfarlane.

[ajS] Caspary. For most of these authors, the scalar of two vectors,

though called a product, is really a function of the two While it is vectors which satisfies certain formal laws. evident that any one may arbitrarily choose to call any
function of one or more vectors their product,
it

does not

seem desirable to do so. For Gibbs, however, the scalar is defined to be a function of the dyad of the two vectors,
which dyad
is

a real product.

The dyad

or dyadic of

Gibbs, as well as the vectors of

analysis, are not considered to

most writers on vector be numbers or hypernumbers.

127

128

VECTOR CALCULUS
are looked

upon as geometric or physical entities, from which by various modes of "combination" or de-

They

termination other geometric entities are found, called products. The essence of the Hamiltonian point of view, however, is the definition by means of geometric entities of

a system of hypernumbers subject to one mode of multiplication,

of these products are considered

which gives hypernumbers as products. Functions when useful, but are called
It
is

functions.
2.

Planes and Spheres.

evident that the condition

for orthogonality will yield several useful equations,

of these

and

we

will consider

a few.
vector
its
is

The plane through a point A, whose

a, per-

pendicular to a line whose direction is 5 has for since p a is anj^ vector in the plane,

equation,

S'8(p-a) =
If

0.

and as this vector is parallel to 5 it is the perpendicular from the The perpendicular from a point B origin to the plane.
set p

we

8Sald

we have the equation

satisfied

is

8-'S{a iS)5. If a sphere has center

and radius T^ where

is

j8

and

jS

are the vectors from the center to the extremities of a

diameter, then the equation of the sphere

given by the

equation

S(p-8-hl3)(p-dThe plane through the

p2
is

13)

0,

orp2

2Sdp

+ 8' + C2

fi^

0.

intersection of the
p2

two spheres

2S8ip

+ Ci = =
82) p

2S82P
C2.

2S{8i
of this equation

ci

The form

shows that

it

represents a plane

APPLICATIONS
perpendicular to the center line of the spheres.

129

The

point

where

it

crosses this line

is

Xi8\

Xi

+ + X2

3*252

whence

solving,

we
F(5,
/S

find

p
3. Virial.

=
If

+ d2)-KVdi82 + Uci - C2)).

the representative of a force in direction and magnitude then its projection on the direction a is
is

a~^Safi,
is is

and perpendicular to

this direction

a~Wafi.
is
jS.

If

in the line of action of the force, the projection

If

a a

a direction not in the line of action then the projection If a gives the component of the force in the direction a.
is

Sa^

the vector to the point of application of the force then is the nrial of the force with respect to a, a term introIt is the

duced by Clausius.
the force in

work that would be done by

moving the point of application through the vector distance a. If a is an infinitesimal distance say,
8a,

then

S8afi

is

the virtual
total

placement.
4.

The
all

virtual

work of a small virtual diswork would be 8V =

is

XSSanfin for

the forces. In case a particle

in a \^ctor field

Circulation.

(of force, or velocity, or otherwise)

successive displacements 8p to B, we may form the negative scalar of the vector If the vector intensity of the field and the displacement.

and it is subjected to an along assigned path from

intensity varies

from point to point the displacements

must be
is

The sum of these products, if there a finite number, or the definite integral which is the limit of the sum in the infinitesimal case, is of great importance.
infinitesimal.
If

a point
/3

is

force of

moving with a velocity a [cm./sec] in a field of dynes, the activity of the field on the. point is

130
S-jSa
[ergs/sec.].

VECTOR CALCULUS

The

field

may move and

the point

remain stationary,
activity
is

which ease the activity is S-^a. also called the effect, and the power. If a
in

The
is

the

vector function of p which gives the field at the point have for the sum

P we

This integral or
the field a,
5.

XSa8p

or

- // SaSp.

sum

is

called the circulation of the path for

Volts, Gilberts.
in passing

For a force
from
is

field
If

the circulation
the
field is

is

the

work done
field E,

AtoB.

the circulation

the difference in

an electric voltage between

If the field is a magnetic field H, then the circulathe difference in gilbertage from A to B. It is measured in gilberts, the unit of magnetic field being a

and B.
is

tion

no name yet approved for the unit of the electrostatic field, and we must call it volt per centimeter. The unit of force is the dyne and of work
gilbert per centimeter.

There

is

the erg.

Gausses and Lines. In case the field is a field of flux surface <T, and the vector Uv is the outward normal of a through which the flux passes, then
6.

is

S(tUv

the intensity of flux normal to or through the surface

per square centimeter. The unit of magnetostatic flux B is called a gauss; the unit of electrostatic flux D is called a
line.

The

total flux

through a

finite surface is

the areal

integral

J'SorUvdA,

written also

SSadv.

The flux-integral is called the transport or the discharge. Thus if D is the electric induction or displacement, the

APPLICATIOXS
discharge through a surface
in

131

is

J'SDUvdA, measured

the magnetic induction B, Similarly the discharge is measured in maxwells. 7. Energy-Density. Activity- Density. Among other
for

coulombs.

scalar products of

importance we find the following.

If

E and D are the

field at

electric intensity in volts/cm.

and induction

in lines at a point,

^*SED

is

the point in joules/cc.

the energy-density in the If H and B, likewise, are the

magnetic intensity in gilberts/cm., and gausses, respectively, 2;:SHB is the energy in ergs. If J is the electric cur<S-EJ is the activity in rent-density in amperes/cm.^ If is G the watts/cc. magnetic current-density in heavisides*/cm.^,
<S

HG

is

the activity in ergs/sec.

is

If

the

field varies also,

the electric activity

S- E(J

D) and

the magnetic activity

*SH(G
up the

B).

EXERCISES
1.

An

insect has to crawl

inside of a hemispherical bowl, the

cdefBcient of friction being 1/3, how high can it get? 2. The force of gravity may be expressed in the

form

a-

mgk.

Show

that the circulation from

the vertical difference of level 3. If the force of attraction of the earth that the work done in going from A to 5 is

A to B is the of A and B.

product of the weight

is
(t

by

hUp/p^ show

4.

The magnetic

field at

a distance a from the central axis of an

is

infinite straight

wire carrjdng a current of electricity of / amperes 0.21 a~\ sin di cos dj) (i and j perpendicular to wire)

and the

differential

+ a cos ej)dd.

Show

tangent to a circle of radius a that the gilbertage is 0.2/(02

is

a sin

fli)

gilberts,

which for one turn is 0.4x7. Prove that we get the same result for a square path. 5. The permittivity k of a specimen of petroleum is 2 [abfarad/cm.], and on a small sphere is a charge of 0.0001 coulomb. The value of the displacement D at the point p is then
jj

0^ UplTp^
maxweU
per second.

[Unesj.

heaviside

is

a magnetic current of 1

132

VECTOR CALCULUS

What

is the discharge through an equilateral triangle whose corners are each 4 cm. from the origin, the plane of the triangle perpendicular to the field?

6.

If

magnetic inductivity n

is

1760 [henry/cm.] and a magnetic

field is

given by

H
then the magnetic induction
is

7a

[gilbert/cm,],

7 1760a

[gausses].
field

What

is

the flux through a circular loop of radius a crossing the

is

at an angle of 30? 7. If the velocity of a stream

given by
i

24(cos

+ sin 6j),

what

is

equation

the discharge per second through a portion of the plane whose 12 from is Sip =
(?

10

to

= 20?
origin of e

8.

The electric induction due to a charge at the

D

coulombs

is

= - eUp/TpHw

[lines].

What
center
9.

is is

the total flux of induction through a parallelepiped whose

the origin?
to a magnetic point of

The magnetic induction due

B

m maxwells is

= - mUp/Tp^
ia

What
10.

is

the total flux of induction through a sphere whose center

8,
if

the point?

In problem

the permittivity

is

k,

then the

electric

intensity

/c-iD-47r.

What

is the amount of energy enclosed in a sphere of radius 3 cm. an<i center at a distance from the origin of 10 cm.? 11. In problem 9, if the inductivity is 1760 and the magnetic in^

tensity

is

M->B,

how much energy

is

is enclosed in a

box 2 cm. each way, whose center

10 cm. from the point and one face perpendicular to the line joining the point and the center?
12. If

the current in a wire

is

mm.

in

diameter
is

is

10 amperes and

the drop in voltage

0.001 per cm.,

what

the activity?

APPLICATIONS

133

13. If there is a leakage of 10 heavisides through a magnetic area of 4 cm.*, and the magnetic field is 5 gilberts/cm., what is the activity? 14. Through a circular spot in the bottom of a tank which is kept level full of water there is a leakage of 100 cc. per second, the spot

having an area of 20 cm.*.

the activity?
15. If

If

the only force acting

is

gravity what

is

front from the sun has in its plane surface 10 volts per cm., and a magnetic intensity of 0.033 gilberts per cm., and if for the free ether or for air ^ = 1 and K = ^-10"*, what is the energy per cc. at the wave front? (The

an

electric

wave

an

electric intensity of

average energy

is

half this

maximum energy and is according to Langley

4.3- lO"* ergs per cc. per sec.) 16. If a charge of e coulombs is at a point

at

A and a magnetic point B has to maxwells, what is the energy per cc. at P, any point in space,
medium
being air?
8.

the

Geometric Loci in Scalar Equations. (1). The equation of the sphere may be written
forms
Sip
a/p

in

each

of the

= Kpja, = a, = 1, = 1, = 1, - CO) = T{cp - a), Tip - a)ia - ^)(/3 - 7)(7 - 5)(6 - p) = 0, Sip a'S^yp + pl'Syap + y^Sa0p = p'^Sa^y, ip-ay ip-^Y ip-y? ip-^y - bY - /3)2 (a - yf ip-af (a ip-^f i^-af i^-yf 03-6)2 =0. - Sf ip-yf iy-af iy-^f {y

+ a) S2al{p + a) 52p/(p + a) nSpla + Vpla)

a)l{p

(p

5)2

(5

^)2

(5

3)2

(5

^)2

Interpret each form.

(2).

The equation

of the eUipsoid

may
1,
'

be written in the

forms

SV is

v^p!^

where a

not parallel to
Tiply

jS,

Kpid)

Tipp

= Tip/d + p\)=\'-p\

Kp/y),

134

VECTOR CALCULUS
planes

The

p
These
C7/3

cut the elHpsoid in circular sections on Tp = T^. are the cyclic planes. T^ is the mean semi-axis,
soid,

the

axis of the cylinder of revolution circumscribing the ellip-

a is normal to the plane of the ellipse of contact of the cylinder and the ellipsoid. In the second form let

then the semi-axes are

a

rx

Tm,

h= '^]~ ^f i (X m)

c=T\-

Tfx.

(3).
(4).

(5).

The hyperboloid of two sheets is S^p/a + V^pl(3 = ~ The hyperboloid of one sheet is *SV" + V^plfi The elliptic paraboloid of revolution is
Spl^

1.

FV/3

0.

(6).
(7).

(8).

The elliptic paraboloid is Spja + F^p/iS = 0. The hyperbolic paraboloid is Spla Sp/fi = Spfy. The torus is

Tizk bUa-^Vap

p)

a,

2bTVap= (rp2+62- a"), = 4b' Pp - {rp+b^- ay, ^b'S'ap - &' + a^?, AbWcxp = (Pp ^a'rp - b'')) = V (a2 62))/(p + aV (a2 SU(p r any vector. p = d= bUa~WaT + aUr,
(9).

b/a,

Any

surface

is

given by
p

(p{u, v).

APPLICATIONS

135

developable is given by p a]) (10). A cone is/(?7[p

= =

<p{i) -f- u<p'{t).

0.

The quadric cone is SapS^p The cone through a, /3, 7, 5,

pe is

0.

S-ViVafiVde)ViV^yVep)V(Vy8Vpa)
which
is

0,

Pascal's theorem

on

conies.
p.,

The cones

of revolution through X,

v are

The cones
Spp
0,

of revolution

which touch S\p

0, Sp.p

0,

are

The cone tangent

c2(p

to (p

a)^
/3)2

+ =
c^

from ^
a).
c^.

is

r2j3(p

The polar plane of /3 The cone tangent to

is *S/3(p

a)

g2P_ Y2P=
a
/8

from y

is

a 7

a
is

The

cylinder with elements parallel to

i3

)\CL
\

|3/

a:

q;

a.)

136

VECTOR CALCULUS
of Quater-

For further examples consult Joly: Manual

nions.
2.

The Vector of Two Vectors

If

Notations.

a and

fi

are

two

fields,

we

shall call

V-a^

the torque of the two

Voc^

fields.

= Va^
a^
q;

Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Heaviside, Foppl,

Ferraris, Carvallo.

Grassman, Jahnke, Fehr.

jS

Gibbs, Wilson, Fischer, Jaumann, Jung.

Lorentz, Gans, Bucherer, Abraham, Timerding.

[a,

jS]

[a

/3]

Caspary.
13

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo, Jung.

a/S

Heun.
Macfarlane.

Sina/S

lAas
1
.

Peano.

Lines.

The condition that two lines be parallel a

is

is

that

Vafi

0.

Therefore the equation of the line through the

origin in the direction

Vap

0.

The

line

through
y.

Vap = Val3 = Vap = y is

= Va(p ^) The perpendicular from 5 on the

/3

parallel to

is

or
line

-^

a~Wa8

+ a~^y.
= a, S/xp = b, is = Vpa y and Vp^ = 5
S\p
to a point

The

line of intersection of the planes,

FpFXjLt

ap,

hX.

If

we have lines

then a vector from a point on the second is 5/3~^ ya~^ -{- xfi ya.
tersect then

first

on the

If

now

the lines in-

vanish,

we can choose x and y corresponding to the two

5(5^1

so that this vector will

coincident points, and

thus

^a-^)pa

=0=

Sba-\- Syl3.

APPLICATIONS
If

137
parallel

we

resolve the vector joining the

two points

and

perpendicular to
5/3~^

Va^ we have*

ya~^

-\- xfi ya {Va^y^S-Va^ib^"-

- 7"' +

a:j3

yoi)

Va0
Fa/3
/3

Pa/3 J

-.[

Fa/3 J

Hence the vector perpendicular from the

second
is

first line

to the

(Va^)-\S8a

Sfiy)
this perpendicular with

and vectors to the intersections of

the
first

and second

lines are respectively

'and

Note that
(Fa^)-iF(Fa/3)(x|8

(7a/3)-i7-Fa^(5^-i

ya'^)

ya ya) = xfi (Fa/3)-i(- a'^S^ya

^-5a5/3)

.Va0(-.-'s^ + r'S^).
10

138

VECTOR CALCULUS

The projections of the vectors a, 7 on any three rectangular axes give the Pluecker coordinates of the Hne. For appHcations to Hnear complexes, etc., see Joly: Manual, p. 40,
Guiot: Le Calcul Vectoriel et ses applications.
2.

Congruence.

The
that

differential equation of a curve or

set of curves forming a congruence

whose tangents have

field a,

given directions
is

cf,

is,

the vector lines of a vector

given by

VdpG
or
its

=
'

equivalent equation

dp
3.

adt.

Moment.
Val3.

The moment
If

of the force

(3

with respect

to a point
a,
is

whose vector from an

the point
is

origin on the line of /3 is the origin and the vector to

is

some point
the

in the line of application of the force

a, then

moment with
If

plane then the moments as to a point in the plane will have a common unit vector, the normal to the plane. If several forces are

point is vanishes.

If the respect to the origin is Va^. on the line of application the moment obviously

several forces have a

common

normal to the same plane, their points of application in the plane given by fii, ^2, fiz, their values being aia, then the moments are a-2.a, aza,
' ' '

F(ai/3i
If

a2/32

as/^s

+
+

[dyne cm.]

we

set

ai/3i

ai^i

tta/Sa

|8(ai

02

as

),

then

/3

is

the vector to the mean point of application, whic.

in case the forces are the attractions of the earth

upon
If

set of weighted points,

i

is

called the center of gravity.

^3

0,

we cannot make

this substitution.

APPLICATIONS
4.

139

Couple.

couple consists of two forces of equal

magnitude, opposite directions and different lines of action. In such case the mean point becomes illusory and the sum
of the

moments

for

any point from which vectors to points

on the

lines of action of the forces are ai, a2 respectively, is

But ai a2 is a vector from one and this sum of the moments is

couple.

line of action to the other,

called the

moment

of the

It is evidently unchanged if the tensor of j3 is increased and that of ai a2 decreased in the same ratio,

or vice versa.
5.

Moment

of

Momentum.

If

mass

cm./sec, then the defined to be ma gr. cm./sec.

is o-

momentum
The
of the

the velocity of a moving of the mass is vector to the mass

being
to be

p,

the

moment

of

momentum

mass

is

defined

VpnuT
6. Electric Intensity.

mVpff

[gm. cm./sec.].
is

If a

medium

moving

in a

mag-

netic field of density

B gausses, with a velocity a cm./sec,

then there will be set up in the intensity E of value

medium an

electromotive

E=TVBlO~^
For any path the volts
will

[volts/centimeter].

be

- fSdpE = +
If this

fSdpBa-lOr^
we
shall

be integrated around any complete circuit

arrive at the difference in electromotive force at the ends

of the circuit.
7.

in

Magnetic Intensity. an induction field of D

be produced in the

a magnetic medium is moving lines, with a velocity a, then there

If

will

medium

at every point a magnetic

140
intensity field

VECTOR CALCULUS

H =
For any path the gilbertage
8.

OAirVDawill
If

[gilberts/cm.].

be OAwJ^SclparD.

Moving

Electric Field.

an

electric field of induc-

tion, of value

lines, is

moving with a

there will be produced in the

netic field of intensity

medium

velocity a, theni at the point a mag-j

gilberts/cm. where

H = OAtVctD.
For
a

moving

electron

with

charge

e,

this

will

hi

For a continuous stream along a path we would have

(eUp/4:TrTp^).

of

electro:

the point being the origin.

9.

Moving Magnetic

Field.
is

If

duction of value B gausses

it

a magnetic field of in-j moving with a velocity (rj

electric

will

intensity E
10.

produce at any given point in space an = F- BcrlO"^ volts per centimeter.

Torque. If a particle of length dp is in a field o( intensity a which tends to turn the particle along the line^
of force, then the torque produced

by the

field

upon

th<

element

is

V-dp<r.
If

a line runs from

to B, the total torque

is

//
For instance
cdp,
is
if

V'dpa.
a non-uniform distribution

dp, or in case of

the strength in magnetic units, maxwells, of a wii magnet from A to B, in a field a, then

fiV-dpa
is

or

f/V'cdpa

the torque of the

field

upon the magnet.

APPLICATIONS
.

141

1 1 Poynting Vector. An electric intensity E volts/cm. and magnetic intensity H gilberts/cm. at a point in space are accompanied by a flux of energy per cm.^ R, given by

the formula 47rR

[ergs/cm.2 sec.].

This

the Poynting vector. Force Density. The force density in dynes/cc. of a field of electric induction on a magnetic current is given by,
is

12.

= 4-T'DG

10

[d>Ties/cc.],

where D

G
If

is the density in lines of electric displacement the magnetic current density in heavisides per cm.^. the negative of F is considered we have the force per cc,
is

required to hold a magnetic current in an electrostatic

field of

density D.

The force density in dynes;cc. of a field of magnetic induction on a conductor carrying an electric current is
F

= lr.JB.

A single moving

charge e with velocity a will give

F

= AireVafiVaD.
The
field
is

13.

Momentum

of Field.

momentum
lines

point where the electric induction

induction B gausses is T = 3-10^ V- DB [gm. cm./sec.l. the magnetic induction is due to a moving electric field then r = 0.04x1'- D;ur Do-, and if the electric induction is due
to a moving magnetic
field,

at a and magnetic

142
3.
1.

VECTOR CALCULUS

The Scalar of Three Vectors

Area and Pressure. If we consider two differential vectors from the point P, say dip, d2p, then the vector area of the parallelogram they form is Vdipd^p. If then we have a distribution of an areal character, such as pressure per square centimeter, /3, the pressure normal to the differential
area will be in magnitude
S^dipdip.

The vector Vd\pdip may be represented by dv or UvdA. The vector pressure normal to the surface will be
UvS^dipd^p.

There will also be a tangential pressure or shear, which isj the other component of j8. If jS is any vector distribution the 2. Flux. expression]
S^dipdip
Vdipdip.
It
is

often called the flux of

jS

through the areal

is

to be noted however that the dimensions]

of the result in physical units

must be

carefully considered.

Thus the

of dimensions that' magnetic intensity do not correspond to any magnetic quantity. flux of
is

If j8 is the velocity of a fluid in cm./sec, 3. Flow. then] the volume passing through the differential area per second]
is

Sfidipdip
4.

[cc./sec.].]

flow

Energy Flux. The dimensions of the Poynting energy R show that it is the current of energy per second across]
is]

a cm.^, hence the total flow per second through an area

S^dipd^p

S-VlWVdpidp2
12007r
[ergs/sec.

In the case of a straight conductor carrying a current of! electricity, we have at a distance a from the wire in a]

APPLICATIONS
direction at right angles to the wire directly

143

away from

it

the value

T
Consequently

R=

(4x)-U08(0.2Ja-i).

if we consider one centimeter of wire in circumference of the circle of radius a we and the length shall have a flux of energy for the centimeter equal to

}{E2-Ei)
This
5.
is

b'oules].
is

the usual J-R of a wire and

represented by heat.

For a moving conductor we have already vector the E, and as the current density J can expressed be computed from the intensity of the field (J = k E) we
Activity.

have then

for the expression of the activity in

watts per

cubic centimeter of conductor

A=- S(TBhQr'= - S{VaB)k{VaB) -10-'^

activity per cubic centimeter of circuit
.4
6.

[watts].

Likewise in the case of the magnetomotive force due to motion and the magnetic current G = /H we have for the

=-

-SDcrG

= -

S-(FD(r)Z(FD(r)-10-^

[watts].

Volts.

The
in a

total

electroipotive difference
is

between

two points
conductor

conductor

the line-integral along the

[volts].

fSdpaBl(r^

The total magnetomotive difference be7. Gilberts. tween two points along a certain path is the line-integral

4.
1.

AirfSdpUa

[gilberts].

Vector of Three Vectors

Stress.

We

find with

no

difficulty

the equations

V-a{Uazt Uy)y =
and

db

TyTaiUadz Uy)

V'a(Vay)y

Say -V ay.

144
If

VECTOR CALCULUS
a state of stress in a medium, given

now we have

by

its

three principal stresses in the form

gi

=
= =

T}^ dynes/cm.^ normal

to U(U\-\- Ufi),
'SXju

to the plane orthogonal

g2

dynes/cm.^ normal to the plane orthogonal

to the plane orthogonal

to f/FX/x,
93

-\~

T\n dynes/cm.^ normal

to U(U}i

Ufx),
9i

< 92<

93,
is

then the stress across the plane normal to

FXiS/x If

j3

+ 9^-

the scalars

91, 92, 93

are dielectric constants in three

directions (trirectangular) properly chosen, then the dis-

placement

is

D = FXE/i+^E.

If

the scalars are magnetic permeability constants,

B
If

VXHfi

gW.
/3

the scalars are coefficients of dilatation, then

becomes

/3'= FX^/x+fif^.
If the scalars are elasticity constants of the ether,

then
is,

according to Fresnel's theory, the force on the ether for the ether displacement /3,

FXj8m+^/3.
If

the scalars are thermoelectric constants in a crystal,

then

D =

VXtX/j,

-{-

9Q.

where Q

is

the flow of heat.

the scalars are rXju, If FX)u = 0, If ^ = T\n, S\fi. t the scalars are TX/jl, rXju, TKix, that is, practically tin all directions and to X. X -^ perpendicular along

CHAPTER
differentials
1.
1.

VIII

and integrals

Differentiation as to a Scalar Parameter

Differential of p.
If

the vector p depends upon the

scalar

parameter

t,

say
p

=
t

<p{t),

then for two values of

which are supposed to be in the

range of possible values for

P2

Pi

^
to

<p{h)

<p{h)

If

now we suppose

that

<

<

U and that

^i

and U can

independently approach the limit, ^o, then we shall call the limit of the fraction above, if there be such a limit, the
'i 'o, right-hand derivative of p as to t, at U, and if <2 we shall call the limit the left-hand derivative of p as to t at to. In case these both exist and are equal, and if p

<

<

has a value for

*p{t\),

ta

which

is

the limit of the two values of

at

then we shall say that p is a continuous function of and has a derivative as to t at U. There is no essential difference analytically between the
fo

function
variable,

and the ordinary functions of a single real and we will assume the ordinary theory as known.
ip
t

It is evident that for different values of

we may

con-

sider the locus of

which

will

be a continuous curve.
will give

Since p2

pi is a

chord of the curve the limit above

a vector along the tangent of the cur\'^. Further the tensor of the derivative, Tp' T<p'(t), is the derivative of the

If the arc s length of the arc as to the parameter t. parameter then the vector p' is a unit vector.

is

the

145

146

VECTOR CALCULUS

EXAMPLES
(1)

The

circle

= a

cos ^

+
p'

i8

sin

6,
q;

Ta =
sin ^

Tfi,

SajS

0,

)3

cos

6.

(2)

The hehx
p
p'

= a cos 6 -\- ^ sind -^ yd, = a s'md -\- ^ cos 6 -{- y. = af +2)3^+7

af -i-2bt+
c

(3)

The

conic

ap) Multiplying out, f(a For t = for all values of t.

2t(^

bp)

(7

cp)
i^

=
qo,

p = a/a, hence We have = [f(ba dp/dt

= y'/c, and for 0, p the curve goes through a/a and y/c.
ttjS)

+ t(ca
,

ay)

{cj3

by)] times scalari

the direction of the tangent is ^/b y/t CO the direction of the tangent is a/a at a/a. Since these vectors both run from the jS/& points of tangency to the point /3/6, the curve is a conic,
for
t

Hence

0,

at

7/c,

for

tangent to the lines through

/3/6

and the two points a/a

the origin
is

and
/3/&,

y/c, at these

two

points.

If
if

taken at
y'

so that p

= X+

j3/b,

and

a'

a/a

(3/b,

yjc

jS/6,

then
af{a'

tt

tt)

2btTr

c{y'

tt)

is

the equation of the curve.

If

now we

let

run along the diagonal of the paralleloare a'y' so that

tt

gram whose two sides substituting we have

afx
at\\

x{a'

+ y'), then

2btx
x)

- c(l - x) = - 2btx - cx=

0, 0.

DIFFERENTIALS

147

From
and

these equations

we have
f

c/a

^l

acl2(yl ac

h).

These values of x give us the two points in which the diagonal in question cuts the curve. The middle point between these two is
r

i(..

.=)('

7')

= '""t"'^
2o{ac

~
0-)

f"^

Referred to the original origin this gives for the center

,,

ca

26/3

+ ay
tr)

2{ac
If

we

calculate the point

on the curve
hh-\-c

for

U= we

ah

b
Pi

shall find that for the points

K,

p-2,

we have

|(p2

+ Pi)

so that K

is

the center of the curve and diametrically

opposite points have parameters

h and

t2

-,
ati

r-T +

'

an involutory substitution. If ac = = 0. cept when also the numerator

VII, art. 48.]

b^,

becomes

oo

ex-

[Joly,

Manual, Chap.
is

In general the equation of the tangent of any curve

TT

Xp'.

We may
=

also find the derivatives of functions of p,

when

p ^(t), by substituting the value of p in the expression and differentiating as before. Thus
let

= a

cos 6

-\- fi

sind

where Ta

={=

Tfi.

148.

VECTOR CALCULUS

Then

Tp=

V [-

a^ cos^ B

2Sa^

sin d cos 6

0" sin^

6].

We may then find the stationary values of

usual for any function.
a2 sin 26

Tp in the manner

Thus

differentiating after squaring

2Sa^

cos 2d

/S^

sin 26
iS^).

tan 26
2.

2Sa^l{a^

0,

Frenet-Serret Formulae.
expressed in terms of
s.

Since the arc

is

essentially

the natural parameter of a curve

we

will

suppose now that

will

is

s,

and accents

mean

only

differentiation as to

Then both
and
p

p
are points

+ dsp' +
dsp", which
is

upon the curve.

also

derivative of the latter gives p' a unit vector since the parameter is s.

The

a unit vector along the tangent vector is a chord of a unit circle

is

Thus the change in dsp", and since this

limiting direction
is

its

perpendicular to p', and its quotient by ds has a length whose limit is the rate of change of the angle in the osculating plane
of the tangent

and a

fixed direction in that plane

which

turns with the plane. That is to say, p" in direction is along the principal normal of the curve on the concave side,

and

in

magnitude

is

the curvature of the curve, which

we

shall indicate by the notation

Unit tangent is Unit normal is Unit binormal

is

a =
jS

p' ,
,

= Vp" 7 = Va^,

curvature
so that

is

C\

C17

= =

Tp"

Vp'p".

The

meter of arc
the plane.

rate of angular turn of the osculating plane per centiis found by differentiating the unit normal of

Thus we have
71

= cr^hFpV" -

Vp'p"-C;\.

DIFFERENTIALS

149
CiCz

But

ci'

= Tp" = Ca

Substituting for
71

Sp"p" and therefore we have

= -

Sp"p'".

= cr\- Sp"p"Vp'p"' = cr\Vp'Vp"Vp"'p"]

Sp"p"'Vp'p"]

= = =
where

Cx-WaVc^Vp"'crfi

crW-ot^Vp'"^
OijS,

cr'VyVp'"fi

cr'pSyp'"

Oi is written for the negative tensor of 71

and

is

the

tortuosity.

It

may

also be written in the

form

Sp'p"p"'lc^\

Again since

/3

= 7a we have at once = 7ia + yai = aiy jSi =

the relations
C\a.

Thus we have proved

ai
It
is

Frenet's formulae for

any curve

Ci0,

/3i

ai7

Cia,

71

OijS.

obvious

now

that
/3,

order in terms of a,
ai

express derivatives of any 7, and ai, ci, and the derivatives of

we may

and Ci. For instance we have

Pi
P3

oc,

p2
/3c2

/3ci,

jSiCi

/8c2

(701
ac2)ci

aci)ci,

P4

/3c3

+ 2(701
=

aci)c2

(702

-/3(ai2+ci2)ci.

The vector w

aoi

+ yci

is

useful, for
/3,

if

77

represents in

turn each one of the vectors a,

7, then

771

Voirj.

It is

the vector along the rectifying line through the point. The centre of absolute curvature k is given by
K

1/p"

+ ^ICi.

150

VECTOR CALCULUS
centre of spherical curvature
(T

The

is

given by
yc^laic-^.

yd/da- Ci~^

The
It
is

3.

in the direction of 7. polar line is the line through the ultimate intersection of the normal planes. Developables. If we desire to study certain de-

velopables belonging to the curve, a developable being the locus of intersections of a succession of planes, we proceed
thus.

where
p
is

of a plane being S{'k Q, p)r] the vector to a variable point of the plane, and a point on the curve, while 77 is any vector belonging
tt is

The equation

to the curve, then the consecutive plane

S{Tr

is

is

p)r]

ds'd/dsS(Tr

p)v

0.

The

intersection of this

and the preceding plane

is

the line

whose equation
TT

rjSar]

t)/Vrirji.

line lies wholly upon the developable. If we find a second consecutive plane the intersection of all three is a point upon the cuspidal edge of the developable, which is

This

also the locus of tangents of the cuspidal edge.

is
TT

This vector

(VrjivSar]

2VTiriiSar]i
rj,

V7]rjiSfirjCi)lSrir}ir]2.

By

substituting respectively for

a,

/S,

7,

we

arrive at the

polar developable, the rectifying developable, the tangentline developable.

EXAMPLE
Perform the substitutions mentioned.
4.

Trajectories.

If

a curve be looked upon as the path

of a

moving point, that is, as a trajectory, then the parameter becomes the time. In this case we find that (if

dp/dt, etc.) the velocity is p

av, the acceleration

is

DIFFERENTLVLS
p

151

^ciir

+ ai.

The

first

term

is

the acceleration normal

to the cm^ve, the centrifugal force, the second

term

is

the

In case a particle is forced to a the describe curve, pressure upon the curve is given by xc-c) ^ar. There will be a second acceleration, p = air
tangential acceleration.

+ ^{2c\V + C2v) + yaiCxv.

to
5.

The

last

term

represents

tendency per gram particle out of the osculating that to rotate the is, plane of the orbit. plane,

draw the

Expansion for

as origin,

If we take a point on the curve p. we may express p in the form

sa

+ ^Ci*2j8

\fr^{c^a
fi[cz

d^
Cior]

CiUiy)

YipK^CiCia

ci'

7[2c2ai

+ Cia^])---.
a constant ratio

EXERCISES
1.
is

Every curve whose two curvatures are always

in

a cylindrical helix.
2.

The

straight

hne

is

the only real curve of zero curvature every-

where.
3. If the principal normals of a curve are everjrwhere parallel to fixed plane it is a cylindrical helix. 4. The curve for which

Ci = \lms, Oi = 1/ns, a heUx on a circular cone, which cuts the elements of the cone imder a constant angle. is

5. The principal normal to a curve is centers of curvature at points where Ci is a

normal to the locus of the

maximum

or

minimum.

6.

Show

that

if

Ci~^

=A

cos a

a curve B sin a

lies

upon a sphere, then = C cos (a + ), A, B, C,

are constants.
surface of

The converse is also true. 7. The binormals of a curve do not generate the tangent
a curve.
a/37 of a given curve
8.

Find the conditions that the unit vectors of the moving trihedral remain at fixed angles to the unit vectors of the moving trihedral of another given curve.

Two Parameters
6.

Surfaces.

If

arbitrary parameters

the variable vector p depends upon two it will terminate upon a surface of

152

VECTOR CALCULUS
(p{u,
v),

some kind.

For instance if p = write for the total differential of p

dp

then we

may

dudldu{(p)

dvdldv((p)

du(pu

dv<pv.

We
where

find then

r~dp

Edv?

