C.W.

UNIVERSITY

FETTER 0SHKOSH

OF W I S C O N S I N -

Applied Hydrogeology
Fourth Edition

Prentice Hall
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

C O N T E N T S
Preface xvi About the Author xviii CHAPTER

Water

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Water 1 Hydrology and Hydrogeology 3 The Hydrologic Cycle 4 Energy Transformations 5 The Hydrologic Equation 8 Case Study: Mono Lake 9 1.6 Hydrogeologists 11 1.7 Applied Hydrogeology 11 1.8 The Business of Hydrogeology (What Do Hydrogeologists Do All Day?) 12 1.8.1 Application of Hydrogeology to Human Concerns 12 1.8.2 Business Aspects of Hydrogeology 14 1.8.3 Ethical Aspects of Hydrogeology 15 1.9 Sources of Hydrogeological Information 16 1.10 American Society of Testing and Materials Standards 18 1.11 Working the Problems 18 1.12 Solving Problems Using Spreadsheets 20 Notation 22 Analysis 22 Problems 22

CHA2 T E R Elements of the Hydrologic Cycle

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Evaporation 24 Transpiration 27 Evapotranspiration 28 Condensation 32 Formation of Precipitation 32 Measurement of Precipitation and Snow 32 Effective Depth of Precipitation 33 Events During Precipitation 37 Stream Hydrographs 42 2.9.1 Baseflow Recessions 42 2.9.2 Storm Hydrograph 44 2.9.3 Gaining and Losing Streams 46 2.10 Rainfall-Runoff Relationships 48 2.11 Duration Curves 50

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Contents 2.12 Determining Ground-Water Recharge from Baseflow 51 2.12.1 Seasonal Recession Method (Meyboom Method) 51 2.12.2 Recession Curve Displacement Method (Rorabaugh Method) 53 2.13 Measurement of Streamflow 55 2.13.1 Stream Gauging 55 2.13.2 Weirs 57 2.14 Manning Equation 58 Notation 60 Analysis 61 Problems 61

CH

T ER
Matter and Energy (A Brief Review of Physics) 66 Porosity of Earth Materials 69 3.2.1 Definition of Porosity 69 3.2.2 Porosity and Classification of Sediments 70 3.2.3 Porosity of Sedimentary Rocks 75 3.2.4 Porosity of Plutonic and Metamorphic Rocks 77 3.2.5 Porosity of Volcanic Rocks 78 3.3 Specific Yield 78 3.4 Hydraulic Conductivity of Earth Materials 81 3.4.1 Darcy's Experiment 81 3.4.2 Hydraulic Conductivity 82 3.4.3 Permeability of Sediments 84 Case Study: Hydraulic Conductivity Estimates in Glacial Outwash 3.4.4 Permeability of Rocks 89 3.5 Permeameters 90 3.6 Water Table 93 3.7 Aquifers 95 3.8 Water-Table and Potentiometric Surface Maps 98 3.9 Aquifer Characteristics 100 3.10 Compressibility and Effective Stress 102 3.11 Homogeneity and Isotropy 104 3.12 Gradient of the Potentiometric Surface 107 Notation 109 Analysis 109 Problems 109 3.1 3.2

Properties of Aquifers

cH
Principles of Ground-Water
J. 1\J VV

Plow

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Introduction 113 Mechanical Energy 114 Hydraulic Head 115 Head in Water of Variable Density 118 Force Potential and Hydraulic Head 121 Darcy's Law 122

Contents 4.6.1 Darcy's Law in Terms of Head and Potential 122 4.6.2 The Applicability of Darcy's Law 123 4.6.3 Specific Discharge and Average Linear Velocity 124 Equations of Ground-Water Flow 125 4.7.1 Confined Aquifers 125 4.7.2 Unconfined Aquifers 129 Solution of Flow Equations 129 Gradient of Hydraulic Head 129 Relationship of Ground-Water-Flow Direction to Grad h Flow Lines and Flow Nets 132 Refraction of Flow Lines 136 Steady Flow in a Confined Aquifer 138 Steady Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer 140 147 Problems 148

