PHYSICS

SECOND YEAR
VOLUME - I
 SYLLABUS (180 periods)

UNIT – 1 ELECTROSTATICS (18 periods)

Frictional electricity, charges and their conservation; Coulomb’s law – forces
between two point electric charges. Forces between multiple electric charges –
superposition principle.
Electric field – Electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines; Electric
dipole, electric field intensity due to a dipole –behavior of dipole in a uniform electric
field – application of electric dipole in microwave oven.

Electric potential – potential difference – electric potential due to a point charge

and due a dipole. Equipotential surfaces – Electrical potential energy of a system of two
point charges.
Electric flux – Gauss’s theorem and its applications to find field due to (1)
infinitely long straight wire (2) uniformly charged infinite plane sheet (3) two parallel
sheets and (4) uniformly charged thin spherical shell (inside and outside)

Electrostatic induction – capacitor and capacitance – Dielectric and electric

polarisation – parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium – applications
of capacitor – energy stored in a capacitor. Capacitors in series and in parallel – action
of points – Lightning arrester – Van de Graaff generator.

UNIT - 2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY (11 periods)

Electric current – flow of charges in a metallic conductor – Drift velocity and
mobility and their relation with electric current.
Ohm’s law, electrical resistance. V-I characteristics – Electrical resistivity and
conductivity. Classification of materials in terms of conductivity – Superconductivity
(elementary ideas) – Carbon resistors
– colour code for carbon resistors – Combination of resistors – series and parallel –
Temperature dependence of resistance – Internal resistance of a cell – Potential
difference and emf of a cell.
Kirchoff’s law – illustration by simple circuits – Wheatstone’s Bridge and its
application for temperature coefficient of resistance measurement – Metrebridge –
Special case of Wheatstone bridge – Potentiometer – principle – comparing the emf of
two cells.
Electric power – Chemical effect of current – Electro chemical cells Primary
(Voltaic, Lechlanche, Daniel) – Secondary – rechargeable cell – lead acid accumulator.

IV
 UNIT – 3 EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT (15 periods)
Heating effect. Joule’s law – Experimental verification. Thermoelectric effects –
Seebeck effect – Peltier effect – Thomson effect – Thermocouple, thermoemf, neutral
and inversion temperature. Thermopile.

Magnetic effect of electric current – Concept of magnetic field, Oersted’s

experiment – Biot-Savart law – Magnetic field due to an infinitely long current carrying
straight wire and circular coil – Tangent galvanometer – Construction and working –
Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid – magnetic field lines.

Ampere’s circuital law and its application.

Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic field and electric field –
cyclotron – Force on current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field, forces
between two parallel current carrying conductors – definition of ampere.

Torque experienced by a current loop in a uniform magnetic field-moving coil

galvanometer – Conversion to ammeter and voltmeter
– Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment
– Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron.

UNIT – 4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND

ALTERNATING CURRENT (14 periods)
Electromagnetic induction – Faraday’s law – induced emf and current – Lenz’s
law.
Self induction – Mutual induction – Self inductance of a long solenoid – mutual
inductance of two long solenoids.
Methods of inducing emf – (1) by changing magnetic induction
(2) by changing area enclosed by the coil and (3) by changing the orientation of the
coil (quantitative treatment) analytical treatment can also be included.

AC generator – commercial generator. (Single phase, three phase).

Eddy current – Applications – Transformer – Long distance transmission.

Alternating current – measurement of AC – AC circuit with resistance – AC

circuit with inductor – AC circuit with capacitor - LCR series circuit – Resonance and
Q – factor: power in AC circuits.

V
 UNIT–5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND WAVE OPTICS
(17 periods)
Electromagnetic waves and their characteristics – Electromagnetic spectrum,
Radio, microwaves, Infra red, visible, ultra violet – X rays, gamma rays.

Emission and Absorption spectrum – Line, Band and continuous spectra –

Flourescence and phosphorescence.
Theories of light – Corpuscular – Wave – Electromagnetic and Quantum
theories.
Scattering of light – Rayleigh’s scattering – Tyndal scattering – Raman effect –
Raman spectrum – Blue colour of the sky and reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise
and sunset.
Wavefront and Huygen’s principle – Reflection, Total internal reflection and
refraction of plane wave at a plane surface using wavefronts.

Interference – Young’s double slit experiment and expression for fringe width –
coherent source - interference of light. Formation of colours in thin films – analytical
treatment – Newton’s rings.
Diffraction – differences between interference and diffraction of light –
diffraction grating.
Polarisation of light waves – polarisation by reflection – Brewster’s law - double
refraction - nicol prism – uses of plane polarised light and polaroids – rotatory
polarisation – polarimeter

UNIT – 6 ATOMIC PHYSICS (16 periods)

Atomic structure – discovery of the electron – specific charge (Thomson’s
method) and charge of the electron (Millikan’s oil drop method) – alpha scattering –
Rutherford’s atom model.
Bohr’s model – energy quantisation – energy and wave number expression –
Hydrogen spectrum – energy level diagrams – sodium and mercury spectra - excitation
and ionization potentials. Sommerfeld’s atom model.

X-rays – production, properties, detection, absorption, diffraction of X-rays –

Laue’s experiment – Bragg’s law, Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer – X-ray spectra –
continuous and characteristic X–ray spectrum – Mosley’s law and atomic number.

Masers and Lasers – spontaneous and stimulated emission – normal population

and population inversion – Ruby laser, He–Ne laser
– properties and applications of laser light – holography

VI
 UNIT – 7 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER –
RELATIVITY (10 periods)
Photoelectric effect – Light waves and photons – Einstein’s photo
– electric equation – laws of photo – electric emission – particle nature of energy –
photoelectric equation – work function – photo cells and their application.

Matter waves – wave mechanical concept of the atom – wave nature of particles
– De–Broglie relation – De–Broglie wave length of an electron – electron microscope.