2Fdidv

Gdv\

E=
We
one for u

(pj^,

F=

S(pu(Pv,

G =
v

(pv".

have thus two

differentials of p,
will

one for

constant,

constant, which

be tangent to the para-

metric curves upon the surface given by these equations, and may be designated by
Pidu,
p^dv.

The normal becomes then

.

Vpip2,

Tv=

^ {EG

F')

H.

For certain points or lines v may become indeterminate, the points or lines being then singular points or singular
lines.
7.

Curvatures.

If

we

consider the point p and

the

point p
p

+
V

dupi

dvp2 the

two normals

will

be

and

duV(pnP2

+ P1P12) +
and
p

dvVipuPi

+ P1P22) +

which

may

be written
V

+
p

dp.

The equations
F(7r

of these lines are

0,

p)p

=
if

F(7r

0.

dp)(p

dv)

0.

They

intersect

Sdppdp

Points for which this equation holds

lie

upon a

line of

DIFFERENTIALS
curvature so that this
lines.
is

153

the differential equation of such

total differentials
poJ'^i)

If

we expand the

we have

du^Spivvi

+ 2dudvS(pivv2 +
=
=
pidu
-\-

+
xv

dirSp2VV2

0.

We may
dp
-\-

also write the equation in the

-\-

form
-\-

XV

ydv

p^dv

-{-

yvidu

yv2dv.

Multiply by

(pi

+ yvi) (p2 + yv2)

Viy)^

and take the

scalar part

of the product, giving

S(pi

+ yvi)(p2 +

= = y-SvviV2

2ySv{piV2

+
is

V\P2)

v^.

The ultimate

intersection of the
TT

two normals
yv

given by

p -^ dp

-\-

+ ydv,

that

by yv. Hence we solve for yTv, giving two values R' which are the principal radii of curvature at the The product and the sum of the roots are repoint.
is

R and

spectively

RR' =
-\-

R
The
by the
first,

R'

= Tv^i- SwiVi), yy'Tv2 TvSv(piV2 ViP2)/SvViV2.

reciprocal of the

first,

and one-half the second divided

that

is,

SvviV2Jv^

and

Sv(piV2

+ v\P2)lTv^,
of the

are the absolute curvature

and the mean curvature

curvature

surface at the point.

The equation of the

vSdpvdv

lines of

may be also written

VdpdJJv.

= V -VdpVvdv =

VdpV{dvlv-v)

Hence the direction of dUv is that of a line of curvature, when du and dv are chosen so that dp follows the line of curvature. That is, along a line of curvature the change
11

154

VECTOR CALCULUS
normal
is

in the direction of the unit

parallel to the line

of curvature.

When the mean curvature vanishes the surface is a minimal surface, the kind of surface that a soapfilm will take when it extends from one curve to another and the pressures on the two sides are equal. The pressure indeed
is

curvature, so that

the product of the surface tension and twice the mean if the resultant pressure is zero, the
vanish.
If

the radii are equal, as in a sphere, then the resultant pressure will be twice the surface tension divided by the radius, for each surface of the
film, giving difference of pressure and air pressure = 4 times surface tension/radius. The difference of pressure is thus for a sphere of 4 cm. radius equal to the surface

mean curvature must

tension, that

is,

When

a surface

27.45 dynes per cm. is developable the absolute curvature

is

Surfaces are said to have positive zero, or negative curvature according as the absolute curvature is positive or negative.

and conversely.

EXERCISES
1.

The

differential equation of spheres is

Vi^ip

a)

0.

2.

The

differential equations of cylinders

and cones are respectively

Sva
3.

0,

Sv(j)

a)

=0.
is

The

differential

equation of a surface of revolution

Sapv

0.

is the center of spherical curvature of a spherical curve not 4. of necessity the center of the sphere? 5. Show how to find the vector to an umbilicus (the radii of curvature

Why

are equal at an umbilicus).

6. The differential equation of surfaces generated perpendicular to the fixed line a is
bj'^

lines that are

SVav<pVai'

0,

where ^

is

a linear function.

\:

DIFFERENTIALS
7.

155

The

differential

the fixed line 7(p

equation of surfaces generated

by

lines that

meet

/3)a

is

SVvVip
8.

- P)ocv(VvV(p is

/3)a)

0.

The

differential equation of surfaces generated

by equal and

similarly situated ellipses

SV{Va^-p)<p{VVafi-p)
9.

=0.

Show

that the catenoid

p

xi

+ a cosh i/o(cos 0j + sin dk)

zfc

is
is

a minimal surface, and that the two radii are

Tv, the normal which

drawn from the point to the

2.
1.

axis.

Differentiation as to a Vector
Let q

Definition.

= f(p)

be a function of

p,

either
-}-

scalar, vector, or quaternion.

Let p be changed top

is

dt-a

where a

is

a unit vector, then the change in q

given by

dq= q'and
dq/dt

= f(p+dt-a)-f(p),
[f(p

= Urn
If

dta)

- f(fi)]ldt
first

as dt decreases.

we

consider only the terms in

order of the infinitesimal scalar dt

we can
a)

write

dq
in

dtf'ip,

only linearly. In a linear function of a however

which a

will enter

we can introduce the

multiplier into every

term

in

a and

write dta

dp, so that

we have dq

a linear function of dp,

dq

f(j>, dp).

It needs to be noted that the vector a is a function of the variable di, although a unit vector. The differential of q is of course a function of the direction of dp in general, but the direction may be arbitrary, or be a function of the variable vector p. It may very well happen that the
limit obtained

above

may

to the direction of the vector a.

be different for a given function / according In general, we intend to consider the

156

VECTOR CALCULUS
is

vector dp as having a purely arbitrary direction unless the contrary

stated.

EXAMPLES
(1)

Let

q= [p2

p\

Then

dq= -

+
=

2dtS-pa
T^p

p2]

= -

2dtSp(x

= -

2Spdp.

Also since q

we have
2Spdp,

dq

= 2TpdTp= or

whence

dTp/Tp
(2)

Sdpfp,

dTp

= -

SUpdp.

From

the definition
d(qr)

we have
dq-r
-{-

q-dr,

hence

d(Tp-Up)

= dTp-Up+ Tp-dUp =

dp

and utiHzing the

result of the preceding example,

we have

dUp/Up
Also

Vdp/p.

pVdpp/T^p This equation asserts that the differential of Up is the part of the arbitrary differential of p perpendicular to Up, divided by the length of p, that is, it is the differential angle of the two directions of p laid off

we may

write

dUp =

Vdpp-p/T^p

p~WpdplTp,

etc.

in the direction perpendicular to p in the plane of p

dp.

and

In case dp

is

along the direction of p

itself,

dUp =

0.

We have since = dp = dp-p~^p + d{pp~^p)

(3)

pd{p~^)p

+ pp'^dp
=
2dp

+ pdip~^)p,

DIFFERENTIALS

157

and thence
dp
d.p-^

pd{p-^)p,

= is,

p-^dpp-'

[p-'Spdp

p-Wpdp]irp

=
That
the differential of p~^
of Tp.
is

p-Hp-pl'Pp.

the image of dp in p divided

by the square Hence

d{Vap)-^
This vanishes
(4)
If
TT

= {VapTWadp-VaplTWap.
is

if

dp

parallel to a.

a?lp

then dw

a^p'Hppj T^p, and for two

different values of dp, as dip, d^p,

we have

dzir/diT

p~^d2p/dip-p.

Therefore in the process of " "

electrical

"
inverting

"

or taking the

image
is

we

find that the biradial of

p.

two

dif-

ferential vectors

merely reflected in

Interpret this,

(5)

T
p

=
a

c is

a famil V of spheres with

a and

as

limit points.
of

For a differential dp confined to the surface any sphere we have then

Sdp[(p

r-

(P

cc)-']

0.

plane section through a can be written Syap = 0, in which Syadp = gives a differential confined to the plane.

of

Therefore a differential tangent to the line of intersection any plane and any sphere will satisfy the equation

Vdp[VVya((j)

+ a)-i ()

(p

a)-')]

0.

But the expression

in the

is

which passes through

such a sphere would be
p2

and

a tangent line to any sphere A. For the equation of

2Sa8p

a^

158

VECTOR CALCULUS
5 is

where
S{p
to

any

vector, hence for

Va8)dp

0.

But

a(p2

+ a2)
=
[]

(p

+ a)-' and
2Spa8].

any dp along the sphere,

(p

2pSap
a^

Sip

- a)-"- is parallel - F5)[a(p2 + a')

2pSap] sphere the

S'a;p[p^

For points on the

tangent line. the differential equation above shows that the tangent dp of the intersection of the plane and the sphere of the A. system is perpendicular to a sphere through A and

vanishes, hence the vector in question is a Also Vttt is perpendicular to x or r, therefore

Hence

all

spheres of the set cut orthogonally any sphere

through
(6)

and

A.

The equations?/^

pa =

e is a

family of tores procircles

duced by the rotation of a system of radical axis. From this we have

about their

SU(p VU(p

+ a)(p-a)= + a)(p -a) =

-e, V (1

e'')UVap

<t.

Differentiating the scalar equation

we have

s\v-^_^-U{p L p +

+ a)U{p-a)

+
or

U{p-\-a)V

p- a
a)-']

~^^'U{p=
0.

ol)'\= J

Sadp[{p

+ a)-^ is

(p

Now

in a

meridian section a
Vdp[{p

constant so that
(p

)-!

a)-']

=
through

and dp A and
1.

is

for such section tangent to a sphere

A.

EXERCISES
The
potential due to a

mass

at the distance

Tp

is

mITp

in

DIFFERENTL\LS
gravntation units.
tion,
2.

I5d
any
direc-

Find the
in

differential of the potential in

it is

and determine

what
<r

directions

zero.

The magnetic

force at the point

is

wire carrj-ing a current

t his

2hjVap.
if

due to an infinite straight Find the differential of

it is

and determine
0; for dp

in

what

<fH

=
3.

= dsVa-Wp, dH = -

direction,

any,

zero.

For- Vdpff

0,

Htis/TFap; for dp

dsUVap,

dH = TVHds/rF<rp.

The

potential of a small
is

free

magnetism at p

magnet a at the w = SaplT^p. Find the

origin on a particle of variation in directions

Up,
4.

UVap,

UaVap.

The

attraction of gravitation at a point

is
ff

P per imit mass in gravita-

tion imits

= -

Up/T^p.

Find the
d<T

differential of a in the directions

Up and
p,

F/3p.

= 5.

(p^p

SpSpdp)/T^p;

parallel

to

2/p;

perpendicular, UVfip/T^p.

The

force exerted

upon a
is

particle of

magnetism at p by an element

of current

at the origin

H = - Vap/T^p. Then dH = (pWadp SVapSpdp)/T^p; in the in the direction Vap, - VaUVap/T^p.

direction of p,

3Fa/p;

6. The vector force exerted by an infinitesimal plane ciurent at the origin perpendicular to a, upon a magnetic particle or pole at p is
ff

{ap^

3pSap)/T^p.

Find
2.
tials

its

variation in various directions.

Differential of Quaternion.

We may

define differen-

of functions of quaternions in the

same manner as

motions of vectors.

Thus we have T^q

= qKq so that
qKq]

2TqdTq

d(qKq)

= = = =

[(q

-^ dtUq) (Kq

+ dtUKq) -

dt[qUKq

qKdq + 2SqKdq

UqKq] dqKq

2SdqKq.

lat

is,

dTq

= SdqUKq =
dTq/Tq

SdqUq'"^

TqSdqfq

Sdq/q.

160

VECTOR CALCULUS

In the same manner we prove the other following formulae.

dUqiUq

Vdq/q,

dSq

Sdq,

dSUq = SUqVidq/q) =

dKq =

dVq = Vdq,

Kdq,

S(dUq)/Uq

0,

S{dq/qUVq-)TVUq

= TVUqdzq, = dVUq VUKqV(dq/q), dTVUq = - SdUqUVq = SUqdzq,

d-q^= 2Sqdq
d-qaq-'

+
=

2Sq Vdq

2Sdq Vq,

= - 2V -qdq-^qVaq-^ =
qaq~^,

d-q~^

q~Hqq~^,

2V-dq{Va)q-\

that

is, if r

then
2V(q-dq-'-r)

dr=2 V(dqlq -r)

= -

2V{Vdq/q)r

2q'V-V(q-'dq-a)q-'

dUVq= dzq=
We
define

V'Vdq/Vq-UVq,
Sidq/iUVq-q)].

when Ta =
a''

= =

cos-7rx/2

sin-7ra:/2-a

cas-^Tx;

thus
d-a""
If

Tl2-a''+^dx.

Ta +

1,

then
d-a""

dx[log

Ta-a''+ 7r/2-Q;^+Vr],
q^'HqKq''^*

d^q =

Jy + j^

For a stationary value of /(p) in the = 0. If /(p) is to be vicinity of a point p we have df(p) the terminal point of p and same time at the stationary
3.

Extremals.

is

to remain on

some surface,

or in general

if

is

to be subject

*Tait, Quaternions, 3d ed., p. 97.

DIFFERENTIALS
to certain conditioning equations,

161
also have,
if

we must

if

there

is

one equation, q{p)

0, dq{p)

0,

and

there are

and h{p) two equations, g(p) = = in all these Whether 0. dh(p)

a

0,

then also dg(p)

0,

different cases /(p) attains

maximum

of numerical value or a

minimum, or

otherwise,

we

will consider later.

EXERCISES
1.
g(j,)

(p

ay

+ a* =
Sdpip

0,

find stationary values of

Tp =

f(j>).

Differentiating both expressions, a)

Sdpp,

for all values of dp.

arbitrary',

Hence we must have dp

and hence Srpip we must have Vp{p a) = and sohang for y,

y
2. g{p)

parallel to F- rp where t is a) =0, for all values of t. Therefore = 0, or p = ya. Substituting 0, or Vap

= =

a/Ta,

= a

aUa.

= =

Sdp{p
F/3(p

(p

a)2

a*

0.

a)

=
0.

S^ap,

Find stationary values of 5/3p. - a) =0, whence S-r/3(p dpWVr^,

a)

p
3. g{p)

y0,

y
a-

a/T0,

aUff.

(p

a)2

0, h{p)

= S^p =

0, find

stationary values
a)

of Tp.
Sdp(j>

and

since

= = 5/3dp = Spdp, whence Sp^ = 0, p = yV-ffVaff.

a)

S-p/3(p

SpaP,

p
4. (^(p)

F/3Fa/3(l

[a*

S'afiVTVaff).
stationary'
fiSap),

=
=

p*

SapSffp

+
=

a*

0.

Find

values of Tp.

Sdpp
p

Sdp(p

aS^p

x(a5/3p

+ /3Sap)

(a5/3p

+ /3Sap)/(5a/3
=F 1).

To^),

whence
(Sop

TaSpUfi,

p
Substituting in the
5. Sfip

SpUfiiUa
equation,

Up)/(SUaU0

first

we

find SpUfi, thence p.

c,

(Sap

c',

find stationary values of Tp.

(Sdp/3

= Sadp =
i//3^

5pJp
xa^

=0,

= xa +
c',

yfi

and
y.

xSa/3

c,

2/(Sa/3

whence x and

162
6.

VECTOR CALCULUS
Find stationary values of Sap when
(p -^

ay

a^

0.

Sadp =
hence
p

Sdp(p

a);

= ya = a
Sap =
a^

zL alia

and
aTa.
p^
7.

Find stationary values for Sap when

S^pSyp

+ a" =

0,

Sadp
p
8.

Sdpip

fiSyp

= xa + PSyp +
(p

yS^p),
etc.

yS^p,

Find stationary values of TVSp when

a)2

+ a2 = + a2 =
0.

0.

9.

Find stationary values of

(p

SaUp when
a)2
0.

10.

Find stationary values of SallpS^Up when

Syp
4.

+c =

Nabla.

The

rate of variation in a given direction of

a function of p is found by taking dp in the given direction. Since df(j)) is linear in dp it may always be written in the

form
^(dp),

where
of dp.

is

In case /

a linear quaternion, vector, or scalar function is a scalar function, $ takes the form Sdpp,

where
dp.
call

i/

is

a function of
v is

p,

which

is

usually independent of

In case

independent of the direction of dp,

we

/ a continuous, generally differentiable, function. Functions may be easily constructed for which v varies

with the direction of dp. If when v is independent of dp we take differentials in three directions which are not in the

same

plane,

we have

vS dipdipdzp

= V

d\pd2p Sd^pv

+V

dipdzp Sdipp
-f-

dzpdipSdpv

V-dxpd-ip-dzf

Vd2pdsp-dif
V'dzpdip-dij.

DIFFERENTIALS
It is

163

evident that

if

we

divide through

by

Sdipd-^pdzp, the

different terms will be differential coefficients.

The

entire

expression

may

be looked upon as a differential operation

will designate

upon/, which we

by V.

Thus we have

v= V/ =

(Vdipd2p'd3-\- Vd2pd3p-di-{- V-d^dip-d^)

,,

dipd^pdzp

We may
If

then write
djip)

= -

SdpVfip).

the three differentials are in three mutually rectangular

i, j,

directions, say

k,

then
id/dx

V =
It
is

+ jd/dy + kd/dz.
which
is

easy to find

V/ for any scalar function

gener-

ally differentiable
is,

df{p)

from the equation SdpV f. For instance,

a,

for df(j)) above, that

= Up, V TVap = UVap a, V{TpY= n Tp""-' Up= n Tp""-'- p, VSaUp= - p-WUpa, V-SapS^p = - p-Sa/3 - Vapfi,
Vp2
2p,

VSap = -

= -

\7 Tp

V-log TVap

=
Vap

VT(p-

= - U(p- aJlT'ip VSaUpS^Up = p-WpVap-% V log Tp= UplTp= -p-\

a)-'

a),

\/{/.p'ol)

p~^UVpa

p UVap

5.

Gradient.

If

/(p)

C, then
it

we

consider the level surfaces of /(p), have generally for dp on such surface or

we

tangent to

Sdpp.

df{p)

where n

is

the normal of the

164
surface.

VECTOR CALCULUS
Since

SdpVf =

and since the two expressions

hold for all values of dp in a plane

fx

xVf,

or since the tensor of

/x is

arbitrary,

we may say V/(p)

is

the normal to the level surface of /(p) at p. It is called the gradient of f(p), and by many authors, particularly in

books on electricity and magnetism, is written grad. p. The gradient is sometimes defined to be only the tensor
of

V/, and sometimes

is

taken as

V/.

Care must be

exercised to ascertain the usage of each author.

Since the rate of change of /(p) in the direction a is SaS7f(p), it follows that the rate is a maximum for the
direction that coincides with

UVf, hence

the gradient

V/(p)
gives the

That
J7

maximum rate of change of f{p) in direction and size. is, T\7f is the maximum rate of change of /(p) and

V/ is the direction in which the point P must be moved in order that/(p) shall have its maximum rate of change.
6.

Nabla Products.
it

The operator

is

sometimes called

the Hamiltonian and

may

be applied to vectors as well

as to scalars, yielding very important expressions. These we shall have occasion to study at length farther on. It

and be sufficient here to notice the effect of applying combinations to various expressions. It is to be observed that may be found from dq, by writing dq
will
its

^-dp, then

VQ VQ =

i^i

+ j^j +
+

k^k.

For examples we have

Vp =

(Vdipdip-dsp
3

Vdipdzp'dip
Vdzpdip-d2p)l{
Sdipd^pdzp)

= -

since the vector part of the expression vanishes.

166

VECTOR CALCULUS
Circuital derivative

VaV,
a

Tait, Joly.

V, Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung.

Projection of directional derivative on the direction.

S-a~^VSau,
~~) Fischer.

Tait, Joly.

da
Projection
of
directional
derivative

perpendicular

to

the

direction

V-a-WSV 'a,
f

Tait, Joly.

Fischer.

da
Gradient of a scalar

V,

Tait, Joly, Gibbs, Wilson,

Jaumann, Jung, Carvallo,

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo,

Bucherer.
grad, Lorentz, Gans,

Abraham,

Peano, Jaumann, Jung.

grad, Jahnke, Fehr.
[Fischer's multiplication follows Gibbs, d/dr
c^

p.

,
'

dr

being after the operand, the whole being read from right to left; e.g., Fischer's

Vv

is

equiv. to

?;*SV.]

Gradient of a vector

V,

Tait, Joly, Gibbs, Wilson,

Jaumann, Jung, Carvallo.

grad,
>

Jaumann, Jung.

Fischer.

dr
7.

Directional Derivative.

One
is

of the

operators in which

occurs

most important which SaV, gives the

DIFFERENTIALS

167

rate of variation of a function in the direction of the unit

vector a.

The operation is called directional

differentiating.

Sa\7

S^p= -

SaV Tp

SaUp,

SaV -p^ = - 2Sap, SaV Tp-"^ = - Socp/Tp^ = 1 Fi Tp-^

Sa^,
!

SaVTV(xp =

0,

SaV-Up^ -^^^^ Tp^

upon Tp~^
harmonics as follows
:

'

An

iteration of this operator

gives the series of

rational spherical

and

solid

SaVTp--'

= = -

SapfTp^

= UYiTp-^
=
2lY2Tp-\
SlY^Tp-^.

S^VSa\7Tp-'=

(3SapS^p-\- Tp^Sa^)Tp-'

SyVS^VSaV Tp-^

(3.5SapS0pSyp

+ Si:S0ySapTp^)Tp-' =
y = 2.(l)(2n

For an n axial harmonic we apply n operators, giving

2s)li[2r-'nlin

s)^i:S'^^aUpS'aia2,

0^5^
The summation runs over n
SaiUpSaiUpand
s factors of

n/2.

2s factors of the type

the type SaiajSakar , each subscript occurring but once in a given term. The expressions Y are the surface harmonics, and the expressions
arising

from the differentiation are the

solid

harmonics

of negative order.

When

multiplied

by

Tp-"'^^

we have

corresponding solid harmonics of positive order'. The use of harmonics will be considered later.
8.

Circuital Derivative.

Another important operator

is

called the circuital derivative. It gives the areal density of the circulation, that is to say, if we integrate the function combined with dp in any linear way, around

FaV

an infinitesimal loop, the limit of the ratio of this to the area of the loop is the circuital derivative, a being the normal
to the area.

We

give a few of

its

formulae.

We may

also

168
find
it

VECTOR x;alculus
from the
differenilal,

for

if

dQ =

^dp,

Fa V Q

F-ar-^r.

VaV Tp = VaUp, VaV Tp"" = nTp^'-Wap, = VaV Up {^ap" pSap)lTp\ VaV-S^p = V^a, VaV Vfip = a^+ S-a^, VaV -fip = 2Sa^, VaV TV^p = - V-afiUV^p, VaV -p = - 2a, = VaV (aiS^ip + a2Sfi2P + a^SM Sa(a,fii + aa/^s
'

+ aalSa) +
9.

VaiVafii

Va^Vafi^

VazVa^z.

0, V'^Q =0. In a preceding formula we saw that V{Vap)~'^ = 0. We can easily find a number of such vectors, for if we apply SaV to any vector

Solutions of

VQ =

of this

kind.
in

kind we shall arrive at a new vector of the same The two operators V and SaV are commutative their operation. For instance we have
d{Vap)-^

= -

(Vap)-Wadp-(Vap)-^;

hence
r
is

SfiV-{Vap)-'

(Vap)-W^a'(Vap)-'
0.

new

vector which gives

Vr =

The

series

can easily

be extended indefinitely. Another series is the one derived from Up/T^p. This vector is equal to p/T^p, and its
differential
is

(-p'dp+SSdpp-p)/T'p.

The new

vector for which the gradient vanishes

is

then

(The
latter case

ap''-\-3Sap-p)/T'p.

however is easily seen to arise from the vector V Tp~^, and hence is the first step in the process of = 0. So also using V twice, and it is evident that V^Tp~^ the first case above is the first step in applying V^ to log

TVap-a"^ so that V^(log TVap-a)

that satisfy this
partial
differential

0.

Functions of p

equation are called

DIFFERENTIALS

169

harmonic functions. That is,/(p) is harmonic if "V^ip) = 0. Indeed if we start with any harmonic scalar function of p
ishes,

and apply V we shall have a vector whose gradient vanand it will be the beginning of a series of such vectors
also apply the

produced by applying SaiV,

may

to it. However we *Sq;2 V, same operators to the original harmonic

function deriving a series of harmonics. From these can be produced a series of vectors of the type in question. V^ F(p) is called the concentration of F(p) The concentra.

tion vanishes for a

harmonic function.

EXERCISES
Show
1.

that the following are harmonic functions of p:

Tp-i tan-i Sap/Sffp,

are perpendicular unit vectors,

where a and

Tp-nogtanl z
tan-i Sap/Sffp

Sa0 =
a2

/32

= Z
-

1.

log tan 5

10.

Harmonics.

We may note

that

if

u, v are

two

scalar

functions of p, then

V -uv =
and thus
\7--uv

u\7v

v\7u

= mV-c
of

I'V-M

2SVuVv.
is is

Hence the product

two harmonics

not necessarily
perpendicular to

harmonic, unless the gradient of each the gradient of the other.

Also
if

is

harmonic, then

V--UV
13

= uV-v

2SVu'Vv,

170
If

VECTOR CALCULUS
is

harmonic and
is

ujTp^^^^

of degree n homogeneously in For a harmonic of degree (n 1).

p,

then

= - (2n+
and
svuvrp-^""-^
hende

l)(2n)fp-2'-3

= -

(2/1+ i)rp-2'^-3svwp = (2/1+ l)(2?i)wrp-2"-3;

V^'ulTp''^+^=
0.
.

In this case w
is

a solid harmonic of degree n and mTp~^"~^ 1. Also uTp~^ is a n a soHd harmonic of degree
is

corresponding surface harmonic.

The converse

is

true.

EXAMPLES OF HARMONICS
Degree n

=0;

<p

tan~^

where
\p

5q;)8

0,

a^

/J^

= 1;

1;

log cot I

-oi^

= -

S-a^UpSapS^p/V'-a^p;
SafiUpS(a

+ fi)pS(a - fi)plV'a^p.
=
=
gives harmonics course, rational

The
tion

gradients of these as well as the result of any operaSyV are solid harmonics of degree 1, hence multiply-

ing the results

by Tp[n

1, 27i

1]

again of degree 0. These will be, of harmonics but not integral.

Taking the gradient again or operating by <S7iV any of times will give harmonics of higher negative n by Tp^""^ Multiplying any one of degree degree.

number

will give

a solid harmonic of degree n

1.

Degree n

1.

Any harmonic
ypiTp,

of degree

divided by

Tp, for example,

1/rp,

<p/Tp,

SotfiUpSaUpS^p/V'afip,

--,'

172
Degree
4.

VECTOR CALCULUS

3a;4

3?/4

a-s(422

Ss^

SX"

^xY y^),

2ixh^

3^2

32/2),

2/21(422

_
x^

242/V,

_
x^

3^2)
y^),

(x^

y^)(Qz^

x^
yziSx"^

xz{x^

xy{Qz^

3y^),

- y^), - y^) xy(x^

J^zzzx
J

+ y^ -

6xY,

ly zzzz

iJ zzzy

DIFFERENTIALS
lines in the plane
line for

173

normal to a.

If

we

follow the vector

after

curve, provided

we leave the point we shall get a determinate we consider a to be its normal. We may

however draw any surface through the point which has a for its normal and then on the surface draw any curve
through the point. All such curves can serve as /S curves but a might not be their principal normal. It can happen therefore that the j3 curves and the 7 curves may start out

from the point on different surfaces.

However

a,

/3,

and 7

are definite functions of the position of the point P, with

the condition that they are unit vectors and mutually

a becomes becomes and y -\- dy. The 7 a-\- da, ^ becomes /3 + rfjS, new vectors are unit vectors and mutually perpendicular, hence we have at once

perpendicular. If we go to a

new

position infinitesimally close,

S-ada=

Sfidy

S-W-=
=

S-ydy=0,

Syd^,

Syda = -

Sad^

= -

S^da,
(1)

Sady.

These equations are used frequently in making reductions. We have likewise since a^ = 1,

Va-

= -

V7-7 = -

V'aa',

V/3-/3

= -

VWy
we have
etc.

/)

V'77',
it

where the accent on the

indicates that

operates only

on the accented symbols following.

Va-fi

Similarly

ViS-a

= -

V'a/3'

V'/3a',

(3)

We

notice also that

S-a(SOV)a =
S-a{SOV)^ = -

0,

S-fi(SOV)a,

etc.
ajS

(4)

We now

operate on the equation

7 =

with

V, and

174

VECTOR CALCULUS
X/i

remember that for any two vectors + 2S\fx, whence

we have

X/i

juX

Vt =

Va-13

V'a(3'

Va-jS

- V^-a +

2V'Sa(3'.

(5)

The corresponding equations for the other two found by changing the letters cj^clically. Multiply every term into y and we have

vectors are

V7-T = Va-a
If

+ +

Vi3-i8

+
+

2V'Sa^'-y.

(6)

now we

take the scalar of both sides

we have
(7)

= SaVa ^-y Vt

S^V^

2SyV'Sa^'.

We

set

now

2p= + SaVa +

*Si3V/3

+ SyVy

(8)

and the equation (7) gives, with the similar equations deduced by cyclic interchange of the letters,

= - SyV'Sa'(3 = - p+ SyVy, SaV'S^Y = - SaV'S^'y = - p+ SaVa, - S^V'SYa = - p+ S^V(3, Sl3V'Sya' = - S-y[- SaV-y] = SaV Syy' = ^Sa\7 7' = 0, S-a[ SaV-y] = SaV'Sa'y = Sy{ SaV -a) = Sy(ul3 -\- vy) =
SyV'Sa^'
That
is

^^

v.

to say, the rate of change of 7,

is

if

the point

is

moved

along a,

^{SaVa
d^lds

p).

Likewise

y{

SaVci)

va.

The
{p

trihedral

therefore rotates about

its

SaV a)

as

vertex

moves along

a.

a with the rate Now we let

(10)

ta=

+ P-

SaVa.

We may also write at once, similarly, = + p- SyVy, h = +P- S^VI3, ty

from which we derive

(10)

ta+t^

ty=

+p.

(11)

DIFFERENTIALS
It is also evident that

175'

t.-\-h= S-rVy,
The

t^

+ ty= SaVa, + ia=

fy

-S/3 V/3.

(12)

expressions on the left hold good for any two perpendicular unit vectors in the plane normal to the vector

on the

right,

and hence

if

we

divide each

by 2 and

call

the

result the

mean

rotatory deviation for the trajectories of the

vector on the right,

we have
rotatory deviation for a.

^Sa'^a

= mean

Again the negative rotation for the /3 trajectory gives what we have called previously the rotatory deviation of a
along

mean

Hence, as a similar statement holds for y, the rotatory deviation is one half the sum of the rotatory
j9.

deviations.

Hence ^Sa\7a
is

is

the negative rate of rotation

of the section of a tube of infinitesimal size,

whose central

trajectory

we may

about a, as the point moves along a. to (9) and see that back go
a,

Or

SaVa = (+

p-

SfiVB)

= -

(+ p

- SyVy)
SfiV'Sya'

+ SyV'S^',

which gives the rotatory deviations directly. The scalar of (5) and the like equations are

SVa =
We

SyVfi

- Spvy, SV/S = SaVy - SyVa, SVy = 5/3Va - -SaV/3,

by a and take the

multiph' next (5)

scalar, giving

Sy\/a SfiVa SaV/3

= - SaVSPa' = SaV'Sa^', = - SaV'Say' = SaV'Sya', = - S^V'SyP' = S^V'Sfiy\

SyV'Sya',
SyS/'Sfiy'.

5^V7 = - SyV'Say' = SaVy = - SyV'Syfi' =

176

VECTOR CALCULUS
can therefore write

We

SVa = that
is

S^V'Sfia'

SyV'Sya',
of the projection of

SVa

equals the negative

sum

the rate of change of

of
of

a along 7 on a and hence

7.

a along /3 on 13, and the rate of change But these are the divergent deviations
is

SVa

section.

It gives the rate of the

the geometric divergence of the expansion of the area of

the cross-section of the tube around a.

We may

write the

corresponding equations of

and

7.

Again we have

Woi =
= =
Now

aSaVoc
ocit,

l3S^Va

ySyVoc

p) V)

^Sy(SaV-a)
VaiSaS/
-a).

yS0(SaV -a)

a{t^

from the Frenet formulae

Sa\7
where
Ca is

-oi

CaV,
is

the curvature of the trajectory and v

the

principal normal.

Hence

VWoi
where
one
is
/i

a{t,

-V)

+ cji,

(15)

is

fore that

FVa

the binormal of the trajectory. We find thereconsists of the sum of two vectors of which

twice the rate of rotation of the section or an elemen-

tary cube about a, measured along a, and the other is twice the rate of rotation of the elementary cube about the

binormal measured along the binormal.*

*

But we

will see

This should not be confused with the rotation of a rigid area moving along a curve. The infinitesimal area changes its shape since each point of it has the same velocity. As a deformable area it rotates (i.e. the invariant line of the deformation) with half the curvature as its The student should picture a circle as becoming an ellipse, rate. which ellipse also rotates about its center.

DIFFERENTIALS
later that this

177

the vector which represents twice the rate of rotation of the cube and the axis as it moves along
is

sum

the trajectory of a. the geometric curl.

Hence

this

is

what we have

called

We may now
field

not usually a unit vector.

S\/(7

consider any vector <r defining a vector Since a = TalJa, we have

= SUaVTa

TaSvUff.

The last term is the geometric convergence multiplied by the length of a, that is, it is the convergence of a section The first term is the negative rate of at the end of a.

The two together give therefore Tcr along a. the rate of decrease of an infinitesimal volume cut off from
change of
the vector tube, as
it

moves along the tube.

is

In the lanSimilarly

guage of physics, this

the convergence of a.

we have
VS7a-

= WTaUa-h TaVvUff.

