Electronics Fundamentals 1 The Solid State Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors Mobile electrons and holes: For a material

to conduct electricity, it must contain charges that are free to move when a potential difference is applied across it. These are known as mobile or free electrons. It is important to recognize that when an electron moves from a valence band into a conduction band it leaves a vacant site, or hole, in valence band. This hole can be thought of as a positive charge and also act as a current carrier.

Electrons move in holes because these holes are like vacant positions where something should be fill up. The hole therefore appears to move through the material in response to an external electric field or voltage. In a pure semiconductor crystal, there are equal number of holes and free electrons. Metals: The Conductors There are very few electrons in metal conductors in their upper energy level or valence band. Therefore, if we give an electron some additional energy by applying a potential across the conductor, the electron will still be apply to occupy a higher allowed energy within the valence band. In metals the valence electrons easily move under the influence of an electric field and in a sense behave like a gas. Materials such as copper, silver and aluminum are therefore good conductors. In metals, only the outermost valence electrons, which are most weakly bound to the atom, carry the current. Good conducting materials are Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum, and Mercury.

Insulators: Materials such as glass, rubber and ceramic are good insulators. Insulators have no free electron but little bit. Their uppermost energy band completely filled. The electrons are firmly bound in the valence band and no conduction occurs. Some electrons are free to move, but number is small comparing conductors. Semiconductors: A third class of materials, known as semiconductors, having properties between insulators and conductors. Silicon and germanium are two common semiconductors. These materials are poor to conduct at low temperature, but as the temperature rises more electrons become free and carry the current and they begin to conduct.

As some semiconductors readily absorb light energy many are black (Silicon, GaAs, Galena) though with some shine. The conductivity of semiconductors therefore rises with temperature and light intensity. This is the opposite effect to that found in good conductors where the resistance to the follow of current increases with increasing temperature and definitely in such situation conductivity decreases.

CONDUCTORS, R E S I S T O R S , INSULATORS AND COLOR CODES

Electromagnetic Spectrum

DIODES Diodes are usually made from semiconductor materials, Silicon and Germanium being the most common. Early types of semiconductor diodes were made from Selenium and Germanium, but Silicon is used today for the vast majority of devices. Selenium rectifier diodes may be found in antique radios but are obsolete and are normally replaced by modern silicon types. Some germanium types are still used however, because of a number of useful properties that germanium possesses and silicon does not, although specialized types of silicon diodes are taking over uses previously given to germanium diodes. Figure 1. Diodes

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Germanium point contact diode Silicon rectifier diode Silicon high voltage (800V) switching diode EHT (20kV) rectifier diode Silicon bridge rectifier diode

A diode is a one-way conductor. It has two terminals, the anode or positive terminal and the cathode or negative terminal. Basically a diode will only pass current when its anode is made more positive than its cathode. In Figure 1 above, the cathode on the single diodes (numbered 1,2,3 and 4) is indicated by a band around one end of the diode. In the circuit symbols shown in Figure 2, the cathode is shown as a bar and the anode as a triangle. The positive and negative (plus and minus) symbols shown on the Bridge rectifier (No.5) indicate the polarity of the DC output and not the anode or cathode of the device. Fig 2. Diode Circuit Symbols.

Which way does current flow? Conventional current flows from the positive (anode) terminal to the negative (cathode) terminal although the movement of electrons is in the opposite direction, from cathode to anode. Fig 3. Conventional current flow through a diode.

Diodes are the simplest of all the semiconductor devices , but have a very wide range of uses, including: Rectification changing A.C. power to D.C. power. Demodulation recovering audio or video information from radio signals. Illumination light emitting diodes, made from materials such as Gallium

