Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

Determination of a source in a box with two detectors.

I. non-absorbing media
O. Preslera, O. Pelledb, U. Germanb, Y. Leichterb, Z.B. Alfassia,*
b

a
Department of Nuclear Engineering, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva 84105, Israel
Radiation Protection and Safety Department, Nuclear Research Center-Negev, Beer Sheva 84190, Israel

Received 30 October 2001; received in revised form 2 January 2002; accepted 14 January 2002

Abstract
It was found that the activity and the position of a radioactive point source (hot spot) in a large box containing low
absorbing material can be measured accurately using two NaI(Tl) gamma-ray detectors at the opposite sides of the box
i.e. at 1801 one to another. The harmonic mean of the count rates square roots measured with the two detectors was
found to be independent of the hot spot position and depends only on the source activity, the box size and the gammarays energy. The activity of the radioactive point source can be calculated from the above-mentioned mean. The
position of the point source can be calculated from the ratio of the two detectors count rates. r 2002 Elsevier Science
B.V. All rights reserved.
PACS: 29.30.Kv
Keywords: Unknown radioactive sources; Virtual point detectors; A source in a box

1. Introduction
Many measurements of radioactivity involve
counting of gamma rays emitted by bulky samples,
to which we refer in the general term as a box.
While in the case of a point source it is simple to
transform the measurements of counts per unit
time to activity (disintegrations per unit time) and
hence to number of radioactive atoms, the
problem can be quite inaccurate in the case of a
bulky source. The inaccuracy is due to three
factors: (1) The varying efciency of counting of
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +972-76461347; fax: +9727472955.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Z.B. Alfassi).

different parts of the bulky samples due to the

different distances from the detector. (2) The selfabsorption of the photons in the sample. (3) The
unknown distribution of the radionuclides in the
sample. The varying efciency of different parts of
the sample can be measured by mapping with
calibrated point sources [16] and the self-absorption can be corrected if the composition of the
sample is known (in other words the linear
absorption coefcient is known). Various efciencies together with absorption coefcients can be
used to obtain by integration (either analytically or
numerically) [78] the absolute efciency of
the bulk samples, assuming the distribution
of the radioactivity in the sample is homogenous.
The assumption of homogenous distribution is

0168-9002/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
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O. Presler et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

accurate for liquid samples, but it is not always

accurate for solid samples e.g. nuclear waste drums
or human bodies. In many cases, as for example in
total body counting, this assumption is made
although the radionuclides might be concentrated
only in a small part of the body.
One method that is used in several total body
counting systems to overcome this drawback is to
use two detectors on both sides of the body.
However, no study was done how to treat the
count rates from the two detectors, the most
common method being to take the arithmetic
mean of the count rates and to assume homogenous distribution of the radio-active material.
Some works use the geometric mean and some
suggest that the best way is to take the harmonic
mean. This study was done in order to nd an
optimal method to analyze the data from two
detectors positioned opposite to each other at both
sides of the sample, i.e. at 1801 as used for example
in dual-headed gamma camera.
Two factors cause the decrease of the efciency
with the increasing distance from the detector: (1)
The isotropic propagation of gamma rays, which
leads to a smaller solid angle in which the detector
sees the source with the increasing distance, i.e. the
1/distance2 law. (2) The absorption of gamma rays
inside the sample, i.e. the exp(-m
distance) law. In
order to separate these factors, the present rst
paper of this series of articles deals with a relative
non-absorbing media, i.e. either a low value of m,
the linear absorption coefcient, due to highenergy gamma rays or low absorbing media due to
small dimensions or low density.

2. Experimental setup
The experimental setup consists of an empty
Perspex rectangular box with two 7.5 cm  7.5 cm
NaI(Tl) detectors on opposite faces. The distance
between these faces (inner distance) were 15, 31 or
46 cm in different boxes. The thickness of the
Perspex was 5 mm. Point sources were positioned
at different locations on the line of centers, i.e. the
line connecting the cap centers of the two
detectors. The two detectors were operated simultaneously, each connected to a separate multi-

315

channel analyzer. The areas under the peaks were

computed by the trapezoid method used by
MAESTRO software of ORTEC.

3. Results
Table 1 (ae) gives the results obtained for
various radionuclides in the 31 cm box, while
Table 2 (af) gives the results for the 46 cm box
for various gamma rays energies. All the count
rates are normalized to the count rates at the
center of the box in order to eliminate the need to
deal with the different activities of the various
sources and the varying detection efciencies
corresponding to the energy of the gamma rays.
The aim of this study is to nd an algorithm that
will give for every point the same corrected count
rates as in the center, leading to minimization of
the error due to the unknown position of the
source in the closed box. The three conventional
means were calculated, i.e. the arithmetic mean,
the geometrical mean and the harmonic one [9]
p
1
MA x1 x2 MG x1 x2
2


1
1 1 2x1 x2
M2
MH 2

G:
1
x1 x2
x1 x2 MA
Table 3 presents the ranges and the arithmetic
mean of the different means obtained for all the
measured points together with their standard
deviation (absolute and percents).
As can be seen from these tables none of these
means gives a constant value, which indicates that
if we do not know where the point source is
located, assuming it to be in a certain place will
lead to a considerable error. For example in the
case of the arithmetic mean for the 46 cm box with
a 137Cs source an error of over 450% will be
caused if the actual position of the source is 2.5 cm
from one of the faces compared with the center
position (23 cm from both faces). It can be seen
from the table that the errors involved in
geometrical and harmonic means are much smaller
(1837% and 1220%, respectively, the rst
number is for lowest value of standard deviation
in both 46 cm and 31 cm boxes and the second
number for the highest one) than the errors in the