The

last

term

is

cube at the end of

the double rate of rotation of an elementary <r, while the first term is a rotation about

that part of the gradient of Ta which is perpendicular to Ua. It is, indeed, for a small elementary cube a shear of

one of the faces perpendicular to Ua, which gives, as we have seen, twice the rate of rotation corresponding. Consequently T'Vo" tary cube.
is

twice the vector rotation of the elemen-

EXAMPLES
(1)

Show

that

aSVa
(2)

+ iSS V/3 + ySVy

=
Show
that
if

VaVVa
is

Ci(a)

zero

V^VV0 J^aVVa = 0.

FtFVt.
This
is

the
It

condition that the lines of the congruence be straight.

is

necessary and sufficient.

178
(3)
^1
1

VECTOR CALCULUS
Let

VVa =
SaV
^

^,

- SaVa =
s,

x,

then f^

= V

[c^

+ x^.

Xia

+ CipjS + ^27, where the subscript

that
is,

means

differentiation as to

along a line of the

congruence.
Sl3^i

cip;

ai

cr^S^^i

+ x,

or

This gives the torsion in terms of the curl of a and

derivative.
(4)

its

If

the curves of the congruence are normals to a set

of surfaces, then

a =

UVu

and

Vcc

is

Hence we have necessary and

(5) If

at once

= V^u/TVu - V(l/TVu)-Vu. = x. This condition SaVoc =

0,

sufficient.

also

VaVVa =
0,

we have a Kummer normal

system of straight rays.

conditions,
is

pcVVa =
and

that

In this case by adding the two 0. This condition is, VVa

also necessary
(6)
If

sufficient.

the curves are plane, ai

or Sfi^i

=
is

or

SaVa =

SjSV/S
suffi-

+ SyVy
cient.
(7)

xcu which

necessary and

If further

+ SyVy = =
(8)
If ci is If also plane,

they are normal to a set of surfaces The converse holds. Sl3^i.

S8V0

and conversely. and therefore circles, Sft^i = or + Ci.T/3. This is necessary and sufficient. For a normal system of circles we have also
constant, *S7^i
.

^i

Xia

VVa =
(9)

const

Ciy.
$i

For twisted curves of constant curvature

Cia^ff.

DIFFERENTIALS

179

Notations
Vortex of a vector

V\/u, Tait, Joly, Heaviside, Foppl, Ferraris.

VX

w,

Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung.

Quirl also appears.

curl u,

Maxwell, Jahnke, Fehr, Gibbs, Wilson, Heaviside,

Foppl, Ferraris. [Vw], Bucherer.

rot u,

rot u, Burali-Forti,

Jaumann, Jung, Lorentz, Abraham, Gans, Bucherer. Marcolongo.

-^.
,
,

dX
dr
,

J^

iscner.

Vort u, Voigt.

(Notations corresponding to some that use curl or rot.)

VVu are also

in use

by

Divergence of a vector

SVu,
well.

Tait, Joly.

SVu

is

the "convergence" of

Max-

V-w, Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung.

div
u,

Jahnke,

Fehr,

Gibbs,

Wilson,

Jaumann, Jung,

Lorentz, Bucherer, Gans, Abraham, Heaviside, Foppl,

Ferraris, Burali-Forti,

Marcolongo.

\7u, Lorentz,

Abraham, Gans, Bucherer.

d-u
j
,

-r^.

inscher.

dr Derivative

dyad

of a vector

- SQV'U,
Vw,

Tait, Joly.

Gibbs, Wilson.

V
dr
-r
dr

M,

Jaumann, Jung.

du ^^, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

Fischer.

Du

Shaw.

180

VECTOR CALCULUS
Conjugate derivative dyad of a vector

VSuQ,

Tait, Joly.

Vw-, Gibbs, Wilson. V; W-, Jaumann, Jung.

-ft^iO,

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

-J,

Fischer.

Z)i(-,Shaw.

Planar

derivative

dyad of a

vector

FvFwQ,

Tait, Joly.

V X (m X 0), Gibbs, Wilson. V ^u, Jaumann, Jung.

du CK -^,

dr

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

x{Du), Shaw.
Dispersion.

Concentration
of

V^ Tait, Joly. V^ is the "concentration" V^ Lorentz, Abraham, Gans, Bucherer.

Maxwell.

V, Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung.

Marcolongo.
div grad, Jahnke.

div grad, Fehr, Burali-Forti,

A2, for scalar operands, l^^ r t^ tit 1 Marcolongo. A2', for vector operands, 1^"^^^^-^^*^'
.

--^-z

dr

Fischer.

Dyad

of the gradient.

Gradient of the divergence

VSV, Tait, Joly. VV-, Gibbs, Wilson.

V; V, Jaumann,
grad

Jung.

div, Buroli-Forti,

Marcolongo.

DIFFERENTIALS
Planar dyad of the gradient.
Vortex of the vortex

181

VWVO, Tait, Joly.

V^V,
rot-,

Jaumann, Jung.

Lorentz, Bucheoer, Gons, Abraham.

curP, Heaviside, Foppl, Ferraris.

rot rot, Burali-Forti,

IMarcolongo. Vector Potential, Solenoidal Field. then we say that o- is a vector potential of ^.
13.

If

VV<t,

Obviously

SV^ = sr'a =
The

0.

vector potential is not unique, since to it may be added When the convergence of a of vanishing curl. vector any vector vanishes for all values of the vector in a given region

we

call

the vector solenoidal.

is

If

the curl vanishes then

the vector

lamellar.

have an example of lamellar fields in the vector field which is determined by the gradient of any scalar function,
for

We

FVVw =

0.

In case the

field of

a unit vector
12 that the

is

solenoidal

we

see

from

the considerations of
deviations of

first

and second divergent

any one of its vector lines are opposite. If then we draw a small circuit in the normal plane of the vector line at P and at the end of dp a second circuit in
the normal plane at p circuit back upon the

and if we project this second normal plane, then the second will overlie the first in such a way that if from P a radius vector sweeps out this circuit then for every position in which the radius vector must be extended to reach the
dp,
first

second circuit there

angles to
it

is

a corresponding position at right

it

in

which
is

must be shortened by an equal

Hence
it will
if

amount.
of the

It follows that the limit of the ratio of the areas

two

circuits

unity.

such a vector tube

is

followed throughout the field

have a constant cross-

182
section.

VECTOR CALCULUS

In the general case it is also clear that SV<t gives the contraction of the area of the tube.

When
SV<r by
plied

(T

is

not a unit vector then we see likewise that

the product of the conthe contraction of Ta multiis

12 has a value which

by the Ta + by the area of the initial circuit. Hence SVa represents the volume contraction of the tube of tr for length Totraction in area

per unit area of cross-section. When the field is solenoidal it follows that if Ta is decreasing the tubes are widening

2lTp signifies that per unit the area of a circuit which is normal to p length along p is increasing in the ratio 2/rp, that is, the flux of Up is 3 Also S-Vp = increasing at the rate of 2/7p along p.
indicates that an infinitesimal
field of
is

and conversely. For instance, S\7Up

is

increasing in the ratio 3.

volume taken out of the Of this the increase 2

due to the widening of the tubes, as just stated, the increase 1 is due to the rate at which the intensity of the
If

field is increasing.

the
of

field is

a velocity

field,
is

the rate
3 times

of increase of

volume

an infinitesimal mass

per second. It is evident

now if we multiply SVo" by a differential volume dv that we have an expression for the differential flux into the volume. If a is the velocity of a moving mass
is

of air, say unit mass, then *SV<r

of this

the rate of compression

moving mass, and SVadv is the compression per unit time of this mass, and yj^J^SVadv is the increase in mass per unit time of matter at initial density or compression per unit time of a given finite mass which occupies initially the moving volume furnishing the boundary of
the integral. If T is the specific momentum or velocity of unit volume times the density, then SVt is the condensation rate or

DIFFERENTIALS
rate of increase of the density at a given fixed point,

183

SVrdv is the J^J^SSVrdv

increase in
is

mass

in dv per unit time.

and Hence

the increase in mass per unit time in a

given fixed space. Since

c
where
c is

1 = -r

density at a point,

SV(T= -\sVct-\--SVt c co
1
,

5 log c

c?

log c

= =
SVo'-dv=
^J'J'SV<^-dv

total relative rate of change of density

due to velocity and to time,

relative rate of

change of density at a

moving point. increase in mass of a by the

increase in

moving dv divided

original density.

mass

unit of time divided

=
md
for a

decrease in

moving volume per by original density, volume of an original mass.

in a

For an incompressible

fluid S\7o'

or

cr

is

solenoidal,

homogeneous

fluid

SVr =

or r

is

solenoidal.
#= 0.

water of differing salinity SVa- = 0, lave a case of constant r in a column of

^a

SVr
air.

We

If

we take
of air

tube of cross-section

square meter rising from the ocean

to the cirrus clouds,

we may suppose that one ton

enters at the bottom, so that one ton leaves at the top, but the volume at the bottom is 1000 cubic meters and at the

top 3000 cubic meters.

Hence the volume outflow

at the

top

is

2000 cubic meters.

In the hydrosphere a and r

184
are solenoidal,
in

VECTOR CALCULUS
the atmosphere r
is

solenoidal.

We

and r in tons/w^ sec. At every staa r are tangential, and at a surface and tionary boundary of discontinuity of mass, the normal component of the velocity must be the same on each side of the surface, as for example, in a mass of moving mercury and water. It is evident that if a vector is solenoidal, and if we
measure a
in m^/sec

or otherwise the total divergent deviations of a vector of length Ta, then the sum of these will

know by observation

furnish us the negative rate of change of Ta along cr. Thus, if we can observe the outward deviations of r in the

case of an air column,

we can

calculate the rate of change of

Tt
in

vertically.

If

a tube of water in the ocean

we can observe the outward deviations of we can calculate the decrease

EXERCISES.

forward velocity.
1.

An

infinite cylinder of

20 cm. radius of insulating material of

permittivity 2 [farad/cm.], is uniformly charged with l/207r electrostatic units per cubic cm. Find the value of the intensity E inside the rod,

and
the

field,

also outside, its convergence, curl, find it.

and

if

there

is

a potential for

2. A conductor of radius 20 cm. carries one absolute unit of current per square centimeter of section. Find the magnetic intensity H inside and outside the wire and determine its convergence, curl, and potential.

14. Curl.

of the curl
for the curl

We now turn our attention to another meaning of a vector. We can write the general formula
5/3

Wo- = -aS UaV U<T - fiSyV Ta + t(c Ta +

Let
It

V Ta)

Ua =

a'.

These terms we
first

will interpret,
is

was shown that the

term

one by one. a multiplied by the sum

of the rotational deviations of a'.

But

if

we

consider a

small rectangle of sides -qdt = dip and rdu corresponding actual deviations are
Sdipd^a'

dip,

then the

and

Sd2pdia'

DIFFERENTIALS

185

and the sum becomes

But

docr' is

the difference between the values of a' at the

of dip,

origin

and the end

and to terms
cr'

of first order

is

the

difference of the average values of

dip

and dip dip. c?2P between the average values of a' along the side dip and its Hence if we consider Sdpa' for a path consisting opposite. of the perimeter of the rectangle, the expression above is
the value of this Sdpa' for the entire path, that is, is the circulation of a' around the rectangle. Hence the coefficient

along the two sides Likewise di<x is the difference

- SUaVUa
is the limit of the quotient of the circulation around dip diP divided by dtdu or the area of the rectangle. If we divide any finite area in the normal plane of <j into elementary rectangles, the sum of the circulations of the

elements will be the circulation around the boundary, and we thus have the integral theorem

fSdpa = ffSdipd^pVVa
when Vdipd^p
see,

may

is parallel to Fv<7. The restriction, we shall be removed as the theorem is always true.

The component

of V\7<r along

is

then

Ua Lim
as the area decreases

J'Sdpafarea of loop

and the plane of the loop is normal to or. Consider next the term ^SyV Ta. It is easy to reduce to this form the expression

[- Sa'iSyV)(r
But
this is the circulation
13

Sy(S(T'V)<T][-

/3].

about a small rectangle in the

186
plane normal to
direction
jS
fi.

VECTOR CALCULUS

Hence the component

of

FVc

in the

is

/3

Lim

J'Sdpa/aresi of loop in plane normal to

/3.

Likewise the other term reduces to a similar form and the

component

of

VVcr

in the direction

is

7 Lim
It follows

^Sdpa/siresi of loop in plane normal to 7.

if

a
is

is

any unit vector that the component

of

Vs/c along a

a Lim J'Sdpa/acea
as the loop decreases.

of loop in plane

normal to a
is

The

direction of UV\7(t

then

that direction in which the limit in question is a maximum, and in such case TVS7ff is the value of the limit of the circulation divided

by the

area.

That
is

is,

TV\/<t

is

the maxi-

mum

circulation per square centimeter.

Another interpretation of FVo" us suppose that we have a volume

is

found as follows: Let

of given

form and that a

a velocity such that each point of the volume has an independent velocity given by cr. Then the moving volume will

The point which is originally in general change its shape. A point at p will be found at the new point p <7{p)dt. will be found at near p, say p dp)dt, dp, p -\- dp -{- a(p

and the
of dp,

line originally

from p to p

+
=

c^p

has become instead

dp

dt[(T(p

dp)

cr(p)]

dp

Sdp\7

-adt.

But

this

can be written
[\V-\7'dp(j'

dp'

= dp-

\dpSs7(T

\V{V\7<T)dp]dL

This means, however, that we can find three perpendicular] axes in the volume in question such that the effect of the

DIFFERENTIALS

187

motion

is

to

directions

move the points of the volume parallel to these and to subject them to the eflFect of the term
dp

W(VV(y)dp

dt.

Now
vector

if

we

consider an infinitesimal rotation about the

given by the form {du being half of the instantaneous angle)

6 its effect is

(1

du)p{l

edu)

+ 2\\pdu;
will

hence the vector joining p and p-\- dp

joining

become thfe vector

'IJepdu

and

'IVepdu

rfp

+ 2V^pdu,

that

dp becomes dp -\- 2Vtdp du. We find therefore that the form above means a rotation about the vector
is,

LTVowhen
(T

of
is

amount ^TVS/ffdi, or in other words VV<t, a velocity, gives in its unit part the instanta-

neous axis of rotation of any infinitesimal volume moving under this law of velocity, and its tensor is twice the angular velocity. rotation.
is

For

this reason the curl of

0,
<r

is

often called the

When FVo" =

has the form a

If

S7u,

and u

called a velocity potential.

is

not a velocity,

we

still call

u a potential for a.

EXERCISES.
rotated about a vertical axis at the rate of two revolutions per second, find the stationary velocity. What are the convergence and the curl of the velocity? Is there a velocity potential?
1.

If

a mass of water

is

fluid is flowing over a horizontal plane from a central that the velocity, which is radial, varies as the height above the plane, study the velocity. 3. Consider a part of the waterspout problem on page 50.
2. If

a viscous

axis in such

way

15. Vortices.
lines,

Since T'Vostart at

is

a vector

it

has

its

vector

and
is

if

we

any given point and trace the vector

line of T'Vo"

such

line is called a vortex line.

The

field of

Fv<r

called a vortex field.

If a vector is lamellar
ir rotational.

the

vector and the field are sometimes called

The

188

VECTOR CALCULUS
is

equation of the vortex lines

VdpWa- =
The
SJ'Saa'.

= SdpV
Since
is,

-o-

V'Sdpa'

= -

da

tr

V'Sdpa'.
is

rate of change of a then along one of

its

vortex lines
is

S^VS/a =

0,

the curl of

always

solenoidal, that

vortex lines

The
thus
if

curl

an elementary volume taken along the has no convergence but merely rotates. of the curl is FvFVo- = V'SVo" and

VV

is

harmonic the

curl of the curl

is

the negative
is

gradient of the convergence, and if the vector the curl of the curl is the concentration VV.

solenoidal,

EXERCISES
1.

If

so that
2.

if we set a = V-ar, and determine a vector potential of the vector o-. Determine the vector lines in the preceding problem for a. Also

Saa =

SaSJ

-ff,

and

VX

r,

then

Xa is

show that the derivative of X in any direction perpendicular to a is equal to the component of <r perpendicular to both. What is V^-ST? 3. If ff = wy and SyV -w = 0, then either Xa or F/3 will be vector potentials of a where /Sy = a and all are unit vectors and

SyV'X =0 =SyVY.
4. If the lines of <r are circles whose planes are perpendicular to y and centers are on p = ty, and Ta = f{TVyp), then any vector parallel to y whose tensor is F{TVyp), where -/ = dF/dTVyp is a vector

potential of
5.

<r.

Is

<r o-

solenoidal?

are straight lines perpendicular to y and radiating and Ta = f{TVyp), then what is the condition that a be solenoidal? If Tcr = /(tan-i TVyp/Syp) a cannot be solenoidal, Show that if/ 6. If <T = f{Sap, Sfip)-Vyp-y, then what is Vsj'r'i is a function of tan"! Sap/Sfip, that SypVf is a function of the same = and no vector of angle, but if / is a function of TVyp, SypS7 / the form a = f{TVyp)Vyp-y can be a potential of yTVyp. If
If

the lines of
ty

from p

n
If

=
7.

Sap/Sfip, then/Ou) What are the lines of

= -

<r

/v(M)dM/(M^ + D= /{Sap, Sfip)Vyp and what

is

is

the curl?

is

a function of TVyp, so

the curl, and

if

FiTVyp) = {TVyp)-^fTVyp<pTVypdTVyp
then
If / is

F-TVyp

is a vector potential of the solenoidal vector y<pT{Vyp). a function of p. the curl is a function of n, and \fip.)Vyp is a vector
yfijj.).

^ i

potential of
8.

If

is

solenoidal

and harmonic the

curl of its curl is zero.

If its

DIFFERENTIALS

189

lines are plane and it has the same tensor at all points in a line perpendicular to the plane, then it is perpendicular to its ciu-1. 9. The vector a = / Up, where / is anj- scalar function of p, is not

necessarily irrotational, but

10. If

Sa^a =

0.

a function of the two scalars SXp, Sfip where X, m are any two vectors (constant), or if S\p = 0, then what is true of a vector
is

<SaVff?

SaVa- =1= 0, show that if F is determined from Ss/ffVF SaVo- then F is the scalar potential of an irrotational vector t which added to a gives a vector o-', S<t'\/<t' =0. Is the equation for
11. If

always integrable?
12.

The

parallel rays /(p)a, f{Sap)a,

following are vectors whose lines form a congruence of f{Vap)a, [where/ is a scalar function], which

are respectively neither solenoidal nor lamellar, lamellar, solenoidal. The case of both demands that Tv = constant.
13.

E.xamples of vectors of constant intensity but varying direction

are

= aUp,

aVap

+ ayl Q^ - aW^).

Determine whether these are solenoidal and lamellar. 14. If the hnes of a lameUar vector of constant tensor are parallel
rays,
it is

solenoidal.
it is

If

the lines of a solenoidal vector are parallel

straight hnes,
15.

lamellar.

An example

at all points,

a{x

+ 2yz)

of vectors whose convergences and curls are equal and whose tensors are equal at all points of a surface, are + fi{y + Szx) + xyy, and 2yza. + 3zx/3 + t^xy + 2z)
is

and the surface

X*

i/2

22

+ 6xyz

0.

Therefore vectors are not fully determined when their convergences and curls are given. What additional information is necessary to determine an analj'tic vector which does not vanish at Determine a vector
.

which
f or

is

Tp =
16.

everywhere solenoidal and lamellar and whose tensor

00
.

is

12

Show

that
of q over a sphere of radius value at the center] divided by r*.
(

sV'9 = hmr=o [average value iV*9 = average

of

r,

less

the

Sa^Yq

in all directions a.

TV^g =
17.

hmr=o [excess of average value of q throughout a small

sphere over the value at the center] divided by
r*.

Show by expansion
ff(p

that

5p)

= <r(p) 55pV -o-Cp) = VSp[- Sadp + ^SdpVpSaSp] - WSpV\7p<r = VVSp[- WSp<r + ^SSpVpVSpa] i5p5Vp<r.

190 The
first

VECTOR CALCULUS
expansion expresses
<r

in the vicinity of p in

and an infinitesimal rotation. the form of a curl and a translation. 18. Show that for any vector a we have
of a scalar

The second

terms of a gradient expresses a in

S\/{Y\7"^"S><y'<T"alTa^)

=0,

where the accents show on what the

operation of the accented nabla.
left.

V acts, and are removed after the The unaccented V acts on what is
and da\ =
<f>i(dp),d<r2

19. If

(Picard, Traite, Vol. I, p. 136.) <Ti, a-i are two functions of p,

<f>2{dp),

show that

16.

Exact Differentials.
of a function

If

the expression Sadp

is

the

differential

Sadp

u{p), then it is necessary that for SdpS7u, every value of dp, which gives

\7u.

the gradient of a scalar function of u{p), u is sometimes called a force-function. It is evident at once

When

is

that

FVoThis

0,

or

SV{v\7)o-

for

every

v.

is obviously a necessary condition that S<rdp be an exact differential, that is, be the differential of the same

expression, u, for every

dp.

It

is

also sufficient,
cr

for

if

VVcr =
Ss/udp

0,

it

will

be shown below that

= Vu,

and

du.
if

In general
take the form

Q(p)

is

a linear rational function of

p,

scalar or vector or quaternion, then to be exact, Q{dp)

must

Q{dp)

SdpV -Rip)

for every dp.

Hence formally we must have the

identity

Q{)= -S{)v-Rip)But
if

we

fill

the

( )

with the vector form

for every
v.

VvV, we have

QiVvV) =

DIFFERENTIALS
I

191

This

may

be written in the form

Q'W'i

identically.

EXERCISES = a constant vector. For VaVS7 v=0 1. Vadp is exact only when for every X, v, and for X for ever\' v, that is S\{vSVff 'VSap) = = 0, or Sdtrv = for every p to v therefore SXS/Sav perpendicular = v, perpendicular to the dp that produces d<r. Again if X
<r

SV<r
!

+ SpVSav

0,

for every

v.

Therefore

SVv =

every dp in the direction of v. a constant. 2. Examine the expressions

for and Sv\/Sav = 0, or Sdav = Hence da = for every dp and a = a

sAb_
Yap

v{yap)dp,

7^.
p

Integrating Factor
If

an expression becomes exact by midtiyUcaiion by a

scalar function of p, let the multiplier be m.

Then

where

operates on

mQ(FV) = m and Q, or

0,

where

QrVm() V operates on m
)

+ wQFV()

0,

only in the second.

only in the first term and on This gives for Scrdp

0,

Q
0.

Sa\/m{

-\-

mS{ ) Vo- =
is

or

VaVm + mVV(r =
0.

This condition

equivalent however to the condition

SaV<T
Conversely,

when

this condition holds,

we must have

VVa =
where r
is

Var,

arbitrary,

hence SrVo"

0,

and

SaVr =

0.

But

is

any variable vector conditioned only

by being

192

VECTOR CALCULUS

perpendicular to FVo", hence

we must have
is

for all

such

FVt =

0,

or

(t

0.

The

latter

obviously out of the

question and hence choose to write it r

is

Hence, thus proved to be exact.

VVr = 0, that is r = Vu, or we may = X/u/u. VV<t+ Vsyuaju = = V\7{ua), and S{ua)dp=0

We may also proceed thus. Since every vector line is = v, then we can the intersection of two surfaces, say ii =
write the curl of a, which
is

a vector, in the form

VVaand
if

= hVVuVv,
that

plane

SaVc = 0, it follows of Vw, Vv and a = xVu + y\7v.

we must have a

in the

Sadp

xdu

ydv.

But

also

VVoHence

= VVxVu +

WyVv =
x and

hVVuS/v.

SVuVyVv =
These are the Jacobians
since
their vanishing
it

= SVvVxVu.
v,

of u,

u, v,

y however, and

is

the condition of functional deexpressible as functions

pendence,
of

follows that x

u and

v.

and y are Hence we have

x{u, v)du
-\-

y{u, v)dv

0.

this equation in two variables is Therefore a always integrable by using multiplier, say g. = Further we is exact for a properly chosen g. S{ga)dp It
is

known, however, that

see that ga
If

SVcT

= =

\7w, or that
for
all

when ScrVc points, then we

0,

(x

= mVw.
that

find

easily

= FVr.

For
a

= hVVuVv,

DIFFERENTIALS
-o that

193

SVa-

= SvhVuVv =
h

and

h(u,

).

Integrate h partially as to u, giving

w=
then

J'hdu

+ /(),
a.

Vw = hVu + fvVv,
Set T

VVwVv = hVVuVv =

and we have at once a = T Vr. It is clear that if we draw two successive surfaces Wi and W2 and two successive surfaces ti and v^, since

ic\7v or

v'Vic

Tv^c
and the
the
area

^
An
I

and

Tw =
which
is

^'
An-2

sides of the parallelogram

the section of
esc
0,

tube are

A*2

= Awi

esc

^,

A^i

= Aw2

and

these AuiArii esc 6, then TaX area numbers are constant for the successive surfaces, hence the four surfaces form a tube whose cross-section at every point is inversely as the intensity of a. For this reason a is said
to be solenoidal or tubular.
If

= Aw At, and

VxjoS(t\/(t

for all points

then we must have a

\/u.

For
is

a function of

and a = ^V^, FVo" v, and we may wTite

0-

= VVgVt,

hence g

= Vw.
since
<S

If

Vo"

=
(T

0,

since

FVcr
0,
is

Vcr

V\7r, and 0. whence Therefore, if the gradient of a harmonic function and also the
Vo"
0,

we must have,
0,
cr

\/u,

= V"W =

curl of a vector r, the curl of the curl of r vanishing.

if

Also

VsjV\7t =

0, since

therefore

SVl'Vx =

we must then have VsJt = Vv, and = V'V, we can say that if the curl

194

VECTOR CALCULUS
it

of the curl of a vector vanishes

is

must be such that

Also
v

its

curl

the gradient of a harmonic function.

Sdp\7T=dv.

Functions related in the manner of

portant.

and r are very im-

Since in any case

SvVVc =
or

0,

we must have

VV(r
whence

= VVuVv
a

FV(o"

uVw) =

0,

wVw =

Vp,

so that in

any case we may break up a vector a into the form

It follows that

= Vp + u\7w. ScSJa = VpVwVw.

a
*S

If

we choose

u,

and X as independent
whence

variables,

we have

Vp = PxVx + puVu + PwVw, SaVo' = PxSVxVuVw,

find

and we can

p from the

integral

p
In case
Scr'Vo'

= J^SaVcr/SVxVuVw-dx. = 0, p = constant, and a = uSJw.

is

A
o-

theorem due to Clebsch

useful,

namely that a can

always be put into the form

= Vp
is,

V\7t,

where

FVVp =

0,

SvFVr =

0,

that

a can always be considered to be due to the superWe position of a solenoidal field upon a lamellar field.

merely have to choose p as a solution of

V'p =
for
0-

-SV<r,

we have at once Vp = FVr.

S\/{(t

Vp) =

0,

and therefore

DIFFEREXTLAXS
This

195

may

easily

be seen to give us the right to set

<r

= Vp +

(FV)"T.

EXAMPLES.
(1).

SOLUTIONS OF CERTAIN DIFFERENTIA

FORMS
SVoIf

Vo-

0,

o-

= 0, then a T'Vr, and if VVa = = V^ where V'A = 0. = =

0,
(f

0,(T

= Vp.

(2). If

is

a Hnear function dependent upon p continu-

ously,

and <pV

<Po

= dVvO- If <PoV = = vvidoVvO),

0,

6, do

are linear functions.

= 0, = 0, <p= - VSaQ. If (T^V^()) (3). Vv<pO = doVvO-VSaO. If(FV^())o = 0,^ = p()-VS<r(). <P - iSQV-Vp. Fv^^o = 0, ^0 = (4). A particular solution of certain forms is given, as
lullows:

For the notation see next chapter.

iSVo"

a,

^ap,

T'Vo"

=
a,

a,
(f

Vp =
<p

a,

Sap,

(pV

= =

\V<xp,

Sap-Q,

VV^O = e, = - Sap'O,
VS7<P

eiWipQ) = a, <P= - Wp^qO, {VVip)o =00, = pO, <p= - hpVpO - VSaQ.

<p=
hVpeO,
EXERCISES
=
{y
i

1.

Consider the cases ^

+jf(gip))
ax)/{ay
a.

+ ck, where/ and g have the

',

low-ing values:

=
V

g,g^,g*,

^g,f g, g~\ g~^,

log

</,

sin j, tan g,
by),

and
x/y,

,has
;

the

values

yjx,
(2*

+ x),
r

{bx

+ y)l{x

/>
2.

ylx, etc.,

2/*)

Consider the vector lines of

<r

cos (3tt)

+i sin

3.

4. If

Consider the significance da = Vt dp find <r.

FV

= V (x* + 9*). of S-UaS7Va = 0; give examples. Likewise if d<x = adp8, da = aSffdp,

(3*r),

da

p'dp,

da

= Vradp where

t is a function of p.

17.

Groups.

If Hi, E2,

,&

are any functions linear

196
in

VECTOR CALCULUS
but of any degrees
if

in p,

then they form a transformaif

tion group (Lie's)

and only

for

any two

Hi, Hy,

where
six

arbitrary vectors.

An, and a, j3 For instance, we have a group in the formal coefficients of the two vector operators
is

a linear function of Si, H2,

Hi
for

= - V - pSpV,

H2

= - VpV,

Sa'EiS^'Ei
*SaH2<S)8H2

5aHi*S/3H2

S^SiSaAi
/S)3H2*SaH2

S^^iSa^i

= *Sa/3H2, = - Sa^'Ei, = - iSa/3Hi.

jS
:

The

general condition

may

be written without a,

Si

S S/

S/5Hy
is

= Fe

0,

where the accented vector

one.

operated on by the unaccented

Integration
18. Definition.

We

define the line integral of a function

of p,f{p),

by the expression
J'If(p)<p(dp)

= Urn
n

= 00

i:f(pi)<p(dpi),

1,

n,

where the vectors

origin to

pi for the

n values

of

are

drawn from the

n points chosen along the

is

line

from
(p((x)

A
is

to

which the integration which is homogeneous

irrational, dpi

to take place,

B along a function
and be

in

a and of

first

degree, rational or

pi

p,_i,

and the

limit

must

exist

the same value for any method of successive subdivision Likeof the line which does not leave any interval finite.
wise
sion

we

define a definite integral over

an area by the expres-

SSf{p)^i{dip,d2p)

= Lim

i:f(pi)<p2(dipi, dipt),

INTEGRALS
where
tpi is

197

a homogeneous function of d\pi and dipu two differentials on the surface at the point p,, and of second A definite integral throughout a volume is simidegree.
larly defined

by
dip, dsp)

fffKp)<Pzidip,

= Lim i:f(pi)(p3(dipi, dipt, dzpi). For instance, if we consider f(p) = a, we have for J'^adp ^ -{- xy, dp = dx-y and along the straight line p = xo to = Xi is 07(2:1 xq), Lim Hadx-y from
a:
a;

hence
f/^'adp

= a(pi-

po).

The same
where dp

function along the ellipse p = /3 cos 6 -{j3 sin 7 cos d)dd has the limit (

sin 6,

(a/3

cos 6

-{-

ay

sin 6)
po).

between 6

6q,

=
=

di,

that

is,

again a(pi

EXAMPLES
any path. qo'', for any path. (2). fgV qr' q~'dqq-' (3). The magnetic force at the origin due to an infinite straight current of direction a and intensity / amperes is H = 0.2- 1 -Va/p, where p is the vector perpendicular from the origin to the line. In case then we have a ribbon whose
(1).

Sdp/p

log Tpilpo, for

right cross-section

by a plane through the

force

origin

is

any

curve,

we have the magnetic

due to the ribbon,

expressible as a definite integral,

H = 0.2IfVaTdplp.
For instance, for a segment of a straight
/S,

line p

a^

-\-

xy,

unit vectors Tdp

dx,
x?)

H =

0.21

= -

f {ay - x^)dxl{a^ +
(a^

+ Xi^)l{a' + x^^) + 0.2-/-7(tan-i x^ja = 0.27/3.1og OA/OB + 0.27/- Z AOB,

0.2/^ -log

tan-^ Xyfa),

198

VECTOR CALCULUS

(4). Apply the preceding to the case of a skin current in a rectangular conductor of long enough length to be practically infinite, for inside points, and for outside points. (5).

Let the cross-section in

p

(4)

be a

circle

b3

ajS

cos 6

ay

sin 6.
is

Study the particular case when

center.
(6).

6=0 and the origin

when the
origin
is

the

The area
is

of a plane curve

in the

plane

^TfVpdp.
If

the curve

is

not closed this

is

the area of the sector

made by drawing vectors to the ends of the curve. If we calculate the same integral hSVpdp for a curve not in the plane, or for an origin not in the plane of a curve we will
call

term

the result the areal axis of the path, or circuit. This is due to Koenigs (Jour, de Math., (4) 5 (1889), 323).
projection of this vector

The

gives the projection of the circuit

(7).

on the normal to any on the plane.

in a

plane,

If

a cone

is

immersed

uniform pressure

field

(hydrostatic) then the resultant pressure upon its surface is ^^Vpdp-P, where p is taken around the directrix curve.
(8).

traction of a straight segment from

is

According to the Newtonian law show that the atA to 5 on a unit point at

in the direction of the bisector of the angle

its

AOB,

and

intensity

is 2/i

sin

^AOB/c, where

c is

the perpen-

dicular from
(9).

to the line.

the preceding results find the attraction of an infinite straight wire, thence of an infinite ribbon, and an
infinite prism.
(10).

From

Find the attraction of a cylinder, thence of a

solid

cylinder.
19,

Integration by Parts.

We may

integrate

by parts

INTEGRAI^
just as in ordinary problems of calculus.

199

For example,
^VctVfiJ^'Vpdp,

f^'V-adpS^p

^Va{dSfi8

- ySM +

which is found by integrating by parts and then adding to both sides J'^V-adpS^p. The integral is thus reduced to an areal integral. In case 7 and 5 are equal, we have an integral around a loop, indicated by ^.