Phosphide rather than silicon, replace filament lamps in many applications. Stabilisation. Zener diodes can be used to set very precise voltage values in such circuits as d.c. power supplies. Protection diodes can be used to protect circuits from being damaged by such things as wrong polarity supply connection, and abnormally high voltages or currents. Diodes are made from two differently doped layers of semiconductor material that form a "PN junction". *The P type material has a surplus of positive charge carriers (holes) and the N type, a surplus of electrons. *Between these layers, where the P type and N type materials meet, holes and electrons combine, with excess electrons combining with excess holes to cancel each other out, so a thin layer is created that has neither positive nor negative charge carriers present. Since there are no charge carriers in this Depletion Layer no current can flow across it. *In effect a small natural potential is set up within the semiconductor material that has an opposite polarity to the P and N type layers, and because of this narrow band of reversed potential, no current can flow through the diode. *When a voltage is applied across the junction however, so that the P type anode is made positive and the N type cathode negative, provided that the applied voltage is greater than the natural junction potential of the depletion layer, the positive holes are attracted across the depletion layer towards the negative cathode, also the negative electrons are attracted towards the positive anode and current flows. When the diode is reverse biased (the anode connected to negative and the cathode to the positive voltage), the positive holes are attracted towards the negative voltage and away from the junction. Likewise the negative electrons are attracted away from the junction towards the positive voltage applied to the cathode. This action leaves a greater area at the junction without any charge carriers (either positive or negative) left. This causes the depletion layer to widen. It is depleted of charge carriers and so is an insulator. As higher voltages are applied in reverse polarity to the diode, the depletion layer becomes wider still, since the applied voltage is attracting more charge carriers away from it. The diode will not conduct with a reverse voltage (a reverse bias) applied. Once the voltage is applied in the forward direction (positive to anode and negative to cathode) again, current will flow; in this case as the voltage is increased more current flows. The increase in current does not follow a straight-line relationship, as it would do if the voltage was being increased across a resistor. To begin with no current flows until the applied voltage reaches the "junction potential". Once this is overcome (at about 0.15V for germanium diodes and about 0.6V for silicon), current rises sharply as the diode conducts. Diode I / V Characteristics The operation of diodes (as with other semiconductor devices) is often described by a special graph called a "characteristic curve". These graphs show the relationship between the currents and voltages associated with the different terminals of the device. An understanding of these graphs helps in understanding how the device operates. For diodes the characteristic curve is called an I / V curve because it shows the relationship between the voltage applied between the anode and cathode, and the resulting current flowing through the diode. A typical I / V characteristic is shown in Figure 4. Fig 4. Typical Diode I / V Characteristic

The axes of the graph show both positive and negative values and so intersect at the centre. The intersection has a value of zero for both current (the Y axis) and voltage (the X axis). The axes +I and +V (top right) show the current rising steeply after an initial zero current area. This is the forward conduction of the diode when the anode is positive and cathode negative. Initially no current flows until the applied voltage is at about the forward junction potential, after which current rises steeply showing that the forward resistance (I / V) of the diode is very low; a small increase in voltage giving a large increase in current. The -V and -I axes show the reverse biased condition (bottom left). Here, although the voltage increases, hardly any current flows. This small current is called the leakage current of the diode and is typically only a few micro-amps with germanium diodes and even less in silicon. If a high enough reverse voltage is applied however, there is a point (called the reverse breakdown voltage) where the insulation of the depletion layer breaks down, and a very high current suddenly flows. In most diodes this breakdown is permanent and a diode subjected to this high reverse voltage will be destroyed. In Zener diodes however, this point is used to give the diode its special ability to stabilise the applied voltage: If the voltage increases at this point heavy current flows and reduces the voltage. The breakdown in a Zener diode is not destructive due to its special construction. OHMS LAW Ohms, Volts & Amperes. The resistance of a conductor is measured in Ohms and the Ohm is a unit named after the German physicist George Simon Ohm (1787-1854) who was the first to show the relationship between resistance, current and voltage. In doing so he devised his law which shows the inter-relationship between the three basic electrical properties of resistance, voltage and current. It demonstrates one of the most important relationships in electrical and electronic engineering. Ohms Law states that: "In metallic conductors at a constant temperature and in a zero magnetic field, the current flowing is proportional to the voltage across the ends of the conductor, and is inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor." In simple terms, provided that the temperature is constant and the electrical circuit is not influenced by magnetic fields, then: With a circuit of constant resistance, the greater the voltage applied to a circuit, the more current will flow. With a constant voltage applied, the greater the resistance of the circuit, the less current will flow. Notice that Ohms law states "In metallic conductors" This means that the law holds