Concept of space, mass, time – Frame of references. Special theory of relativity

– Relativity of length, time and mass with velocity – (E = mc2).

UNIT – 8 NUCLEAR PHYSICS (14 periods)

Nuclear properties – nuclear Radii, masses, binding energy, density, charge –
isotopes, isobars and isotones – Nuclear mass defect – binding energy. Stability of
nuclei-Bain bridge mass spectrometer.
Nature of nuclear forces – Neutron – discovery – properties – artificial
transmutation – particle accelerator
Radioactivity – alpha, beta and gamma radiations and their properties, α-decay,
β-decay and γ-decay – Radioactive decay law – half life – mean life. Artificial
radioactivity – radio isotopes – effects and uses Geiger – Muller counter.

Radio carbon dating – biological radiation hazards

Nuclear fission – chain reaction – atom bomb – nuclear reactor
– nuclear fusion – Hydrogen bomb – cosmic rays – elementary particles.

UNIT – 9 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

(26 periods)
Semiconductor theory – energy band in solids – difference between metals,
insulators and semiconductors based on band theory – semiconductor doping – Intrinsic
and Extrinsic semi conductors.
Formation of P -N Junction – Barrier potential and depletion layer. – P-N
Junction diode – Forward and reverse bias characteristics
– diode as a rectifier – zener diode. Zener diode as a voltage regulator
– LED.

VII
 Junction transistors – characteristics – transistor as a switch – transistor as an
amplifier – transistor biasing – RC, LC coupled and direct coupling in amplifier –
feeback amplifier – positive and negative feed back – advantages of negative feedback
amplifier – oscillator – condition for oscillations – LC circuit – Colpitt oscillator.

Logic gates – NOT, OR, AND, EXOR using discret components – NAND and
NOR gates as universal gates – integrated circuits.
Laws and theorems of Boolean’s algebra – operational amplifier – parameters –
pin-out configuration – Basic applications. Inverting amplifier. Non-inverting amplifier
– summing and difference amplifiers.

Measuring Instruments – Cathode Ray oscillocope – Principle – Functional units

– uses. Multimeter – construction and uses.

UNIT – 10 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS (15 periods)

Modes of propagation, ground wave – sky wave propagation.
Amplitude modulation, merits and demerits – applications – frequency
modulation – advantages and applications – phase modulation.

Antennas and directivity.

Radio transmission and reception – AM and FM – superheterodyne receiver.

T.V.transmission and reception – scanning and synchronising.

Vidicon (camera tube) and picture tube – block diagram of a monochrome TV
transmitter and receiver circuits.
Radar – principle – applications.
Digital communication – data transmission and reception – principles of fax,
modem, satellite communication – wire, cable and Fibre - optical communication.

VIII
 EXPERIMENTS (12 × 2 = 24 periods)
1. To determine the refractive index of the material of the prism by finding angle of
prism and angle of minimum deviation using a spectrometer.

2. To determine wavelengths of a composite light using a diffraction grating and a

spectrometer by normal incidence method (By assuming N).

3. To determine the radius of curvature of the given convex lens using Newton’s
rings experiment.
4. To find resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the
specific resistance of the material.
5. To compare the emf’s of two primary cells using potentiometer.
6. To determine the value of the horizontal component of the magnetic induction of
the earth’s magnetic field, using tangent galvanometer.
7. To determine the magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil.

8. To find the frequency of the alternating current (a.c) mains using a sonometer
wire.
9. (a) To draw the characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode in
forward bias and to determine its forward resistance.
(b) To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine its
reverse breakdown voltage.
10. To study the characteristics of a common emitter NPN transistor and to find out
its input, output impedances and current gain.
11. Construct a basic amplifier (OP amp) using IC 741 (inverting, non inverting,
summing).
12. Study of basic logic gates using integrated circuits NOT, AND, OR, NAND,
NOR and EX-OR gates.

IX
 CONTENTS

Page No.

1 Electrostatics 1

2 Current Electricity 53

3 Effects of Electric Current 88

4 Electromagnetic Induction

and Alternating Current 134

5 Electromagnetic Waves and

Wave Optics 178

Logarithmic and other tables 228

(Unit 6 to 10 continues in Volume II)

X
 1. Electrostatics

Electrostatics is the branch of Physics, which deals with static electric charges or
charges at rest. In this chapter, we shall study the basic phenomena about static electric
charges. The charges in a electrostatic field are analogous to masses in a gravitational
field. These charges have forces acting on them and hence possess potential energy. The
ideas are widely used in many branches of electricity and in the theory of atom.

1.1 Electrostatics – frictional electricity

In 600 B.C., Thales, a Greek Philosopher observed that, when a piece of amber
is rubbed with fur, it acquires the property of attracting light objects like bits of paper.
th
In the 17 century, William Gilbert discovered that, glass, ebonite etc, also exhibit this
property, when rubbed with suitable materials.

The substances which acquire charges on rubbing are said to be ‘electrified’ or

charged. These terms are derived from the Greek word elektron, meaning amber. The
electricity produced by friction is called frictional electricity. If the charges in a body do
not move, then, the frictional electricity is also known as Static Electricity.

1.1.1 Two kinds of charges

(i) If a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, it acquires positive charge while
the silk cloth acquires an equal amount of negative charge.
(ii) If an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, it becomes negatively charged, while
the fur acquires equal amount of positive charge. This classification of positive and
negative charges were termed by American scientist, Benjamin Franklin.

Thus, charging a rod by rubbing does not create electricity, but simply transfers
or redistributes the charges in a material.

1
1.1.2 Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other
– experimental verification.