EXAMPLES
(1).

f.'dpVap

hi^Vad

yVcry)

\Vaf,'Vpdp

+ hSaf^'Vpdp.
(2).

f;V-VadpVPp = \[aS^f,'Vpdp
fy'S-VadpVfip

+ fiS-aJ\'Vpdp dSa^S + ySa^y].

d'Sa^

(3).

USaSSfiS

SorySfiy

-y'Sa^(4).

S-a^f^'Vpdp).

f^V-adpV^p

\{aS&f^'Vpdp ^Saf^'Vpdp dSa^S + ySafiy SadS^d

SaySfiy

S'^Safi

+ + y^'Sa^

Safif.'Vpdp).

(5).

f^^SapS^dp

|[Sa5S/35

- SayS^
-S-Vafif^'Vpdp].

(6). (7).

fy'dpSap

U^Sctd

ySay

V-aJ^'Vpdp].

f^'VapS^dp

^[Va8S^8

VaySfiy

Sa^f^'Vpdp

+ ^Saf^'Vpdp].
(8).

fy'Vapdp = i[Fa5-5

- Vayy + aJ^'Vpdp

+ Saf^'Vpdp].
(9).

Jl'apdp

|[a(52

y)

2af'Vpdp\.

As an example

of this formula take the scalar,

and notice

that the magnetic induction around a wire carrying a

200
current of value

VECTOR CALCULUS

Ta amperes,
B

for a circular

path

cr

= -

2fxVap/a\

Therefore

For

^0.2fiSapdp/a'^

= - SJ'dpB = = ATaixa~^Tr'^.
OAirC.

0.2fjLa-^Sa^Vpdp

fi

1, r

a, this is

This gives the induction

in gausses per turn.

(10). fy'Sdp<pp (11).

fy'V<ppdp

- Sy^py] + SeJ^'Vpdp. = UVy<py - V8<p8 + cp'f/Vpdp

M<S5^5

+
(12).

rmf.'Vpdp]*

f;<ppdp

i[^5-5

<pyy

Sef.'Vpdp

<p'f,'Vpdp]

m,f,'Vpdp.

For any lineolinear form

fy'Qip, dp)

= Mi^,

5)

Q(7, 7)1

MQ(5,

5)

+ hfy'mP, dp) - Q{dp, p)] - Q(y, y)] + Wfy'Vpdp.

preceding 12 problems for
in-

(13). State the results for

tegration around a loop. (14). Consider forms of second degree

etc.

in p, third degree,

20. Stokes'

Theorem.

We

refer

now
of
<to,

to

problem

17,
po,

page 189, where we have the value

a function of

stated for the points in the vicinity of a given fixed point. If we write <to for the value of o- at a given origin 0, its

value at a point whose vector

0-

is

dp

is

= Vspi-

S(To8p

iS8pVS<To8p]

^VdpWcro,
of the curl at

where
*

refers only to

cro,

and gives a value

Skypk.

mii<p)

Si(f>i

Sjipj

For notation see Chap. IX,

INTEGRALS
the origin
0.

201

If

we

multiply by dSp and take the scalar,

we have
:<ad8p

=
is

dsp[S(To8p
if

^S8pVSao8p]

+ ^S8pd8pVV<ro.
whose vector

Therefore
radius

8p

we integrate we have

this along the curve

J'i^S(T{48p

[S<ro8p2

Scro8pi

^S8p2'VS<To8p2

+ ^S8piVS(To8pi] + \SV\7<TofV8pd8p.
The
last expression, however, is the value of

(SfFVo-Q-areal axis of the sector between 5pi

and

5p2].

Therefore for an infinitesimal circuit

we have

^Saod8p

SfFVo-fl-areal axis of circuit]

SUvVV(ro-dA.

If now V'Vffo is the curl of a at some point inside the loop. we combine several circuits which we obtain by subdividing any area, we have for the sum of the line integrals on the
left

in question,

the line integral over the boundary curve of the area and for the expression on the right the sum of

the different values of the scalar of the curl of a multiplied into the unit normals of the areas and the areas themselves
or the area integral J^J^SVVffdipd^p. That is, for any finite loop, plane or twisted, the formula

we have

J-Sadp
This
is

= ffSVVaVdipd^p.
It is

called Stokes' Theorem.

assumed

in the proof
<t

above that there are no discontinuities of

or

VS7<t,

although certain kinds of discontinuities can be present.

The diaphragm which

the loop
is

constitutes the area

if it is

bounded by

obviously arbitrary,

not deformed over

a singularity of a or T'Vo-.
It follows

of the path

that J'Sadp along a given path is independent when the expression on the right vanishes for

202

VECTOR CALCULUS

the possible loops, that is, is zero independently of dip, = 0. This condition is necessary and diP, or that is, FVo"
sufficient.

It follows also

that the surface integral of the curl of a

vector over a diaphragm of any kind is equal to the circulation of the vector around the boundary of the diaphragm.

That

is,

the flux of the curl

is

the circuitation around the

boundary.

We may generalize the theorem as follows, the expression on the right can be written SS^UvVsja dA, where v is the normal of the surface of the diaphragm and dA is the
area element.
If

now we

construct a

of constant vectors ai, a^,

sum of any number an each multiplied by a

function of the form Saidp, Scr^dp, Sandp, we will have^ a general rational linear vector function of dp, say (pdp,and arrive at the integral formula

f<pdp
where the
This
is

= ff<p(VUvV)dA,

refers now to the functions of p implied in cp the vector generalized form of Stokes' theorem. If the surface is plane, Uv is a constant, say a, so thai

for plane

paths

^(pdp

SJ^(pVVoi'dA.
interesting theorems
(p.

We may arrive

at

some

by

assigninj

various values to the function

<pdp

For instance,

let

adp,

then

(p(VUvV) = <r'VUvVv'=-UpSV(r+V'Sa'Uu-{-SUuV<r,
whence

ffSVa-du = ffV'S(x'dp+ fVadp.

If

<fdp

pSdpa,

INTEGRALS
then

203

<pVUvV = pSUpV<t
therefore

ValJv,

ffV-adv = SfpSdvVff
If

J'pSadp.

= = <pVUvV
(fdp

pVdpa,

pV{VUv\7)<T

SUva

+ aUv,

therefore

ffadp +
hence

Sadv

= - ffpV{VUvV)<r + fpVdpa,

2ffS<Tdv =

- ffSp{VUvV)<T +
EXERCISES

fSpdpiX.

Investigate the problems of article 19, page 198, as to the appUcation of the theorem.
1.

2. Show that the theorem can be made to apply to a line which is not a loop by joining its ends to the origin, and after apph'ing the theorem to the loop, subtracting the integrals along the radii from to the ends of the line, which can be expressed in terms of dx, along a line. Also consider cases in which the paths follow the characteristic lines of

V<rdp
3.
is

0.

stated thus: the circulation around a path the total normal flux of the curl of the vector function a through the
4. If

The theorem may be

loop.
circuit the

the constant cvurent la amjieres flows in an infinite straight magnetic force H at the point p (origin on the axis) is for

Tp<a
and
for

= jVFap,
0.2a*//Fop,

aSTp
o
is

= /(a/10) inside the wire and equals zero outside. Integrate H around various paths and apply Stokes' theorem. In this case the cturent is a vortex field of intensity
the radius of the wire.

Then

YvH

a*//10.
5.

If

we

tube of vortex
is

consider a series of loops each of which surrounds a given lines, it is clear that the circulation around .such tube
If the vector a defines- a velocitj' field the elementary volumes or particles are rotating, as

ever^-where the same.

curl,

which has a

204
we have

VECTOR CALCULUS

seen before, the instantaneous axis of rotation being the unit and the vector hnes of the curl may be compared to wires on which rotating beads are strung. It is known that in a perfect
of the curl,
fluid

whose density is either constant or a function of the pressure only, and subject to forces having a monodromic potential, the circulation in any circuit through particles moving with the fluid is constant. [Lamb, Hydrodynamics, p. 194.] Hence the vortex tubes moving with the fluid (enclosing in a given section the same particles), however small in crossIt follows by passing to an section, give the same integral of the curl.
elementary tube that the vortex lines, that is, the lines of curl, move with the fluid, just as if the beads above were to remain always on the same wire, however turbulent the motion. In case the vortex lines return into themselves forming a vortex ring, this leads to the theorem in hydrodynamics that a vortex ring in a perfect fluid is indestructible. It is proved, too, that the same particles always stay in a vortex tube.
6.

that for o- = a(352ap 2Sfip) ^AS^fip - 2Sap), where, the from the 2a to 0, integral 2jS is independent of the origin Calculate it for a straight line and for a parabola. path. 7. The magnetic intensity H, at the point 0, from which the vector p is drawn to a filament of wire carrying an infinite straight current ir

Show

Sa0 =

+ +

the direction a, of intensity / amperes,

is

given

by

0.21 /Vap.

Suppose that we have a conductor of any cross-section considered as made up of filaments, find the total magnetic force at due to all
the filaments.

Notice that

0.27

FaV

log

TVap,

and that a Hence

is

the unit normal of the plane cross-section of the conductor.

SfMA

= ffQ.2IVaS7

log

TVapdA =

jf0.2I log

TVapdp

around the boundary of the

cross-section.

This can easily be reduced

to the ordinary form 0.21 This expression is called a loglog rdp. arithmic potential. If I were a function of the position of the filament
in the cross-section, the form of the line-integral would change. For a circular section we have the results used in problem 4.

Con-

sider also a rectangular bar, for inside points 8. If a and t are two vector functions of

and
p,

also for outside points.

we have the theorem

SVU.'VVaT = Sr{VUpV)o- whence

S<7{VUv\/)t,

ffSr{VUv\/)<T = ffSa{VUvS/)T

fSdpar,

INTEGRAXS
for a closed circuit.
noidal.
9.

205
or t or both are sole-

Show

applications

when a

Show

that

J-fS-dpoSVa = fSdpira + ffSdv{,Sa\7)<T, ffS-S7uadv = fuSadp - ffuSV^dp, fvSsjudp, J'J'S-VuVvdv= fuSS7vdp = - J'ih)SVvdp. f^htS^vdp=

10.
(1)

Prove Koenig's theorems and generalize. Any area bounded by a loop generates by translation a volume Sau, where w is the areal axis; J't Saoi + (2) The area for a rotation given by (a + Vtrp)at is
VpVpdp.

ftSaf
21.

following theorem becomes fundamental in the treatment of surface integrals. Refer-

Green's Theorem.

The

ring to the second form in example 17, page 189, for the expression of a vector in the vicinity of a point, which is
(^

= y^sp[-

|T'5p(To

+ ^SdpVVdpao] - l8pSV(rQ

we

see that if we multiply by a vector element of surface, Vdxbpdihp, and take the scalar

Sadibpd^hp
If

= SUvS7 hpWdA

^S\7<ToSdi8pd2dpdp.

integrate over any closed surface the first term on the right gives zero, since the bounding curve has be-

now we

come a mere

point,

a closed surface

and thus, indicating integration over by two ^,

^ ^Sadibpd'ihp
But the

^S'^o'o^ ^SdiSpd^SpSp.

hand member is the volume of an elementary triangular pyramid whose base is given by dibpd-idp. Hence, the integral is the elementary volume of the closed surface, and may be written dv, so that we have
last part of the right
for

an elementary closed surface

^^Sadihpdihp

Ss/aodv.

206
If

VECTOR CALCULUS
dissect

now we can

any volume into elements

in

which

the function has no singularities and sum the entire figure, then pass to the limit as usual, we have the important

theorem

f f^adxpdip
This
is

= fffS\/(r

dv.

called Green's theorem, or

sometimes Green's theorem

in the

first

form.

It

is

usually called Gauss' theorem by

theorem proper was only a particular case and Green's publication antedates Gauss'
writers, although Gauss'

German

by several years. The theorem may be stated thus: the convergence of a vector throughout a given volume is the flux through the
bounding surface.
It is evident that we can generalize this theorem as we did Stokes' and thus arrive at the generalized Green's theorem dv. V is the outward unit normal. J'J'^vdA =

S S S^^

applications are so numerous and so important that will occupy a considerable space. they The elementary areas and volumes used in proving Stokes'

The

and Green's theorems are often used as

of

integral definitions

convergence or

its

rotation, or vortex.

negative, the divergence, and of curl, For such methods of approach see Joly,

Burali-Forti and Marcolongo, and various

German
then

texts.

very obvious corollary

is

that

if

S\/a
0.

^ ^Sadipd^p
It follows

face

is

zero.

that the flux of any curl through any closed surHence, if the particles of a vortex enter a

closed boundary, they must leave it. Therefore, vortex tubes must be either closed or terminate on the boundary
wall of the

medium

in

which the vortex

also state that
is

is,

or else

wind
the

about

infinitely.

We may

if

SVcr

differential expression Sad\pd2P

exact in the sense that

INTEGRALS

207

yySo-rfiprfaP is invariant for different diaphragms bounded bj' a closed curve, noting the usual restrictions due to
singularities.

proceed to develop some theorems that follow from Green's theorem. Let ^Uv be pSUva, then

We

4>V and we have

pSVa-

0-

fff<ydv = fffpS^cdv - ffpSUvadA.

Let

^Uv = pJ'Vcr + 2a and pVUva, then $V = = \ffpVVv0dA. fff(Tdv \fffpV^(jdt = = Let ^Vv pSpS7(T + Fpa, whence pSpUva, then ^V dr^ fffpSpVa dv + ffpSpUvadA. fffVpa
ljet^Vv=
hence
pFpFZ/i/ff, then

$V = -

pVpVS7ff+ 3TV,

fffVpadt = \fffpVpV\7<Tdv - \ffpVpVUv<TdA. Let ^TJv = SprUvffythen $V = SprVo" + SpaVr + Sot,

thence

fffSar dv= - fffiSprVa +

S(rVr)rfr

^J'SprUvff dA.

In the first of these if a has no convergence we have the theorem that the integral of a, a solenoidal vector, throughout a volume is equal to the integral over the surface of p
multiplied

by the normal component of a. In the second we have the theorem that if the curl of a vanishes throughout a volume, so that a
integral of
is lamellar in the volume, then the a throughout the volume is half the integral over the surface of p times the tangential component of a

taken at right angles to

a.

In the third,

if

the curl of a

208

VECTOR CALCULUS

to the origin

vanishes then the integral of the moment of a with regard is the integral over the surface of Tp^ times the
of the negative of the tangential
a,

comand by the fourth this also equals the surface integral of the component perpendicular to p of the negative tangential component of a taken perpendicular to a. According to the fifth formula, if a solenoidal vector is multiplied by another and the scalar

component along p
ponent of
<r

taken perpendicular to

is integrated throughout a volume, then the the SpcrSjT throughout the volume integral of integral the integral of Saprllv over the surface.

of the product
is

If in

the

first,

second, third, and fourth

<t

and
first

in the fifth ca for

and

|o- for r,

we set ca for a, we have from the

and second the expression for X, the momentum of a moving mass of continuous medium, of density c, and from the third and fourth the moment of momentum, ju, and from the fifth the kinetic energy. If the medium is in= V\7a, since SVca = 0, then compressible, and we set 2k
X

= fffcadv = - ffcpSUva dA
=

+ fffpSaVc dv + fffcpS\7(T dv
^ffcpVUvffdA.

fffpcKd'o-\- lfffpV\/c<jdv

= fffcVpadv = ffcpSpUvadA - fffcpSpVa - fffpSpWca = IfffcpVpK + UffpVpWcad^

T= -

- \ffcpVpVVvadA.
hfffSa'cdv

= - hffSpaUvac dA
In case
If c is

+ fffhcSp(T\7<r dv + hfffSpaVca dv.

still

uniform these become

(T

simpler.

we

set

= Vw

and r

= Vw

in the

above formula we

INTEGRALS
arrive at others for the gradients of scalar functions.
curls will vanish.
If

209

The

further

we suppose

that

ii,

or w, or

both, are harmonic so that the convergences also vanish we have a number of useful theorems.

Othei forms of Green's theorem are found by the follow= uSVwUv, then ing methods. Set ^Uv

$V =

uV^w

+ SVuVw
fffu^^wdv,

and we have the second form of Green's theorem at once

fffSVuVw dv = ffuSVwUv dA and from sjTnmetry

fffSVuVw dv = ffwSVuUv dA Subtracting

fffw\f''u

dv.

we have
wV'^v) dv

fffiuS/'W

= - ff{SUv[u\7w 22. Applications.

wS^u])dA.

In the

first of

these let u
If

=
and

1,

then

fffS7-ic

dv

= - ffSUvVicdA.

then

ic is

a harif

monic function, the surface integral = 47r;i, which is Poisson's equation

will vanish,

V^w

for potentials of forces

varying as the inverse square of the distance, inside the masses, n being the density of the distribution, then

J'J'SUvViv dA
where
is

47rJ/,

is

the total mass of the volume distribution.

This

Gauss' theorem, a particular case of Green's. In words, the surface integral of the normal component of the force
is

47r

times the enclosed mass.

The

total

mass

is l/47r

times the volume integral of the concentration. In the first formula let u = 1/Tp and exclude the origin

210

VECTOR CALCULUS

(a point of discontinuity)

by a small

sphere, then

we have

fffSV{\ITp)\7wdv = ffdA SUvVwlTp - fffdv Vhv/Tp

between the sphere and the bounding surface of the distribution w, and over the two surfaces, the normals
for the space

pointing out of the enclosed space. But for a sphere we have dA = Tp^ dco where w is the solid angle at the center,

and dv

TpHccdTp.
dv

Thus we have

fffV'w/Tp

= ffSdA UpVw/Tp -fffSv(llTp)Vwdv = ffSdA UpVw/Tp -fffSv{wV[l/Tp])dv since V^l/Tp = = f^S dA UvVw/Tp -ffS> dA Vv w Vil/Tp) = ffS dA UvVw/Tp +ffS dA UvUp/rpw.
Now
is

0,

of the integrals on the right let us consider first the The first-integral surface of the sphere, of small radius Tp.

then
if

- ^^SUpVw/Tp-T^pdo) = - ffSUp\7w- Tpdoo,

of

and

we suppose that the normal component

is

Vw,

that

is, the component of \7w along p, this integral will vanish with Tp.

everywhere

finite,

then

The second
is

integral for

the

sphere

is

J'^SUpUpwT^pdo)/T^p =
of

^f^wdu,
is is

and the value

4iirwQ

at the origin

Wq, then this integral

since the total solid angle around a point

47r.

Hence we have

fffdv
and
4iirwo

V'w/Tp =

ffSUvi^wjTp

wUp/rp)dA

= fffdv V^w/Tp - ffSUv{Vw/Tp

wUpfPp) dA,

INTEGRALS

211

exists,

w here the volume integral is over all the space at which w the origin excluded, and the surface integral is over

the bounding surface or surfaces. In words, if we know the value of the concentration of ic at every point of space,

and the value

of the

of the gradient of

w and

of

ic

at every point

bounding surfaces at which there is discontinuity, then we can find w itself at every point of space, provided

is finite

with
1
is

its

gradient.

If

S7^w

is

of order in p not

lower than
the integral

we do not need
is

to exclude the origin, for

will
1.

yyy V^^

with Tp when V'w

TpdtpdTp, and this not lower in degree than

vanish

EXERCISES
1.

We shall

examine

in detail the

= everywhere, V^p = surface, zero over the infinite sphere, V^"' on the inside of the sphere, but not zero on the outside. Then for the
inside of the sphere the equation reduces to
4iru'o

problem of

w =

const, over a given

J" ^wSUvUp/T^pdA

^ww,

hence
faces

On

w is constant throughout the sphere and equal to the surface value. thg outside of the sphere, we have to consider the boimding surto be the sphere and the sphere of infinite radius, so that we have
4iru-o

= -

ffSdA UuVw/Tp- wffSdA

is

UvUplTp",

where the

taken over both sm^aces and the second = at The second integral is over the given surface only, since tc integral vanishes, however, since it is equal to w times the solid angle If we suppose then that of the closed surface at a point exterior to it. IP is at 30 we have a single integral to evaluate
first

integral

4xu'o

^ ^SdAUv\7wlTp oyer the svni&ce.

SUvVw =
4-rWo

A simple
Then
The

case

is

const.

C.

= CffdAlTp.

integration of this and of the forms arising from a different assumption as to the normal component of S/w can be effected by the use of

fundamental functions proper to the problem and determined by the boundary conditions, such as Fourier's series, spherical harmonics, and the like. One very simple case is that of the sphere. If we take

212

VECTOR CALCULUS
we have
to find the integral

the origin at the center of the sphere

where

po is the vector

f<fdAIT{p - po) to the point. Now

the solid angle subtended

r~^^ ,fdASpU{p by PO is given by the integral and equals 47r or 0, according as the point is inside
This integral, however, breaks surface, the integrands being
sphere.

po)IT\p

po)

or outside of the

up

easily into

two over the

r-^T-^{p

po)

-SfpoC7(p

po)/T2(p

po),

but the

last

term gives

or

4irr^/Tpo, as the point is inside or outside

of the sphere.

Hence the other term

gives

ffdAlT{p as the point

is

po)

47rr or

A-m-yTpo

inside or outside.
t^o

We
=

find then in this case that

CrV^po.

If in place of

the law above for

SUv\7w,
po)

it is

equal to C/T^{p
po")

po)

we
or

find that

ffdAIT\p Inside

47rr/(r2

4iTrV(r3po

r^rpo).

dA =

27rr2 sin

Odd
Po)

=- d[a^ + a
ax cos ^
x'

r^

x^

= ~xdx, a
'

po(p

T^{p

a*

+ x^
2x3

r^

po)

y/^As l^(p
or

^^^ = ^ r"' "+Y ^%

po)

a Jr-a,a-r \
4irr

X^

) /

The differentiation of these integrals by using Vp as operator under the sign leads to some vector integrals over the surface of the sphere. 2. Show that we have

ffUvdAIT{p -

po)

JTTpo

or

|7rrVrVo-po

for inside or outside points of a sphere.

INTEGRAI5
3.

213

4.

Find ffdAUi>!T*{p - po) for the sphere. Prove >'ydAr-Hp-/3)r-(p-)=4xT/[(r-o')7'(0-a)l or

=4r/[a(r*-o)7'(Ta-i+^)].
Consider the case in which the value of u? is zero on a surface not at infinity but surrounding the first given sxuface. We have an example in two concentric spheres which form a condenser. On the inner sphere let tr be const. = Wi, on the outer let u? = 0, on the inner
5.

let

SUv\7w =
on the
If tr is
6.

0, inside,

Ei, outside,
outside.

on the outer

let

SUy^w

= Et

inside,

on the

constant on the surface,

considered with regard to one of its level surfaces, it is and the integral ^^SdAUvUplT^pno
Arrw,

becomes for any inside point

4xtro
If

hence we have

47rip

= fffdoS/hclTp - ffSdAUw^wlTp.
it is

then

tr is

harmonic inside the level surface,

4-(tro

constant at

all

points

and

tr)

= - ffSdAUw^wlTp.
we approach the
surface,

But

since tfo is constant as

Vtro =0, and

vanishes at

V(w
X and

Wo)
is

0,

so that Vt/'

0.

Hence wo = w.

If tc

everj-where harmonic it equals zero. 7. If two fimctions Wi, trj are harmonic without a given surface, vanish at , and have on the surface values which are constantly in the
ratio

8. If

= \wt. 1, X a constant, then tri the surface iSi is a level for both the functions
and
if

the siirface St inside Si,

between
wi)

<S>i

u and w, as also and Si, u and to are harmonic,

tri)(tii

then
(u

ui){wt

= =

(w

ui).
?>(u)

For a
etc.

w =

ip(u),

then

V'w =

<e"(tt)T*Vu, hence

au +b,

[A scalar point function

scalar function
9.

w
if

is

expressible as a function of another

if

and only

FVtcV

0.]

Outside a closed surface S, wi and ipj are harmonic and have the same levels. while wt has at i vanishes at everywhere the constant value C. Then wt = Bwi C.

For Vtr, = tVtoi, V*w?i = VtVwi = 0, thus and ^ = fi or tf 1 = const. 10. There cannot be two different functions

V* =
tri,

0,

or Vici

0,

tri

both of which

within a given closed surface are harmonic, are continuous with their gradients, are either equal at every point of S or else SUpVwi =SUrS7wt at every point of S while at one f>oint they are equal.

Let u = tci and at one point

tr,,

then
0.

V'u =

0,

Vu =

on

iS

or else

Vu =

SUw'^u =

0,

214

VECTOR CALCULUS

11. Given a set of mutually exclusive surfaces, then there cannot be two unequal functions Wi, vh, which outside all these surfaces are

as Tp~^, their harmonic, continuous with their gradients, vanish at gradients vanishing as Tp'"^, and at every point of the surfaces either equal or SUvS/Wi = SUvSJwi.

23. Solution of Laplace's Equation.

in the preceding application

show that

if

The last problems we wish to invert

in order

V^w =
Pff(p)y

0, all

we need

are the

boundary conditions,

to have a unique solution. to

In case V^w is a function of we can proceed by the method of integral equations arrive at the integral. However the integral is express-

ible in the

form of a

definite integral, as well as a series,

Wo= ll4T-[fffdvV'w/Tp - ffSUviVwjTp +

The
Pot.
first of

wUp/rp)dA].

Thus

these integrals is called the potential and written for any function of p whatever we have

Pot

go

fffq dvlT{p

po)

where p describes the volume and po is the point for which Pot go is desired. Let Vo be used to indicate operation as
to
Po,

then we have
go

Vo Pot

= V,fffqdvlT{p - po) = fff[dvU{p - po)mp - Po)]g = -fffV[q/np-po)]dv + fffdvVqlTip = Pot Vg - ffdAUvqlT{p - Po).
again,

Po)

If

we operate by Vo
go

we have

Vo' Pot

Pot V'g

ffdA{Uv\7qlT{p

po)

+
But the expression on the
right
is 47rgo,

V'UvqIT'ip

Po)].

hence we have the

INTEGRALS
important theorem

215

Vo^ Pot

go

4irgo.

That

is,

function of which

the concentration of a potential is 4x times the we have the potential. In the case of a

material distribution of attracting matter, this is Poisson's equation, stating that the concentration of the potential of the density is 47r times the density; that is, given a
distribution of attracting masses, they

have a potential at
of this potential at
4ir.

any given
that point

point,
is

and the concentration

the density at the point -^

The gradient of Pot go was called by Gibbs the Newtonian of go, when the function g is a scalar, and if go is a vector,
then the curl of
convergence of
its

potential potential

is is

called the Laplacian,

and the
go.

its

called the

Maxwellian of

Thus

New

go

= Vo

Pot P,

Lap

ao

=
cro.

Vo Pot <ro.

Max ao = S Vo

Pot

We have the general inversion formula 47rVo~"Vo^g = 4irgo = fff^^inp - Po)dv

f^dA[UvTqlT{p

po)

+
We may
also define

U{p-

Po)qUp/r(p

Po)].

This gives us the inverse of the concentration as a potential, plus certain functions arising from the boundary conditions.

an

integral,

sometimes

useful, called

the Helmholtzian,

Him. Q

fffqnp - po)dv.
p^).

Certain double triple integrals have been defined:

Pot

(w, v)

ffffffn{p{)v{p^)dvydvtlT{pr

216

VECTOR CALCULUS
(^77)

= ffffff - S^v dv,dv,IT{p, - p,), = ffffff + -S^tjCpi - p,)dndv,IT\p,-p,), Lap New {v, = ffffff-SUPi-P2)vidvxdv2mPi-P2), Max{^,v) = - ffffffviS^2(pi-P2)dvMr(pi-P2).
Pot

EXERCISES
from a scalar function

VPisa field of force or velocity or other vector arising P as its gradient, then Po= fffSv^dv/[47rT{p - po)] + ffdA[SUv^l{A-KT{p - po))
1.

If$=

+ PC/^Vr-i(p-Po)/4x].
K P is harmonic
2.
<ro

the

first

term vanishes,

if

the

first

two vanish.

If ^

Vo', that

is, it is

a cm-1 of a solenoidal vector,

po)]

= fffV\/<y
3.

dvl[4.irT{p

- ffdAWUvallAivTip - po)] + U{p - po)alUp[\TT^{p -

po)].

up (in an infinity of ways) any vector into two parts, one solenoidal and the other lamellar. Thus, let ff = x + T where *S V t = 0, and F V tt = 0, then *S V o- = -S V ir and since Fv^r = 0, this may be written V^r = Ss/a whence v. FVf = VSJt = Vr whence t. We have, therefore, from these two
therefore, break
47rao

We may,

= VfffSdvV<r/Tip -

po)

- V ^J'SdAUpa/T{p -

po)

where
3.

+V^fPSdAUvVil/T(p-po) + VVfffVV<rdv/T{p-po) -VVffVUpffdA/T{p-po)+Vs7ffDSUpV{T-'(p-Po)dA, P is such that V^P = SV<r and D such that V^D = W<r.
Another application is found in the second form of Green's According to the formula

theorem.

= - ff{SUv{u\/w - w\/u])dA it is evident that if G is a function such that \7^G = 0, and if, further, G has been chosen so as to satisfy the boundary condition SUvS/G = 0,

fffiuV^w -

wV'^u) dv

then the formula becomes

fffGvhodv = - ffSUv\7wGdA.
If

then V^w^

is

a given function we have the integral equation

ffGSUv\/wdA = - fffGJ{p)dv.
Similar considerations enable us to handle other problems. = 0, then we have Green's Reciprocal 4. If u and w both satisfy

V^

Theorem:

ffuSUpVtv dA = ffwSUv^udA,

INTEGRALS
Thus
let

217

therefore

ff ^^^ dA
5.

= f^uSUpV
then

dA.

Let

A relate to a as V

to

p,.

Pot

Q = fffQdvU{p -

- a) a)IT^{p - a) = fff^iQITip ct))dv + fffdvS7QIT{p = Pot VQ ffdAVyQinp a).

li

Q = on the surface, the surface integral = 0. New P = Pot 7 - ffUrP dA{T{p - a) = A Pot P when Pot exists. = V Pot Vff - ffVUwodAIT{fi - a) = FA Pot a when Pot Lap
<7

exists.

Max

=5 Q =

Pot V<7

ffSUpirdAIT(j,

a)

= SA

Pot

<r

when Pot

exists.

A
If

Pot

Pot

VQ - f^UvVQdAITip - a)
+ ffdAVx[UpQIT,{p - a)].
surface, that
is, if

Q =

on the

has no surface of discontinuily,

A* Pot Q = Pot V*Q, A New P = A* Pot P,

A Lap a A Max a
6. If
/3

= =

AFA Pot a,
ASA Pot
t,
<r.

is

a function of the time

then

^=

-^[rr7-i(FvFv^+b^j <+*r

where bavc occiured.

+ VV f^l Vd, Pt^-ff Fdr FV^l4*r the subscript means + 6r put for after the
f

is

operations on

15

CHAPTER IX
THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION
1.

Definition.

If there is
tp

a vector

cr

which

is

an

integral

rational function

of the vector p,
0-

(p-p,

and
tion

if

in this function

tp of p,
if

then we

call

substitute for p a scalar multiple the vector function a linear vector functhis substitution.

we

a becomes
function

ta

under

It

is

also called

a dyadic.

The
in

(p

transforms the vector

p,

which

may

be

any

direction, into the vector a,

all

which
If

may
a,

case be able to take

(pp

directions.

not in every then we have

(pa,

and

(p

as an operator has a value at every point

in fact, look

in space.

We

may,

upon ^ as a space transits

formation that deforms space by a shift in invariant the origin and the surface at
case of a straight line

infinity.

points leaving In the

Vap =
we

/3,

or
(p

xa

-\-

a~^fi,

see that the operation of

(T

on

all its

vectors gives

X(pa

-{

<pVa~^fi,
is

and

this

is

a straight line whose equation

V<pa(T

V(pa(pVa~^l3,
jS

which
only,
lines.

will later
(p^.

be shown to reduce to a function of

(p

Hence
lines

converts straight lines into straight

for

The

which Vacpa

0,

remain

parallel

218

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

to their original direction, others change direction. or if we consider the plane S-a^p

219

Again

p
so that

xa-\- y^,

x<pa

+ ytp^,

S(r<pa(pfi

0.

Hence planes through the

are converted into planes.
original direction
if

origin,

and likewise
will

all

planes,

These

be parallel to their

Va^ =

uV<pa<p^, or

VVafiV(pa<pP

Sa(pa<p^= Sfifpa<pP= Sa^<fa

Sa^ip^.

normal to the plane, and /3 is any vector in the plane, and ^/3 by the equation is normal to Va^, hence
Vafi
is

Now
^/3

ra

+
<pO

w^

for all vectors

0,

/S

in the plane.

the function leaves the origin in\'ariant. the lines and planes through the origin that Consequently remain parallel to themselves are invariant as lines and
Since
planes.

These lines we will call the invariant lines of (p, and the planes the invariant planes of (p. 2. Invariant Lines. In order to ascertain what lines are
invariant

we

solve the equation

Va<pa.

0,

or

(pa

ga,

that

is
(<p

g)a

0.

First

we

write

in the

form
iiSvXa
-\-

aSKp.v

= \Snua +

vSXfJLa,

where

X,

p.,

v are

any three noncoplanar

vectors.

Then we

have at once
{<p

g)\Sppa

-j-

{(p

g)pSv\a

(^

g)vS\pa

0.