good for materials which are basically metal, but there are some materials (mainly nonmetals) to which Ohms Law does not strictly apply. Here however, in talking about Ohms Law, these nonmetals will not be discussed. Rather than trying to remeber the whole of Ohms law, the three electrical properties of voltage, current and resistance by single letters: Resistance is indicated by the letter R and is measured in units of Ohms, which have the symbol (Greek capital O). Voltage is indicated by the letter V (or sometimes E, especially in the USA) and is measured in units of Volts, which have the symbol V. Current is given the letter I (we don't use C as this is used for Capacitance)and is measured in units of Amperes (often shortened to Amps), which have the symbol A. By using the letters V, I and R to express the relationships defined in Ohms Law gives three simple formulae:

Each of which shows how to find the value of any one of these quantities in a circuit, provided the other two are known. For example, to find the voltage V (in Volts) across a resistor, simply multiply the current I (in Amperes) through the resistor by the value of the resistor R (in Ohms). Note that when using these formulae the values of V I and R written into the formula must be in its BASIC UNIT i.e. VOLTS (not millivolts) Ohms (not kilohms) and AMPERES (not micro Amperes )etc. Briefly 15K (kilohms) is entered as 15 EXP 03 and 25mA (milliAmperes) is entered as 25 EXP -03 etc. This is easiest to do using a scientific calculator. How to use your calculator with the engineering notation used extensively in electronics is explained in our free booklet entitled "Maths Tips" Download it here. or from our Download page DEFINITIONS. 1 OHM "The amount of resistance that will produce a potential difference (p.d.) or voltage of 1 Volt across it when a current of 1 Ampere flowing through it." 1 AMPERE "The amount of current which, when flowing through a resistance of 1 Ohm will produce a potential difference of 1 Volt across the resistance." (Although more useful definitions of an ampere are available) 1 VOLT "The difference in potential (voltage) produced across a resistance of 1 Ohm through which a current of 1 Ampere is flowing." (Again alternative definitions using other quantities can also be used) CURRENT & VOLTAGE Current & Voltage in Resistor Networks Finding the Unknown In addition to working out the resistance, Ohms law can be used to work out voltages and currents in resistor networks. Before trying this it would be a good idea to look at some basic facts about resistor networks.

In a SERIES CIRCUIT the same current flows through all components. Each component however, will have a different VOLTAGE (p.d.) across it. The sum of these individual voltages (VR1+VR2+VR3 etc) in a series circuit is equal to the supply voltage (EMF). In a PARALLEL CIRCUIT the same voltage is present across all components but a different CURRENT can flow through each component. The sum of these individual component currents in a parallel circuit is equal to the supply current. (IS = IR1+ IR2+ IR3 etc.)

The Potential Divider Rule If two or more resistors are connected in series across a potential (e.g. A supply voltage), the voltage across each resistor will be proportional to the resistance of that resistor. VR1 R1 and VR2 R2 etc. To calculate the voltage across any resistor in the potential divider, multiply the supply voltage (E) by the proportion of that resistor to the total resistance of all the resistors. For example if R2 is double the value of R1 there will be twice the voltage across R2 than across R1. It follows therefore, that the voltage across R1 will be one third of the supply voltage (E) and the voltage across R2 will be two thirds of the supply voltage (E). So, if the supply voltage and the resistor values are known, then the voltage across each resistor can be worked out by PROPORTION, and once the voltage across each resistor is known the voltage at any point in the circuit can be calculated.

RESISTORS Resistor Construction Resistors are components having a stated value of RESISTANCE. Many types of resistors are used having different uses and construction. The most common types have a fixed value of resistance so are often called fixed resistors. They are shown on circuit schematic diagrams (theoretical diagrams that show how the circuit components are connected electrically, rather than what a circuit looks like physically) using one of the following symbols.