A charged glass rod is suspended by a silk thread, such that it swings

horizontally. Now another charged glass rod is brought near the end of the suspended
glass rod. It is found that the ends of the two rods repel each other (Fig 1.1). However,
if a charged ebonite rod is brought near the end of the suspended rod, the two rods
attract each other (Fig 1.2). The above experiment shows that like charges repel and
unlike charges attract each other.

Silk Silk

Glass
F + Glass
+
+
+
+
+

+ +

+ +
+
+

++
+

+
+
+
F F
+
+

+ F ------
Glass
Ebonite

Fig. 1.1 Two charged rods Fig 1.2 Two charged rods
of same sign of opposite sign

The property of attraction and repulsion between charged bodies have many
applications such as electrostatic paint spraying, powder coating, fly−ash collection in
chimneys, ink−jet printing and photostat copying (Xerox) etc.

1.1.3 Conductors and Insulators

According to the electrostatic behaviour, materials are divided into two
categories : conductors and insulators (dielectrics). Bodies which allow the charges to
pass through are called conductors. e.g. metals, human body, Earth etc. Bodies which
do not allow the charges to pass through are called insulators. e.g. glass, mica, ebonite,
plastic etc.

2
1.1.4 Basic properties of electric charge

(i) Quantisation of electric charge

The fundamental unit of electric charge (e) is the charge
−19
carried by the electron and its unit is coulomb. e has the magnitude 1.6 × 10 C.

In nature, the electric charge of any system is always an integral multiple of the
least amount of charge. It means that the quantity can take only one of the discrete set of
values. The charge, q = ne where n is an integer.

(ii) Conservation of electric charge

Electric charges can neither be created nor destroyed. According to the law of
conservation of electric charge, the total charge in an isolated system always remains
constant. But the charges can be transferred from one part of the system to another, such
238
that the total charge always remains conserved. For example, Uranium ( 92U ) can
4
decay by emitting an alpha particle ( 2He nucleus) and transforming to thorium
234
(90Th ).

238 234 4
92U −−−−→ 90Th + 2He
Total charge before decay = +92e, total charge after decay = 90e + 2e.
Hence, the total charge is conserved. i.e. it remains constant.

(iii) Additive nature of charge

The total electric charge of a system is equal to the algebraic sum of electric
charges located in the system. For example, if two charged bodies of charges +2q, −5q
are brought in contact, the total charge of the system is –3q.

1.1.5 Coulomb’s law

The force between two charged bodies was studied by Coulomb in
1785.
Coulomb’s law states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two point
charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between

3
 q
them. The direction of forces is along the line q1 2

joining the two point charges. F F

r
Let q1 and q2 be two point charges
placed in air or vacuum at a distance r apart Fig 1.3a Coulomb forces
(Fig. 1.3a). Then, according to Coulomb’s law,

q1q2 q1q2
Fα or F = k
r 2 r 2

where k is a constant of proportionality. In air or vacuum,

1

k = 4πεo , where εo is the permittivity of free space (i.e., vacuum) and the value of εo
−12 2 −1 −2
is 8.854 × 10 C N m .
1 q1q2

F= 4πεo r2 …(1)
1
9 2 −2
and 4πεo = 9 × 10 N m C
In the above equation, if q1 = q2 = 1C and r = 1m then,

9 1×1 9
2
F = (9 × 10 ) 1 = 9 × 10 N
One Coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge, which when placed at a
distance of 1 metre in air or vacuum from an equal and similar charge, experiences a
9
repulsive force of 9 × 10 N.
If the charges are situated in a medium of permittivity ε, then the magnitude of
the force between them will be,
1 q1q2
2
Fm = 4πε r …(2)
Dividing equation (1) by (2)

F = εε = εr
F
mο

4
 ε
The ratio εο = εr, is called the relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the
medium. The value of εr for air or vacuum is 1.

∴ ε = εo ε r
F
Since Fm = ε , the force between two point charges depends on
r

the nature of the medium in which the two charges are situated.

Coulomb’s law – vector form

→ q1 ^ q2
r12
If F21 is the force exerted on charge q2 by + +
r
charge q1 (Fig.1.3b), F F
12 21

→ q1q2 ^
F r q1 ^ q2
21 =k r2 12 + r12

^
12 F
F12 21
where r 12 is the unit vector from q1
r
to q 2.
→ Fig 1.3b Coulomb’s law in
If F12 is the force exerted on q1 due vector form
to q2,

→ k q1q2 ^
F
12 = 2 r 21
r
21
^
where r 21 is the unit vector from q2 to q1.
^ ^
[Both r 21 and r 12 have the same magnitude, and are oppositely
directed]

→ = k q1q2 ^
F 2
∴ 12 r12 (– r 12)
q q
→ = −k 1 2 ^
F 2 r
or 12 r12 12
→ →
F
or 12 = – F 21
So, the forces exerted by charges on each other are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.

5
1.1.6 Principle of Superposition

The principle of superposition is to calculate the electric force experienced by a

charge q1 due to other charges q2, q3 ……. qn.

The total force on a given charge is the vector sum of the forces exerted on it due
to all other charges.

The force on q1 due to q2

qq
→ = 1 1 2 ^
F
12 4πε ο r
2
r
21
21

Similarly, force on q1 due to q3

→ = 1 q1q3 ^
F
13 4πε ο
2 r 31 r

31
The total force F1 on the charge q1 by all other charges is,
→ → → → →
=F +F +F F
F1 12 13 14 ......... + 1n
Therefore,
qq
→ = 1 q1q2 ˆ q1q 3 ˆ 1 n
ˆ
F 2 r
21
+ 2 r
31
+ ....... 2 r
n1

r r r
1 4πεο 21 31 n1
1.2 Electric Field
Electric field due to a charge is the space around the test charge in which it
experiences a force. The presence of an electric field around a charge cannot be
detected unless another charge is brought towards it.

When a test charge qo is placed near a charge q, which is the source of electric
field, an electrostatic force F will act on the test charge.