220

VECTOR CALCULUS
this

But

means that we must have

jx,

for

any three non-

coplanar vectors \,
Si<p

g)\{(p

g)fi{<P

g)v

()

g^SXfJiv

g'^(S\ix<pv
S'Kfxcpu
-\-

S\(ptJLV

ScpK/xv)

g(S\(pii(pv

S(p\(pfxv)

S(p\(pfX(pv,

an equation to determine
g^

g,

which we

shall write

mig^

Wg^
(p,

TO3

0,

called the latent equation of

TOi
m<i
rriz

where we have set

= = =

+ S\(pixv + S(p\lJiv)IS\fXV, {S\(pfx<pv + ScpXfxcpv + S(p\<ptJ,v)lS\iJiv,

{S\lJi(pV

S<p\<pix(pv/S\fxv.

variants of

These expressions are called the nonrotational scalar iu' That they are invariant is easily seen bj (p. The resulting form is precisely X' vfx for X. substituting

and from the symmetry involved this v we can substitute any other three and arrive at the same values foi vectors, noncoplanar obvious that m^ is the ratio in which the It is mi, m2, mz.
the same for
X',
fx,

v,

means that

for X,

ix,

volume of the parallelepiped X, ix, v is altered. If W3 = one or more of the roots of the cubic are zero. The number
of zero roots
is

called the vacuity ot

(p.

If is

obvious that

the latent cubic has either one or three real roots.

General Equation. We prove now a fundamental equation due to Hamilton. Starting with (p we iterate the
3.

function on any vector, as p, writing the successive result^

thus
p, (pp, (p<pp

<p^p,

<p<P<PP

<p(p'^P

=
/x,

<P^P,

'"

We

have then

for

any three vectors

X,

that are not

coplanar

THE LINEAR l-ECTOR FUNCTION

S\nv(<p^p
mi<p^p)

221

= (f~((pp mip)SXnv = <p-[<f\Snvp -jpSlJLP<p\ = - <p''[V-VfjivVcp\p+ ']

. . .

<p\V- V(pKpVp.v

(p[(p\Sv(pp.p

<pnS\<pvp

(fvSpupkp

(pXSp.(pvp

<pfiSv<pXp

<pvS\(pnp].

Adding to
S\fiv{<p^p

this result S\p.v-m2ipp,

TRiip^p

we have

+ mupp) <p[\S<pfji(pvp + nS(pv(p\p +

vS(p\(pnp]

pS(pk<pfX(pv.

Subtracting SXixv-msp from both sides and dropping the nonvanishing factor SXfjiv, we have the Hamilton cubic for <p
(f^p

mi<p^p
all

m^ifp

mzp

0.

This cubic holds for

symbolically
(p^

vectors p, and hence,

may be written

7ni(p^

+ m2(p

ms

This is also called the general equation for (p. the same equation so far as form goes as the latent equation. Hence we may write it in the form
identically.
It
is
{<P

9i){<P

92){<P

93)

0.

In other words, the successive application of these three operators to any vector will identically annul it. We scarcely need to mention that the three operators
written here are commutative and associative, since this
follows at once from the definition of linear vector operator, and of its powers.
It is to

be noted, too, that

<p

may
is
cp

satisfy

an equation of
be called the

lower degree.

This, in case there

(p.

one, will

characteristic equation of

Since

must

satisfy its general

222

VECTOR CALCULUS

equation, the process of highest common divisor appHed to the two will give us an equation which ^ satisfies also,

and as

this

cannot by hypothesis be lower than the char-

acteristic equation in degree

characteristic equation.

and must divide it, it is the Hence the factors of the char-

acteristic equation are included

among those

of the general

prove that the general equation. from the factors no different can have factors equation of the characteristic equation.
to
(1)

We

proceed now

Let the characteristic equation be

(<P- 9)p
for every vector;

=
X,
ju,

then assuming any

v,

we

find easily

for the latent equation

x^

Sgx"

3g^x
is

g^

0,

so that the general equation

{<p-gy=0.
In this case
<P

[gXSfxvO

guSpH)

gvS>M/S\fJiP,
(p.

where
(2)

X, n, v are

given for a given

Let the characteristic equation be

{<P

9i)(<P
is

92)P

=0,
a
for

then by hypothesis, there

at least one vector

which

we have
(<Pand at
least
9i)oc

+0,

one

j8

for

which
(<p

X,

g,)^ 4= 0.

Let us take then

{(f

gi)a

((p

<72)/3

M-

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

223

Then
{ip

g.2)\

0,

((p-

gi)fx

0.

Hence, we cannot have X and n parallel, we assume is not the case, since from
{if

else gi

gi,

which

g2)U\

=0,

(<p

gi)UfjL

=
gi,

0,

we have
g2U\
if

g-jjn,

and
would

g^

is

parallel to
is still

ju,

that

is if ^''X

Tin.

There
say
V.

a third direction independent of

X and

/x,

Let
ipv

= =

av

-\- h}x -\-

cX.

Then we have
{(p

gi)v

(a

gi)v+ bn
gi)v

cX.

Since

(a

(<p- g2)(<pgi){ip

0,

g2)v
(a

6(^2

^i)m g2)v

=
b(a
g{)\i

= We
or

gi){a

c{a

gi)\.

must have,

therefore, either

=
=

gi

and
and

=
=

0,

g2

0.

As the numbering
<^

of the roots is immaterial, let us take

9i, b

0,

then

(pp

g^v

+
if

cX,

^X

^2X,

(pyL

gin.
{clg2)\,
c

We

notice that
tpv'

c 4= 0,

whence

giv'

we can choose v' = v and we could therefore take

0.

Hence
g^
<p

g\2gi

gi)

= [ginSM)

+ g{2gig2 + g^) gi% = 0, + 9ivS\nO + gt^SfipOySX^iP,

224

VECTOR CALCULUS
is

and the general equation

{<P

9iy(<P

Qi)

0.

(3)

Let the characteristic equation be

(cp

gfp

0.

Then

there

is

one direction X for which we have

(p\

g\,
is

and there may be other directions for which the same true. There is at least one direction such that
/j.

(^

9)1^

X.

We

have, therefore,
(plj.

gii-\- X,

^X

g\.

Let now

i'

be a third independent direction, then we have

(pv
{(p (<p

g)v

gfv

= = = =

av
{a

-\- bjji -{-

cX,

g)v-\- bfji+ cX,

(a

gfv

+
g,

h{a

g)fi

+
cpv

[6

+ c{a - g)]\.

Therefore,
(p(v
Cfx)

we have a =
g(v
cju)

gv',

gv -{- cX and and the general equation

6=0,
0,

{<P
(P

gf

g-\- \Sv\{)lS\ixv.

We are now in a position to say that the general equation has exactly the same factors as the characteristic equation. Further we can state as a theorem the following:
(a)

7/ the characteristic equation is of first degree,

(<P

9i)p

0,

then every vector is converted into gi times that vector, by the

operation of
(p.

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

(b)

225

If the characteristic equation is of the form

(<P

9i)(<P

92)

0,

then there is one direction

X such

thai <p\

gt\, while for

every vector in a given plane of the

(<P

form

ar/i

+ yv we have

9i)(xn

+ yv) =

0.

Hence and by

<p

multiplies by gi every vector in the plane of n, v,

^2 all vectors

in the direction X.

(c) If the characteristic equation is

(<P

9x?

0,

there is

direction such thai

<p\

gi\
yv

and a given plane such we have

{<P

that for every vector in ii xn-\-

9i){^i^+yv)
(v
gi)v

h\.

(<P

9i)f^

= ^\

w\,

we may

set

w
giving
gi,
tpfi

gijj..

Therefore

tp

extends all vectors in the ratio

to v

and shears

all

components parallel

in the direction X.
left

4.

Nondegenerate Equations.

We

have

to consider

the three cases

hp

<7i)(^
(<P

- g^W

- 92) = 9iy{<P (<P giY =

gs)

0,
0,
0.

vectors X,

In the last case we see easily that there /x, v such that

is

a set of unit

226

VECTOR CALCULUS
^X
<pv

gi\ H- na,

giv.

Hence we
<p(xX

see that

2//i

+ zv) =
=

gi(x\

-{-

yfx-\- zv)

gi{x\

+ 2/M +

zp)

+ +

aa*M
a(xiJL

(pixn

+
(p

T/i/)

<P

= =

+ byv + yp) + (6 -

a)yp,

gi(xfx

yj')

6a:^,

gi-\- [afjiSfipO
all

bpSp\0]/S\tiP.
gi,

Therefore

extends

vectors in the ratio

all

shears
ij.

all

vectors X in the direction of n, and direction p.

vectors

in the

In the

first

case

we

see that there

is

at least one vector

p such that
(<p

92){<P

g^)p

X,

where

^X

g{K.

Likewise there are vectors that lead to

(PH

=
if

<72M,

(pp

gzP.

and p where ju These are independent, and there-

fore

we

consider any vector

p

x\

-\-

yn

+ zp,

we have
(pp
<p

[gi\SnpO

+ yg^ix + zgzv, + g2fxSp\0 + gspSM)]/S\fip.

a;^iX

Evidently we can find

X,

/jl,

by operating on

all

vectors

necessary in order to arrive at nonvanishing results by

(<p

92)(<P

gz),

{<P

gi){<P

gz),

{<p

9\){<p

92)

respectively.

In the second case,

we

see in a similar

manner that there

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

are three vectors such that

227

ip

= gm, = QiV, + (pv [gi(KSnvO + hSpU) + g2vS\^L0 + uStxvOysXfiP.

^X

^iX

fJL,

(pfJL

5.

Summary.

We may now
is

summarize these

results in

the following theorem, which

of highest importance.

Every linear

may

function satisfies a general cubic, and also satisfy an equation of lower degree called the charrector

acteristic equation.

cubic, then it

may

If the equation of lowest degree is the have three distinct latent roots, in which

case there corresponds to each root a distinct invariant line

through the origin, any vector in each of the three directions being extended in a given ratio equal to the corresponding root; or it may have two equal roots, in which case there corresponds

unequal root an invariant line, and to the multiple root an invariant plane containing an invariant line, every vector in the plane being multiplied by the root and then affected by
to the

a shear of
or there

its

may

points parallel to the invariant line in the plane; be three equal roots, in which case there is an

invariant line, a plane through this line, every line of the

plane through the origin being multiplied by the root and its points sheared parallel to the invariant line, and finally every
its

in this plane is multiplied by the root and sheared In case points parallel to the invariant plane. the function satisfies a reduced equation which is a quadratic,
line in space not
this quadratic
is

may have unequal roots, in which case there an invariant line corresponding to one root and an invariant
to the other,

plane corresponding

any

line in the plane through

root; or there

the origin being multiplied

by the corresponding
is

may
root

be two equal roots, in which case there is

an invariant

plane such that every line in the plane

multiplied by the

and

every vector not in the

plane

is

multiplied by the root

and its points displaced

parallel to art invariant line.

In case

228

VECTOR CALCULUS

the reduced equation is of the first degree, every line is an invariant line, all vectors being extended in a fixed ratio. Where there are displacements, they are proportional to the

distance

from

the origin,

and

the region displaced is called

shear region. Hence <p takes the following forms in which be equal, or any two may be equal:
I.

gi, g2, gz

may

[giaS^yO

+ +

92^SyaO

+
gi

gzySam/Sa^y,

reduced

equations for gi
II.

gi or g\

=
g^,

gi

=
\i

gz',

[giaS^yQ ^i^^T^O reduced equation for

g

+ g2ySoc^{) + amyOMSafiy,
=
ot

0;
if

III.

[{a^

+
=

cy)Sfiy{)

hySyaOySa^y, reduced

a=Q=c, or a = Q=h=c.
EXAMPLES
(1).

Let

^, V

V-ap^, where Sa^ 4= 0. Take VaP, then we find with little trouble
(pp

a,

mi
and the

= -

Sa^,

m2

= -

a'fi^
(p,

mz

a'fi^Sa^,

characteristic equation of
{<p

Safi)((p

Ta^)((p

Ta^)

0.

Hence there are three invariant lines in Ta^), we ating on p by (^ + Sa^){(p

line corresponding,
{ip

general,

and oper-

find the invariant

Safi)p

= aS^p

+ ^Sap,
U^)Ta^.
Tocfi is

{<p- TaP)(<p-\-Sa^)p

a^^S^p

= - {TaS^p+ TfiSap)iUa+
line

+ fi'^aSap - aTa^S^p - jSTa^Socp

corresponding to the root
are

Hence the invariant

Ua

U^.

The other two

Ua -

and

UVa^.

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

(2).
(3).

229

Let
Let

<pp
<pp

=
=

Vafip.

gipcS^p

(4).

Let
Let

ipp

(5).
6.

<pp

= gp+ = Vep.
(fp

(hfi

+ gii^Syap + ySa^p) + hpSafip. + h)S^p + rfiSyap.

It
is

Solution of

a.

ob\'ious that

when

(p

satis-

fies

the general equation

<p^

mi^ +

mi(p

jriz

0,

73

4= 0,

then the vector

mz<p~^p

(nit

mi<p

if^p.

For

if

we take the
all

(p

function of this vector,

p.

we have an
unique, for

identity for
if

values of
to be

Also this vector

is

added to the left side, or could be added to the left side, then it would have to satisfy the = 0. But if Wa =# 0, there is no vector satisequation (p<x fying this equation, for this equation would lead to a
a vector
zero root for
(p.

a had

Hence,

if

^p =X, msp

= jn-zX

mi^\-\-<f^,

which solves the equation.

If
(f

satisfies

the general equation

<Pz^
rriiip^

+ niiip =0,
it

w^

4= 0,

then
tion,
<pa

we have one and only one

zero root of the latent equa-

and corresponding to = 0, and if ^p = X,

mip

a unique vector for which

xa

-\-

{m\<p

((P)p

xa

-\-

miK

<p\.

If

<p

satisfies

the cubic
<p^

mi<p^

=0,

wii

={=

0,

the vacuity is two, and we have two cases according as there is not a reduced equation, or a reduced equation exists

230
of the
is

VECTOR CALCULUS
form
(p^

mnp =

0.

In either case the other root

mi.

There

vector

is

a corresponding invariant line X, and if the such that (pa. = 0, then we have in the two cases
is
(pfi

a vector ^ such that respectively ip^ = a, or Hence, if (pp = y, we must have in the two cases

0.

a-X

+ ya,
is

or

x\.

Otherwise the equation

impossible.
-\-

Hence
-\-

mip
where
If
(p

x\

-\-

za

y^

= y
(pfi

ua

-j-

y^,

^/3

a, <pa

0,

or where

(pa.

sa'tisfies

the cubic
<P'

0,

/?

and no reduced equation, there are three vectors (of which and y are not unique) such that (py = 13, (pl3 = a, (pa = 0, and then (pp = X, we must have \ = xa -\- yl3, where p is any vector of the form
p
If
(p^

za-{- x^-\- yy.

0,

and no lower degree vanishes, then

(p(xfi

+ yy)
0,

a,

(pa

0,

and
(pp

=
0,

ua.

li

(p

there

is

no solution except for

is

where p
is

may
7.

be any vector. Zero Roots. It

evident that

if

one root

zero,

then the region ^X where X is any vector will give us the other roots. For instance let (pp = Vtp. Then if /x = FeX,
(pp,

Xe^

eS'eX,

^V

cV>

and the other two roots are db V 1 Te. If two roots are zero, then <p^ on any vector will give the invariant region of the other root. For instance, let

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

isp

231
(pa

aSafiy Hne a. and its invariant other root as the Sa^y gives In case a root is not zero, but is gi, if it is of multipHcity one, then <p gi operating upon any vector will give the
<p^p.

aS^yp, then aSfiyaSlSyp

Hence

If it is of multiplicity region of the other root, or roots. two, then we use {(p giY on any vector.
8.

Transverse.

We

define

now

a linear vector operator

(p,
(p,

ip, and sometimes equal to indicate by (p', and call the conjugate of if, and define by the equation

related to

which we

shall

or transverse of

SX(pfx

Sfx<p'\

for all

X,

ju.

For example, if <pp = Vap^, then SX(pp and (p' = V^Qa = (p, if (pp = Vep,
(pp

S\apfi

Spfi\a,
if

(p'p

Vep;

=
a

ocS^p, (p'p
is

If

^Sap. an invariant line of

S^(pa

(p,

(pa

ga, then for every

/3

gSafi

Sa(p'fi,

or
Sa{(p'

g)^

0,

that
(p'

is

is

g,

that

perpendicular to the region not annulled by is invariant for (p' If we consider that g.

from the definition we have equally

S\(p'^ix

S/x(p' X,

S\(p^iJL

Siji(p'

X,

it is

clear that

tion

and (p' have the same characteristic equaand the same general equation. They can differ only
(p

in their invariant regions

if

at

all.

If

then the roots are

(p, is

all

distinct,

it is

evident that the invariant line a of

lines of
(p'

normal

to the

two invariant

two two
If

roots, hence each invariant

of
(p'

corresponding to the other line of (p is normal to the

now

corresponding to the other roots, and conversely. the characteristic equation is the general equation,

ft

232

VECTOR CALCULUS

SO that each function satisfies only the general equation, let there be two equal roots, g, whose shear region gives

ipa=

ga-]r

/S,

ip^

gfi,

let

<py

giy.

Then
S^p, gSap Sa^y-ip'p = g{V^ySap
Sa(p'p

Sficp'p

gS(3p,

Sy<p'p

giSyp,

+ VyaS^ +

V^ySjSp

+
+

giVa^Syp.

Therefore corresponding to the root gi, <p' has the invariant line Fa/S, and to the root g, the invariant line Vfiy.

Further

<p'

converts

Vya

into

gVya

Vl3y.
(p'

Hence the invariant line of gi for shear region of g, and the shear region

is

normal to the
<p' is

of g for

normal

to the invariant line of gi for (p, but the invariant line of g for (p' is normal further to the shear direction of g for (p,

and the shear direction

line of
cp

of

cp'

for g

is

normal to the invariant

for g.
1

In case there are three equal roots, and no reduced equation,

we have
<pa= ga

fi,

<p^

g^-\-y^

<py

gy^

so that

Saip'p

gSap
(p'p

S^p,
Syip'p

Sfiip'p

gS&p

Syp,

gSyp,

Sa^y

pgSa^y

V^ySfip
is

VyaSyp.
shear line

Hence, the invariant line of (p' Vya, and second shear line Va^.
In case there
roots,
is

V^y,

its first

a reduced equation with two distinct

we have
(p{xa

+
=

2/i8)

g{xa

+ y^),
=
gSjSp,

(py

g\y,

Saip'p

gSap,

S^<p'p

Sy<p'p

giSyp,

Saj3y-<p'p

gVfiySap

+ gVyaSfip +

giVa^Syp,

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

Hence, the invariant
line of
ip'

233
g\ is

corresponding to
<p,

normal

to the invariant plane of g for

corresponding to g there is an invariant plane normal to the invariant line of g\ for ip. Every line in the plane through the origin is invariant.
In case the reduced equation has two equal roots, then
ipa.= ga-{/3,

^/3

g^,

^=

gy,

Sa<p'p

gSap +

S^p,

Sy(p'p

gSyp,

Sfi(p'p

gSfip,

Sa^ycp'p

= gp+S^p-{V^).

Corresponding to g, we have then two invariant lines: T'a/3, which is perpendicular to the shear plane of <p; V^y, which is perpendicular to the non-shear region of g and to
the shear direction of g; also the shear direction of V^y, so that the shear region of cp' is determined by
cp'

is

Vya

and

1/37,

and

is

therefore perpendicular to y.
(p'

The
I.

three forms of
ip'

are

= =
=

II.

<p'

III.

<p'

+ g2VyaSfiO + gzVctfiSyOySafiy; [g.V^ySaO + giVyaS^Q + aV^yS^Q + g^Va^SyOVSa^; g+ [aV^ySm + bVyaSyQ + cVfiySyO]/Sa^.

[g,V0ySaO

summarize these results in the theorem: The invariant regions of <p' corresponding to the distinct roots are normal to the corresponding regions of the other
roots for
<p.

We may

In case

there are repeated roots, if there is

plane every line of

which through the origin is invariant, then every line of the corresponding plane will also he invariant, hid if there is a plane with an invariant line and
a shear direction in
it,

the first invariant line of the con-

jugate

tvill

he perpendicidar to the shear direction

and

to

the second invariant line of

tp, and the shear direction of the conjugate will he perpendicular to the invariant lines of <p;

16

234

VECTOR CALCULUS

while finally, if there is an invariant line, a first shear direction, and a second shear direction, then the invariant line
of the conjugate will be perpendicular to the invariant line

and

the first shear direction of

(p,

the first shear direction

will be perpendicular to the invariant line

and

the second

shear direction of

(p,

and

the second shear direction will be

(p. fi

perpendicular to the two shear directions of = V^yjSa^y, define the various directions a

Let a,

j8,

Vya/Sa^y,

VajS/Sa^y, then we have

(p
<p'

= =

+ g2^l3 + g^ySy giaSa + g2^Sfi + gsySy

gioSa

or

\giaSa [giaSa
or
\g-\-

+ gi^Sfi + a^Sa + ^27'S'7 + gi^S^ + aaS(3 + g2ySy

(ap+cy)Sa+hyS^]
(bfi+ca)Sy]'
evident
It

\g+aaS0+
9.

Self Transverse.

when

there are no shear

and further if two are not perpendicular, then every vector in their plane must be an invariant, and even in this case the invariants may be taken perpendicular. Hence
real vectors,

now that cp = (p' only regions, if we limit ourselves to the invariant lines must be peris

pendicular or

every real self-transverse linear vector operator reduced to the form

(pp

may

be

aSapgi

^Sppgz

ySypgz,

where a ^ y form a trirectangular system, and where the roots g may be equal.
Conversely, when <p = cp', the roots are real, provided that we have only real vectors in the system, for if a root = V 1, then if the invariant has the form g ih, where i

THE LINEAK VECTOR FUNCTION

line for this
(p(K

235

root be X

ifi,

where X and
ifi)

/x

are real,
i{h\

we have

ifi)

= (g+
c?X

ih)(\-\-

g\

hti-\-

+ gn)

=
Therefore

+ i<pn.
g\
hn,
<pn

<p\

h\

gfi,

and
S/iipK

gSXfi

hfi^

S\<pn

h\^

+ gSXfi.

Thus we must have

h\'
It

Am'

0.

follows that h

0.

Of course the roots

transverse.

may
is

be real without
that

<p

being
are

self-

An important theorem
transverse.

<p<p'

and

<p'(p

self-

For

Sp(p<p'(T

S<T<p<p'p,

Sp<p'(fC

S(T<p'<pp.

EXERCISE
Find expressioDB for
10.
i(np'

and

ip'ip

in

terms of

a,

/3,

y, a,

/3,

y.

Chi of

<p.

We
tp

tions related to

define now two very important funcand always derivable from it. First

Xt,= mi
so that

<p,

Sa^-XfP = pSa0<py -\- pSPy<fa + pSya<p^

(paSfiyp

(f^Syap

(pySafip

= =

VVafiV<rrp
aSp(fi<py
is

+
y<pfi)

+
(p.
.

The other function

^^ Sc^-yj/^

indicated
mi<p
-\-|-

by ^^ or by

x^ and
(pXpy

defined

Wi2

Wi2

= =

pSatpfiipy

(paSp(fi(py
-\-

y<pfi)

aSp<pfi<py 4- pSp<fy<pa

ySpifcup^.

236

VECTOR CALCULUS
have at once from these formulae the following im-

We

portant forms for FX/x,

X^V\fx

= [aSV\n(V^(py - Vy<pfi) -ySafiy = [aS{V<p'\fx - VWfx)Vfiy + -ySa^y = Vipl^ii + V\ip'ix.

also
V(p'\n,

Whence we have

= miFXju V\(p'ix = [aSVXfiVcp^ipy H xf^^VXfi = Vcp'\(p'n.

<pV\fx

ySapy

Since

it

evident that
X^/

x/,

and

=
^J/^,

\}/J,

we have

at once

= ^\V\n =
x'^FXm

V<pKfx

FX^M
shown to be

V(p\<pti.

The two
It
is

expressions on the right are thus functions of FXju.

evident that as multipliers of p

mi= (p+ x= mz=

1.

(P'

x'y

ip^

(p'\J/'.

EXERCISES
If

V =

aiSM + 0128^20 + azS^zO,

X

show that

Ml =

2Saij8i,

= 2F|8,7ai(), - SF/Si/SiSFaiaaO, = ^ viz = wis = S*SFaia2F/3i/32, X' = SFaiV^iO, - SFaiajSF/Si/SaO. ^' =

the irrotational invariants of x and
1^

/Saiajaa^/Si/Sij/Sa,

2.

Show that

are

mi (x)

W2(x)

mi^

+ m2,

msCx)

= mirm

mz]

mi{\l^)

m2.

m2(i/')

= 2m = mims,
1,

THE LINEAR
3.

-S-ECTOR

FUNCTION
i/^.v*,
,

237
we have
mj*.

For any linear vector function

tp,

and its powers

2miTnz,

fni(^)
wiiCv*)

= = =

mi*
"ii*

2mi,
SotiTHi

nj(^) =

wij*

wis(v^)
wij*

+ 3mj,

wi(^')

Smitnimz

3j',

"i(*'')
4.

*nj*

4wtiwis*mj

+ 2i*mj* + 4mimj*,
ip

ins(>*)

fj*.

+ c, where c is a scalar multipher, = Ji(*) + 2mi(y)c + 3c*, fnii^ 4- c) = miM + 3c, Tnt{<p + c) mi{<p + c) = mj(^) + cmtiip) + c*mi(#>) + c*. 5. Study functions of the form + yx + zShow
that for the function
x\ff

6.

v''^'^^^ipM

wijV^X/*;

v''(^^^M

^m^pM

fniV\fi

V<p\ipft.

= aVW; ^^C*"!**!) = ^(.Vi)-H<Pi)^(aif>) - aSa(), ^(- pSa) = 0. 8. ^(a) = a, i^[Fa()] = ^( ffiiSt gxJSj gJcSk) = gjgiiSi g^gJSj
7. 9.

gigJcSk.

vt(a,S^i

+ atSpi + a,S/3,)
= F/3,/3iSFaiT,
ip,

VffjpjSVatai

VpzfiSVajfXi.

10.

For any two operators

0,

ntiiipd)

mii^pe)

= =

mii0<p), ni(^p)mi(fl)

mt{ipe)

mi{e<p),

mjC^) =
ms(tf

mj(e#.).

+ ni(vj) + mi{e)

*>).

mi{<pB)

ws[^'(*')

mi{<p

+ 0) + 0) mt(v + 0)
mi{ip
11.
I.

= mtM-mzie). = miiip) + miid). = vttM + mi(fl) 4- mi{0)-mi{v) = miM + TO,(0) + mi[ip'4''{0) +

+ ^'(*)1.

mi(ipe).

0'^'M].

X can have the three forms:

n.
ni.

+ gz)aSa + G/j + gOfiSk + + gt)yS^; (gi + gt)aS^ + (gi+ gi)0S0 + 2giySy + affSa; 2g - (off + C7)55 - byS^.
(gt
(ffi

The operator x is the rotor dyadic of Jaumann. 12. The forms of ^ for the three types are
I.

gtgtoSa

II.

ni.

+ gtgifiSfi + gigtySy; gigtaSi + gtgi0S8 + gfySy agi0Si; - gc)y]S^ - bgy.S^. gi -[agp + {ab

238
13.

VECTOR CALCULUS
An
operator called the deviator
is

defined by Schouten,*

and

is

for the three forms as follows:

I-

iiOi

-92 -

g3)aSEi

(Ui

93

n.
III.

i-hgi(afi

92)iaSS

+ cy)S^ + bySlS.
=
<p

+JS0)

(!sf2

- 9i)0S8 + (Igi - gi - 2g,)yS^ + a/355;

g2)yS^;

It is V(p
14.

S<p,
if

where
{\,

S{<p)

Show

that

n)
(i)

F
where
11.

(X,

= \mi. = -F X) then = C (X, (x)Q.V\^,

(/x,

is

symmetric

in X, n
ip

and

is

a quaternion function of

FX/x.

We

derive from

and

(p'

the two functions

That there
which
mz{(p
S{(p
is
(p'),

is

a vector
is

satisfying this last equation,

easily shown.

and

invariant,

For

if

we form

we

find that
(p')fi{<p

(p')\((p
S(p\(piJi<pv

<p')v

= =
But

'LS ip\(p'ixip' V

l^Sipkip ynp'vS(p'\(p'yi(p'v
mi(}p(p')).

S\ixv{mz
it is

ma

mi(\p'(p)

for the first

easy to see that this expression vanishes identically, two terms cancel, and if cpi, ipi are any two linear

vector functions,

we have

SlJ.V<PiKSlXV(p2k

SfJiV(pifJ.Sv\(p2S.

SlJLP(pivS\pL(p2K

+ +
=

Sv\<Pi\SlJiV<P2fJi

S\fi<pi\SfiV(p2V

+ Sv\(pilxSv\<P2lJi + Sp\<PivS\fl(P2lJi + S\ix(PihSt(P2P S\n<pivS\n(p2P

-\-

S'^IJLVmi((p2(Pl).

Hence we may under mi permute

functions.

cyclically the vector

Again after

this has

been done we

may

take

the conjugate. Hence the expression above vanishes, and there is a zero root in all cases for cp Further we <p'.

may
*

always write
p. C4.

Grundlagen der Vector- und Affinor-Analysis,

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

S\fiV(pp
SX/JLV (f'p

239

= = =

<pKSnvp

+ + +
.

VijlpS\(p'p

VfjivSifXp

Hence we have
S\fiv(<p

<p')p

From

this

we have
X, n, v.
<pq

+ 2S\nv = V<p\Vp.v +
VpV(yyLv)<p\

for every

noncoplanar

The function
conjugate of Fc()

is

is

VtQ.

evidently self-transverse, and the It is easy to show that

V\V<pyL(pv
'

2<piS\iiv

'.

The
of
(p,

expressions Te, T<p, and S<pe are scalar invariants and these three may be called the rotational invariants.

In terms of

them and the other three

(p

scalar invariants all

scalar invariants of
If

or

(p'

may

be expressed.
gi, g^, gz,

there are three distinct roots,

sponding invariant unit vectors are 71, 72, 73,

these for X,
p.,

and the correwe may set

v,

and thus

2iS7i7273

= ^lT'7J>273+ fl'2T>2r737l+ ^3^73^7172 = (92 ^3)71^7273 + (^3 sri)72S7372

+
2^S7i7273 =
gigzVyiVyzyz

(^1

^2)7357172.

gzgiVy2V'Y3yi
^ifir2F73p'^7i72.

In case two roots are equal and (pa

t?/3

gia -f

fih^,

gi^, (py

QfY,

we have
(^2

2S/37 =

giWyVafi

VfiVfiyh.

In case three roots are equal, <pa

ga-\-hfi, <pfi= gfi-\- ly,

=
[t is

gy

2Sa^y = h^V^
evident, therefore, that
if

+ lyVya.
the roots are distinct and

240

VECTOR CALCULUS

the axes perpendicular two and two, that e = 0; if two roots are equal and the invariant line of the other root is
perpendicular to the plane of the equal roots, then it direction of er and if the three roots are equal, and
invariant line
is
is
if

the

the

perpendicular to the

then
shear.
12.

is

in the

plane of

two shear directions, the invariant line and the second

Vanishing Invariants.

The vanishing

of the scalar

invariants of
If

leads to
is

some

interesting theorems.

which are whose are in the transformed by ip edges faces of the original trihedral. If ^ transforms any trihedral in this manner, m\ = 0, and there is an infinite set of trihe-

mi

0,

there

an

infinite set of trihedrals

into trihedrals

drals so transformed.

We
is

choose X,

ju,

v for

coplanar with ix, If mi invariant mi = 0.

the edges of the vertices, and if ^X y, (p/j. with v, X, and (pp with X, ix, the

0,

we choose

X, n, arbitrarily,

and determine
SXjJKpV

from

ScpX/xv

=
(p

S\(piJ,v.

Then

also

0.
if

The

invariant Mi vanishes

transforms a trihedral
first.

whose faces pass through the edges of the The converse holds for any infinity of trihedrals.
into another

EXERCISES
1.

Show

that

if

a,

/3,

y form a trirectangular system

Sa<pa
S^<p^

nil

Sjipy

and

is

invariant for

all

trirectangular systems,
T^<pa
'S^Xv'a

m^i^^p')

= = rV(X)

+ T^,pfi + T^<py, + 'S2Xv>/3 + S^\>py.

and the two hyperboloids
c-^ySy.
6-2/35/3

2.

Study the functions

for the ellipsoid

<p

= a-^aSa

3 Study the functions

7:mVaV0ct,

<P

VaVOct,

a-^VapQ,

V-V^VaO,

V-,pVaO-fi.

THE LINEAR A'ECTOR FUXCTION

4.

241

Show

that
<pp

'S7

^Sp<pp
wherein ^
is

= =

2e

TOi,

V^P =

2fpe

nii,
rriip

2<pvp,

V Vpipp

2Sep

S<pp,

a constant function. Hence <poP may always be represented as a gradient of a scalar, Sep as a convergence of a vector, and We may consider also that mi is a iip Sfpp (deviation) as a curl. convergence and e is a curl, mt a convergence and <pf a curl. 5. An orthogonal function is defined to be one such that
<pip'

1.

Show
<P

that an orthogonal fimction can be reduced to the form

cose

sin

0-VOP =
is

(1

cos

0)^00 = P+'I'Qp-*''
/3

or

/3(')+i()^-C^-' which
0,
/3.

a rotation about the axis

through

the angle

or such a rotation followed

by

reflection in the plane

normal to
6. 7.

Study the operator

^^''2.

Show

that

mi{<po)

nil,

ii(<po)

wii

c*,

a(*>o)

njj

+ S-<pe.

Hence

if

Te =
Seipe
8.

0, 0,

mtM =
ms(^)

mi(^o).
nttivn).

Show

that

milVeO]
9.

0,

TO,[F601

Te',

rrnlVeO]

0.

Show

that

<(x)
10.

= that

e,

(x)

<fi,

e(*>~0

=
nit

<Pt-

Show

11.

= V-PvQ,
miie)

i'ivo)

^0

fSeO-

25/3,

rm{e)

= -

S0V0,

mt(e)

0,

12.

^ = V-ai),

^ = a-(a - aSa),
*, 0,

13.

For any two operators

26(^)

2e(^oo)

X{v)e{e)

x(fl)6(*)

V-{v)^{e).