IX

4.7

4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14

131

Notation 146 Analysis

C H

T E R
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Introduction 150 Basic Assumptions 151 Radial Flow 151 Computing Drawdown Caused by a Pumping Well 153 5.4.1 Flow in a Completely Confined Aquifer 153 5.4.2 Flow in a Leaky, Confined Aquifer 156 5.4.3 Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer 164 5.5 Determining Aquifer Parameters from Time-Drawdown Data 166 5.5.1 Introduction 166 5.5.2 Steady-State Conditions 166 5.5.3 Nonequilibrium Flow Conditions 169 5.5.4 Nonequilibrium Radial Flow in a Leaky Aquifer with Storage in the Aquitard 183 5.5.5 Nonequilibrium Radial Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer 184 5.5.6 Effect of Partial Penetration of Wells 188 5.6 Slug Tests 190 5.6.1 Determination of Aquifer Parameters with Slug Tests 190 5.6.2 Oyerdamped Response Slug Tests 190 5.6.3 Underdamped Response Slug Test 200 5.6.4 General Observations on Slug-Test Analysis 204 5.7 Estimating Aquifer Transmissivity from Specific Capacity Data 205 5.8 Intersecting Pumping Cones and Well Interference 207 5.9 Effect of Hydrogeologic Boundaries 208 5.10 Aquifer-Test Design 210 5.10.1 Single-Well Aquifer Tests 210 5.10.2 Aquifer Tests with Observation Wells 212 Notation 214 Computer Notes 214 Analysis 215 Problems 215

Ground-Water Flow to Wells

Contents

CH^JTER

Soil Moisture and Ground-Water Recharge

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7

Introduction 219 Porosity and Water Content of Soil 220 Capillarity and the Capillary Fringe 223 Pore-Water Tension in the Vadose Zone 225 Soil Water 225 Theory of Unsaturated Flow 228 Water-Table Recharge 231

Notation 234 Analysis 235 Problems 235

0 H A? / T E

R
7.1 7.2 Introduction 236 Steady Regional Ground-Water Flow in Unconfined Aquifers 237 7.2.1 Recharge and Discharge Areas 237 7.2.2 Ground-Water Flow Patterns in Homogeneous Aquifers 237 7.2.3 Effect of Buried Lenses 243 7.2.4 Nonhomogeneous and Anisotropic Aquifers 244 Transient Flow in Regional Ground-Water Systems 247 Noncyclical Ground Water 248 Springs 248 Geology of Regional Flow Systems 250 Case Study: Regional Flow Systems in the Great Basin 250 Case Study: Regional Flow Systems in the Coastal Zone of the Southeastern United States 255 Case Study: Regional Flow System of the High Plains Aquifer 263 Case Study: The Dakota Aquifer 268 Interactions of Ground Water and Lakes or Wetlands and Streams 272

Regional Ground-Water Flow

7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

7.7

Computer Notes 279 Notation 280 Analysis 280 Problems 280

H A|J T E R
8.1 8.2 Introduction 283 Unconsolidated Aquifers 284 8.2.1 Glaciated Terrane 285 Case Study: Hydrogeology of a Buried Valley Aquifer at Dayton, Ohio 289