O. Presler et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

316

Table 1
Results for the measurements with NaI(Tl) detectors with a 31 cm inner distance empty perspex box using various means
h (cm)

Normalized count rate

Detector 1

Arithmetic
mean (A)

Geometric
mean (G)

Harmonic
mean (H)

AP
mean

SH
mean

Measured
x (cm)

Calculated
x (cm)

Absolute
dx

Detector 2

(a) 241Am 60 keV

2.2
10.57
3.5
7.40
4.8
5.41
6.1
4.06
7.5
3.15
8.8
2.50
10.1
1.98
11.3
1.64
12.7
1.38
13.9
1.19
15.2
1.00
16.5
0.88
17.8
0.78
19.1
0.69
20.4
0.61
21.7
0.55
23
0.50
24.3
0.46
25.6
0.42
26.9
0.39
28.2
0.37

0.31
0.35
0.38
0.41
0.44
0.51
0.58
0.66
0.71
0.85
1.00
1.18
1.41
1.63
2.00
2.56
3.33
4.43
6.11
8.69
11.58

5.44
3.87
2.90
2.23
1.79
1.50
1.28
1.15
1.05
1.02
1.00
1.03
1.09
1.16
1.31
1.56
1.92
2.44
3.26
4.54
5.97

1.81
1.60
1.43
1.29
1.17
1.13
1.07
1.04
0.99
1.01
1.00
1.02
1.05
1.06
1.11
1.19
1.29
1.42
1.61
1.85
2.07

0.60
0.66
0.71
0.74
0.77
0.84
0.90
0.94
0.94
0.99
1.00
1.01
1.00
0.97
0.94
0.91
0.88
0.83
0.79
0.75
0.71

1.04
1.03
1.00
0.98
0.95
0.97
0.98
0.99
0.97
1.00
1.00
1.02
1.02
1.01
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.09
1.13
1.18
1.22

0.90
0.94
0.94
0.94
0.93
0.96
0.98
0.99
0.97
1.00
1.00
1.02
1.02
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.05
1.06
1.07
1.06

13
11.7
10.4
9.1
7.7
6.4
5.1
3.9
2.5
1.3
0
1.3
2.6
3.9
5.2
6.5
7.8
9.1
10.4
11.7
13

12.38
11.25
10.17
9.06
7.98
6.61
5.21
3.91
2.88
1.47
0.00
1.28
2.57
3.70
5.05
6.42
7.73
8.97
10.23
11.38
12.19

0.62
0.45
0.23
0.04
0.28
0.21
0.11
0.01
0.38
0.17
0.00
0.02
0.03
0.20
0.15
0.08
0.07
0.13
0.17
0.32
0.81

(b) 57Co
2.2
3.5
4.8
6.1
7.5
8.8
10.1
11.3
12.7
13.9
15.2
16.5
17.8
19.1
20.4
21.7
23
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2

122 keV
11.84
8.02
5.71
4.21
3.20
2.47
1.93
1.63
1.33
1.15
1.00
0.84
0.76
0.59
0.56
0.49
0.42
0.38
0.32
0.34
0.31

0.27
0.31
0.32
0.37
0.43
0.48
0.56
0.65
0.72
0.85
1.00
1.19
1.46
1.78
2.18
2.81
3.66
4.98
7.13
8.63
12.76

6.05
4.16
3.01
2.29
1.82
1.47
1.24
1.14
1.02
1.00
1.00
1.02
1.11
1.19
1.37
1.65
2.04
2.68
3.73
4.48
6.53

1.78
1.57
1.35
1.25
1.18
1.09
1.04
1.03
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.06
1.03
1.10
1.18
1.25
1.38
1.51
1.72
1.99

0.53
0.59
0.61
0.68
0.76
0.80
0.87
0.92
0.93
0.98
1.00
0.99
1.00
0.89
0.89
0.84
0.76
0.71
0.61
0.66
0.61

0.97
0.96
0.90
0.92
0.95
0.93
0.95
0.97
0.95
0.98
1.00
1.00
1.03
0.96
0.99
0.99
0.97
0.99
0.96
1.06
1.10

0.81
0.86
0.84
0.88
0.92
0.92
0.95
0.97
0.95
0.98
1.00
1.00
1.03
0.95
0.98
0.98
0.94
0.93
0.87
0.95
0.93

13
11.7
10.4
9.1
7.7
6.4
5.1
3.9
2.5
1.3
0
1.3
2.6
3.9
5.2
6.5
7.8
9.1
10.4
11.7
13

12.17
11.08
10.18
8.95
7.65
6.40
4.95
3.73
2.51
1.24
0.00
1.43
2.67
4.44
5.40
6.78
8.15
9.36
10.73
11.03
12.05

0.83
0.62
0.22
0.15
0.05
0.00
0.15
0.17
0.01
0.06
0.00
0.13
0.07
0.54
0.20
0.28
0.35
0.26
0.33
0.67
0.95