242
In particular

VECTOR CALCULUS

14.

An
c,

Tipa

operator ^ a constant.

is

a similitude

when

for every unit vector a,

Show

that the necessary and sufficient condition

is

Any Unear
15. If
<p<p'
,p

transformation which preserves all angles is a simih'tude. aSi pSj ySk, then ,p' = iSa jS^ kSy, and

<Sia

j8<S/3

7*87,

mi{<p<p')

T^a

T^fi

2^27,

maCv^v')

7^Fa/3

+ TW^y +

T'Vya,

mi{<p<p')

S^a^y.
is

13.

Derivative Dyadic.

There

a dyadic related to a

variable vector field of great importance which we will study next. It is called the derivative dyadic, since it is

somewhat
field of

of the nature of a derivative, as well as of the

nature of a dyadic. This linear vector function for the a will be indicated by D and defined by the equation

D.= It
is

SQV-(T.
dp,

evident at once that

if

we operate upon

we

arrive

at

d(x.

This function

is,

therefore, the operator

which en-

ables us to convert the various infinitesimal displacements

in the field into the corresponding infinitesimal changes in the field itself.

The

expression

SdpDJp =

Cdf,

where C is a constant and dt a constant difi'erential, represents an infinitesimal quadric surface, the normals at the ends of the infinitesimal vectors dp being Ddp.
Let us consider now the
field of

gruence of vector lines of c.

containing the conConsider a small volume

cr,

given by bp at the point whose vector

is p,

and

let

us sup-

THE LINEAR \'ECTOR FUNCTION

243

pose it has been moved to a neighboring position given by the vector lines of the congruence, that is, p becomes
p

+ adt.
is

Then p

+ 5p becomes p+hp+ dt{a + DM,

become
(1

that

to say, 5p has

D<Tdt)8p.

Hence any area FSipSap becomes, to terms

order only,

of the first

VdipdiP

dt{V8ipDJ.2P

VDMphp)t

The

rate of change with regard to

is

of the vector area

Vbiph-ip

therefore

x{I),)Vhph,p.
Likewise, the infinitesimal volmne Sbiphiphzp
is

trans-

formed into the volume

Sbipbzpbzp

dt{Shiph-2pT)hzP

S8ipD82p83p

+
The
the
rate of increase of the
if

SDdipd2pd3p).

volume

is,

therefore, miSdipdipdsp.

In other words

we

displace

medium

so that

its

of the space of points travel infinitesimal distances

any portion
ex,

along the lines of the congruence of

by amounts propor-

tional to the intensity of the field at the various points, then

moved
area

the change in any infinitesimal line in the portion of space is given by dtD8p, the change in any infinitesimal
is

infinitesimal

given by x'iDff)dt-Aiea, and the change in volume is iiiidt times the volume.

an

In case a defines a velocity field the changes mentioned will actually take place. We have here evidently a most
adt

important operator for the study of hydrodynamics. If is the field of an infinitesimal strain, then Z),5p is the

244

VECTOR CALCULUS

displacement of the point at dp. Evidently the operator plays an important part in the theory of strain, and consequently of stress. Further, (we shall not stop to prove
.

the result as
function of p

we do not develop it) for any we have an expansion analogous

vector a a
to Taylor's

theorem, in the series

(r(po

ha)

o-(po)

+ hD^ + -- (- SaV)Da

This formula

is

of the congruence.

the basis of the study of the singularities For if o-(po) = 0, then the formula will

start with the second term,

will

and the character

of the con-

gruence depend upon the roots of D. In brief the results of the investigation of Poincare referred to above
(p. 38)

show that
real real

if

none of the roots

is

zero,

we have
is

the

cases:
1.

Roots
Roots

and same
but not
all

sign, the singularity

a node.

2. 3.

One

sign, a faux. real root of same sign as real part of other two,

of the

same

a focus.
4.

One

real root of sign opposite the real part of others,

a faux-focus.
5.

If

One real root, other two pure imaginaries, a center. one or more roots vanish, we have special cases to coninvariants of

sider.

The
mi

D
=

are easily found,

and are
ISVViViVaiffz,

SV(r,

IVVff,

m2

After differentiation, the subscripts are related functions are

all

removed.

The

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

245

DJ = - vSaO, X= - VWaO, x' = - V-V{)\^-<t, = - i*S()ViV2-F(ri(r2. yp' ^ = - W^i^-iSaia^O,

In a strain c the dilatation
(spin)
is e,
's

mi, the density of rotation

interpret

and

in other cases

we can

mi and

in

terms of the convergence and the curl of the field. In case (T is a field of magnetic induction due to extraneous
causes,

and a

is

the unit normal of an infinitesimal circuit

is

of electricity, then x'

the negative of the force density

In any case we might call per unit current on the circuit. the force x'l^'5ip52P density per unit circuit. Since x' is not usually self-transverse, the force on circuit a has a

component

in the direction

different

from the component

j8.

in the direction

of the force

on

circuit

Recurring to Stokes'

and Green's theorems we

see that

J'dpa

ff

VvVhiphtp-a

= 2ffShiphpe -ffxTbipb^p.
It is clear

that the circulation in the

field of

is

always

zero unless for

some points

inside the circuit

6 is

not zero.

The torque
if

of the field
is

on the

circuit vanishes for

any

normal which

a zero axis of x'-

From

these

it is it

clear that,

we have

a linear function tpdp, in order that

be an exact
sufficient

differential

da we must have the necessary and

conditions

FVpO =
For
if

0.

^ifdp

the condition.

then (pVUv\7 = The converse is easy.

0,

for all Uv,

whence

The
will

invariant mz in the case of the points at which a

be sometimes positive, sometimes negative. A theorem given originally by Kronecker enables us to find what the
excess of the

number

of roots at

which mz
is

is

positive over

the
*

number

of roots at

which mz
I,

negative

is.*

We

set

Picard, Traite d'Analyse, Vol.

p. 139.

246

VECTOR CALCULUS
r

i^ajTa^

and

/=--!- ffSdvr; 47r

then the integral will vanish for any space containing no roots, and will be the excess in question for any other space.

We

could sometimes use this theorem to determine the

of singularities in a region of space
It
is

number

and something

about their character.

evident that iSVr

0.

The operator {D)q

tion of the field,
field.

= \(D

DJ)

is

called the deformarotation of the

and the operator Vei) the

= 0, o- is a unit vector everywhere, then BJa D must have zero itself the transverse has a and since root,
In case
a zero root.

There

is

one direction then for which

Da

0.

The

are the isogons of the vector lines given by field. In case there are two zero roots the isogons are any
lines

Vadp =

on certain isogon

surfaces.

EXERCISES
1.

Study the
p,

fields

given by

=
2.

a
that
<T

=
if

UpIp^,
a-

Vap,
p,

aSfip,

Vaplp^.

Show

is

a function of

-\-

d<T

= Vof'Spoo= VVoWVapQ -

^Spo'ppo]

\VpoVPo]

iVpoVS/a
\S\7<T,

The first form where Vo operates only on po, and <p aSS7{). expresses a -\- da as & gradient and a term dependent on the curl of a, the second as a curl and a term dependent on the convergence of a.
po is
3.

an
If

infinitesimal vector.

= VVt,D^ =

Da'.

14.

Dyadic Field.
p,

pendent upon

If ^ is we say that

a linear vector operator deFor <p defines a dyadic field.

every point in space there will be a value of <p. Since there is always one root at least for (p which is real, with an invariant line, there will be for every point in space a direction

THE UNEAK VECTOR FUNCTION

247

and a numerical value of the root which gives the real invariant direction and root. These will define a congruence of lines and a numerical value along the Unes. In case the other axes are also real, and the roots are distinct or practically distinct, there will be two other related congruences.

The study

of the structure of a dyadic field

will

from
it is

this point of

view

not be entered into here, but

evidently of considerable importance.

EXERCISES
1.

K
If

^ =
is

(),

then the gradient of the

field is

Vw-

The

vorticity
is

of

the field
vector.
2.

FVvO =

V'^uQ.
is

The

gradient in any case

is

<pV,

FffO, the gradient

V'^a, the vorticity

()SV^
3.

+ Da = is

x{D).
D-,<t,

If

vJ

= cSrO,
VffDyQ.

the

gradient

vSWr

the vorticity
is

is

VX/aSri)

- DT,
4.

the vorticity

If

^ = VaB{), the gradient

The gradient of the VS/rSvQ + VtDQ.

is

transverse field

rS'^a
vor-

Ve(S7)v

Vad'sj', the

ticity is

For the transverse

field

we have
is

the gradient the vorticity

5.
cr.

0'FvV

flFV^,

V^'B'VaO

+
is

FV'OFa'O.

If

v?

= D,

the gradient of the field

VV, the

concentration of

and the
6. If
^p

vorticity is

Dvvais

The gradient
zero.

of the transverse field is

V5v<r, while the

the gradient is Fv^V, where both V's act on and the vorticity is V*^() VSVOQ. 7. Jf <p = De(a^-), the gradient is V^Oa, the vorticity is Dvvta8. If *> = ^9, the gradient is 2(FVfl).
9.

= FV^O,

vorticity

0,

For any

<p

Vwi = ,V + 2 {WiP ), Vm, = 2 yVVv + FV^' () Vm, = 2 t [F (Vi ^lO *>'

1,

-f *i'Vil.

248
15.

VECTOR CALCULUS

The

Differentiator.

We

define the operator

it

SO V
be used

as the differentiator, and indicate

by D.

It

may

upon quaternions, vectors, scalars, or dyadics. As examples we have, D being the transverse

Am =
16.

<D,),

D^= Let
i^
v,

SOV'<pO.
p,

Change

of Variable.

be a function of
w.

and

p a function of three parameters u,

Let

A=

adjdu

+ ^djdv + yd/dw,

where a, jS, y form a right-handed system of unit vectors. Then we have the following formulae to pass from expressions in terms of p to differential expressions in terms of the

parameters.

AF = -

AiSpiVF,

FA' A" = ^FAi'A2"'SFpip2Fv'V", SA'A"A'" = - i<SA/A2"A3'"5piP2P3Sv'V'V'".

As instances

- SV<T=

A'Sp'\7"-(T",

VA(7= Sp'V"-Vc"A'.
Notations
Dyadic products ), Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Shaw. aX 4>, Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung.
),

(i>{a), <f>'(a), (f)'a, a-cj),

cf)

</>Fa(

Va(f>(

a,

Reciyrocal dyadic
({r^,

Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Gibbs, Wilson, Burali-Forti,

Marcolongo, Shaw.
q~^,

Timerding.
lie.

161-1,

THE LINEAR VECTOR FUNCTION

249

\l/

w0'~S Hamilton, Tait,

The adjunct dyadic Joly, Shaw,

(0c)2,

Gibbs, Wilson, Macfarlane.

R{a), BuPLii-Forti, Marcolongo.

x(</>,

0),

Shaw.

i)0~S Jaumann, Jung.

The transverse or conjugate dyadic

,

</)',

Hamilton, Tait, Joly.

0, Taber,
<t)e,

Shaw.

Gibbs, Wilson, Jaumann, Jung, Macfarlane. K{a), Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

\6 /

Elie.

wh
<f>c,

(t>',

The planar dyadic Hamilton, Tait, Joly.

<t>J
<()/,

Gibbs, Wilson.

Jaumann, Jung.

CK(a), Burali-Forti, Marcolongo. X(0), Shaw.

Self-transverse or symmetric part of dyadic
4>o,

Hamilton, Tait, Shaw.

Gibbs, Wilson.

*, Joly.
4>',
[<t>],

Jaumann, Jung.
,

D(a), Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

\ 6 /
\ 6
Elie.
,

^
In this case expressed in terms of the axes.

Elie.

l(0
<f>",

(t>')

= V-(

Skew part of dyadic ), HamUton, Tait, Joly, Shaw.

Gibbs, Wilson, n, Jaumann, Jung.

1

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

17

250
\ b /,
lie.

VECTOR CALCULUS

Sin

<f),

Macfarlane.

Mixed functions
x(0,
9),

of dyadic

Shaw.

|(/)^ 6,

Gibbs, Wilson.
Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

R{(f), 6),

Vector of dyadic
,

Hamilton, Tait, Joly.

0/, Jaumann, Jung.
//

0XJ Gibbs, Wilson.

^/,

Va, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

E, Carvallo.

R=
e{(f)),

Te, Elie.

Shaw.
Negative vector of adjunct dyadic

(j),

Hamilton, Tait, Joly.

Gibbs, Wilson.

<f>'(f>x,

0-0r*,

Jaumann, Jung.
<l>),

aVa,
X(0,

Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

Shaw.

4)(f)',

^<t)c,

Square of pure strain factor of dyadic Hamilton, Tait, Joly. Gibbs, Wilson.

{</)p,

Jaumann, Jung.
Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

aKa,
[b],

Elie.

00^ Shaw.
Dyadic function of negative Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Shaw. 0^-0xj Wilson, Gibbs.
(jy^e,

vector of adjunct

TBDE

LINEAR \^ECTOR FUNCTION

251

d-'<t>T*,

Jaumann, Jung.
Marcolongo.

a^Vot, Burali-Forti,
K-2, Elie.

Scalar invariants

of dyadic.

Coefficients

of characteristic

equation

m", m', m, Hamilton, Tait, Joly, Carvallo. /:, lo, 1 3, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo, Elie.
F, G,

H, Timerding.
<t>z,

Os, {<i>2);
'ffii,

Gibbs, Wilson.

7712,

^3, Shaw.
1

o
<?'>

- U/, Jf
'

03,

Jaumann, Jung.

cos

<t>

<t>z,

Macfarlane.
Other scalar invariants

wi(0o^),

mi((f)(f)'),

2{m^
,

TTh), mi(<f>d'),

mi[x(<f>, e),

/S],

Shaw.

Wf;
,

{0}^
'

WV,
,

Jaumann, Jung.
e
:

-,

(t>

d, <I>1

fi,

Gibbs, Wilson.

Elie uses

Ki

for Se<f>.

Notations for Derivatives of Dyadic

In these
otherwise.

operates on

unless the subscript

indicates

Gradient of dyadic

V0,

Tait, Joly,

Shaw,
Specific force of field

Dyadic of gradient. P V, Tait, Joly, Shaw.

d<f) -J

grad a, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

dr
,

Fischer.

252

VECTOR CALCULUS
Transverse dyadic of gradient

<j>'V, Tait, Joly.

grad Ka, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

dr

'

r^, Fischer.
i

V
X

0,

Jaumann, Jung.
Divergence of dyadic

/SV0(

),

Tait, Joly,

Shaw.

grad Ka, Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

Vortex of dyadic

FV0(
Rot

),

Tait, Joly,

Shaw.

'.

a, Burali-Forti. 0,

VX
-

Jaumann, Jung.
Directional derivatives of dyadic

S{)V-(p(

<Sa-V
1

</>.

Sa-^V-<f>Va{

),

Tait, Joly,

Shaw,

S(a,
d-(f) -~

)),

Burali-Forti.

6
,

X
)

</>

Tj,-

da
( -Tp

5-^, da

Fischer.

()y Burali-Forti, Marcolongo.

Gradient of bilinear function

fJ-niVn, a), Tait, Joly,
<t){ix)a,

Shaw.

Burali-Forti.

Bilinear gradient function

IJ,(Vn, Un), Tait, Joly,
^(/x, u),

Shaw,

Burali-Forti.

Planar derivative of dyadic

<f>nVVn(), Tait, Joly, Shaw.

X 4^, Fischer,

CHAPTER X
DEFORMABLE BODIES
Straix
1.

When

body has

its

vector to a point

is p,

we must

points displaced so that if the express the vector to the

new

position of P, say P',

by some function

of p,

(pp,

then we say that the body has been strained. We do not at first need to consider the path of transition of P to P'.
If
is

is

a Hnear vector function, then

we say that the

strain

a Hnear homogeneous strain. restrictions upon the generality of

We
cp,

have to put a few

since not every linear

vector function can represent a strain. In the first place we notice that solid angles must not be turned into their

symmetric angles, so that

that
is, TUz is

S(p\(pfi<pvfS\iiv
cp

must be

positive,

positive.

Hence

must have

either one or

three positive real roots.

are, therefore,
2.

The corresponding invariant hues not reversed in direction,

is

When

(p

self -conjugate

there are three real roots

and three directions which form a trirectangular system.

The

strain in this case

is

called a pure strain.

Any

linear

vector function can be written in the form

^
where

(<P<p')-q~\)q

2)~W

{(p'<p)0-P,

q-\)q

(<P<pT"'<P-

The function (p(p' is self-con jugate and, therefore, has three real roots and its invariant lines perpendicular. If we set TT = V ((pep'), then TT- = <p(p'. Let the cubic in (p(p' be G'3 - MiG^ + M2G - il/3 = 0. Then from the values
given in Chapter IX, p.
2.37,

for the

coefficients of

^-

253

254
in

VECTOR CALCULUS
(p

terms of those of

we have

(the coefficients of the cubic

in

X being

pi, p2, Vz)

Ml =

Pi"

2p2,

M2 =

P2'

2pip3,

Mz =

pi,

whence we have
pi^

2(ilf 1

+ 8ikf3)2?i' pi, p2,

I6M2M3P1
pz.
(p(p'

+ M^ - ^M^Mz =

0.

Thence we have

and

Now

if

the invariant lines of

j8,

are the trirectangular

unit vectors a,
cp

7,

we may

collect the

terms of

(p

in the

form

= aaSa'O

h^S^'Q

+ cySy'Q,
=
ir

where

a, b, c

are the roots of

cpcp'

and

a',

/3',

7' are

to be determined.

Hence

ip'

= aa'SaQ
b'l3'Sl3'0

But
also

<p'<p

= aWSa'O = -

and + + c'^y'Sy'Q.

(p<p'

a'aSa
(pep',

b^^S^

c'^ySy,

since a,

/3,

are axes of

and

a^, b', c^

are roots.

Now

we have
(p'a

aa',

ip'fi

b^' ,

<p'y

cy',

hence
(pcp'a

a^a

= =

aPaSa'a'
1,

ab^Sa'fi'

acySa'y'.

Thus we have

a'

Sa'fi'

Sa'y',

and similar

equations, so that a',^', y' are unit vectors forming a trirectangular system, and indeed are the invariant lines of

^V-

We may now write at once = aa^a 6/3*5/3

TT

C7S7,
ySy'.
a',
jS',

q-^(^q

= -

a^a'

/SS/?'

This operator obviously rotates the system

7' into

DEFORMABLE BODIES
the system a,
/3,

255
is

7, as a rigid body.

That the function

if

orthogonal

by

its

obvious at a glance, since conjugate we have for the product

is

we multiply

it

aSa

^S^

ySy =

1().

Reducing it to the standard form of example five, Chapter jS/3' 77') and IX, p. 236, we find that the axis is VV{aa'
the sine of the angle of rotation ^TV{aa'

+ + + ^^' + 77')-

EXAMPLES
(1).

Let

ip

VeO.

Then
^<P'

^'

= -

VeO,
e

= -

^^^y<)

^SeO

e\

The

axes are

for the root 0,

perpendicular to e, the roots that are equal being

<p

and any two vectors a, /S and these must be taken so that a/S = Ue,
T'-e.

We may therefore WTite

TeaSfi- Te^Sa= V-eQ,

Hence we have
for

which was obvious anyhow.

operator

q~^OQ the

aSl3- ^Sa =
and
this
is

F(Faj8)(),

a rotation of 90^ about Vafi

Ve

of

90.

The

effect of

T = Te(- aSa
is

^S^)

to give the projection of the rotated vector on the plane perpendicular to e, times Te. That is, finally, FeO rotates
p about
of the
e

as an axis through 90
is

and annuls the component

e.

new vector which

parallel to

aS^Q where a, /S are any (2). Consider the operator g vectors. It is to be noticed that we must select of all the
square roots of (f(p' that one which has It is obvious that p = q.
its

roots

all

positive.

256
3.

VECTOR CALCULUS

The

strain converts the sphere

Tp

into the ellip-

soid T(p~^p

r,

or
Sp(p'~^<p~^p

r^.

This

is

called the strain ellipsoid.

Its axes are in the direc(pep'

tions of the perpendicular system of

soid Sp(p'<pp

tt^.

The

ellip-

converted into the sphere Tp = r. This is the reciprocal strain ellipsoid. Its axes are in the directions of the principal axes of the strain. The extenr^ is

sions of lines

drawn

in these directions in the state

before

the strain are stationary, and. one of mum, one the minimum extension.
4.

them

is

thus the maxi-

shear

is

represented by
<pp

l3Sap,

where Sa^ = 0. The displacement is parallel to the vector = 0. /3 and proportional to its distance from the plane Sap There
If

no change in volume since ms = 1. there is a uniform dilatation and a shear the function
is

is

(PP

=
is

9P

^Sap.
g^.

The change
seen to be

in

volume

now

The equation
0.

is

easily

(<P

gf

This

is the necessary and sufficient condition of a dilatation and a shear, but this equation alone will not give the axes and the shear plane, of course. 5. The function (pp = gqpq~^ ql3q~^Sap is a form into which the most general strain can be put which is due to

shifting in a fixed direction, Ufi, planes parallel to the fixed

= by an amount proportional to the perpenplane Sap dicular distance from the fixed plane, then altering all
lines in the ratio g,

and superposing a

rotation.

This

is

DEFORMABLE BODIES
any
strain.

257
into the

We

simply have to put

ip'ip

(p'tp

form

6^

+ XSm + M-SX,
T\ii

where

5X/x=^(a2+c2-262),
and then we take

W-e),
c)\

g=h^
The
6.

a=
is

-\,

6/3

^X-^a

rotation

determined as before.

body that are lengthened the same ratio, say g, are parallel to the edges of the cone T(pUp = g or SUp{<p'(p g^)Up = 0, or in terms of X, /*, = b^- g^, sin w- sin r = (62 2S\UpSnUp c*), ^)/(a2
in

All the lines in the original

where u and

v are

the angles the line makes with the cyclic

planes of the cone S(pp(pp

7.

=
p

T^p.
is

The displacement
d

of the extremity of p

((p

l)p,

which can be resolved along p and perpendicular to p into

the parts
p(Sp-^(pp
1)

+ pVp-^tpp.

The

term is called the elongation. the numerically reciprocal of the square of the radius of the elongation quadric:
coefficient of p in the first
It is

Sp{<pQ

l)p

1,

the radius being parallel to p. The other component may be written Tep V(foPP~^-p, where e is the invariant vector of <p, the spin-vector.

8.

If
it

now

the strain

is

sider

in its infinitesimal character.

not homogeneous, we must conIn this case we have

again the formula da = SdpV -a = fpdp, where a is now the displacement of P, whose vector is p, and <t -\- da that of

258
p

VECTOR CALCULUS
provided that we can neglect terms of the second these have to be considered,

+ dp,

order.

If

da

= =

SdpV-<T
(pdp

+ K'Sc^PV)VV
'

^Sdp'^^ (pdp.
first

We may
now

analyze the strain in the case of

(p

order into

=
if

(Po+ VeQ.
e

Since

e
is

= ^FVc,

0,

it

follows that a

V-P

and there

a displacement potential and

<p=

- V^SVPQ.
pure strain.
If e is

The

not zero, In any there is rotation, about e as an axis, of amount Te. case the function cpo determines the changes of length of all
strain
is

in this case a

lines in the

body, the extension

being

e of

the short line in the

direction

Up

SUpcpoUp.

The
are

six coefficients of

cpo,

of

form

Sa(po^,

where a,
(3,

j3

any two

of the three trirectangular vectors a,

y,

are called the components of strain.

Three are extensions

is

and three are

9.

shears,

In the case of

an unsymmetrical division. small strains the volume increase

SV<r, and this is called the cubic dilatation. If it vanishes, the strain takes place with no change of volume, that is, with no change of density. A strain of this character
is

called

a transversal strain.

There

is

a vector

potential from which a can be derived

a-

by the formula
0.

= FVr,

SVt =

no scalar potential since we do not generally have Indeed we have also FVo- = 0. There
is

FVor

= FvFVr = VV - vSVt = VV.

DEFORMABLE BODIES
This would give us the integral

259

The

integration is over the entire body. This strain is called transverse because in case

we have a

a function of a single projection of p, on a given line, say a,

so that

a
S Vo"

afi-x
/i

+ fif2-x + yfz'X,
0,

/i

constant,

and
rigid

all

points are

moved

in this direction like those of

body.

zero,

and /i

We may therefore = 0, so that

Saa

take the constant equal to

0.

Hence every displacement is perpendicular to the line a. 10. When FVo- = 0, we call the strain longitudinal; for, 9, we see that we have giving a the same expression as in

Wo- =
Hence we have
11.
is

7/2'

- fifz,
Va<T

and

/2

fz,

0.

all

the strain parallel to a.

In case the cubical dilatation iSVo"

0,

the strain

= 0, purely of a shearing character, and if the curl VVo^ the strain is purely of a dilatational character. Since any vector G can be separated into a solenoidaJ and a lamellar
part in an infinity of ways, it is always possible to separate the strain into two parts, one of dilatation only, the other
of shear only.
If

we

write a

= VP +

Vr, then we can

find

and r

in

one way from the integrals

P=lTfffSa'vTp-'dv',

r= - iT-fffVa'VTp-'dv',

p=

p'

PC.

260

VECTOR CALCULUS

The integrations extend throughout the body displaced. This method of resolution is not always successful, and other formulae must be used. (Duhem, Jour, des Math.,
1900.)
12. The components are not functionally independent, but are subject to a set of relations due to Saint Venant. These relations are obvious in the quaternion form, equiva-

lent to six scalar equations.

The equation
if

is

V-ViPoVvO =

0,

<p=SOV-<r,

where both V's operate on (po. The equation is, furthermore, the necessary and sufficient condition that any linear
vector function
(p

can represent a strain.

The problem

of

a given linear and vector function of p consists in inverting the equation

finding the vector a
is
<p

when ^

=
is

SOV-(T.
evident that

(Kirchkoff, Mechanik, Vorlesung 27.)

if

It

we

operate upon dp,

we have

(pdp

da.

Hence the problem reduces

to the integration of a set of

differential equations of the ordinary type.

EXAMPLES
(1).

li

(p

Fe(),

wehaveo-

Vep.

Prove Saint Venant's Prove Saint Ven-

equations.
(2).

If

<^

= p-WOp-\

then a

Up.

ant's equations.
13. In general when we do not have small strains, we must modify the preceding theory somewhat. The dis-

placement

will

change the
dpi

differential

element dp into

dp

Sdp\7

-or.

The
two

strain

is

characterized

differential

elements and this

when we know the ratio of the we may find by squaring

DEFOKMABLE BODIES
-o as to arrive at the tensor

261

{dpiY

Sdp[l

- 2vSa +
is

V'S<t'(t"SV'Vp.

The
c

function in the brackets

will represent

which we

by

the general strain function, $. It is easily clear that if

jSQV-o- then

$ =
Of course
also called
<l>

(1
is

<p){i

^')

(1

+
If

^)(i

^y.

self-conjugate.
strain.

Its

components Sa^0 are

<p is

components of

infinitesimal,

we

may

substitute (1

+ 2<pq)
is

for $.

The

cubical dilatation

now found by

subtracting
(f)

from

SdipidiPidzpil Sdipdipdzp

= ^3(1+
The

= 1+ A.
in

Evidently
angle of

(1 -j-

A)^
is

rrisi^).

alteration

the

two elements

found from
'P)\u{i<p)\'.

- sua +
If

angles are not altered between the infinitesimal elements, the transformation is conformal, or isogonal. In such case

For example,

if

= VaQ,
<p)y

when Sa\
14.

sua + ^)X(1 + = 0= SaW

SXX',

infinitesimal transformations,

This part of the subject leads us into the theory of and is too extensive to be

treated here.

On
15. If the function
it

Discontinuities
o-

may happen

continuous.

is continuous throughout a body, convergence or its curl may be disThe consideration of such discontinuities is

that

its

262

VECTOR CALCULUS

usually given at length in a discussion of the potential Here we need only the elements of the theory. functions. We make use of the following general theorem from analysis.

Lemma.
all

face for if, as we approach the surface by each and every path leading

If a function is continuous on one side of a surpoints not actually on the surface in question, and

up

to

derivatives

a point P, the gradient of the function, or its directional approach one and the same limit for all the paths;

then the differential of this function along a path lying on the

surface is also given by the u^ual formula,

Sdp\/

-q

dq,

dp being on the surface.

p.

[Hadamard, Lemons sur la propagation des ondes, etc., 84, Painleve, Ann. Ecole Normale, 1887, Part 1, ch. 2,
2.]

no.

In the case of a vector a which has the same value on

each side of a surface, which is the value on the surface, and is the limiting value as the surface is approached, at all points of the surface, we have on one side of the surface
d(T

SdpS7

o'

<pidp.

On

the opposite side

da
If

Sdp\7-o'

(P2dp.

now
<p,

in

so that ^2

these two do not agree, but there is a discontinuity (Pi is finite as the two paths are made
^

to approach the surface, then designating the fluctuation or

saltus of a function
[da]

by the notation
((p2

[],

we have

in the limit

(pi)dp

[(p]dp.

But
is

a does not vary abruptly, hence for dp on the surface zero,

since
[(p]dp

[da]

along the surface

0,

DEFORMABLE BODIES
and therefore
[<p\

263

t^Sv,

where
-ay,

v is

we have

the unit normal, n a given vector. for the transition of the surface

That

is

to

[SOV-<t]

hSp.

Whence
[SV(t]

= [Vs^a] =

Spfi,

Vvti.

These are conditions of compatibihty

continuities

of the surface of dis-

and the discontinuity; or

identical conditions,

under which the discontinuities can actually have the surface for their distribution.
16.
is

U Suv =
Svvfj.

0,

then [S V<r]

0,

and the cubic dilatation

continuous.
Since

Sv[VV(r] = [SvV(t], the norma! component of the curl of a is continuous, and the discontinuity Likewise is confined to the tangential component.

S^vfi=

0=

[SfiV<r],

and the component along /x is continuous. Hence VS7(t can be discontinuous only normal to the plane of /x, v.
17.

In case a
of

itself is

discontinuous, the normal com-

ponent passes the surface of discontinuity cannot be discontinuous without tearing the surface in two. Hence
it

a as

the discontinuity is purely tangential. to the curl of a as follows.

It

can be related

Consider a line on the surface, of infinitesimal length, and an infinitesimal rectangle normal to the surface, and let the value of a at the two upper points differ only infinitesimally, as likewise at the two lower points, but the difference at the two right hand points or at the two
left

hand

264

VECTOR CALCULUS
discontinuity
in

points be finite, so that a has a through the surface equal to \<j\.

going

Then

around the rectangle, when k is normal to the rectangle. But the four parts on the left for the four sides give simply
/S5p[o-],

where hp is a horizontal side and equal to V-KvT8p. we have for every k tangential to the surface
SkVp[<7]

Hence

Sk Lim {AVV(T)/Tdp.

Dropping

all infinitesimals,

we have
AV^/a/Tdp.

Vv[a]

= Lim

Tangential discontinuities may therefore be considered to be representable by a limiting value of the curl multiplied

by an

infinitesimal area, as

if

the surface of discon-

tinuity were the locus of the axial lines of an infinity of small rotations which enable one space to roll upon the other.

The expression

|[o-] is

the strength of this sheet.

strain

is

not irrotational unless such surfaces of dis-

continuity are absent.

But we have shown above that a

imply certain surfaces of discon-

continuous strain
tinuity in
its

may
Vv[a]
v.

derivatives of

everywhere, then
exists is parallel to

0,

some order. If V'Vo' = 0, and such discontinuity as

derivation above applies to any case, and we may if a field is irrotational, any discontinuity it possesses must be normal to the surface of discontinuity.

The

say that

Integrating in the
box,

same way over the

surface of a small

we would have
^^Sv[a]d^

SV<T'V,

DEFORMABLE BODIES
wliere x
is

265
this gives

the infinitesimal volume.

Sv[<t\

But

vS'V(rlsuT{ace.

If then SVoeverywhere, the discontinuity of a is normal to the normal, that is, it is purely tangential. These theorems will be useful in the study of electro-dynamics.

Kinematics of Displacements
In the case of a continuous displacement which takes place in time we have as the vector a the velocity of a moving particle, and if p is the vector from a fixed point
18.

to the particle, then dp/dt

cr.

It

is

necessary to distin-

guish between the velocity of the particle and the local velocity of the stream of particles as they pass a given fixed point in the absolute space which is supposed to be sta-

The latter is designated by d^dt. Thus da'dt is the local rate of change of the velocity at a certain point. While da/dt is the rate of change of the velocity as we follow
tionary.

the particle. It is easy to see that for any quaternion q the actual time rate of change is
dq/'dt

dqjdt

SaV-q.

We

have thus the acceleration

daldt

da'dt

SaV-<T
is

(d/dt-\-

<p)<r.

If

the infinitesimal vector dp

considered to be displaced,

we have
Sdpldt

=
dt,
is

SdpV-<r.
the angular velocity of turn attached is ^FVo-. This is

Since the rotation

of the particle to

is

^Vv<t

which dp

the vortex velocity.

tion
is

Likewise the velocity of cubic dilata-

SVor.
rate of change of

The
18

an

infinitesimal

volume dv as

it

266

VECTOR CALCULUS
is

moves along

SV(T-dv.

The equation
density, or

of continuity

is

d(cdv)

=
0.

0,

where

c is

the

dc/dt

c(- SV<t)

That

is,

we have

for a

medium

of constant

mass

dc/dt

cjSVo"-

That

is, the density at a moving point has a rate of change second per equal to the density times the convergence of the velocity.

It

may

also be written easily

dc/dt

Sv(c<7).
i^

This means that at a fixed point the velocity of increase

density cubic centimeter.
19.
is

equal to the convergence of the

the motion
cr

momentum

pt

When FVo" = tational, and we may

ity-potential,

0,

is

irrotational, or dik

put

\^P, where

now

is

a veloc

which
0,

may

be monodromic or polydromic
is

When SS/a = we may write

the motion

solenoidal or circuital, an(

= FVr

potential of velocity.