Electric Field Intensity (E)

Electric field at a point is measured in terms of electric field intensity. Electric
field intensity at a point, in an electric field is defined as the force experienced by a unit
positive charge kept at that point.

6
 F
It is a vector quantity. E = . The unit of electric field intensity
−1 qo
is N C .
The electric field intensity is also referred as electric field strength or simply
electric field. So, the force exerted by an electric field on a charge is F = qoE.

1.2.1 Electric field due to a point charge

Let q be the point charge placed at +q +q0

O in air (Fig.1.4). A test charge qo is E
r
placed at P at a distance r from q. O P
According to Coulomb’s law, the force Fig 1.4 Electric field due to a
acting on qo due to q is point charge

1 q qo
2
F = 4πεo r
The electric field at a point P is, by definition, the force per unit test charge.

F 1 q
2
E = qo =4πεo r
The direction of E is along the line joining O and P, pointing away from q, if q is
positive and towards q, if q is negative.
→ 1 q^ ^

In vector notation E = 4πεo r 2 r , where r is a unit vector pointing

away from q.

1.2.2 Electric field due to system of charges

If there are a number of stationary charges, the net electric field (intensity) at a
point is the vector sum of the individual electric fields due to each charge.

→ → → → →

E = E 1 + E 2 + E 3 ...... E n
1 q1 q2 q3
= r1 + 2
r2 + r + .........
4πε o r 12 r r2 3
2 3
7
1.2.3 Electric lines of force
The concept of field lines was introduced by Michael Faraday as an aid in
visualizing electric and magnetic fields.
Electric line of force is an imaginary straight or curved path along which a unit
positive charge tends to move in an electric field.
The electric field due to simple arrangements of point charges are shown in Fig
1.5.

+q +-q + +q

(a) (b) (c)

Isolated charge Unlike charges Like charges
Fig1.5 Lines of Forces

Properties of lines of forces:

(i) Lines of force start from positive charge and terminate at negative charge.

(ii) Lines of force never intersect.

(iii) The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the electric field
(E) at that point.
(iv) The number of lines per unit area, through a plane at right angles to the lines, is
proportional to the magnitude of E. This means that, where the lines of force are
close together, E is large and where they are far apart, E is small.

(v) Each unit positive charge gives rise to εo lines of force in free space. Hence
number of lines of force originating from a point
q
charge q is N = εo in free space.

8
 2d

Fig 1.6 Electric dipole

1.2.4 Electric dipole and electric dipole moment

Two equal and opposite charges

separated by a very small distance p
constitute an electric dipole. -q +q

Water, ammonia, carbon−dioxide and

chloroform molecules are some examples of
permanent electric dipoles. These
molecules behave like electric dipole, because the centres of positive and negative
charge do not coincide and are separated by a small distance.

Two point charges +q and –q are kept at a distance 2d apart (Fig.1.6). The
magnitude of the dipole moment is given by the product of the magnitude of the one of
the charges and the distance between them.

∴ Electric dipole moment, p = q2d or 2qd.

It is a vector quantity and acts from –q to +q. The unit of dipole moment is C
m.

1.2.5 Electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on its axial line.

AB is an electric dipole of two point charges –q and +q separated by a small

distance 2d (Fig 1.7). P is a point along the axial line of the dipole at a distance r from
the midpoint O of the electric dipole.
E E
A O B 2P 1

-q +q x axis
2d
r
Fig 1.7 Electric field at a point on the axial line
The electric field at the point P due to +q placed at B is,
1 q
E = 2 (along BP)
1 4πεo (r − d)

9
 The electric field at the point P due to –q placed at A is,

1 q
E = 2 (along PA)
2 4πεo (r + d)

E1 and E2 act in opposite directions.

Therefore, the magnitude of resultant electric field (E) acts in the direction of the
vector with a greater magnitude. The resultant electric field at P is,

E = E1 + (−E2)

1 q 1 q
E= 2 − 2 along BP.
4πεo (r − d ) 4πεo (r + d)

q 1 1
E= 2 − 2 along BP

4πεo (r − d ) (r + d)
q 4rd
E= 2 22 along BP.

4πεo (r − d )
If the point P is far away from the dipole, then d <<r

q 4rd q 4d
4 3
∴ E= 4πε o r = 4πεo r

1 2p
3
E= 4πεo r along BP.

[∵ Electric dipole moment p = q x 2d] E acts in

the direction of dipole moment.

10
1.2.6 Electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the equatorial line.

Consider an electric dipole AB. Let 2d be the dipole distance and p be the dipole
moment. P is a point on the equatorial line at a distance r from the midpoint O of the
dipole (Fig 1.8a).

M
E1
E1
E1sin
E P
R
E2 E1cos
P
N R E cos
r 2

A B
-q O +q E
2
E2sin
d d

(a) Electric field at a point on (b) The components of the

equatorial line electric field
Fig 1.8

Electric field at a point P due to the charge +q of the dipole,

1 q
2
E1 = 4πεo BP along BP.
1 q
2 2 2 2 2
= 4πεo (r + d ) along BP (∵ BP = OP + OB )

Electric field (E2) at a point P due to the charge –q of the dipole

1 q
2
E2 = 4πεo AP along PA
1 q
E = 2 2 along PA
2 4πεo (r + d )

The magnitudes of E1 and E2 are equal. Resolving E 1 and E2 into their

horizontal and vertical components (Fig 1.8b), the vertical components E 1 sin θ and E2
sin θ are equal and opposite, therefore they cancel each other.