(c) 137Cs
2.2
3.5
4.8
6.1

662 keV
8.96
6.38
4.75
3.66

0.34
0.37
0.40
0.43

4.65
3.37
2.57
2.05

1.74
1.53
1.38
1.26

0.65
0.69
0.73
0.78

1.06
1.03
1.00
0.99

0.95
0.95
0.96
0.96

13
11.7
10.4
9.1

12.53
11.38
10.23
9.10

0.47
0.32
0.17
0.00

O. Presler et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

317

Table 1 (continued)
h (cm)

Normalized count rate

Arithmetic
mean (A)

Geometric
mean (G)

Harmonic
mean (H)

AP
mean

SH
mean

0.49
0.53
0.59
0.66
0.74
0.86
1.00
1.16
1.34
1.60
1.94
2.41
3.00
3.89
5.23
7.55
8.90

1.66
1.41
1.25
1.14
1.06
1.02
1.00
1.03
1.07
1.16
1.28
1.49
1.76
2.18
2.83
3.97
4.64

1.17
1.10
1.06
1.03
1.01
1.01
1.00
1.02
1.03
1.07
1.10
1.17
1.25
1.36
1.51
1.74
1.83

0.83
0.86
0.90
0.94
0.96
1.00
1.00
1.01
1.00
0.99
0.95
0.92
0.89
0.84
0.81
0.76
0.72

0.99
0.98
0.98
0.99
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.01
1.01
1.03
1.02
1.03
1.06
1.07
1.10
1.15
1.15

0.97
0.97
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.01
1.01
1.03
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.04
1.05
1.06
1.03

7.7
6.4
5.1
3.9
2.5
1.3
0
1.3
2.6
3.9
5.2
6.5
7.8
9.1
10.4
11.7
13

7.67
6.52
5.33
4.08
2.87
1.51
0.00
1.18
2.39
3.73
5.10
6.43
7.67
9.00
10.24
11.64
12.23

0.03
0.12
0.23
0.18
0.37
0.21
0.00
0.12
0.21
0.17
0.10
0.07
0.13
0.10
0.16
0.06
0.77

1173 keV
7.17
5.38
4.19
3.26
2.60
2.17
1.79
1.53
1.31
1.14
1.00
0.87
0.77
0.81
0.63
0.57
0.52
0.48
0.46
0.42
0.39

0.35
0.87
0.41
0.46
0.49
0.55
0.61
0.68
0.78
0.88
1.00
1.16
1.36
1.61
1.92
2.36
2.91
3.71
4.34
5.93
8.06

3.76
2.88
2.30
1.86
1.55
1.36
1.20
1.11
1.05
1.01
1.00
1.02
1.06
1.16
1.28
1.47
1.72
2.10
2.40
3.17
4.22

1.58
1.44
1.31
1.23
1.13
1.10
1.05
1.02
1.01
1.01
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.07
1.10
1.16
1.23
1.34
1.41
1.57
1.76

0.66
0.72
0.75
0.81
0.83
0.88
0.91
0.94
0.98
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.98
0.98
0.95
0.92
0.89
0.85
0.83
0.78
0.74

1.03
1.02
0.99
1.00
0.97
0.98
0.98
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.03
1.02
1.03
1.05
1.07
1.08
1.11
1.14

0.94
0.96
0.95
0.98
0.95
0.98
0.98
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.03
1.02
1.02
1.03
1.05
1.04
1.04
1.04

13
11.7
10.4
9.1
7.7
6.4
5.1
3.9
2.5
1.3
0
1.3
2.6
3.9
5.2
6.5
7.8
9.1
10.4
11.7
13

12.78
8.55
10.46
9.04
7.88
6.60
5.24
4.00
2.60
1.28
0.00
1.43
2.83
3.42
5.43
6.85
8.10
9.39
10.21
11.62
12.83

0.22
3.15
0.06
0.06
0.18
0.20
0.14
0.10
0.10
0.02
0.00
0.13
0.23
0.48
0.23
0.35
0.30
0.29
0.19
0.08
0.17

(e) 60Co 1332 keV

2.2
7.19
3.5
5.40
4.8
4.23
6.1
3.29
7.5
2.64
8.8
2.23
10.1
1.80
11.3
1.56
12.7
1.29
13.9
1.15

0.34
0.38
0.41
0.46
0.50
0.55
0.62
0.69
0.77
0.88

3.76
2.89
2.32
1.87
1.56
1.39
1.21
1.12
1.05
1.02

1.57
1.43
1.32
1.23
1.14
1.11
1.05
1.03
1.01
1.01

0.65
0.71
0.75
0.81
0.83
0.88
0.92
0.95
0.97
1.00

1.01
1.01
0.99
0.99
0.98
0.99
0.98
0.99
0.99
1.00

0.92
0.95
0.96
0.97
0.96
0.98
0.98
0.99
0.99
1.00

13
11.7
10.4
9.1
7.7
6.4
5.1
3.9
2.5
1.3

12.84
11.63
10.49
9.12
7.90
6.75
5.25
4.05
2.59
1.35

0.16
0.07
0.09
0.02
0.20
0.35
0.15
0.15
0.09
0.05

Detector 1
7.5
8.8
10.1
11.3
12.7
13.9
15.2
16.5
17.8
19.1
20.4
21.7
23
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2
(d) 60Co
2.2
3.5
4.8
6.1
7.5
8.8
10.1
11.3
12.7
13.9
15.2
16.5
17.8
19.1
20.4
21.7
23
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2