SVr 0. The lines e = |FVcr

where

is

the vector
in this

become

case the concentration of |r.

lines of r,

The

lines of

a are the vortex

and the
is

lines of e are the vortex lines of a.

continuous, and the equation of a surface of = 0, discontinuity of the gradient dyadic of a and of a' is / where now (t is a displacement and a' is da/dt the velocity,
20. If
<r

we have

certain

conditions of kinematic compatibility.

in

These were given by Christoffel follows. We have

[a]

1877-8 and are found as

0,

[-S()V-(r]=

/xSi^

DEFORMABLE BODIES
in the case in

267

which the time

is

t is

not involved; and for a

t

moving we would have

[-

surface in which /

a function of

as well as of p,

SOV-<f]=-fiSUvfO,
^"^

-fv ^] ^ "
as
it

^'

^-^

f ^^"^^^

^'''^^

~^'''

iThis gives us the discontinuity in the time rate of change of

the displacement of a point as other of the moving surface.

it

The equation
in the

passes from one side to the of the surface

moves being /(p,

t),

we have

normal direction

- SdpV-f+dtf =
that
is,

0,

since dp
'

is

now Us/fdn,

the derivative of / any point on the instantaneous position of the moving surface the rate of outward motion of the point of the
is

where /
at

dn/dt flT\7f = G, In words, as to i alone.

surface
G'

coinciding

with

the

fixed

point

in

space

is

called a

f '/Tvf- The moving surface of discontinuity is wave and G the rate of propagation of the wave at the given point. We may now read the condition of compatibility above in these words: the abrupt change in the
displacement velocity is given by a definite vector ju at each point multiplied by the negative rate of propagation of the wave of displacement, that is, if G is the rate of
propagation,

W] =
21.

Gil,

and

[S\7a]

= -

5/xT'V/

= -

Siiv.

tinuities of

general for disconin order the Let the funcany following way. tion a and all its derivatives be continuous down to the
(n

The preceding theorem becomes

l)th,

then we can write

[-S()iV-*S()2V

5()_iV-o-]

0,

268

VECTOR CALCULUS

whence, differentiating along the surface of discontinuity

as before,

we
'

find in precisely the

same manner
'

[SOiV

SOnV-c] = fxS0iUvfS02Uvf
in

SOnUvf,
is

since at a given point on the fixed surface

V/

constant.
n),

And

if

we

insert

dpjdt

parentheses

(m ^

we

shall have, since the surface is

moving,

[SOiV

-S()_^V-(7(-)]

= In particular for
to

tJiG^^SOlUVf'
2

son-mUvf{-ir

n,

we have

k"]

= nG\

which

is

the discontinuity in the acceleration of the dis-

placement.
If TO

1,

2,

[SOV-a']= -fiGSQUvf.
From
this

we

derive easily
GSfiP.

[SVcr']

= - GSfiUvf= - GVfjiUvf = = [Wa']

Saa
are

GVixv.

22.

The

nth. derivatives of

[SQiV
If

S{)nV-Saa]

= SOiUvf

SOnUvfSan.

then we hold the surface fixed and consider a certain

point, the discontinuity in the nth derivative of the ratio

of

two values

of the infinitesimal

perpendicular directions

the normal will

volume which has two on the surface and the third along be given by the formula

SQiUvf--- SOnUvfS^Uvf.
In case

we have a

material substance that has mass and

DEFORMABLE BODIES
[density

269
fixed,

and

of

which the mass remains

c/co

we have

log c

log Co
r/27o

= =
=

volo/vol,

log vo

log

V,

V log c =
I

V log

Vo/v-V{c/vo).

Therefore from the formula above

in the limit

we have

since i?/^

ksQiV
we have

SOnV

log

c]

= SOiUvf

'

'

SOnUvfSnUvf.
two

In particular for the case of discontinuities of order

[Vlogc]= UvfSfxUvf.
These theorems may be extended to the case in which the medium is in motion as well as the wave of discontinuity.
23.

Stress
24. In

any body

the stress at a given point

tension or a pressure which is across an infinitesimal area situated at the point.

stress real
I

given as a exerted from some source

is

The

consists of
if

two opposing
if

actions, being taken

as positive

a tension, negative
stress

sumed that the

taken

all

It is asa pressure. over the surface of an

infinitesimal closed solid in the

forces in equilibrium, to

body

will
first

terms of the

be a system of order. This is

equivalent to assuming that the stress on any infinitesimal portion of the surface is a linear function of the normal,

that
I
;

is

e = ^Uv.
25.

We

have therefore for any infinitesimal portion of

space inside the body

J'fQdA = ffEdv =
But
bj^

0.

Green's theorem this

is

equal to the integral through

270

VECTOR CALCULUS

the infinitesimal space In this equation H is a function of

26. In

SSS^^
p,

0-

Hence

HV =

0.

and

differentiates

S
oi
ii

case the portion of space

integrated over

through is not infinitesimal, this equation (in which H no longer a constant function) remains true if there
equilibrium; and
if

a is

there are external forces that produce equilibrium, say ^ per unit volume, then the density being
c,

we have

HV +
for every point.

c^

=
we have
c<x".

In case there

is

a small motion,

HV +
27.

c^

see that the

Returning to the infinitesimal space considered, we: moment as to the origin of the stress on a

portion of the boundary will be

Vp'EUv and the tota

moment which must

vanish, considering

as constant,

is

ffVpZdv = fffVp^Vdv,
hence

FpSv =

(H).

We see

therefore that

is

self-conjugate.

EXAMPLES

In this case (1). Purely normal stress, hydrostatic stress. is of the form pH = gp, where g is -{for tension, foi

pressure,
(2).

and

is

a function of p (scalar, of course).

Simple tension or pressure.

S=
(3).

paSa.

Shearing

stress.

H = - p(aS^
jS

+ ^Sa),

not parallel to a.

DEFORMABLE BODIES
(4).

271

Plane stress.

E=
(5),

giaSa

+ gzPS^.
stress.

Maxwell's electrostatic

2:=
where
28.

l/8x-

FVPQVP,

is

the potential.

The quadric 5pSp

Hp
is

Its principal

Since

C is called the stress quadric. axes give the direction of the principal stresses. the direction of the normal we may arrive at a

graphical understanding of the stress by passing planes through the center, and to each construct the conjugate

the direction of the stress, and since T'Ep inversely proportional to the perpendicular from the origin on the tangent plane at p, if we lay off on
diameter.

This
is

will give

the conjugate diameter distances inversely as the perpendiculars, we shall have the vector representation of the
stress.

When the

diameter

is

normal to

its

conjugate plane,
stress.

there will be no

component

of the corresponding vector

is,

that

is

parallel to the plane, that

will

no tangential

Such planes
It is

be the principal planes of the stress. evident that a stress is completely known when the
is

self-conjugate linear vector function H depends therefore upon six parameters. then, of the stress H, since
tion
is

known, which
shall speak,

We
it.

This proposisometimes stated as follows: stress is not a vector

represents

but a dyadic (tensor).

From

this point of

view the six

components

of the stress are taken as the coordinates of a

vector in six-dimensional space. These components in the quaternion notation are, for a, ^, y, a trirectangular system,

SaZa,

SjSHt

iSjSSjS,

Sy'E^,

-StHt,

Sy'Ea

SaH/S

= -

S^Za,

Sa'Ey.

272

VECTOR CALCULUS
is,

That

It

is

easy to see

now

that certain combinations of these

component

stresses are invariant.

Thus we have

at once

the three invariants mi, m^, mz, which are

Xx ~r

J^ y

~T ^zi
1

^ V^z

^zA-x

+ Xxl

Zx

Xy
.

Xx-iy^z

2XyY z^x

XxY z

YyZix

ZzXy

For any three perpendicular planes these are invariant.

EXERCISE
What
are the principal stresses

and principal planes

of the five ex-

amples given above?

29.

Returning to the equation of a small displacement,

write
it

we may

a"

^-\-

c-^SV.
is
>

Hence the time

rate of storage or dissipation of energy

W'= - fffSa'ZVdv.
The other terms
of energy.
of the kinetic energy are not

due to storage
in

Now we have an experimental

its full

law due to Hooke which

to the effect that the stress dyadic is a linear function of the strain dyadic. The latter was shown
is

statement

to be

The

kw of Hooke then amounts to saying that S is a linear

<r and where operates upon c, and owing to the self-conjugate character of ^p, we must be able to

function of

interchange

and

a,

that

is,

S=

e[(),

V,

cr].

DEFORMABLE BODIES
First, it follows

273

that
a-,

variable parameter

the same parameter. of this kind which we

a'

if the strain ^o is multiplied by a that the stress will be multiplied by We have then for a parametric change

may

suppose to take place

in

a alone

ax'.

Hence

for a gradually increasing a,

we would

have

W = - xx'fffSa^Vdv,
W
if

= - hfffSa^V
to
1.

dv,

This gives an expression for the energy if it is stored in this special manner. If the work is a function of the strain alone and not dependent upon the

X runs from

is called an energyis brought about, to be a thus seen quadratic function of the fiindion. is an In case there strain. energy function, we have for

way

in

which

it

It is

two

strain functions

due to the displacements

vi],

ai, at

Hi

e[(),

(Ti,

H2

e[(), at, V2].

The
same
have

stored energy for the

either

way we

two displacements must be the arrange the displacements, hence we

So-zGalVs,

0-1,

Vi]

-So-ie4[V4, oi, V2],

acts. 4 merely indicate upon what function This is equivalent to saying that so far as vector is concerned, in the form

where the subscripts

3,

we can interchange
is

a,

self-conjugate,

Since E is self -conjugate, /3 and 7, 5. and we can interchange a and j8. From

the nature of the strain function

Of course,

in the

we can interchange 7, 5. forms above we cannot interchange the

effect of the differentiations.

274

VECTOR CALCULUS,
have
in this

'

We

way
<Pl2

arrived at six linear vector functions

<PZ3 <P2Z
<P31
<Pl2,

<Pn

wherein we can interchange the subscripts, and where

(pn

e[(),

,]

<P23

e[(), fi,y]

',

jS

7 being

have further a system where

Cini

a trirectangular system of unit vectors. of thirty-six constituents Cim,

We
C1112,

Soiipua,
six functions

C1112

Saipi^a,
six constituents.

each of the

having

These

are the 36 elastic constants. If there is an energy function, they reduce in number to only 21, for we must be able to interchange the first pair of numbers with the last pair.

There are thus

left

3 forms Cim, 6 of

C1112,

3 of

C1122,

3 of

C1212,

3 of

C2311,

3 of c^ni-

In theories of elasticity based upon a molecular theory and action at a distance six other relations are added to
these reducing the number of elastic constants to 15. These relations are equivalent to an interchange of the second

and third subscript in each form, thus C1122 = Ci2i2- These are usually called Cauchy's relations, but are not commonly
used. (See Love, Elasticity, Chap. III.)
strain function
v'o,

Remembering the

these coefficients with no difficulty, for

we can we have

interpret

SanpoUj

(pij,

the stress dyadic due to the strain component where a,, ay are any two of the three a, /?, 7.

Sai(poaj,
Cijki is

the

component
direction ai

of the stress across a plane

normal

to ay in the

due to the strain component

Sak(po(xi-

DEFORM ABLE BODIES

275

EXAMPLES
(1). If Sij

Sai<p(/Xj,

show that we have

for the energy

function

W=
(2),

^ZcnnSn-

+ 2eii22ii*22 + ^'^CunSii^ + 2Ci223*12*23 + 2Ciii2*ll*l2 +

is

2Cu23*ll*23.

When

there

a plane of sjTnmetry, say in the direc-

tion normal to y, all constants that involve

of times vanish, for the solid
this plane.
is

y an odd number
reflection in

unchanged by
/3,

Only thirteen remain.

If there are

two per-

pendicular planes of symmetry, normal to constants left are of the types

Cllll,

7, the only

Cn22,

Ci2l2>

the plane normal to

is

There are nine constants.

crystals.
(3).

thus a plane of s^Tnmetry also. This last case is that of tesseral

If

the constants are not altered by a change of a into

jS,

a,

^ into

'as

by

rotation about
is

angle, then the plane

(4).

normal to 7

7 through a straight a plane of symmetry.

Discuss the effect of rotation about

7 through other

angles.
(5).

When
yi,

the energy function exists

we have
where
d'

e(X,
30.

v)

0(/z, \, v)

= -

VvB^^yL,

6.

A body is said

to be isotropic as to elasticity

when the

elastic constants are

body.

not dependent upon directions in the In such case the energy function is invariant under
It
(po,

orthogonal transformation. of the three invariants of

third degree,

must, therefore, be a function

mi, m2, mz.

The
is

last is of

while the energy function and therefore can be only of the form
IT'

quadratic

= -

Pnii

AvH^

Brrii.

276

VECTOR CALCULUS
zero except for gases and is then positive. refers to resistance to compression, and

is

The conis

stant
J5 is

positive.

a constant belonging to soHds. The form given the quadratic terms by Helmholtz

is

Ami^

Bmt = ^Hmi"

|C[2mi2

Gmz].

The

[]

is

the

sum
(fo.

of the squares of the differences of the

latent roots of

The constant
of form,

H
in

refers to

volume without change

whole energy, for
are
all

and

changes of such change it is the

if there is no change of form, the roots the and other term is zero. C refers to changes equal of form without change of volume, since it vanishes if the roots are equal and is the whole energy if there is no cubical = 0. expansion mi. For perfect fluids C The form given by Kirchoff is

From which we have

B-

C = 2Kd,

3C = 2K,

H=

2K{d

+ \),

C=

IK.

We may

write for solids, liquids, and gases

+ Km^W) - Pmi. that Later notation gives 2K6 = \, K = W = ^Xmi^ + iumi(^o^) Pmi.

W=

Kemi"

fx,

is,

The

constants X,

ix

are the

two independent constants

of

isotropic bodies.

We now have for the stress function in terms of the strain

function

S = Xmi

2/x^o.

EXAMPLES
(1).

In the case of a simple dilatation we

know H = p

DEFORMABLE BODIES
and we have
for ^o

277

<P^=

- h(SOV-ap + ASapO) =
we have

a().

Substituting in the equation above,

Op =
The
cubical dilatation
is

X(3a)

2/xa().

thus

3a

p/(X

+ fm) =

p/Jc,

where k
(2).

is

called the

modulus

of cubical compression.

For a simple shear

<Po=

S= -

a/2-[S/3()

+ fiSaOl
fiSai)].

m^

0,

apiaSPO -f
is

If

the tangential stress

If

T, then

T=

afi.

is

the shear

modulus or simple
(3).

rigidity.
is

a prism of any form

subject to tension

T uniform

over

its

plane ends,

and no

lateral traction,

we have

H = - aTSaO = Xmi
From
both
sides,

2fx<po.

this equation, taking the first scalar invariant of

T = 3miX

+ 2mifi,

so that

mi=
Substituting,

r/(3X+2/i).

we have
''

2fi

2/i(3X

+2m)'
the quotient of a

We

\\Tite

now

E=

/i(3X

2/i)/(X

+ n),

simple longitudinal tension by the stretch produced, and Also we set called Young's modulus.
s

X/(2X

2/i),

Poisson's ratio.

278

VECTOR CALCULUS

the ratio of the lateral contraction to the longitudinal

stretch.
It is clear that
if

any two

of the three

moduli are known,

the other

may

be found.

We

have
M

E/[(l

+ *)(1 k

2^),

i^/(l

+ s),

IE/ (I -2s).

In terms of

and

we have

(po

m-~
<
0,

Wi(H)-5

and the material would expand under < 1, IT would not be positive. pressure. = | and X = ju. For (5). If Cauchy's relations hold, 5 numerical values of the moduli see texts such as Love,
(4).

If

<

6',

If *

Elasticity.
31. Bodies that are not isotropic are called aelotropic.

For discussion of the cases and definitions of the moduli,

see texts on elasticity.
32.

There

is still

the problem of finding a from

(po

after

the latter has been found from H.

solve as follows
0"
:

This problem we can

o'o

+ Jlo^da =
= = = =

(To

Jl^a^cSvdp, where
fp'o'i^odp

acts on a

<To+
0-0+

- ^VdpVV(T] - p)Vvd(T i(F(pi f^l'Wodp

-d-V{pip)V\/(t]

(To-

hV(Pi
iV(pi

Po)VV(To

fp'o'lfodp

(To

hViPi

P)VVd<r]
.

poWVcro +

fp^'[<Podp

- V(piWe are thus able to express a at any point

p)VV'iPodp].

pi in

terms of the

DEFORMABLE BODIES
\alues at po of a,
integration of ^o

279
of

T Vo", and the values along the path and T'V^oO-

EXAMPLES
(1).

Let us consider a cylinder or prism which

is

vertical

with horizontal ends, the upper being cemented to a Then we have the value of zontal plane.

hori-

H =
where the origin
is

gcySypSyO,

vertical unit,

at the center of the lower base.

The

conditions of equilibrium are

SV +
That
under
gel
is,

c^

0,

or
is

c^

gey,

the condition

realizable

its

own
I is

where

weight. the length.

The

by a cylinder hanging tension at the top surface is

Solving for the strain,

we have

L
Let a

L
gc{l -f s)IE,

gcs'E, b

and note that

VV<PoO = The
(^0

- aVyO - bVyySyQ = -

aVyO-

integral
2^^(Pl

is

thus

Po)0

+
=
<To

J'p^'iaSyp-dp
2^^(Pl

+
-\-a

bySypSydp

aV(pi

p)Vydp]

Po)o

+
=
(To

S/o'[aSyp-8p
po)eo +

+ bySypSydp VpiVydp adpSyp

[hbyS'^yp

+ aySpdp]

r(pi

+ aVpiVyp + laypX,
the differential being exact.

This gives us as the value of

a at

pi.

280
0-1

VECTOR CALCULUS
r

V(pi

po)(ieo

aVypo)

+ h^Vpiypi + ^byS'^yp,
V5(r()L

f, e

constants.

Substituting a and

6,

and constructing

^0= -M'S()V-cr+
we
easily verify.
If

the cylinder does not rotate, we may omit the second term and if the upper base does not move
laterally,

then the vector ^ reduces to

^gcP/E-y, and

we have

a= A

^cP/E-y

gcsl2E'Vpyp

gc(l

+ s)/2E-yS'py.

plane cross-section of the cylinder is distorted into a paraboloid of revolution about the axis and the sections shrink laterally by distances proportional to their distances

from the
(2). If

free end.

a cylinder of length 21

is

immersed

in a fluid of

density c', its own density being c, the upper end fixed, p the pressure of the fluid at the center of gravity, then we have the stress given by

S= -

(p

gc'Syp)
<po,

g(c

c')(l

Syp)ySy,

whence calculating
<Po

we have
1

l/E-i- (2>+ gc'Syp)(-

X
And

(1

Syp)]

+
-

2*)

gs{c

c')

ySy[g(c

c')(l

Syp)l

+ s)]/E.

a= ^+Vdp +

p[{-

2^)2?

gslic

c')

-Spyg[ce-sic+c')]lE ^y[hic-c')ii-\-s)(i-Sypr

+
(3).

hgp'W
if

s(c

c')]/E.

What

does the preceding reduce to

c'?

Solve

also directly.

DEFORMABLE BODIES
(4).

281

If a circular
is

bar has

its

axis parallel to 7,

and the

only stress
of

moment
is,

a traction at each end, equivalent to couples ^xaV^ about the axis of 7, a being the radius,

that

a round bar held twisted by opposing couples,

we

have

H= -

ht^tiySpyO

(po= lt[ySpyO a = tVpySyp.

+ VfyySyO), + VpySyQ],

Any

section
t

tSyp.
(5).
it is

is

The

turned in its own plane through the angle the angular twist per centimeter. next example is of considerable importance, as
is

that of a bar bent by couples.

The equations

are

H= .^0

= - (1 + s)!R-Sap-ySyO - slR-Sap-Q, 1 _ ~ 2 Er^-a[S-yp + sS'ap sS'yap]

E/R-Sap-ySyO,

+ sEr^yocS^pSap
If

R~^ySapSyp.

the body

is

axis

horizontal, there

a cylinder or prism of any shape with the is no body force nor traction on the
resultant traction across

perimeter.

The

any section

is

ffwhich
will

EiRSapdA,
is

equal zero

if

the origin

on the hne of centroids

is,

of the sections in the

normal

state, that

the neutral axis.

Thus the bar

to a couple.

by the tractions at its terminal the traction across sections, any section being equivalent
is

stressed only

The couple becomes one with axis ^ = ya and value EIjR, where / is the moment of inertia about an axis through the centroid parallel to /3. The line of centroids
is

displaced according to the law

Saa
19

\R~^S-yp,

282
SO that
it is

VECTOR CALCULUS
approximately the arc of a
circle of radius

R.

strain-energy function is \ER~'^-S-ap, and the potential energy per unit length ^EI/R^.

The

For further discussion see Love, p. 127 et seq. = - E-Syp-dQ, where dy = 0, and (6). When S

6',

and a may not be a unit

^0
(T

vector,

show that

= = (1

(1 + s)Syp-eO + sSyp-mi{d), + s)%Spdp - dpSpy] + smmi- hp" + pSpy].

See Love, pp. 129-130.

33.

We

recur

now

to the equation of equilibrium

SV +
E = Xmi
whence

c^

0.

In this we substitute the value of

2m^o

= - \SWa - (aSQV
fiVSV(T

+
=
0,

VSaQ),

WSV(T + /xVV +
or
(X

c^

c^

0,

+ m) V5V<r + juV^c -

or equally since

VV =
(X

2ju)

vSVa- + VVV<r, V^Vo- + mVFVo- - c^ =

0.

the equation of equilibrium when the displacemen and the force ^ are given. In the case of small motion w<

This

is

insert on the right side instead of 0, across a plane of normal v is

(X

ca''.

The

tractioi

+ fx)vSV(r

fxVVva,

where
tion

v is constant.

Operating on the equilibrium equa

by <SV(), we
(X

see that

2fi)V^SVa-

cSV^ =

0.

DEFOR\L\BLE BODIES
If

283
if

then there are no body forces ^ or

the forces ^ are

derivable from a force-function

P and V^P =

throughout

the body,

we

see that

is

a harmonic function.
also harmonic.

Since ?Wi(E)

SA-twi,

we

see that

7?Zi(S) is

Again we have
(X

+ m) V5V<r = - M VV,

whence we can construct the operators

(X

+ n)VSvOSVa = - fiV^VSa = - ^VVSvO+ m) V5V-SV(r() = - /xVViSvO +

have

and adding the two,

2(X

VSaQ)

Now we

E = - XSVtr and since S'Va

V=^H
is

/x(<r5V0

VSaQ),

harmonic

= -

,xV'(<tSvO
u)

VSaO) =
(1

2(X

+ /x)V-Sv5V<rO

= 2(X+
3^.

VSvSVtrQ =
V'S =

+ *)-^V5V-SV(r().

or

T^ V5vJ/i().
(5) 1 (1892).

This relation

is

due to Beltrami, R. A. L. R.,

EXAMPLE
i

Maxwell's stress system cannot occur in a solid body which is isotropic, free from the action of body forces, and
slightly strained

from a state of no

'j
*

stress, since

we have

TOi(H)

l/8x.(vP)^

284

VECTOR CALCULUS
is

which
34.

not harmonic.

(Minchin Statics, 3d ed. (1886),

the problem of vibrations of a soUd

vol. 12, ch. 18.)

We

consider

now

under no body
aeolotropic.

forces, the

body being
is

either isotropic or
j

The equation
ca"
0-

of vibrations

|
0[(),

0( V, V, 0"),

where
t

H=
p.

V,

o"]

as before,
iii

and

is

a function of both

and

If

the vector

represents

the direction and the magnitude of the wave-front, the equation of a plane-wave will be

Spjoo,

since this represents a variable plane

moving along
is

its

own normal with

velocity

co.

By
That

definition of a wave-front

the displacement from the the same at every point.

mean

position
is,

at

any instant

is

a function of u

and

t,

hence

Vc =

VSpfcoda/du
of

uT'^da/du,

and any homogeneous function

fv-<T

as/(V)

gives

/(co-^)av/^w^

where n

is

the degree of /.
for

The equation above

wave-motion then

is

If
if

the wave

is

the vibration

permanent, c involves t only through u and is harmonic of frequency p,

a"
Therefore

du^a/d^

= =

pV.
caT^u.
in the direction Uco

Q[Uoi, Uo}, a]

Hence

for a plane

wave propagated

DEFORMABLE BODIES
the vibration
function
e[Uo}, Uo),
()].

285
lines of

is

parallel to

one of the invariant

the

The velocity is the square root of the quotient of the latent root corresponding, by the density. There may be three plane-polarized waves propagated in the same direction
with different velocities.

The wave-velocity

surface

is

determined by the equation

S[e(co-^ (^-\a)

ca]mor\ ur\^
of 0[?7a>, TJw,

c^][Q{or\ aj-\7]

0,

that

is,

by the cubic
is

()].

an energy function, 9[?7co, U<a, ()] is selfconjugate as may easUy be seen. In such case the invariant
If there

lines

are perpendicular, that

di, di,

is,

the three directions of

vibration,

dz,

for

any

direction of propagation are

mutually trirectangular.
in

Since

is

essentially positive,

the roots are positive, and there are thus three real velocities

any
If
gf

direction.

is a repeated root, there is an invariant plane of indeterminate lines and the condition for such is

V[e(c^-\ co-\ a)

cct][e(oi-\
is

or\

/3)

m=

0,

a and

/8

arbitrary.

There

a finite
co,

number
vectors

of solutions to

this vector equation, giving

and these give Hamilton's

internal

conical

refraction.

The

terminate

at

double points of the wave-velocity surface. The index-surface of MacCuUagh, that

is,

Hamilton's

wave-slowness surface,
5[0(p, p, a)
a,
/3,

is

given by
/3)

ca][Q{p, p,

c/3][e(p, p,

y)

cy]

0,

surface,

which is the inverse of the wave-velocity the current vector of the surface, just as ta for the other surface, the equation being formed by setting

arbitrary,

is

286
p
is

VECTOR CALCULUS
oT^.

=
the

The

envelope
co~^.

wave-surface, or surface of ray-velocity, of Sp/co = 1, or Spix = where 1,

is

The condition
surfaces.

of the

two other

It

is

that given by the equations the reciprocal of the index

surface with respect to the unit sphere p^ 1, or the of the wave-fronts in unit time after envelope plane passing the origin, or the wave of the vibration propagated from the
origin in unit time.

The

vectors p that satisfy

its

equation

are in magnitude and direction the ray- velocities. When there is an energy function, this ray-velocity is found easily, as follows:

The wave-surface

is

the result of eliminating between

fx,

e(iu,

a)

C(T,

Q{djx,

fx,

a)

6()U, djx, a)

9()U,

p.,

da)

cda,

Sfxp

Spdjx

0.

From

the second equation

2SdixQ{a-, a,
fx)

SdaQin,

/x,

a)

cSadX,

or

by the equations
SdixQ(<T, a,
jx)

0.

Hence

as

djx is

perpendicular to
9((r,
(T, fx)

p,

we have
xp.

Operate by

S/j,

and substitute the value

Q{Ua,
U<T,
jx)

of x,

cp.

This equation with Q(ix,ix, a) = ca gives all the relations between the three vectors. See Joly, p. 247 et seq.

CHAPTER XI
HYDRODYNAMICS
1.

Liquids and gases

of fluids.

mon name

may be considered under the comBy definition, a perfect fluid as dis-

tinguished from a viscous fluid has the property that its state of stress iiT^otion or when stationary can be considered to be an operator which has three equal roots and
all lines

invariant, thus

S=-P(),
where p
density
is is

positive, that
c,

we

If the a pressure, or H = p. have, when there are external forces and

is,

motion, the fundamental equation of hydrodynamics

a"

= ^-

c-^Vp.

In the case of viscous fluids we have to return to the

general equation
c ((t"
2.

^)

= - Vp is

(X

+ m)
c^.

V-SV

(t

-ijlV-(t.

When

there

equilibrium

Vp=
If

the external forces

may

P, we have Vp or dp = cdP for

= cVP,
all

be derived from a force function, hence ScdpVP, SdpS7p =

directions.

That

is,

any

infinitesimal

variation of the pressure is equal to the density into the infinitesimal variation of the force function. In order that

there

may

be equilibrium under the forces that reduce to

^, we must have ^ subject to a condition, for from Vp =c^, we have V^p = Vc^ + cV^, whence <S^V^ = 0, and

VV^ =

T'^Vlogc.
287

288
If ^

VECTOR CALCULUS

= VP,
last

the condition

is,

of

course,
is

satisfied,

and

from the
is

equation we

see that ^

parallel to

Vc, that

is normal to the isopycnic surface at the point, or the levels of the force function are the isopycnic surfaces. = c^ states that ^ is also a normal of the The equation

to say, ^

Vp

isobaric surfaces.

In other words, in equilibrium the

iso-

baric surfaces, the isopycnic surfaces, and the isosteric surfaces are geometrically the same. However, it is to be

noted that

if

a set of levels be drawn for any one of the

three so that the values of the function represented differ for the levels by a unit, that is, if unit sheets are constructed,

then the levels in the one case

in the other

may

not agree with the levels

in

two cases in distribution. The fundamental equation above may be read

words:
Specific

the -pressure gradient is the force per unit volume.

volume times pressure gradient is the force per unit mass. We can also translate the differential statement into

words thus:
sheet is the

the

mean

specific

volume in an isobaric unit

number

of equipotential unit sheets that are in-

cluded in the isobaric unit sheet.

equipotential unit sheet is the
enclosed.

The average density in an

of isobaric unit sheets

number

Since dp and

dP

are exact differentials,

we have:

Under

statical conditions the line integral of the foree of

pressure per unit mass as well as the line integral of the force from the force function per unit volume are independent of the

path of integration and thus depend only on the end points. 3. There is for every fluid a characteristic equation which
states a relation

third variable which in the case of a gas

between the pressure, the density, and a may be the temperais

ture, or in the case of a liquid like the sea, the salinity.

Thus the law

of

Gay-Lussac-Mariotte for a gas

-c

p = const

(1+ 273

7")

for constant

volume.

HYDRODYNAMICS

289

The
pa

characteristic equation usually appears in the

form

= RT,

where

in this case a is the specific

volume, the

equation reading

dP =

adp.

From

this

we have

dP = RTdplp.
connected with p by any law such as that given above, we can substitute its value and integrate at once. Or if T is connected with the force function P by an equation, we can integrate at once.
If
is

Example.
In the case of gravity and the atmosphere, suppose that the temperature decreases uniformly with the equiSince we must in this case take P so that potentials.

VP will be negative, we have

dP= whence
RTdplp,

T= ToRbdp/p,

bP,

dP = -dT/b,
Or again
dPJiTo

dT/T

T = TMp^y^.

-hP) =

-R dp/p,
full

bP/To

(p/poy.

solution of the problem, the initial conditions being for mean sea-level, and in terms of a or c as follows:

We

thus have the

T=
T = Tod

ToiplpoY^

ao{pfpoy^-\
""^-^-i,

P=b-'To[l- {p!po)% c = Co(l - To-'bP) bTo-'P), P = Po(l- To-W)^-'"^'.

Absolute zero would then be reached at a height where the

290

VECTOR CALCULUS

gravity potential would be

P=
and substituting we
find c

To/b,
0,

0.

If 6 is

negative,

the Active limit of the atmosphere is below sea-level. For values of bR from qo to 1, for the latter value b = 0.00348
(that is, a temperature drop of 3.48 C. per 100 dynamic meters of height), we have unstable equilibrium, since from the equations above for c we have increasing density

upwards.

The

case

bR =

is

extreme; however,

it

is

mathematically interesting from the simplicity that results. Pressure and temperature would decrease uniformly

and we should have a homogeneous atmosphere. This condition is unstable and the slightest displacement would
continue indefinitely.

Values of

bR

less

than

lead

still

to unstable equilibrium, the state of indifferent equilibrium occurring when the adiabatic cooling of an upward moving

mass of air brings its temperature to that of the new levels. For dry air this occurs for bR = 0.2884 = (1.4053

1) /1.4053,

or a

fall of

1.0048

C. per dynamic hectom-

eter.

See Bjerknes, Dynamic Meteorology and Hydrography. 4. The equation when there is not equilibrium gives us

aVp
Let
^

a".
( ),

= VP,

and operate by

V-V

then

WaVp =
ffSUvWaVp = The right-hand
or force per unit
side
is

V\7(t".

If we multiply by SUv and integrate over any surface normal to Uv, we have

ffSUv\7(7" =

fSdp<x".

the circulation of the acceleration

loop, the left-hand

mass around any

side

HYDRODYNAMICS
is

291

the surface integral of VS7aS7p over the area enclosed. If then we suppose that in a drawing we represent the isobars as lines, and the isosterics also as lines that cut these,

drawing a

line for

the level that bounds a unit sheet in each

case (and noticing that in equilibrium the lines do not intersect), we shall have a set of curvihnear parallelograms

representing tubes.

The

circulation of the force per unit

will

mass around any boundary

parallelograms enclosed.

then be the number of be noticed that the areas

It is to

must be counted positively and negatively, that is, the number of tubes must be taken positive or negative, according to whether Va, Vp, the two gradients, make a
positive or a negative angle with each other in the order as written. This circulation of the force per unit mass may be

taken as a measure of the departure from equilibrium. In the same way we find that if we draw the equipotentials

and the isopycnics, we

tion of the force
ciu-ve.
If

shall

have the number (algebraically

considered) of unit tubes in

any area equal to the circulaper unit volume around the bounding
line,

we choose

as boundary, for example, a vertical

an

isobaric curve, a

downward

vertical,

and an

isobaric curve,

the number of isobaric-isosteric tubes enclosed gives the differ-

ence between the excess up one vertical of the cubic meters per ton at the upper isobar over that at the lower isobar and
the corresponding excess for the other vertical. If the lines are two verticals and two equipotentials, the number of
isopotential-isopycnic tubes is the difference of the two excesses of pressure at the lower levels over pressure at the upper levels. These are the circulations around the boundaries of the forces per unit

mass or unit volume as the case

may
5.

be.
If

we

integrate the pressure over a closed space inside

292
the
fluid,

VECTOR CALCULUS

we have

ffpUvdA = fffVpdv = fffc^dv.