11
 The horizontal components E1 cos θ and E2 cos θ will get added along PR.

Resultant electric field at the point P due to the dipole is E = E1 cos θ +

E2 cos θ (along PR)
= 2 E1cos θ (∵ E1 = E2)

1 q
E = 4πε o (r 2+ d 2 ) × 2 cos θ

d
But cos θ =
2 2
r +d
1 q × 2d 1 q 2d
2 2 2 2 1/2 2 2 3/2
E = 4πεo (r + d ) (r + d ) = 4πεo (r + d )
1 p
= 2 2 3/2 (∵ p = q2d)
4πεo (r + d )
For a dipole, d is very small when compared to r
1 p

∴ E=
4πεo r 3
The direction of E is along PR, parallel to the axis of the dipole and directed
opposite to the direction of dipole moment.

1.2.7 Electric dipole in a uniform electric field

Consider a dipole AB of dipole +q
moment p placed at an angle θ in an B F=qE
uniform electric field E (Fig.1.9). The
charge +q experiences a force qE in the 2d
θ E
direction of the field. The charge –q
experiences an equal force in the p
opposite direction. Thus the net force on A
the dipole is zero. The two equal and
F=-qE -q C
unlike
Fig 1.9 Dipole in a uniform field

12
 parallel forces are not passing through the same point, resulting in a torque on the
dipole, which tends to set the dipole in the direction of the electric field.

The magnitude of torque is,

τ = One of the forces x perpendicular distance between the forces

= F x 2d sin θ
= qE x 2d sin θ = pE sin θ (∵ q × 2d = P)
→ → →
In vector notation, τ =p
×E

Note : If the dipole is placed in a non−uniform electric field at an angle θ, in

addition to a torque, it also experiences a force.

1.2.8 Electric potential energy of an electric dipole in an electric field.

E Electric potential energy of an

electric dipole in an electrostatic field
B F=qE
is the work done in rotating the dipole
2d +q
to the desired position in the field.

A-q p
When an electric dipole of
F=-qE
dipole moment p is at an angle θ with
Fig 1.10 Electric potential
the electric field E, the torque on the
energy of dipole
dipole is
τ = pE sin θ
Work done in rotating the dipole through dθ,
dw = τ.dθ
= pE sinθ.dθ
The total work done in rotating the dipole through an angle θ is
W = ∫dw
W = pE ∫sinθ.dθ = –pE cos θ
This work done is the potential energy (U) of the dipole.
∴ U = – pE cos θ

13
 o
When the dipole is aligned parallel to the field, θ = 0
∴ U = –pE

This shows that the dipole has a minimum potential energy when
it is aligned with the field. A dipole in the electric field experiences a
→ → →
torque ( τ = p × E) which tends to align the dipole in the field direction, dissipating its
potential energy in the form of heat to the surroundings.

Microwave oven
It is used to cook the food in a short time. When the oven is operated, the
microwaves are generated, which in turn produce a non− uniform oscillating electric
field. The water molecules in the food which are the electric dipoles are excited by an
oscillating torque. Hence few bonds in the water molecules are broken, and heat energy
is produced. This is used to cook food.

1.3 Electric potential

+q
Let a charge +q be placed at a E
point O (Fig 1.11). A and B are two O x
B dx
A
points, in the electric field. When a unit
Fig1.11 Electric potential
positive charge is moved from A to B
against the electric force, work is done. This work is the potential difference between
these two points. i.e., dV = WA → B.
The potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the
amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to the other
against the electric force.
The unit of potential difference is volt. The potential difference between two
points is 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done in moving 1 Coulomb of charge from one
point to another against the electric force.

The electric potential in an electric field at a point is defined as the amount of

work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the
electric forces.

Relation between electric field and potential

Let the small distance between A and B be dx. Work done in moving a unit
positive charge from A to B is dV = E.dx.

14
 The work has to be done against the force of repulsion in moving a unit positive
charge towards the charge +q. Hence,
dV = −E.dx

− dV
E = dx

The change of potential with distance is known as potential gradient, hence the
electric field is equal to the negative gradient of potential.

The negative sign indicates that the potential decreases in the direction of electric
−1
field. The unit of electric intensity can also be expressed as Vm .

1.3.1 Electric potential at a point due to a point charge

Let +q be an isolated
dx
point charge situated in air at O +q p E
O. P is a point at a distance r r A B
from +q. Consider two points Fig 1.12 Electric potential due
A and B at distances x and to a point charge
x + dx from the point O
(Fig.1.12).
The potential difference between A and B is, dV = −E
dx
The force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at A is
1 q
E= .
4πεo x2
1 q

∴ dV = −
4πεo x 2
. dx

The negative sign indicates that the work is done against the electric force.

The electric potential at the point P due to the charge +q is the total work done in
moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.

r
q
V=− ∫ 4πεq x 2 . dx = 4π εo r
∞ o

15
1.3.2 Electric potential at a point due to an electric dipole
Two charges –q at A and +q
at B separated by a small distance 2d P
constitute an electric dipole and its
dipole moment is p (Fig 1.13).
r2
r r1
Let P be the point at a
distance r from the midpoint of the
dipole O and θ be the angle between 180-
A p B
PO and the axis of the dipole OB.
-q O +q
d d
Let r1 and r2 be the distances of the
point P from +q and –q charges Fig 1.13 Potential due to a dipole
respectively.

1 q
Potential at P due to charge (+q) = 4πε r
o 1

1 q
Potential at P due to charge (−q) = 4πε −r
o 2

1 q 1 q
Total potential at P due to dipole is, V = 4πε r − 4πε r
o 1 o 2

q 1 1
V = 4πε r − r ...(1)
o 1 2

Applying cosine law,

2 2 2
r =r +d – 2rd cos θ
1
2
cosθ d
2 2 1 − 2d +
2
r1 =r r r
2
d

Since d is very much smaller than r, r 2 can be neglected.