2.83
2.29
1.92
1.61
1.38
1.19
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.71
0.63
0.57
0.52
0.47
0.44
0.40
0.38

Measured
x (cm)

Calculated
x (cm)

Absolute
dx

Detector 2

O. Presler et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

318

Table 1 (continued)
h (cm)

Normalized count rate

Detector 1

15.2
16.5
17.8
19.1
20.4
21.7
23
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2

1.00
0.88
0.79
0.71
0.63
0.58
0.52
0.47
0.46
0.42
0.39

Arithmetic
mean (A)

Geometric
mean (G)

Harmonic
mean (H)

AP
mean

SH
mean

1.00
1.02
1.07
1.16
1.28
1.47
1.72
2.08
2.38
3.14
4.15

1.00
1.01
1.03
1.07
1.10
1.17
1.23
1.32
1.41
1.56
1.76

1.00
1.00
1.00
0.98
0.95
0.93
0.88
0.84
0.83
0.78
0.75

1.00
1.01
1.01
1.03
1.02
1.04
1.04
1.05
1.08
1.10
1.15

1.00
1.01
1.01
1.02
1.02
1.03
1.03
1.03
1.04
1.04
1.05

Measured
x (cm)

Calculated
x (cm)

Absolute
dx

Detector 2
1.00
1.17
1.36
1.61
1.92
2.37
2.91
3.68
4.31
5.86
7.90

0
1.3
2.6
3.9
5.2
6.5
7.8
9.1
10.4
11.7
13

0.00
1.44
2.72
4.05
5.43
6.77
8.12
9.43
10.16
11.59
12.72

0.00
0.14
0.12
0.15
0.23
0.27
0.32
0.33
0.24
0.11
0.28

(a) 60 keV, (b) 122 keV, (c) 662 keV, (d) 1173 keV and (e) 1332 keV.

arithmetic one (5195%). By observing the geometric and harmonic means in the tables, it is clear
that while MG is increasing with moving out of the
center, MH is decreasing. An attempting conclusion from this observation is that the product of
these two means will give a better approximation
for the real activity. Since the unit of each of MG
and MH is counts s1, in order to maintain these
units, the square root of the product MG MH
should be taken. We called this mean MAPF the
AlfassiPresler mean:
s
p
M2
MAP MG MH MG G
MA
r
MG
MAP MG
2
MA

given by the equation Cy C0d 2 =y d2 ;

where d is the distance from the detector cap to
the virtual detector point and C0 is the count
rate on the box face. We will assume that the same
formula applies for NaI (Tl) detectors.
In Fig. 1 dj1 is the distance between the inner
face of the box and the detector j cap. dj2 is the
distance between the detector cap and its effective
virtual point detector, thus if dj dj1 dj2 we
obtain the equation

As can be seen from the Table 3, this means leads

to a maximal standard deviation of 15% over the
whole 46 cm range. For the 31 cm box, the
maximal standard deviation observed (Table 3) is
6.66%.

Cj center

Cj y

y dj 2

j 1; 2

For a point source at the center of a box with

linear dimension of 2a (on the line of centers) this
equation leads to
Cj 0dj2
a dj 2

j 1; 2:

For a point source located at distance x from the

center, the distances from the box faces are a x
and a  x and hence Eq. (4) will yield
C1 y

4. Mathematical formulation
For germanium detectors it was found [1,10]
that except for sources positioned very close to the
detector, the bulky detector can be treated as a
virtual point detector. This means that the countrate at a distance y from the detector cap Cy is

Cj 0dj2

C1 0d12
;
a x d1 2

C2 y

C2 0d22
: 5
a  x d2 2

The count rates normalized to the values in the

center of the box N1 x and N2 x are:
N1 x

a d1 2
;
a x d1 2

N2 x

a d2 2
:
a  x d2 2
6

O. Presler et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

319

Table 2
Results for the measurements with NaI(Tl) detectors with a 46 cm inner distance empty perspex box using various means
h (cm)

Normalized count rate

Detector 1

Arithmetic
mean (A)

Geometric
mean (G)

Harmonic
mean (H)

AP
mean

SH
mean

Measured
x (cm)

Calculated
x (cm)

Absolute
dx

Detector 2

(a) 241Am 60 keV

2.6
19.43
5.2
10.16
7.8
6.11
10.4
3.97
13
2.76
15.6
2.07
18.2
1.44
20.8
1.26
23.4
1.00
26
0.85
28.6
0.71
31.2
0.62
33.8
0.53
36.4
0.45
39
0.41
41.6
0.36
44.2
0.35

0.36
0.40
0.43
0.50
0.56
0.66
0.74
0.84
1.00
1.23
1.57
2.08
2.78
3.88
6.03
10.27
20.33

9.89
5.28
3.27
2.24
1.66
1.36
1.09
1.05
1.00
1.04
1.14
1.35
1.65
2.17
3.22
5.32
10.34

2.64
2.00
1.63
1.41
1.24
1.17
1.03
1.03
1.00
1.02
1.06
1.14
1.21
1.33
1.56
1.94
2.65

