Metrology1 PDF
Metrology1 PDF
Metrology1 PDF
Linear Measurement-Comparators
Necessary measurement of the linear measurement carried out by the Engineer by comparing the size of the work piece or other part with the known size of the end Gauge.ie comparative measurement
Comparators
Dimensional comparators are principal instruments used in Linear Measurement
Many principles have been used to obtain suitable degrees of magnification of the indicating devices relative to the change in dimension being measured.
Types of Comparators
Mechanical Mechanical-Optical Electrical. Fluid displacement.
Characteristics of Comparators
The instrument must be of robust design and construction so as to withstand the effect of ordinary usage without impairing its measuring accuracy. The indicating devices must be such that readings are obtained in least possible time and for this, magnification system used should be such that the readings are dead beat. The system should be free from backlash, and wear effects and the inertia, should be minimum possible. Provision must be made for maximum compensation for temperature effects.
Use of Comparators
In mass production, where components are to be checked at a very fast rate. As laboratory standards from which working or inspection, gauges are set and correlated. For inspecting newly purchased gauges. Attached with some machines, comparators can be used as working gauges to prevent work spoilage and to maintain required tolerances at all stages of manufacturing. In selective assembly of parts, where parts are graded in three groups depending upon their tolerance.
Mechanical Comparators
Systems of Displacement Amplification used in Mechanical Comparators 1. Rack and Pinion. Measuring spindle integral with a rack, engages a pinion which amplifies the movement of plunger through a gear train 2. Cam and gear train. In this case the measuring spindle acts on a cam which transmits the motion to the amplifying gear train.
Mechanical Comparators
Lever with toothed sector. lever with a toothed sector at its end engages a pinion in the hub of a crown gear sector which further meshes with a final pinion to produce indication Compound Levers. Here levers forming a couple with compound action are connected through segments and pinion to produce final pointer movement.
Mechanical Comparators
Twisted Taut Strip. The movement of measuring spindle tilts the knee causing straining which further causes the twisted taut band to rotate proportionally. The motion of strip is displayed by the Attached pointer.
Dial Indicator
The linear movement of the spindle is magnified by means of a gear and pinion train into sizable rotation of the pointer on the dial scale. The indicator is set to zero by the use of slip gauges representing the basic size of the part. This is generally used for inspection of small precision-machined parts.
Dial Indicator
This type of comparator can be used with various attachments so that it may be suitable for large number of works. With a V-block attachment it can be used for checking outof-roundness of a cylindrical component.
Dial Indicator
Centering of Job in a Four Jaw Chuck Setting the Job Parallel to With Respect to another Parallel Surfaces. In Conjunction With Vernier Height Gauges
Johansson Mikrokator
Construction
A thin metal strip carries ,at the center of its length a very high glass tube pointer. From the center the strip is permanently twisted to form right and left hand helices. One end of the strip is fixed to the adjustable cantilever strip the other being anchored to the spring strip elbow, one arm which carries the measuring Plunger.
Working
As the plunger moves up and down the elbow acts as bell crank lever and causes the twisted strip to change its length and thus further twist or untwist. Hence the pointer at the center of the twisted strip rotates an amount proportional to the change in length of the strip.
Working
Mathematical Representation
Working
The purpose of the cantilever strip other than anchorage is used to is to allow an adjustment to be made in amplification. Its effective length may be varied The instrument is surprisingly robust and is produced commercially in a range of 5000 X magnifications under controlled laboratory conditions.
Construction
The plunger, mounted on a pair of slit diaphragms to give a frictionless linear movement has mounted upon it a knife edge which bears upon the face of the moving member of a cross strip hinge. This consist of the moving component and a fixed member connected by thin flexible strips alternately at right angles at each other.
Working
If an external force applied to the to the moving member it will pivot as would a hinge about the line of intersection of the strips. If the effective length of this arm is L and the distance from the hinge pivot to the knife edge is x then the first stage of the magnification is L/x
Working
To the extremities of the 'Y' arm is attached a phosphor-bronze strip which is passed around a drum of radius r attached to the pointer spindle. If the pointer is of length R then the second stage of the magnification is R/r and the total magnification is L/x R/r
Working
The magnification can be adjusted by slackening one and tightening the other screw, attaching the knife edge to the plunger and thus adjusting distance x, while a range of instruments of differing magnifications can be produced by having drums of different radii r and suitable strips.
Working
The vertical reeds are joined at the upper end, instead of slipping, the movement causes both reeds swing through an arc and as the target is merely an extension of the vertical reeds, it swings through a much wider arc. The amount of target swing is proportional to the distance the floating block has moved but of course very much magnified. The scale may be calibrated by means of gauge block (slip gauges) to indicate any deviation from an initial setting.