1
2d 2
∴ r1 = r 1− cosθ
r

16
 1 1 2d −1/ 2
or = 1 − cos θ
r
1 r r
Using the Binomial theorem and neglecting higher powers,
1 1 d
∴ = 1 + cosθ …(2)
r1 r r
Similarly,
2 2 2 2 2
r2 = r + d – 2rd cos (180 – r2 = r θ)
or 2
+ d + 2rd cos θ.
2
2d 1/2 d
r2 =r 1 + cosθ (
r ∴ r 2 is negligible)
−1/2
1 = 1 1 + 2d cosθ
or
r2 rr
Using the Binomial theorem and neglecting higher powers,
1 1 d
r
r = 1 − cosθ ...(3)
2 r
Substituting equation (2) and (3) in equation (1) and simplifying
q 1 d d
V = 1
+ cos θ − 1 + cosθ
4πεo r r r
q 2d cosθ 1 p . cosθ
2 2
∴ V = 4πε . r = 4πεo r …(4)
o
Special cases :
1. When the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of +q, then θ = 0

p
∴V= 2
4πεor
2. When the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of –q, then θ =
180
∴V =− p
πε 2
4 or

3. When the point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole, then,
o
θ = 90 ,

∴ V=0

17
 1.3.3 Electric potential energy
The electric potential energy of two point q1 q2
charges is equal to the work done to assemble the A B
charges or workdone in bringing each charge or r
work done in bringing a charge from infinite Fig 1.14a Electric
distance. potential energy
Let us consider a point charge q1, placed at
A (Fig 1.14a].
The potential at a point B at a distance r from the charge q1 is
q1
V = 4πεor
Another point charge q2 is brought from infinity to the point B.
Now the work done on the charge q2 is stored as electrostatic potential

r
23

q1
Fig 1.14b Potential
energy of system of
charges

energy (U) in the system of charges q1 and q2.

∴ work done, w = Vq2
q q
1 2 Potential energy (U) = 4π ε o r

Keeping q2 at B, if the charge q1 is q3 imagined to be q2

brought from infinity to the point A, the same amount of work is
done. r
r 12
13

Also, if both the charges q1 and q2 are brought from

infinity, to points A and B respectively, separated by a
distance r, then potential energy of the system is the same
as the previous cases.

For a system containing more than two

charges (Fig 1.14b), the potential energy (U) is given by
1 q1q 2 q1q3 q 2q3
U = 4πε r +r + r
o 12 13 23
1.3.4 Equipotential Surface
If all the points of a surface are at the same electric potential, then the surface is
called an equipotential surface.
(i) In case of an isolated point charge, all points equidistant from the charge are
at same potential. Thus, equipotential surfaces in this
18
 B E
A

+q E

(a) Equipotential surface (b) For a uniform field

(spherical) Fig 1.15 (plane)

case will be a series of concentric spheres with the point charge as their centre (Fig
1.15a). The potential, will however be different for different spheres.

If the charge is to be moved between any two points on an equipotential surface

through any path, the work done is zero. This is because the potential difference
between two points A and B is defined
W
AB

as VB – VA = q . If VA = VB then WAB = 0. Hence the electric field lines must be

normal to an equipotential surface.
(ii) In case of uniform field, equipotential surfaces are the parallel planes with
their surfaces perpendicular to the lines of force as shown in Fig 1.15b.

1.4 Gauss’s law and its applications

S E
Electric flux
Consider a closed surface S in a ds
non−uniform electric field (Fig 1.16). ds normal
Consider a very small area ds on this
surface. The direction of ds is drawn
normal to the surface outward. The
electric field over ds is supposed to be a Fig1.16 Electric flux
→ →

constant E . E and ds make an angle θ with each other.

The electric flux is defined as the total number of electric lines of force, crossing
through the given area. The electric flux dφ through the

19
area ds is,

dφ = E . ds = E ds cosθ
The total flux through the closed surface S is obtained by integrating the above
equation over the surface.
→
dφ =
φ= ∫ ∫ E . ds
The circle on the integral indicates that, the integration is to be taken over the
closed surface. The electric flux is a scalar quantity.
2 −1
Its unit is N m C
1.4.1 Gauss’s law
The law relates the flux through any closed surface and the net
charge enclosed within the surface. The law states that the total flux
1
of the electric field E over any closed surface is equal to ε times the
o
net charge enclosed by the surface.
q
φ=
εo
This closed imaginary surface is called Gaussian surface. Gauss’s law tells us
that the flux of E through a closed surface S depends only on the value of net charge
inside the surface and not on the location of the charges. Charges outside the surface
will not contribute to flux.

1.4.2 Applications of Gauss’s Law 2 r ds

+
i) Field due to an infinite long
+
straight charged wire +
Consider an uniformly charged +
+
wire of infinite length having a constant
+ r ds E
linear charge density λ (charge per unit E +
length). Let P be a point at a distance r l + P
from the wire (Fig. 1.17) and E be the +
+
electric field at the point P. A cylinder of
+
length l, radius r, closed at each end by +
plane caps normal to the axis is chosen
as Gaussian surface. Consider a very Fig 1.17 Infinitely long
small area ds on the Gaussian surface. straight charged wire

20
By symmetry, the magnitude of the electric field will be the same at all points on the

curved surface of the cylinder and directed radially outward. E and ds are along the
same direction.

The electric flux (φ) through curved surface = ∫ E ds cos θ

φ = ∫ E ds [∵θ = 0;cosθ = 1]
= E (2πrl)

(∵ The surface area of the curved part is 2π rl) Since E and

ds are right angles to each other, the electric flux
through the plane caps = 0
∴ Total flux through the Gaussian surface, φ = E. (2πrl) The net
charge enclosed by Gaussian surface is, q = λl
∴ By Gauss’s law,

λl λ

E (2πrl) = εo or E = 2πεor
The direction of electric field E is radially outward, if line charge is positive and
inward, if the line charge is negative.