0.71
0.76
0.81
0.89
0.93
1.00
0.97
1.01
1.00
1.01
0.98
0.96
0.88
0.81
0.76
0.70
0.68

1.37
1.23
1.15
1.12
1.08
1.08
1.00
1.02
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.04
1.03
1.04
1.09
1.17
1.34

1.11
1.10
1.08
1.09
1.07
1.08
1.00
1.02
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.04
1.02
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.08

20.4
17.8
15.2
12.6
10
7.4
4.8
2.2
0.4
3
5.6
8.2
10.8
13.4
16
18.6
21.2

20.61
18.17
15.69
12.88
10.27
7.54
4.50
2.72
0.00
2.49
5.28
7.97
10.68
13.29
15.93
18.51
20.84

0.21
0.37
0.49
0.28
0.27
0.14
0.30
0.52
0.40
0.51
0.32
0.23
0.12
0.11
0.07
0.09
0.36

(b) 22Na
2.6
5.2
7.8
10.4
13
15.6
18.2
20.8
23.4
26
28.6
31.2
33.8
36.4
39
41.6
44.2

511 keV
12.12
8.18
5.26
3.53
2.38
1.79
1.42
1.24
1.00
0.86
0.73
0.62
0.54
0.46
0.41
0.36
0.33

0.34
0.37
0.41
0.47
0.54
0.66
0.76
0.84
1.00
1.23
1.54
2.02
2.71
3.81
5.71
9.45
18.06

6.23
4.27
2.84
2.00
1.46
1.22
1.09
1.04
1.00
1.05
1.13
1.32
1.63
2.13
3.06
4.90
9.19

2.03
1.73
1.47
1.29
1.14
1.08
1.04
1.02
1.00
1.03
1.06
1.12
1.21
1.33
1.53
1.85
2.44

0.66
0.70
0.76
0.83
0.89
0.96
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.02
0.99
0.95
0.90
0.82
0.77
0.70
0.65

1.16
1.10
1.06
1.04
1.00
1.02
1.02
1.01
1.00
1.02
1.02
1.03
1.05
1.04
1.09
1.13
1.26

1.00
0.99
1.00
1.01
1.00
1.02
1.02
1.01
1.00
1.02
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.02
1.02
1.01
1.02

20.4
17.8
15.2
12.6
10
7.4
4.8
2.2
0.4
3
5.6
8.2
10.8
13.4
16
18.6
21.2

20.10
18.36
15.89
13.10
9.95
6.95
4.34
2.77
0.00
2.49
5.24
8.13
10.77
13.64
16.27
18.98
21.48

0.30
0.56
0.69
0.50
0.05
0.45
0.46
0.57
0.40
0.51
0.36
0.07
0.03
0.24
0.27
0.38
0.28

(c) 137Cs
2.6
5.2
7.8
10.4
13
15.6
18.2
20.8
23.4
26
28.6
31.2

662 keV
14.80
8.32
5.42
3.53
2.58
1.92
1.48
1.19
1.00
0.86
0.73
0.64

0.33
0.36
0.41
0.47
0.53
0.63
0.70
0.83
1.00
1.21
1.45
1.89

7.56
4.34
2.91
2.00
1.56
1.28
1.09
1.01
1.00
1.04
1.09
1.27

2.22
1.74
1.48
1.29
1.17
1.10
1.02
0.99
1.00
1.02
1.03
1.10

0.65
0.70
0.76
0.84
0.88
0.95
0.95
0.98
1.00
1.01
0.97
0.96

1.20
1.10
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.02
0.99
0.98
1.00
1.01
1.00
1.03

1.00
0.99
1.00
1.02
1.01
1.02
0.99
0.98
1.00
1.01
1.00
1.03

20.4
17.8
15.2
12.6
10
7.4
4.8
2.2
0.4
3
5.6
8.2

20.89
18.49
16.11
13.10
10.61
7.69
5.16
2.52
0.00
2.43
4.77
7.44

0.49
0.69
0.91
0.50
0.61
0.29
0.36
0.32
0.40
0.57
0.83
0.76

O. Presler et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

320

Table 2 (continued)
h (cm)

Normalized count rate

Detector 1

33.8
36.4
39
41.6
44.2

Geometric
mean (G)

Harmonic
mean (H)

AP
mean

SH
mean

Measured
x (cm)

Calculated
x (cm)

Absolute
dx

Detector 2
2.49
3.38
5.49
8.30
14.61

1.52
1.93
2.95
4.34
7.47

1.16
1.26
1.51
1.77
2.19

0.89
0.83
0.77
0.72
0.64

1.02
1.02
1.08
1.13
1.18

1.01
1.00
1.02
1.02
0.99

10.8
13.4
16
18.6
21.2

10.27
12.90
16.07
18.33
20.89

0.53
0.50
0.07
0.27
0.31

1173 keV
12.70
8.02
5.25
3.45
2.48
1.79
1.43
1.22
1.00
0.78
0.68
0.58
0.51
0.43
0.37
0.34
0.32

0.35
0.38
0.43
0.47
0.53
0.65
0.75
0.84
1.00
1.24
1.58
2.05
2.69
3.71
5.41
8.58
12.92

6.53
4.20
2.84
1.96
1.51
1.22
1.09
1.03
1.00
1.01
1.13
1.31
1.60
2.07
2.89
4.46
6.62