But
this latter integral
is

the total force on the volume

Archimedes' principle, usually related to a body immersed in water, in which case the statement is that the resultant of all the pressure of the water upon
enclosed.

This

is

the immersed body

placed.
If

is

equal to the weight of the water disto consider the resultant

we were

moment

of

the normal pressures and the external forces, we would arrive at an analogous statement. The field of force, however,

need not be that due to gravity.

EXERCISE.
Consider the case of a
force due to gravity
field in which there is the and a horizontal force due to

vertical
centrif\

ugal force of rotation.

6.

We

turn our attention

now

to

moving

fluids.

small space containing fluid with one of its points at po may be followed as it moves with the fluid, always con-

same particles. It will usually be deformed in shape. The position p of the particle initially at po will be a function of po and of t, say
taining the

6 (po,

t).

The

particle initially at po

dp

will at the

same time

arrive at the position

p-\- dip

6 (po

-\-

dp,t)
t

SdipVo-p,

hence dip becomes at time

SdipVo-p

(pdipo.

It follows that the area Vdipd^p

= V (pdipQipd^po,

and the

HYDRODYNAMICS
volume
Sdipdipdzp

293

S(pdipo(pd2PQ(pdzPo

=
Sdipod2Pod3Po''>n3{(p).

If

the fluid has a constant mass, then

cdv

we must have
Cq.

Codvo,

or

cms

This

The

is the equation of continuity in the Lagrangian form. reference of the motion to the time and the initial conis

figuration
variables.
7.

usually called reference to the Lagrangian

Since

dp

SdpVp =

S(pdpo^p
Sdpo<p'Vp

= VoP = <p'Vp =
But the equations
of

SdpoVoVf

VoSpV-p.

motion are already given in the form

aVp =
aVoP =

p",
t

hence in terms of the variables po and

<p'{p

we have

p")-

This equation, the characteristic equation of the fluid

F{p, c,T)
0,

and the equation of continuity, give us five scalar equations expressing six numbers in terms of po and t. In order to

make any problem

further hypothesis. are
(1)

definite

then,

we must introduce a

The two
is

that are the most

common

The temperature
is

constant,
if

if

is

or the salinity
variables
eses;

constant,

is

salinity.

temperature, In case both

come

in,

we must have two corresponding hypoth-

294
(2)

VECTOR CALCULUS

The

fluid is a gas subject to adiabatic change.

is

The

relation of pressure to density in this case

usually

written

kc*.

y is the ratio of specific heat under constant pressure to that under constant volume, as for example, for compressed
air,

1.408.

In the integrations we are obliged to pay attention to two kinds of conditions, those due to the initial values of
8.

the space occupied by the fluid at ^ = 0, the pressure po and density Cq, or specific volume ao, at each point of the
the particles po' at po. The other conditions are the boundary conditions during the movement. As for example, consider a fluid enclosed
fluid,

and the

initial velocities of

The velocity in the must be tangent to the walls. If we have the general case of a moving boundary for the fluid, then its equation would be
in a

tank or in a pipe or conduit.

latter case

/(P,
If

t)

0.

then

p' is

the velocity,
idf/dt)dt

we must have

- SdpVf+

0,

or

Sp'Vf-\- df/dt

0.

If there is a free surface, then the pressure here must be In order to have constant, as the pressure of the air. various combinations of these conditions coexistent, it is

necessary sometimes to introduce discontinuities. 9. If we were in a balloon in perfect equilibrium moving along with one and the same mass of air, the barograph

would

register the varying pressures

on

this mass, the ther-

mograph the varying temperatures, and if there were a velocitymeter, it would register the varying velocity of the
mass.

From

or numerically the rates of change of

these records one could determine graphically all these quantities as

HYDRODYNAMICS
they inhere in the same mass.
values of
dpidt,

295
is,

That

we would have the

dT/dt,

dpjdt.

These

may

called the individual time-derivatives of the

As the balloon passed any fixed station the quantities. all the instruments would be the same as instrureadings of ments at the fixed stations. But the rates of change would differ. The rates of change of these quantities at the same station would be for a fixed p and a variable /, and could
be called the Vjqq\ time-derivatives, or partial derivatives. They can be calculated from the registered readings. The
relation

between the two

didt

is

given by the equation

diet

Sp'V.

Thus we have between the

the relations

individual

and the

local values

dp

dp

,^

dT

dT

dp'

dp'

The

last

in terms of the local acceleration

equation gives us the individual acceleration and the velocity. From

the fundamental equation

we have

aVp = k-

dp'/dt -h

Sp'V-p'

dp'Idt

e{p')y

where the function

d= -S{ V -p',
)

d'

= - VSp'i
2e

),

do

U-S{)V'p'= Wp'.

WO),

This statement of the motion in terms of the coordinates of

296

VECTOR CALCULUS
is

any point and the time

variables.

the statement in terms of Eulers

Since

near
(p

po,

Po

+ Pa'dt,
form

we have

the

former?

function

at this point in the

ip=

- S()Vo-p= l +
=

dt(- S()V'p')o=

+ dtdatpo.

Whence
ms{<p)
1

dtm,(d)

dt{- SVp').

is any point, this equation holds for and we have the equation of continuity in the any point form

Since the initial point

c
or,

cdtSVp'

Co

Co

dt-dcldt{l

dtSVp'),

dropping terms of second order,

dc/dt

ciSVp'

0.

This
If

is

the equation of continuity in the Euler form.

local values,

we use

dc/dt- SV(cp')

0.

That

is,

vergence of specific

the local rate of change of the density is the conmomentum. It is obvious that if the

fluid is incompressible,

that

is,

if

then the velocity

local station
is

is

solenoidal.

If

the density is constant, the specific volume at a

solenoidal.

constant, then the specific momentum is If the medium is incompressible and homo-

solenoidal vectors.

geneous, then both velocity and specific momentum are It is clear also that in any case the of normal component velocity must be continuous through

any surface, but specific momentum need not be. boundary is stationary, then both velocity and

If

anyj

specifid

momentum

are tangential to

it.

HYDRODYNAMICS

297

In the atmosphere, which is compressible, specific momentum is solenoidal, but in the incompressible hydrosphere, both velocity

Of course tie

specific

and specific momentum are solenoidal. volume of the air changes at a

approximate statement
for meteorological purposes.

station, but only slowly, so that the

made
If

is

at

enough any given instant we draw at every point a vector

determine

close

in the direction of the velocity, these vectors will

the vector hues of the velocity which are called lines of flow. These lines are not made up of the same particles and if we were to mark a given set of particles at any time,

say by coloring them blue, then the configuration of the blue particles would change from instant to instant as they

moved
line.

trajectory of a blue particle is a stream If the particles that pass a given point are all colored
along.
line as a line of flow,

The

only when that called stationary. In this case the line through the red particles would be the streamline through the point. If the motion is not stared,

then we would have a red

the condition of the motion

is

tionary, then after a time the red particles would form a red filament that would be tangled up with several stream
lines.

In the case of meteorological observations the direction of the wind is taken at several stations simultane10.

ously and by the anemometer its intensity is given. These data give us the means of drawing on a chart suitably pre-

pared the

lines of flow at the given time of day and the curves showing the points of equal-intensity of the wind Of course, the velocity is usually only the horivelocity.

zontal velocity and the vertical velocity must be inferred. One of the items needed in meteorological and other
studies
cific
is

the

amount

of material transported.

If

the spe-

momentum

in a horizontal direction

is cp' ,

and

lines

20

298
of flow

VECTOR CALCULUS
be drawn, then for a vertical height dz and a width lines of flow equal to dn, we will have the trans-

between

port equal to Tp'dndz. Since, however, we have for practical purposes dz = dp, we can write this in the form
transport

Tp'dn{

dp).

In order to do this graphically we first dra>v the lines of flow and the intensity curves. An arbitrary outer boundary curve is then divided into intervals of arc such that
the projection of an interval perpendicular to the nearest lines of flow multiplied by the value of Tp' is a constant.

Through these points a new

set of lines of flow

is

is

constructed.

The transport between

these lines

then known horizonintensity

tally for a constant pressure drop,

by drawing the

curves that represent Tp'dn, and if these are at unit values of the transport, they will divide the lines of flow into quadrilaterals

such that the amount of

air

transported horizon-

tally decreases or increases

by

units,

and thus the

vertical

transport must

respectively increase or decrease by units, through a sheet whose upper and lower surfaces have pres1. Towards a center of sure difference equal to dp =

convergence the lines of flow approach indefinitely close. dn decreases and it is clear that the vertical transport up-

ward

be small areas of descending motion, however, even near such centers. In this manner we may arrive at a conception of the actual movement of
increases.

There

may

the

air.

Since the specific momentum is solenoidal, we can ascertain its rate of change vertically from horizontal data.

For

= SVcp' =
or

dZ/dz

+ horizontal convergence,
momentum.

dZ/dz

horizontal convergence of specific

HYDRODYNAMICS
Substituting the value of dz,

299

we have

dZ

dp)

dZ/Op

= horizontal = dTp'fds +

convergence of velocity,
Tp'8.

where ds runs along the

lines of flow,

and

5 is

the diver-

gence per unit ds of two lines of width apart equal to 1. These considerations enable us to arrive at the complete

kinematic diagnosis of the condition of the based the prognostications.

11.

air.

On

this

is

When

and the
ents,
c

forces

the density c is a function of the pressure p, and the velocities can be expressed as gradi-

then^we have a very simple general case.

^

Thus

let

f(p),
set

=
u

Vu{p,

t),

p'

Vu(p, 0,

and

Q=

fadp, then

VQ =

aVp,

the equations of motion are

dp'ldt

+ d{p') =

V(?, or since
Q]

p'

=
0.

Vv,

V[dv:dt+^T-VrHence the expression in brackets depends only on t and we have

is

independent of p and

We

could, however, have used for v

t

any function

differing

only by a function of t, thus we may absorb the function of the right into v and set the right side equal to zero.

from

We

thus have the equations of motion

dv'dt

+ irvr these

Q =

0,

dcjdt
c

SV(cVr) =

0,

f(p).

From

p in terms of p and t. 12. In the case of a permanent motion, the tubes of flow are permanent. If we can set ^ = Vm(p), then we place

we have

v, c,

300

VECTOR CALCULUS
J'adx),

Q = u
on
t,

and noticing that

p'

and Q do not depend

we have

Sp'V-p'
operate by dsSUp'Tp'VTp' on the from this equation we have
If

we

= - VQ. Sdp = S(dsUp'), we have = 0. Hence left, since Sp'V Up'

at once

- SdpihTV
Hence along a tube

-0 =

0.

of flow of infinitesimal cross-section

This

is

called Bernoulli's theorem.

is

a function of the
line

two parameters that determine the infinitesimal Hence along the same tube of flow flow.

of

UTV - TW)
at once, giving

Q-Qo=u-Uois

X,,^ adp.

In the case of a liquid a

constant and we can integrate

C.

KV- u+ ap=
find the velocity

From

this

we can
must

given or the pressure

the pressure

when the pressure is the velocity is given. Since be positive, it is evident that the velocity

when

square
fact
is

2(u-\- C), or else the liquid will separate. This made use of in certain air pumps. In the case of no

force but gravity

we have u

gz,

\Ty - gz+ap=C.
This
the fundamental equation of hydraulics. We can< not enter upon the further consideration of it here.
is

Vortices.
13.

In the case of

p'

\/v

it is

evident that
(

FVp' =

When

this vector, or the vector

9) does not vanish

HYDRODYNAMICS
there
is

301

not a velocity potential and vortices are said to It is obvious that if a particle of the exist in the fluid.
fluid
is

be consic'ered to change

its

shape as

it

moves, then

the instantaneous velocity of rotation. At any instant all the vortices will form a vector field whose lines have the
differential

equation

VdpWp' =
that
is,

= SdpV'
or

-p

VSp'dp;
dp'/dt,

e'dp

dp',

e'p'

from which
P'

e-^^'^-W

These vector

lines are called the

vortex lines of the

fluid.

Occasionally the vortex lines may be closed, but as a rule the solutions of such a differential equation as the above

do not form closed lines, in which case they may terminate on the walls of the containing vessel, or they may wind about indefinitely. The integral of this equation will
usually contain t, and the vortices then vary with the time, but in a stationary motion they will depend only upon the

point under consideration,

14.

The equations

of

motion

may

be expressed in terms

of the vortex as follows, since

Vp'Wp' =
we have

Sp'V-p'

-\Vp'\

Vv-p' =
and thus
a\/p
15.

2rp'6

+ ivp'',
Vp''

dp'ldt

When now
giving

P = S^dp,

= V(p, t), and VP = aV/J, and thence

dp'idt

2Py. c = fij)), we
2Vep'.

set

VP = Vm -

+ l\/p'- -

302
Or,
if

VECTOR CALCULUS

we

set

H=
this

u-\- |p'
dp'/dt

P,

we have

2Fep'

= V^.
and
since

Operate

2deldt,

on and

with

F-V(),
-

WVep' = SeV
de/dt,

p'

eSVp' -

VVdp'/dt
is

Sp'V-e, de/dt

Sp'V

-e

SVp' by

the continuity equation

equal to c~^dcldt

ar^dajdt,

we have

d{ae)/dt

= -

S{ae)V-p'

d{ae).

This equation
If
is

is

due to Helmholtz.
variables,
it is
t,

we remember the Lagrangian

clear that

a function of the initial vector po and of

hence the

integral of this equation will take the form

ae

e-f"^'-a^eo

e-f
^^^^'"''^'a^e^

^{t)aoo.
(p

But the operator is proved below so that when ^ = Vw,

ae

to be equal to

itself,

=
if

aoSeoVo-p

ao(P^o,

we have, which was implied

or finally
of the integral

we

follow the stream line of a particle,

in the integration above,

Cauchy's form
J

(a/ao)e

SeoVo-p,
t.

1
is

where
for

2^

is

a function of po and
e is

It
is,

evident

now

if

any
0.

particle

ever zero, that

co

=
for

This

is

equivalent to Lagrange's
particles of the fluid

0, that always theorem that if

any group of

we have a

velocity

potential, then that group will always possess a velocity

potential.
(It is to

be noted that velocity potential and

vortex are phenomena that belong to the particles and the stream lines, and not to the points of space and the lines of flow.) It must be remembered too, that this result

was on the supposition that the density was a function

of

HYDRODYNAMICS

303

the pressure alone, and that the external forces ^ were

conservative.
16.

We may deduce
=

the equation above as follows, which

reproduces in vector demonstration.

Let dpidt
that

a,

form the essential features of Cauchy's (Appell, Traite de Mec. Ill, p. 332.) and Q = u J^adp, then, remembering
t,

Q
t,

is

a function of p and

and p
t).

is

a function of po

and

da/di
I

VQ(p,

Also VoQipo,

t)

VoSpVQ =
we can
write
(p'da/dt.

VoSpda/dt, where

Vo

operates on p only; or

VoQ =
Hence, operating with T'Vo(
c?

),

we have VVo(p'daidt
equals
<p'a is
(Tq,

=
since

(/^(rVo^V). Thus the parenthesis value, that is, since the initial value of

its

initial

and

Vo =

(f'V,

FVov'o"

2eo

V<p'V<p'<T

m3((p)(p~WV<T
This
is

2m3<p~^.

Thus we have at once m3 other form, since mz =

kinematical character of
or destroy
17.
it.

=
,

(pea.

the same as the

a/ do-

This equation shows the and that no forces can set up e

The

circulation at a given instant of the velocity

is

along any loop

= of

fSdpp'.
is

The time

derivative

this

gral of

But this is an inteSdpp") [hp'' Q] ). an exact differential and vanishes. Hence if the

= f{- SdpV

dl/dt

= ^(^SdpVSp'p'

forces are conservative

and the density depends on the the circulation around any path does not change pressure, as the particles of the path describe their stream lines. The

304
circulation
is

VECTOR CALCULUS
an
integral invariant.

This theorem

is

due to

Lagrange.
/

If

we express the

circulation in the

form

= - ffMvVp' = - 2ffSdve,
is

we

see that the circulation

twice the flux of the vortex

through the loop. Hence as the circulation is constant, the flux of the vortex through the surface does not vary

bounded by the stream loop. The through any loop at a given instant is the vortex strength of the surface enclosed by the loop. If a closed surface is drawn in the fluid, the flux through it
in time,
if

the surface

is

flux of the vortex

is

zero, since the vortex

18. If

is

a solenoidal vector.

we take

as our closed surface a space

bounded by a
J
''

vortex tube and two sections of the tube, since the surface integral over the walls of the tube is zero, it follows that
the flux of the vortex through one section inwards equals that over the other section outwards. Combining these

theorems, it is evident that the vortex strength, or vorThus the collection of ticity, of a vortex tube is constant.
particles that

make up

the vortex tube

is

invariant in time.

In a perfect fluid a vortex tube is indestructible, and one could not be generated. 19. It is evident from what precedes that a vortex tube

cannot terminate in the

fluid

but must end either at a wall

or a surface of discontinuity, or be a closed tube with or without knots, or it may wind around infinitely in the fluid.
If
it is

a vortex tube

is

taken with infinitesimal cross-section,

called a vortex filament.

20.

We =

consider next the problem of determining the

is

velocity
find a

when the vortex

p'.

known.

That

is,

given

e,

to

We consider first the case of an incompressible

is

fluid, in

which the velocity

solenoidal, that

is,

SVous

0.

This with the equations at

the boundaries gives

the

HYDRODYNAMICS
to find <j when 2 VS7<t, following problem SUva = at the boundaries, or if infinite o:

305

SS7a

0,

0.

This
is
it,

problem has a unique solution, if the containing v'essel simply connected. We cannot enter extensively into
for

it involves the theory of potential functions, and may be reduced to integral equations. However, since tSVo'=0,

we may

set

= FVr,

wheie <SVt

0,

whence

V-r
and we may suppose r
r
If
is

2e,

known,

in the

form
po)dv.

= hT^fff(^iT{p
this

we operate upon
a

by P'V(

),

we

find a formula for

<r,

= i;2TfffVe(p -

po)/P(p

Po)dv.

As we see, this formula is capable of being stated thus: the velocity is connected with its vortex in the same way as a magnetic field is connected with the electric current
density that produces it, the vortex filament taking the place of the cm rent, the strength of current being Te/2ir,

and the elements of length of the tube acting like the elements of current. This solution holds throughout the
entire fluid,
in

even at points outside the space that is actually motion with a vortex.

Since the equation of the surface of the tube can be

^Titten in the form

F(p,
this surface will

0,

move
like

in time.

Its velocity of displace-

ment

is

defined

that

of

any

discontinuity,
is

as

UvFdFjdt.
the other

On

one side the velocity

irrotational,

on

it is

vortical.

On

the irrotational side

the velocity of the form a

we have VP, and we must have on

306

VECTOR CALCULUS

that side the same velocity of displacement in the form

UpSUj^VP.

The energy involved

in the particles
is

in a vortex

on account

of the velocity

K= - hcfffp'"dv
= = = = =
This
is

- hcfffSp'Vrdv
over

hfff[SV(p'r)-2Sre\dv hcffSdvp'T cfffSredv

cl27rffffffSee'lT{p -

cJ^J^J^STtdv

all

space
po)dvdv'.

rents.

the same formula as that of the energy of two curIn the expression every filament must be considered

with regard to every other filament and itself. Examples. (1). Let there be first a straight voitex

fila-

ment terminating
all

at the top

and bottom

of the fluid.

Let

the motion be parallel to the horizontal bottom.

Sya-

Then

0,

Vye

0,

de/dt

0.

We
say,

have

then

Vy\7w,

2e

y'V^w

2zy,

w =
zdA, we have

TT

~^yj^z

log rdA.

For a
k

single vortex filament of cross-section

dA and strength

w =

a=
where p
is

hfir log V (^^ F7(p-po)/r(p-Po)-^/7r,

kjir log r

+ y^)

measured
is

parallel to the

bottom.

The
versely

velocity
as
is

tangent to the

circles of

motion and

in-

the

distance

from the vortex filament.

The

motion

irrotjtional save at the filament itself.

ETYDRODYNAMICS

307
other,

For the

effect of vortices

p. 518 et seq. a number of vortex a vortex or ring (2). For the case of rings with the same axis, see Appell, Traite, vol. Ill, p. 431

relative motions, see Webster,

upon each Dynamics,

and

their

et seq.
21. In the

theorem that any vector pressible can be decomposed into a solenoidal part and a lamellar part and these may then be found. The extra term in the electromagnetic analogy would then be due to a permanent distribution of magnetism as well as that arising fiom
resort to the

more we must

general case in which the fluid

is

com-

the current.

EXERCISES
1.

If

Sea

M being a function of
2.

0,

then

it is

necessarj-

and

suflficient

that

<r

= MS/P,
Lomb.
(2)

p.

Discuss the case Vae

0.

Beltrami, Rend. R.

1st.

22, fasc. 2.
3.

Discuss Clebsch's transformation in which

we decompose a

thus,
lines

= Vu

+ I'^V.
I

Show
v,

that the vortex lines are the intersections of

lines of flow

the surfaces
:in

and

and that the

form with the vortex

I,

orthogonal system only

4.
5.

when the

surfaces

u, v are triply orthog-

onal.

Discuss the problem of sources and sinks. Consider the problem of multiply-connected surfaces, containing

fluids.

22. It

will

be remembered that Helmholtz's theorem

was
tial

for the case in

this

which the impressed forces had a potenand the density was a function of the pressure. In case we will have the equation
da/dt

+ 2TW
)

- aV p +
=

| Vo^.

Operate by ^T'V(
deidt

and notice that

eS Vo-

- SaV

a -^d(ae)ldt,

whence we have the generalized form

a -^d{ae)ldt

SeV -cr = |FV^ - ^VVaVp.

308
If

VECTOR CALCULUS
at the instant

the particle does not rotate and if a is a function of p alone, then at this instant de/dt = |FV^, and the particle will acquire an instantaneous increase of

now

its

zero vortex equal to the vortex of the impressed force.

is,

That
If

must be peimanently equal be no rotation at any time.

^

to zero

if

there

is

to

FV^ =

but a

is

not a function of p alone, then we

have
a-H{ae)ldt

SeV -(r =

- |FVaVp.
Now
/,

The
an
cAl

right side

is

a vector in the direction of the intersection

isosteric surfaces.
if

of the isobaric

and the

we take
is

infinitesimal length along the vortex tube,

is

the cross-

section being A, the vorticity

ATe =

m, the mass

constant

= M. Then we

have, since ae

= AlejM

= mlUe/M, - SeV-o- = md{lU)dtaM = -

^ fUeVff =
I

I^9^A, at
L

a-H{ae)ldt

dm/dt-lUe/aM

md{lUi)/a Mdt

SeV-a =

md{lUe)ldtaM

dm/dt-lUe/aM

=
1

Ve-dTeldt

= =

number

of tubes.

Hence the moment

of the vortex will usually

change
rotat-

with the time unless the surfaces coincide.

Thus a

If then the ing particle may gain or lose in vorticity. isobaric and isosteric surfaces under the influence of heat

conditions intersect, vortices will be created along the lines of intersections of the surfaces and these will persist until

the surfaces intersect again,

interfeies.

save

so

far

as

viscosity

23. Finally

we
is,

consider the conditions that

must be

put upon surfaces of discontinuity,

order in a, that

in this case of the first

a wave of acceleration.

HYDRODYNAMICS
Let
c

309

be a function of
dpldc Vlog
c,

only.

Then
of
c.

aVp =

and the equation

^

motion becomes

p"

dp'dc

log

Let the equation of the surface of discontinuity be /(po, t) = 0, the normal v. Let ^, a, p, and c be continuous as
well as dpjdc,

but p"

o-'

be discontinuous at the smface.

Then on the two

bv
or
p. 263,
[p"\

sides of the surface

we have the jump,

= -

dpldc[V log

c],

Gy = dp;dc-UVfSnUVf.
It follows, therefore, that

G =

-^i

{dpjdc), or else
first

we must have VfiU^f = and we have G = and StiU'^j = 0.

is

In the

case the discontinuity

longitudinal, in the

second transversal.
it is:

This

is

Hugoniot's theorem.

In

full

In a compressible but non- viscous fluid there are possible only two waves of discontinuity of the second order; a
longitudinal

wave propagated with a

velocity equal to
is

^ {dpldc), and a transversal wave which

at
all.

not propagated

The formula
Laplace.

for the velocity in the first case is

due to

Also

we have

for the longitudinal

waves [SVo"]

GSp.U'^j, for transversal waves equal to zero. On the other hand, for longitudinal waves, [P'Vo-] = 0, for
transversal,

GVUVffi.

310

VECTOR CALCULUS

REFERENCES.
1.

Mathematische Schriften (Ed. Gerhart).

Abt.
1,

Berlin,

1850.

Bd.

II,

p. 20.

2.

On
Die

new

of quaternions.
3.

species of imaginary quantities connected with a theory Proc. Royal Irish Academy, 2 (1843), pp. 424-434.

lineale

Ausdehnungslehre.
of

Leipzig, 1844.

4.
5.

Greek Mathematics, p. 78. Ars Magna, Nuremberg, 1545, Chap. 37; Opera
286.

Gow: History

4,

Lyon, 1663,

p.

6.

7.

Om

Algebra. Bologna, 1572, pp. 293-4. Directiones analytiske Betejning.

Read

1797.

Nye Samm-

lung af det kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter, (2) 5 (1799), pp. 469-518. Trans. 1897. Essai sur la representation de
la direction,
8.

Copenhagen.
imaginaires

Essai sur une maniere de representer les quantites dans les constructions geom^triques. Paris, 1806.

9.

10. 11.

Theoria residuorum biquadraticum, commentation secunde. 1831. Annales Math, pures et appliqu6es. 4 (18144), p. 231. Theory of algebraic couples, etc. Trans. Royal Irish Acad., 17
(1837), p. 293.

12.

grossen sind.
13.
14.

Ueber Functionen von Vectorgrossen welche selbst wieder VectorMath. Annalen, 43 (1893), pp. 197-215.

Grundlagen der Vektor- und Aflfinor-Analysis. Leipzig, 1914. Lectures on Quaternions. Preface. Dublin, 1853. 15. Note on William R. Hamilton's place in the history of abstract group theory. Bibhotheca Mathematica, (3) 11 (1911), pp. 314-5.

16. Leipzig, 1827.

17. Leipzig.
18.

Elements of Vector Analysis

Scientific Papers.

(1881-4),

New

Haven.

Vol.

2,

INDEX.
Acceleration

Action

14,

27 28

Crystals

Cubic dilatation
Curl Curl of field Curvature

15, 129, 142 Activity 15, 131 Activity-density 4, 65 Algebraic couple 9 Algebraic multiplication 71 Alternating current

Ampere
Anticyclone

Area
Areal axis

Argand
Ausdehnungslehre Average velocity
Axial vector
Bar\-centric calculus

30 47 142 198 4 3, 9 57 30 8 60 3, 126 94 29 48, 57, 59, 290

50,

Curves Cycle Cyclone

Derivative dyad Developables

109 258 76,82, 184 77 148, 152 148

30,37 47
242 150 105 145 155, 159 55 248 166 130 261 84 180 76, 82 77 2, 11, 218 246 2 29

Dickson
Differential of p Differential oi q Differential of vector Differentiator

Directional derivative

Bigelow Biquatemions
Biradials

Discharge
Discontinuities

Bivector Bjerknes
Cailler

Dissipation (plane) Dissipation, dispersion

Divergence Divergence of
Dj'adic

field

Cardan
Center (singularity) Center of isogons

Change

of basis

Characteristic equation Characteristic equation of

2 3 44 48 54 125
221 235 266 167 9 78, 129 3, 90 3 63 51, 138 66 5 195 87 177
13

Dyadic
DjTie
Electric Electric Electric Electric

field

Dyname
current
density current induction
intensity

dvadic
Chi'of dyadic Christ offel's conditions Circuital derivative Circular multiplication Circulation
CMfiford.

30 30 32 31, 139
14

Energy
Energ>' current

30
15, 131

Energy-density
Energj'-density current

Combebiac Complex numbers

Congruences Conjugate Conjugate function Continuous group Continuous plane media Convergence

Energy flux Equation of continuity

Equipollences Equipotential

Erg
Euler Exact differential
Exterior multiplication

Coulomb
Couple

Extremals

30 142 87 71 15 14 107 190 9 160

139

Eye
311

of cyclone

47

312
Farad Faux
Faux-focus
Feuille Feuillets

VECTOR CALCULUS
32, 73 37, 38

-.

44 30
2 13 142 29, 130, 142

Integrating factor Integration by parts Interior multiplication Invariant line

Irrotational Isobaric

191 198 10

Field

Flow
Flux Flux density Focus Force Force density Force function
,

29 41 29
28, 141 18

Isogons Isohydric Isopycnic

Isosteric

219 88 15,288 34
15
15, 15,

288 288
15

Isothermal
Joly Joule Joule-second

138, 147

Franklin 90 Free vector 8, 25 Frenet-Serret formulae 148 Functions of dyadic 238 Function of flow 88 Functions of quaternions. ... 121

14 14

Kinematic compatibility .... 266

Kirchoff's laws

73
198, 205

Koenig
Laisant

Gas defined Gauss Gauss (magnetic unit)

87 4 .... 32, 130 Gaussian operator 108 General equation of dyadic 220 Geometric curl 76 Geometric divergence 76 Geometric loci 133 1 Geometric vector 2 Geometry of lines Gibbs 2, 11, 215 Gilbert 32, 130, 143 Glissant 26 Gradient 16, 163
. .

Lamellae Lamellar

field

71 15 84, 181

Laplace's equation Latent equation Laws of quaternions Leibniz

214 220

Gram
Grassmann Green's Theorem Groups
Guiot

15
2, 3,

9 205
8 138

103 3 15 Level Line (electric unit) 32, 130 Lineal multiplication 9 3 Linear associative algebra ... Linear vector function 218 46 Line of centers 47 Line of convergence 47 Line of divergence 46 Line of fauces 46 Line of foci 45 Line of nodes 80 Lines as levels 87 Liquid defined

Hamilton Harmonics
Heaviside

2, 3, 4, 65,

95

84, 169

MacMahon
Magnetic Magnetic Magnetic Magnetic
current density current induction
intensity

75
31 31 32 32, 139 15 65 13 3 8

Henry

(electric unit)

Hertzian vectors Hitchcock

31 32, 73 33
.

Hodograph Hypernumber
Imaginary

3,

49 27 94 65 73 73 32 56

Mass
Matrix unity Maxwell

McAulay
Mobius Modulus

Impedance
Inductance
Inductivity Integral of vector

66
of

Moment Moment

momentum

138 139

INDEX

313
26 26 62 73 65 108
...

Momentum Momentum Momentum

density
of field

28 28
141 14

Radial

Radius vector
Ratio of vectors Reactance Real
Reflections

Monodromic Monogenic Moving electric field. Moving magnetic field

Multenions Multiple Mutation

89 140 140 3 6 108

.

Xabla as complex number. Xabla in plane Xabla in space

Xeutral point

Xode Xode

of isogons
. .

X'on-degenerate equations

Xorm
Xotations

82 80 162 47 37, 38 48 225 66

.

Refraction Regressive multiplication. Relative derivative Right versor Rotations Rotatory deviation
Saint Venant's equations.

112 10 18

96
108 175
.
.

Sandstrom
Saussure
Scalar Scalar invariants Scalar of g

35,

260 49 2
13

220, 239

Schouten
Science of extension Self transverse Servois

One

12 vector 127 Scalar 136 Two vectors 165 Derivative of vectors Divergence, vortex, derivative

Shear
Similitude
Singularities of vector lines.
.

dvads

Dyadics".

179 248

Ohm

(electric unit)

Orthogonal dyadic Orthogonal transformation

Perrce, Benjamin Peirce, B.

73 241 55
3 85 73 32
71

Singular lines Solenoidal field 84, 181 117 Solid angles 123 Solution of equations Solution of differential equations

96 7 2 234 4 256 242 244 45

Solution of linear equation.

Specific

momentum

Permittance
PermittiA-ity

Spherical astronomy Squirt

195 229 28 110 90

Steinmetz

68, 71

Phase angle Plane fields

Poincare Polar vector
36,

84 46 30
14 17 10 76 141 142 98

200 Stoke's theorem 253 Strain 90 Strength of source or sink ... Stress 143, 269

Polydromic
Potential
15,
.

Study

Sum

of quaternions

96
151

Progressive multipUcation

Surfaces

Power
Poynting vector
Pressure

SjTnmetric multiplication ...

Product of quaternions Product of several quaternions

Tensor Tensor of 5

Torque
113 101
14 95

Tortuosity
Trajectories

Product of vectors

Quantum
Quaternions
2, 3, 6, 7,

Transport Transverse dvadic

Triplex

65 96 140 149 150 130,298 231 25

314
Triquaternions Trirectangular biradials

VECTOR CALCULUS
3 100 18

Unit tube
Vacuity Vanishing invariants
Variable trihedral

Velocity Velocity potential Versor Versor of g

Virial

27
18

220 240 172

1
1,

Volt Vortex
Vorticity

65 96 129 31, 130, 143 92, 187, 187 247,304

Vector Vector Vector Vector Vector Vector Vector Vector

calculus
field

23,

lines

of g

25 26 33 96

Waterspouts

50
15 14

Watt Weber
Wessel Whirl

potential surfaces

33, 93, 181

4 90

tubes

34 34

Zero roots of linear equations. 230

^'

38

1982

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UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

QA.

Shaw, James

Bymle

261 S45

Vector calculus

Physical

&

Applieti 3ci.

SS'