1.4.3 Electric field due to an infinite charged plane sheet

Consider an
infinite plane sheet of
charge with surface + +
+ + +
charge density σ. Let P +
+ +
be a point at a distance + + +
+
r from the sheet (Fig. E ds ds E
1.18) and E be the + A
+ P
electric field at P. P′ + +
+ r
Consider a Gaussian + +
+
+ +
surface in the form of +
+ +
cylinder of cross− + +
sectional area A and
length 2r perpendicular
to the sheet of charge. Fig 1.18 Infinite plane sheet

21
 Fig 1.19 Field due to two
parallel sheets

By symmetry, the electric field is at right angles to the end caps and away from
the plane. Its magnitude is the same at P and at the other cap at P′.

Therefore, the total flux through the closed surface is given by

 φ = ∫E.dsP + ∫ E .ds P 1 (∵θ = 0,cos θ = 1)
= EA+EA=2EA
If σ is the charge per unit area in the plane sheet, then the net positive charge q
within the Gaussian surface is, q = σA
Using Gauss’s law,
σA
2 E A = εo

σ
∴E=
2εo

1.4.4 Electric field due to two parallel charged sheets

Consider two plane parallel infinite sheets +

+ -
with equal and opposite charge densities +σ and
+ -
–σ as shown in Fig 1.19. The magnitude of + -
electric field on either side of a plane sheet of E1(+)
+ E1(+) -
charge is E = σ/2εo and acts perpendicular to the + P - P
+ 1 - 2
sheet, directed outward (if the charge is positive)
+ -
or inward (if the charge is negative). + E2(-) - E2(-)
+ -
+ -

(i) When the point P1 is in between the

sheets, the field due to two sheets will be equal
in magnitude and in the
same direction. The resultant field at P1 is,
σ σ σ

E = E1 + E2 = 2εo + 2εo = εo (towards the right)

22
 (ii) At a point P2 outside the sheets, the electric field will be equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction. The resultant field at P2 is,
σ σ

E = E1 – E2 = 2εo – 2εo = 0.

1.4.5 Electric field due to uniformly charged spherical shell

Case (i) At a point outside the shell.

Consider a charged shell of radius R E

(Fig 1.20a). Let P be a point outside the
shell, at a distance r from the centre O. Let
us construct a Gaussian surface with r as
radius. The E electric field E is normal to P
R
the surface. r E
O
Gaussian
Surface
The flux crossing the Gaussian
sphere normally in an outward
direction is, E
Fig1.20a. Field at a point
φ = ∫ E . ds = ∫E ds = E (4πr 2 ) outside the shell
s s

(since angle between E and ds is zero)

2 q
By Gauss’s law, E . (4πr ) = ε
o
1 q
or E = 4πεo r 2
It can be seen from the equation that, the electric field at a point outside the shell
will be the same as if the total charge on the shell is concentrated at its centre.

Case (ii) At a point on the surface.

The electric field E for the points on the surface of charged spherical shell is,

1 q
E= ( r = R)
4πεo R2 ∵
23
Case (iii) At a point inside the shell.
Consider a point P′ inside the shell at
a distance r′ from the centre of the shell. Let
us construct a Gaussian surface with radius r P/
R
′. r1
O
The total flux crossing the Gaussian
Gaussian
sphere normally in an outward direction is Surface

Fig 1.20b Field at a point

φ = ∫ E . ds = ∫ Eds = E × (4πr ′2 ) inside the shell
s s

since there is no charge enclosed by the gaussian surface, according to Gauss’s Law
2 q
E × 4πr′ = =0 ∴E=0
ε
o
(i.e) the field due to a uniformly charged thin shell is zero at all points inside the
shell.

1.4.6 Electrostatic shielding

It is the process of isolating a certain region of space from external field. It is
based on the fact that electric field inside a conductor is zero.

During a thunder accompanied by lightning, it is safer to sit inside a bus than in

open ground or under a tree. The metal body of the bus provides electrostatic shielding,
where the electric field is zero. During lightning the electric discharge passes through
the body of the bus.

1.5 Electrostatic induction

It is possible to obtain charges without any contact with another charge. They are
known as induced charges and the phenomenon of producing induced charges is known
as electrostatic induction. It is used in electrostatic machines like Van de Graaff
generator and capacitors.

Fig 1.21 shows the steps involved in charging a metal sphere by induction.

24
 (a) There is an uncharged metallic
sphere on an insulating stand.
(a)

(b) When a negatively charged

+ -
plastic rod is brought close to the sphere, - + --

- - -
the free electrons move away due to - -- - + - (b)
repulsion and start pilling up at the farther
end. The near end becomes positively +
- - +
charged due to deficit of electrons. This -- - + (c)
- --
process of charge distribution stops when
the net force on the free electron inside the +
-
metal is zero (this process happens very -
+
-
fast). - -- - - + (d)

+
+
+
(c) When the sphere is grounded, +

the negative charge flows to the ground. +++ (e)

The positive charge at the near end remains
held due to attractive forces. Fig 1.21 Electrostatic Induction

(d) When the sphere is removed from the ground, the positive charge continues
to be held at the near end.
(e) When the plastic rod is removed, the positive charge spreads uniformly over
the sphere.

1.5.1 Capacitance of a conductor

When a charge q is given to an isolated conductor, its potential will change. The
change in potential depends on the size and shape of the conductor. The potential of a
conductor changes by V, due to the charge q given to the conductor.

q α V or q = CV
i.e. C = q/V
Here C is called as capacitance of the conductor.
The capacitance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the charge given to the
conductor to the potential developed in the conductor.

25
 The unit of capacitance is farad. A conductor has a capacitance of one farad, if a
charge of 1 coulomb given to it, rises its potential by 1 volt.

The practical units of capacitance are µF and pF.