Geology of Ground-Water Occurrence

Contents 8.2.2 Alluvial Valleys 289 8.2.3 Alluvium in Tectonic Valleys 291 Case Study: Tectonic ValleysSan Bernardino Area 294 8.3 Lithified Sedimentary Rocks 297 Case Study: Sandstone Aquifer of Northeastern IllinoisSoutheastern Wisconsin 297 8.3.1 Complex Stratigraphy 300 8.3.2 Folds and Faults 302 Case Study: Faults as Aquifer Boundaries 303 8.3.3 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks 307 Case Study: Newark Basin Hydrogeology 309 8.3.4 Carbonate Rocks 310 8.3.5 Coal and Lignite 319 8.4 Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 319 8.4.1 Intrusive Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 319 8.4.2 Volcanic Rocks 321 Case Study: Volcanic PlateausColumbia River Basalts 321 Case Study: Volcanic DomesHawaiian Islands 322 8.5 Ground Water in Permafrost Regions 323 Case Study: Alluvial AquifersFairbanks, Alaska 326 8.6 Ground Water in Desert Areas 326 Case Study: Desert HydrologyAzraq Basin, Jordan 327 8.7 Coastal-Plain Aquifers 327 8.8 Fresh-Water-Saline-Water Relations 331 8.8.1 Coastal Aquifers 331 8.8.2 Oceanic Islands 335 8.9 Tidal Effects 337 8.10 Ground-Water Regions of the United States 338 8.10.1 Western Mountain Ranges 338 8.10.2 Alluvial Basins 340 8.10.3 Columbia Lava Plateau 341 8.10.4 Colorado Plateau and Wyoming Basin 341 8.10.5 High Plains 341 ; 8.10.6 Nonglaciated Central Region 342 8.10.7 Glaciated Central Region 342 8.10.8 PiedmontBlue Ridge Region 343 8.10.9 Northeast and Superior Uplands 343 8.10.10^Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain 343 8.10.11 Southeast Coastal Plain 344 8.10.12 Alluvial Valleys 344 8.10.13 Hawaiian Islands 344 8.10.14 Alaska 344 8.10.15 Puerto Rico 344 Notation 345 Problems 345

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Contents

CHAPTER

Water Chemistry

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8

9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12

9.13 9.14

Introduction 346 Units of Measurement 347 Types of Chemical Reactions in Water 348 Law of Mass Action 348 Common-Ion Effect 350 Chemical Activities 350 Ionization Constant of Water and Weak Acids 353 Carbonate Equilibrium 355 9.8.1 Carbonate Reactions 356 9.8.2 Carbonate Equilibrium in Water with Fixed Partial Pressure of CO2 358 9.8.3 Carbonate Equilibrium with External pH Control 359 Thermodynamic Relationships 361 Oxidation Potential 362 Ion Exchange 366 Isotope Hydrology 368 9.12.1 Stable Isotopes 368 9.12.2 Radioactive Isotopes Used in Age Dating 371 Major Ion Chemistry 373 Presentation of Results of Chemical Analyses 374 9.14.1 Piper Diagram 374 9.14.2 Stiff Pattern 376 9.14.3 Schoeller Semilogarithmic Diagram 377 Case Study: Chemical Geohydrology of the Floridan Aquifer System 377

Notation 381 Analysis 382 Problems 383

CH

ER
10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Introduction 385 Water-Quality Standards 388 Collection of Water Samples 389 Ground-Water Monitoring 391

Water Quality and Ground-Water Contamination

10.4.1 "Planning a Ground-Water Monitoring Program 391 10.4.2 Installing Ground-Water Monitoring Wells 391 10.4.3 Withdrawing Water Samples from Monitoring Wells 396 10.5 Vadose-Zone Monitoring 397 10.6 Mass Transport of Solutes 400 10.6.1 Introduction 400 10.6.2 Diffusion 400 10.6.3 Advection 401 10.6.4 Mechanical Dispersion 401 10.6.5 Hydrodynamic Dispersion 402

Contents 10.6.6 Retardation 407 10.6.7 Degradation of Organic Compounds 415 10.7 Ground-Water Contamination 415 10.7.1 Introduction 415 10.7.2 Septic Tanks and Cesspools 416 10.7.3 Landfills 418 10.7.4 Chemical Spills and Leaking Underground Tanks 420 10.7.5 Mining 423 Case Study. Contamination from Uranium Tailings Ponds 424 10.7.6 Other Sources of Ground-Water Contamination 425 10.8 Ground-Water Restoration 426 10.8.1 Risk-Based Corrective Action 426 10.8.2 Source-Control Measures 426 10.8.3 Plume Treatment 427 10.8.4 Natural and Enhanced Bioremediation 428 10.9 Case History: Ground-Water Contamination at a Superfund Site 10.9.1 Background 428 10.9.2 Geology 430 10.9.3 Hydrogeology 431 10.9.4 Ground-Water Contamination 432 10.9.5 Site Remediation 434