Various types of fixed resistors are used in circuits, they are the most numerous of all electronic components and their most common job is to reduce voltages and currents around a circuit so that "active components", transistors and integrated circuits for example, that carry out tasks such as producing or amplifying signals within the circuit are supplied with the correct voltages and currents to work properly. Resistors are also used in conjunction with other components such as inductors and capacitors to process signals in many ways. Because resistors are "passive components" they cannot amplify or increase voltages currents or signals, they can only reduce them. Nevertheless they are a most essential part of any electronic circuit.

SMT (Surface Mount Technology) Many modern circuits use SMT resistors. Their manufacture involves depositing a film of resistive material such as tin oxide on a tiny ceramic chip. The edges of the resistor are then accurately ground, or cut with a laser to give a precise resistance (which depends on the width of the resistor film), across the ends of the device. Tolerances may be as low as 0.02%. Contacts at each end are soldered directly onto the conductive print on the circuit board, usually by automatic assembly methods. SMT resistors normally have a very low power dissipation. Their main advantage is that very high component density can be achieved.

Voltage Doubler Circuit To make a voltage doubler circuit only two capacitors and two diodes are required costing pennies each. The circuit diagram is displayed below:

Voltage Tripler A voltage tripler or other larger voltage multiplier can be built by extending the voltage doubler circuit. One extra capacitor and a diode are required for each increase in multiple - therefore a tripler has a total of three capacitors and three diodes as shown below.

Bridge Rectifier:For most alternative energy applications, we require a direct current (DC) voltage to be generated - for example to charge a bank of batteries. However wind turbines and wave power generators create an alternating current (AC) voltage. This is where the Bridge Rectifier comes in. The AC voltage generated is passed through a circuit of four diodes arranged as shown below and emerged converted into a more useful DC output.

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction, but there is a small voltage lost across the a diode of 0.7V called the forward voltage drop. If the diode is wired in the wrong direction then no current (actually a very tiny current) flows across the diode. However, if the voltage is too high and goes over the diode's maximum reverse voltage, the diode will breakdown and fail. If you would like to make your own bridge rectifier then the 1N4001 diode is perfect for most low voltage circuits where the current is less than 1A. The 1N5401 diode is used where the maximum current is 3A.

A positive clipper circuit passes a positive input signal voltage below its threshold and outputs a constant voltage for an input signal voltage above its threshold. A negative clipper does the same thing for negative voltages. It is often implemented with diodes. It's effect on a sine wave is to flatten the peaks. Clipper circuit consist of a diode and a resistor. Depending upon the direction of the diode(forward of reversed biased),it acts as a open switch(reversed biased) or closed switch(forward biased).Which can clipp the positive or negative part of input signal at the output. It is used in wave shaping, basically a rectifier circuit...msg Clipper (electronics) In electronics, a clipper is a device designed to prevent the output of a circuit from exceeding a predetermined voltage level without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform. A clipping circuit consists of linear elements like resistors and non-linear elements like junction diodes or transistors, but it does not contain energy-storage elements like capacitors. Clipping circuits are used to select for purposes of transmission, that part of a signal wave form which lies above or below a certain reference voltage level.

Thus a clipper circuit can remove certain portions of an arbitrary waveform near the positive or negative peaks. Clipping may be achieved either at one level or two levels. Usually under the section of clipping, there is a change brought about in the wave shape of the signal. Clipping Circuits are also called as Slicers, amplitude selectors or limiters. Zener Diode

In the example circuits above, one or two zener diodes are used to clip the voltage VIN. In the first circuit, the voltage is clipped to the reverse breakdown voltage of the zener diode. In the second, it is limited to the reverse breakdown voltage plus the voltage drop across one zener diode. [edit] Application It is used in television sets and FM receivers. It is also used for amplifiers and different types of op-amps through which it is possible to perform mathematical operations. [edit] Classification Clippers may be classified into two types based on the positioning of the diode.

[1]

Shunt Clippers, where the diode is in series with the load resistance, and Series Clippers, where the diode in shunted across the load resistance.