2.10
1.74
1.51
1.28
1.15
1.08
1.04
1.01
1.00
0.98
1.04
1.09
1.17
1.27
1.41
1.70
2.03

0.68
0.72
0.80
0.83
0.88
0.95
0.99
0.99
1.00
0.95
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.78
0.69
0.65
0.63

1.19
1.12
1.10
1.03
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.00
1.00
0.97
1.00
0.99
1.00
0.99
0.99
1.05
1.13

1.02
1.02
1.05
1.01
1.00
1.01
1.01
1.00
1.00
0.97
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.96
0.93
0.94
0.96

20.4
17.8
15.2
12.6
10
7.4
4.8
2.2
0.4
3
5.6
8.2
10.8
13.4
16
18.6
21.2

19.70
17.70
15.22
12.64
10.08
6.83
4.38
2.56
0.00
3.19
5.68
8.44
10.81
13.50
16.10
18.40
20.02

0.70
0.10
0.02
0.04
0.08
0.57
0.42
0.36
0.40
0.19
0.08
0.24
0.01
0.10
0.10
0.20
1.18

(e) 22Na 1274 keV

2.6
10.14
5.2
7.29
7.8
4.72
10.4
3.22
13
2.16
15.6
1.64
18.2
1.28
20.8
1.21
23.4
1.00
26
0.81
28.6
0.66
31.2
0.64
33.8
0.47
36.4
0.45
39
0.44
41.6
0.37
44.2
0.32

0.40
0.36
0.42
0.48
0.62
0.70
0.74
0.84
1.00
1.21
1.54
2.03
2.68
3.62
5.37
8.59
15.32

5.27
3.83
2.57
1.85
1.39
1.17
1.01
1.03
1.00
1.01
1.10
1.34
1.57
2.04
2.91
4.48
7.82

2.01
1.62
1.41
1.24
1.16
1.07
0.98
1.01
1.00
0.99
1.01
1.14
1.12
1.27
1.54
1.79
2.23

0.76
0.69
0.78
0.83
0.97
0.98
0.94
0.99
1.00
0.97
0.93
0.98
0.79
0.80
0.82
0.71
0.63

1.24
1.06
1.05
1.01
1.06
1.02
0.96
1.00
1.00
0.98
0.97
1.06
0.94
1.01
1.12
1.13
1.19

1.11
0.97
1.00
0.99
1.05
1.02
0.96
1.00
1.00
0.98
0.97
1.05
0.93
0.98
1.07
1.02
0.99

20.4
17.8
15.2
12.6
10
7.4
4.8
2.2
0.4
3
5.6
8.2
10.8
13.4
16
18.6
21.2

19.50
18.51
15.69
12.93
8.78
6.11
3.94
2.65
0.00
2.94
6.06
8.12
11.98
13.96
16.12
19.06
21.72

0.90
0.71
0.49
0.33
1.22
1.29
0.86
0.45
0.40
0.06
0.46
0.08
1.18
0.56
0.12
0.46
0.52

(f) 60Co 1332 keV

2.6
12.61
5.2
8.18
7.8
5.21
10.4
3.34
13
2.45
15.6
1.73
18.2
1.45

0.34
0.37
0.42
0.48
0.53
0.64
0.75

6.47
4.27
2.81
1.91
1.49
1.19
1.10

2.06
1.73
1.48
1.26
1.14
1.05
1.04

0.66
0.70
0.78
0.84
0.87
0.94
0.99

1.16
1.10
1.07
1.03
1.00
0.99
1.02

0.99
0.99
1.02
1.01
0.99
0.99
1.02

20.4
17.8
15.2
12.6
10
7.4
4.8

20.14
18.23
15.62
12.63
10.24
6.80
4.54

0.26
0.43
0.42
0.03
0.24
0.60
0.26

(d) 60Co
2.6
5.2
7.8
10.4
13
15.6
18.2
20.8
23.4
26
28.6
31.2
33.8
36.4
39
41.6
44.2

0.54
0.47
0.41
0.38
0.33

Arithmetic
mean (A)

O. Presler et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

321

Table 2 (continued)
h (cm)

Normalized count rate

Detector 1

20.8
23.4
26
28.6
31.2
33.8
36.4
39
41.6
44.2

1.21
1.00
0.81
0.69
0.58
0.50
0.44
0.39
0.34
0.33

Arithmetic
mean (A)

Geometric
mean (G)

Harmonic
mean (H)

AP
mean

SH
mean

1.02
1.00
1.00
1.04
1.08
1.14
1.28
1.41
1.70
2.06

1.00
1.00
0.98
0.95
0.90
0.84
0.79
0.72
0.65
0.64

1.01
1.00
0.99
0.99
0.98
0.98
1.01
1.01
1.05
1.15

1.01
1.00
0.99
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.98
0.95
0.94
0.98

Measured
x (cm)

Calculated
x (cm)

Absolute
dx

Detector 2
0.85
1.00
1.24
1.56
2.00
2.63
3.68
5.13
8.48
12.85

1.03
1.00
1.02
1.12
1.29
1.56
2.06
2.76
4.41
6.59

2.2
0.4
3
5.6
8.2
10.8
13.4
16
18.6
21.2

2.49
0.00
3.00
5.67
8.40
11.05
13.58
15.93
18.66
20.27

0.29
0.40
0.00
0.07
0.20
0.25
0.18
0.07
0.06
0.93

(a) 60 keV, (b) 511 keV, (c) 662 keV, (d) 1173 keV, (e) 1274 keV and (f) 1332 keV