XIII

428

10.10 Capture-Zone Analysis 436

Notation 439 Analysis 440 Problems 440

C H A P it E R

Ground-Water Development and Management

11.1 Introduction 441 11.2 Dynamic Equilibrium in Natural Aquifers 442

11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Case Study: Deep Sandstone Aquifer of Northeastern Illinois 443 Ground-Water Budgets 443 Management Potential of Aquifers 445 Paradox of Safe Yield 447 Water Law 449 11.6.1 Legal Concepts 449 11.6.2 Laws Regulating Quantity of Surface Water 449 11.6.3 Laws Regulating Quantity of Ground Water 452 Case Study: Arizona's Ground-Water Code 454 11.6.4 Laws Regulating the Quality of Water 455 Case Study: Wisconsin's Ground-Water Protection Law 458 Artificial Recharge" 459 Protection of Water Quality in Aquifers 460 Ground-Water Mining and Cyclic Storage 463 Conjunctive Use of Ground and Surface Water 464 Global Water Issues 465

11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11

Analysis 467

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Contents

CH Field Methods

ER
12.1 Introduction 468 12.2 Fracture-Trace Analysis 469 12.3 Surficial Methods of Geophysical Investigations 474 12.3.1 Direct-Current Electrical Resistivity 474 12.3.2 Electromagnetic Conductivity 479 12.3.3 Seismic Methods 483 12.3.4 Ground-Penetrating Radar and Magnetometer Surveys 490 12.3.5 Gravity and Aeromagnetic Methods 491 12.4 Geophysical Well Logging 492 12.4.1 Caliper Logs 495 12.4.2 Temperature Logs 495 12.4.3 Single-Point Resistance 495 12.4.4 Resistivity 498 12.4.5 Spontaneous Potential 498 12.4.6 Nuclear Logging 499 Case Study: Use of Multiple Geophysical Methods to Determine the Extent and Thickness of a Critical Confining Layer 502 12.5 Hydrogeologic Site Evaluations 505 12.6 Responsibilities of the Field Hydrogeologist 508 12.7 Project Reports 510 Notation 512 Problems 512

C H A|JPJE R
Ground-Water Models
13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4

13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9

Introduction 514 Applications of Ground-Water Models 516 Data Requirements for Models 517 Finite-Difference Models 519 13.4.1 Finite-Difference Grids 519 13.4.2 Finite-Difference Notation 519 13.4.3 Boundary Conditions 520 13.4.4 Methods of Solution for Steady-State Case for Square Grid Spacing 52 13.4.5 Methods of Solution for the Transient Case 523 Finite-Element Models 524 Use of Published Models 525 MODFLOW Basics 528 Visual MODFLOW 530 Geographical Information Systems 530

Analysis 531

Contents

xv

Appendices 534
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Values of the function W(u) for various values of u 535 Values of the function F(T|,|A) for various values of T| and |x 536 Values of the functions W(JJL, r/B) for various values of JJL 537 Values of the function H((A, (3) 538 Values of the functions K0(x) and exp (x)K0(x) 539 Values of the functions W(uA,F), and W(uB, T) for water-table aquifers 540 Table for length conversion 542 Table for area conversion 542 Table for volume conversion 543 Table for time conversion 543 Solubility products for selected minerals and compounds 544. Atomic weights and numbers of naturally occurring elements 545 Table of values of erf (x) and erfc (x) 547 Absolute density and absolute viscosity of water 548 Loading and running computer programs 549

Glossary 552 Answers 562 References 567 Index 588