The diode capacitance affects the operation of the clipper at high frequency and influences the choice between the above two types. High frequency signals are attenuated in the shunt clipper as the diode capacitance provides an alternative path to output current. In the series clipper, clipping effectiveness is reduced for the same reason as the high frequency current passes through without being sufficiently blocked. Clippers may be classified based on the orientation(s) of the diode. The orientation decides which half cycle is affected by the clipping action.

Positive Diode Clipper Negative Diode Clipper

The clipping action can be made to happen at an arbitrary level by using a biasing elements (potential sources) in series with the diode.

Positively Biased Diode Clipper Negatively Biased Diode Clipper

The signal can be clipped to between two levels by using both types of diode clippers in combination. [2] This clipper is referred to as

Combinational Diode Clipper or Two-Level Clippers

The clamping network is the one that will "clamp" a signal to a different dc level. The network must have capacitor, a diode, and a resistive element, but it also employs an independent dc supply to introduce an additional shift.

SWITCHES Question 1: What is the purpose of the switch shown in this schematic diagram?

Question 2: How is an electrical switch constructed? What goes on inside the switch that actually "makes" or "breaks" a path for electric current? What difference will it make if the switch is located in either of these two alternate locations in the circuit?

Does this switch (in the closed state) have a low resistance or a high resistance between its terminals?

How might you use a meter (or a conductivity/continuity tester) to determine whether this electrical switch is in the open or closed state?

Identify the following types of switches, according to the number of "poles" and "throws" each switch has:

Identify the following types of switches, according to their style of actuation (how each switch is physically operated):

What type of switch is represented by this schematic symbol?

What type of switch is represented by this schematic symbol?

Question 10: What positions do the switches have to be in for the light bulb to receive power?

Question 11: Electric motors of the permanent magnet design are very simple to reverse: just switch the polarity of the DC power to the motor, and it will spin the other direction:

Complete this schematic diagram, showing how a DPDT switch may be placed in this circuit to reverse the motor's direction of rotation without the need to disconnect and reconnect wires:

Question 12: What will the light bulb do when the switch is open, and when the switch is closed?

Question 13: Examine this schematic diagram:

Now, without moving the following components, show how they may be connected together with wires to form the same circuit depicted in the schematic diagram above:

Question 14: What does the normal status of an electrical switch refer to? Specifically, what is the difference between a normally-open switch and a normally-closed switch? Question 15: Identify the "normal" status of each switch, whether it is normally-open (N.O.) or normally-closed (N.C.):

Based on the symbols shown, describe what physical condition results in the switch contacts being open, and what condition results in the switch contacts being closed, for each switch.

Question 16: Identify the "normal" status of each switch, whether it is normally-open (N.O.) or normally-closed (N.C.):

Based on the symbols shown, describe what physical condition results in the switch contacts being open, and what condition results in the switch contacts being closed, for each switch.

1-This device is known as a switch, and its purpose in this circuit is to establish or interrupt the electrical continuity of the circuit in order to control the light bulb. 2-Switches typically use metal contacts that are touched together or moved apart by some sort of actuating lever, shaft, or other mechanical assembly.

This is a selector switch of the break-before-make variety. This is a selector switch of the make-before-break variety For the light bulb to be energized, both switches must either be in the p" position, or in the "down" position.

Notes: DPDT switches are often used as polarity-reversal devices. No doubt your students will see (or build!) this switch arrangement some time in their careers.

When the switch is closed, the light bulb will receive full voltage from the battery. When the switch is open, the light bulb will receive less voltage (and correspondingly, less current).

The "normal" status of a switch refers to the open or closed status of the contacts when there is no actuating force applied to the switch.

Temperature switch: cold = contacts closed, hot = contacts open Pushbutton switch: unpressed = contacts closed, pressed = contacts open Pressure switch: no applied pressure = contacts open, pressure applied = contacts closed

Limit switch: untouched = contacts open, mechanical force = contacts closed Flow switch: no fluid flow = contacts open, fluid flow = contacts closed Level switch: dry (hanging in air) = contacts closed, submerged = contacts open