Since both detectors are similar, we can approximate d 1=d 2 and hence rewrite the means (Eq. (1))
1
MA N1 N2
2


d a2
1
1

2
d a x2 d a  x2
d a2 d a2 x2
d a2  x2 2

2
1 x=d a
1
MA N1 N2 n

2 o2
2
1  x=d a

MG

p
N1
N2

d a2
d a2  x2

1  x=d a

M2
d a2
1

MH G

9
MA d a2 x2 1 x=d a 2
for x 0; i.e. the point source at the center, all the
three normalized means are equal to 1. When x > 0
the nominator of MA is larger than 1 and the
denominator is smaller then 1, and both effects
lead to MA > 1: For MG and MH there is only the
effect of the denominator and its effect is smaller
than in MA ; since in MA appears the square of the
term. This explains why both MG and MH are
better tted than MA for calculation of the

unknown activity. The denominator of MG is

decreasing with x; while for MH it is increasing
with x: This explains our observation, as can be
seen in Fig. 2, that MG is increasing with x; while
MH is decreasing with x:
The new mean-MAP is obtained by multiplication of Eqs. (8) and (9)
p
1
MAP MG MH q
10
1  x=d a 4
MAP

MG

r
MH
o1 ) MAP oMG :
MG

As we have seen before MG is always larger than 1

and hence MAP is closer to 1 than MG : Similarly
r
MAP
MG
> 1 ) MAP > MH :

MH
MH
MH is always smaller than 1 and hence MAP is
closer to 1 than MH :
MAP was suggested since MG increases with x;
while MH decreases with x: However, MAP is still
dependent on x as can be seen in Eq. (10). Careful
observation of Eqs. (8) and (9) suggests a way to
cancel completely the effect of x: The denominators of Eqs. (8) and (9) are the same except the
7sign, so the addition of the reciprocal values of
MH and MG should be independent of x
1
1
MG MH

2:
MH MG
MG M H

322

O. Presler et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

Table 3
The range and the arithmetic mean of the means and the standard deviation
Mean

(a) 31 cm box
Arithmetic (A)

Geometric (G)

Harmonic (H)

AP

SH

Energy (keV)

Range of mean
Mean
Standard deviation
Std. Dev. (%)
Range of mean
Mean
Standard deviation
Std. Dev. (%)
Range of mean
Mean
Standard deviation
Std. Dev. (%)
Range of mean
Mean
Standard deviation
Std. Dev. (%)
Range of mean
Mean
Standard deviation
Std. Dev. (%)

Mean

(b) 46 cm box
Arithmetic (A)

Geometric (G)

Harmonic (H)

AP

SH

60

122

662

1173

1332

15.97
2.26
1.52
67.25
12.07
1.30
0.32
24.69
0.61.01
0.85
0.12
14.51
0.951.21
1.03
0.07
6.66
0.91.07
1.00
0.05
4.90

16.53
2.38
1.69
70.78
0.971.99
1.26
0.30
23.52
0.521
0.79
0.15
19.52
0.921.1
0.98
0.05
4.59
0.811.03
0.94
0.06
6.06

14.64
2.03
1.20
59.12
11.83
1.26
0.27
21.33
0.651.01
0.87
0.11
12.95
0.981.15
1.03
0.05
5.02
0.951.06
1.00
0.03
3.47

14.22
1.84
0.96
51.96
11.76
1.22
0.23
18.49
0.661
0.88
0.10
11.81
0.981.14
1.02
0.04
4.34
0.931.04
1.00
0.03
3.27

14.15
1.84
0.94
51.24
11.76
1.22
0.22
18.04
0.651
0.88
0.11
12.18
0.971.14
1.02
0.43
4.17
0.921.05
1.00
0.03
3.40

60

511

662

1173

1274

1332

110.34
3.12
2.97
95.03
12.65
1.47
0.54
36.47
0.681.01
0.88
0.12
13.66
11.37
1.11
0.11
10.27
11.11
1.05
0.04
3.62

19.19
2.68
2.28
85.01
12.44
1.37
0.42
30.37
0.651.02
0.86
0.13
15.29
11.26
1.06
0.07
6.40
0.991.04
1.01
0.01
1.16

17.56
2.61
2.14
82.08
0.992.21
1.36
0.40
29.69
0.641
0.85
0.13
14.78
0.981.2
1.05
0.07
6.24
0.981.02
1.01
0.01
1.25

16.62
2.50
1.87
74.90
0.982.01
1.33
0.36
27.42
0.631.1
0.84
0.13
15.36
0.971.19
1.03
0.06
6.03
0.931.05
0.99
0.03
3.11

17.8
2.43
1.91
78.54
0.972.22
1.33
0.38
28.87
0.631
0.86
0.12
13.96
0.941.24
1.05
0.08
7.80
0.961.1
1.00
0.05
4.48

16.59
2.48
1.86
75.22
12.06
1.32
0.36
27.29
0.641
0.84
0.13
15.48
0.981.16
1.03
0.06
5.50
0.941.02
0.99
0.02
2.09

Energy (keV)

Range of mean
Mean
Standard deviation
Std. dev. (%)
Range of mean
Mean
Standard deviation
Std. dev. (%)
Range of mean
Mean
Standard deviation
Std. dev. (%)
Range of mean
Mean
Standard deviation
Std. dev. (%)
Range of mean
Mean
Standard deviation
Std. dev. (%)

O. Presler et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

323

Box

a-x a+x

Detector 2

Detector 1

x
a

d21

d11

d22

d12

Center of the box

Effective point detector

Fig. 1. The dual detectors measuring system.