Advantages
These are usually cheaper in comparison to other devices of amplifying. These do not require any external supply such as electricity or air and as such the variations in outside supplies do not affect the accuracy. Usually the mechanical comparators have linear scale which is easily understood. These are usually robust and compact and easy to handle. For ordinary workshop conditions, these are suitable and being portable can be issued from a store.
Disadvantages
The mechanical comparators have got more moving parts than other types. Due to more moving parts, the friction is more and ultimately the accuracy is less. Any slackness in moving parts reduces the accuracy considerably. The mechanism has more inertia and this may cause the instruments to be sensitive to vibration. The range of the instrument is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale. Error due to parallax is possible as the moving pointer moves over a fixed scale.
Limitations
Comparators using this type of linkage have sensitivities of the order of 0.25 micron per scale division. The mechanical amplification is usually less than 100, but it is multiplied by the optical lens system. It is available in amplifications ranging from x 500 to x 1000.
working
In these instruments small displacements of the measuring plunger are amplified by initially a mechanical system consisting usually pivoted levers followed by further amplification by a simple optical system involving the projection of a image. The mechanical system causes a plane reflector to tilt about an axis. The image of an index is then projected
Advantages
It has small number of moving parts and hence a higher accuracy. In the optical comparators, the scale can be made to move past a datum line and thus have high range and no parallax errors. It has very high magnification. Optical lever is weightless.
Disadvantages
As the instrument has high magnification, heat from the lamp, transformer etc. may cause the setting to drift. An electrical supply is necessary. The apparatus is usually large and expensive.
Disadvantages
When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to use the instrument in a dark room in order to take the readings easily. The instruments in which the scale is viewed through the eyepiece of a microscope are not convenient for continuous use.
Pneumatic Comparators
Industrially, pneumatic comparators, in which small variations are made in the dimension being measured with respect to a reference dimension which are shown by variation in either (a)Air Pressure (b)The Velocity of air flow
Electrical Comparators
Slip Gauges
A gauge block (also known as a gage block, Johansson gauge, slip gauge, or Jo block) is a precision ground and lapped length measuring standard. Invented in 1896 by Swedish machinist Carl Edvard Johansson. Gauge blocks are the main means of length standardization used by industry.
Slip Gauges
Each gauge block consists of a block of metal or ceramic with two opposing faces ground precisely flat and parallel, a precise distance apart. Standard grade blocks are made of a hardened steel alloy, while calibration grade blocks are often made of tungsten carbide or chromium carbide because it is harder and wears less
Wringing
Wringing is the process of sliding two blocks together so that their faces lightly bond.
Slip Gauges
Slip Gauges
Available in a set of 81, 49, 41, 35 & 25 pieces (inch unit) Available in a set of 112, 105, 87, 50, 33 & 27 pieces (metric unit)
1.001 1.009 0.001 1.010 1.490 0.010 0.50 24.50 0.050 25, 50, 75, 25 100 1.0005 --TOTAL
Sine Bar
Used when accuracy of angle must be checked to less than 5 minutes Consists of steel bar with two cylinders of equal diameter fastened near ends
Centers of cylinders exactly 90 to edge Distance between centers usually 5 or 10 inches and 100 or 200 millimeters.
Sine Bar
Assingment
Limitations Precautions in use of Sine Bar Sine Table Sine Center
Auto collimator
Principle
1.The distance between the reflector and the lens has no effect on the Separation distance between source and image. 2. For high sensitivity, i.e. a large value of x for it small angular deviation,,a long focal length is required.
Auto collimator
Limit Gauges
Gage is a device / equipment used for investigating the dimensional fitness of a part for a specified function Gaging is defined as a process of measuring manufactured materials to assure the specified uniformity of size and contour required by the industries Gaging accomplishes two functions:
Controls the dimensions of a product within the prescribed limitations Segregates or rejects products that are outside these limitations
Fits
Interference fit. The minimum permitted diameter of the shaft is larger than the maximum allowable diameter of The hole.
Fit
Transition fit. diameter of the largest allowable hole is greater than that of the smallest shaft, but the smallest hole is smaller than the largest shaft.
Clearance fit. The largest permitted shaft diameter is smaller than the diameter of the smallest hole.
Definitions
Limits of size. These are the maximum and minimum sizes allowed in a given component. Tolerance is the maximum size variation which will be tolerated on a given component. Allowance is the size difference between the limiting conditions of, size on the two components.
Representation of Fits
Hole basis system. For a given nominal size the limits on the hole are kept constant and a series of fits are obtained by varying the limits on the shafts.
Shaft basis system. A series of fits can be arranged for a given nominal size using a standard shaft and varying the limits on the hoIe.
Queries - Discussion