Co-60 1332 keV

Am-241 60 keV

0
-10

-5

10

-10

-5

x [cm]
Arithmetic mean (A)

Geometric mean (G)

AP mean

SH mean

10

x [cm]
Harmonic mean (H)

Arithmetic mean (A)

Geometric mean (G)

AP mean

SH mean

Harmonic mean (H)

Fig. 2. The means vs. x; the distance from the center of the box at: (a) 60 keV at the 30 cm box; and (b) 1332 keV at the 46 cm box.

The sum has units of s counts1 and hence it is

preferable to take its reciprocal, which has the
usual units of counts s1
2
MG MH
1:
11
MG MH
Another way to reach the same conclusion is by
treating the observed count rates themselves rather
than the means. Eq. (6) shows that if we will take
the square roots of the reciprocal counting the x
will appear once with a plus sign and once with a
minus sign, which means that addition of them will
cancel the terms with x
1
1
p p 2:
12
N1
N2
This sum has the units of s0.5 count0.5 and hence
we will dene a new meanthe harmonic mean of

the square roots, by squaring the reciprocal value

of the sum.
0
12
B
C
2
B
C
MSH B
C
1 A
@ 1
p p
N1
N2
4
MSH
!2
1
1
p p
N1
N2
4N1 N2
MSH p p2 :
N1 N2

13

Eq. (12) indicates that MSH should be equal to 1,

independent of x: Substitution of the denition of

O. Presler et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

324

MG and MH into Eq. (11), shows that it is the

same term as Eq. (13). Tables 1 and 2 show that
experimentally the deviation of MSH from 1 is
always below 10% and in most cases not more
than 23%.
This constancy of MSH indicates the method of
measuring accurately the activity of a point source
within a box without having to know the position
of the source. The box is calibrated for its
efciency by a standard point source with known
activity which will be assigned by Act (Std),
positioned anywhere on the line of the centers .If
the mean square harmonic MSH of its measurement is denoted by MSH (Std), then the activity of
any unknown source Act (u) of the same energy,
positioned somewhere (unknown) on the line of
centers is given by
Actu

MSH u

ActStd
MSH Std

14

where MSH is calculated from the count rate of the

two detectors (Eq. (13)), i.e. N is replaced by C.
If the exact place of the source in the box is
required, the position of the source can be found
from the ratio of the count rates in the two
detectors. From Eq. (6):
r
N1 d a x
R
15

N2 d a  x
and hence
x d a

1R
1R

16

where x is the distance from the center of the box

toward detector 2. Tables 1 and 2 give also the
calculated x values. Care should be taken to
include in d; besides the distance of the virtual
effective detecting point from the detector cap
(which depends on the gamma ray energy) also the
thickness of the box and the distance of the outer
face from the detector cap. For our system, for the
high energy of 60Co d is equal to 3.75 cm (half the
thickness of the detector +0.8 cm). The comparison of the calculated x with the measured one
agrees better than 10%, as can be seen in Tables 1
and 2.

5. Calculated error for longitudinal sources

C1 will be equal to C2 in two cases, either if the
source is a point source at the center (substituting
R 1 in Eq. (15) leads to x 0), or if the source is
a longitudinal source with its center identical with
the box center. Following, we will calculate the
error induced by longitudinal source of length 2b
lying on the line of centers and its midpoint
coincides with the midpoint of the line of centers
(Fig. 3).
The activity of an innitesimal piece of the
source with length dx is A=2b
dx; where A is the
total activity of the source. The normalized count
rates of the longitudinal source detector (normalized to the whole activity being concentrated in the
center) is given by the following integral
A R 2b
dx
0
2b
d a  b x2
N
A
d a2
by integration the normalized count rates are
N

d a2
1

2
2
1  b=d a 2
d a  b

17

if b=d a51 we can approximate N 2b=d

a which is the fractional error for the source not
being a point source. As long as b=d ao10:3
the error due to a longitudinal source (Eq. (17)) is
smaller then 10%.

6. Conclusion
Since the harmonic mean of the count rates
square rootsMSH is independent of the position,
the activity of a point source located at an
a

Detector

dx

Box

x
d+a-b
b

Fig. 3. Longitudinal measuring geometry.

O. Presler et al. / Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 491 (2002) 314325

unknown position can be calculated from the

comparison of its MSH with the MSH obtained
with a calibrated source. The calibrated source can
be positioned anywhere on the line of centers.
However, in order to reduce the statistical error of
the further detector, it is better to position the
calibrated source in the middle i.e. at equal
distances from the two detectors. The activity of
the unknown source can be calculated from
Eq. (14) and its position from Eq. (16).

References
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Nucl. Instr. and Meth., in press.

325

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