Principle of a capacitor
Consider an insulated conductor (Plate A) with a positive charge ‘q’ having
potential V (Fig 1.22a). The capacitance of A is C = q/V. When another insulated metal
plate B is brought near A, negative charges are induced on the side of B near A. An
equal amount of positive charge is induced on the other side of B (Fig 1.22b). The
negative charge in B decreases the potential of A. The positive charge in B increases the
potential of A. But the negative charge on B is nearer to A than the positive charge on
B. So the net effect is that, the potential of A decreases. Thus the capacitance of A is
increased.

If the plate B is earthed, positive charges get neutralized (Fig 1.22c). Then the
potential of A decreases further. Thus the capacitance of A is considerably increased.

The capacitance depends on the geometry of the conductors and nature of the
medium. A capacitor is a device for storing electric charges.

A A B A B
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -
+ + - + + -

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 1.22 Principle of capacitor

26
 Fig 1.23 Parallel plate
capacitor

1.5.2 Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

The parallel plate capacitor +q
consists of two parallel metal plates X + + + + + + X
and Y each of area A, separated by a
distance d, having a surface charge d
density σ (fig. 1.23). The medium -q - - - - - -
between the plates is air. A charge
Y
+q is given to the plate X. It induces
a charge –q on the upper surface of earthed
plate Y. When the plates are
very close to each other, the field is confined to the region between them. The electric
lines of force starting from plate X and ending at the plate Y are parallel to each other
and perpendicular to the plates.
By the application of Gauss’s law, electric field at a point between the two plates
is,
σ
E=
εo
Potential difference between the plates X and Y is
0 0
σ σd
V= ∫ −E dr = ∫ −ε
d d
o dr = εo
The capacitance (C) of the parallel plate capacitor
q σA εo A q
C = V = σd/ε = d [since, σ = A]
o

∴ ε A
C= o
d
The capacitance is directly proportional to the area (A) of the plates and
inversely proportional to their distance of separation (d).

1.5.3 Dielectrics and polarisation

Dielectrics
A dielectric is an insulating material in which all the electrons are tightly bound
to the nucleus of the atom. There are no free electrons to carry current. Ebonite, mica
and oil are few examples of dielectrics. The electrons are not free to move under the
influence of an external field.

27
Polarisation
A nonpolar
molecule is one Electron
in which the cloud
centre of gravity +q -q +q -q
of the positive Electron
charges (pro- cloud E
tons) coincide
Fig 1.24 Induced dipole
with the centre
of gravity of the negative charges (electrons). Example: O 2, N2, H2. The nonpolar
molecules do not have a permanent dipole moment.
If a non polar dielectric is placed in an electric field, the centre of charges get
displaced. The molecules are then said to be polarised and are called induced dipoles.
They acquire induced dipole moment p in the direction of electric field (Fig 1.24).

A polar molecule is one in which the centre of gravity of the positive charges is
separated from the centre of gravity of the negative charges by a finite distance.
Examples : N2O, H2O, HCl, NH3. They have a permanent dipole moment. In the
absence of an external field, the dipole moments of polar molecules orient themselves in
random directions. Hence no net dipole moment is observed in the dielectric. When an
electric field is applied, the dipoles orient themselves in the direction of electric field.
Hence a net dipole moment is produced (Fig 1.25).

+
- +- + - - + - +

- +
+ - - +
- - +
- + +
+ - - + - +

E
(a) No field (b) In electric field
Fig1.25 Polar molecules

28
 The alignment of the dipole moments of the permanent or induced dipoles in the
direction of applied electric field is called polarisation or electric polarisation.

The magnitude of the induced dipole moment p is directly proportional to the

external electric field E.
∴ p α E or p = α E, where α is the constant of proportionality and is called
molecular polarisability.

1.5.4 Polarisation of dielectric material

Consider a parallel plate
capacitor with +q and –q charges. E0

Let E0 be the electric field between

the plates in air. If a dielectric slab -q - + - + - + +qi
i

is introduced in the space between - + - + - +

Ei
them, the dielectric slab gets
- + - + - +
polarised. Suppose +qi and –qi be
the induced surface charges on the - + - + - +
E
face of dielectric opposite to the
- + - + - +
plates of capacitor (Fig 1.26). These
induced charges produce their own - + - + - +
field Ei which opposes the electric P
field Eo. So, the resultant field, Fig1.26 Polarisation of dielectric
E < Eo. But the direction of E is in material
the direction of Eo.
∴ E = Eo + (–Ei)
(∵ Ei is opposite to the direction of Eo)

1.5.5 Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium.

Consider a parallel plate capacitor having two conducting plates X and Y each of
area A, separated by a distance d apart. X is given a positive charge so that the surface
charge density on it is σ and Y is earthed.

Let a dielectric slab of thick-ness t and relative permittivity εr be introduced

between the plates (Fig.1.27).

29
 Thickness of dielectric
+
slab = t X
Air
Thickness of air gap = (d−t)
Electric field at any point d Dielectric t
in the air between the plates,
Air
σ Y
E= ε
o t<d
Electric field at any point, in Fig 1.27 Dielectric in capacitor
σ
the dielectric slab E′ = εr εo
The total potential difference between the plates, is the work done in crossing
unit positive charge from one plate to another in the field E over a distance (d−t) and in
the field E′ over a distance t, then
V =E (d−t) + E′ t
σ σt
= (d − t ) +
εoε o εr

σ t
= (d − t ) +
ε
εo r
The charge on the plate X, q = σA
Hence the capacitance of the capacitor is,
q σA εo A
C = V =σ (d − t) + =
t (d − t) + t
ε
εo r εr
Effect of dielectric
In capacitors, the region between the two plates is filled with dielectric like mica
or oil.
εo A
The capacitance of the air filled capacitor, C =
d
εr εo A
The capacitance of the dielectric filled capacitor, C′ =
d
C′
∴ C = εr or C′ = εrC

30
 Fig 1.28 Capacitors in series

since, εr > 1 for any dielectric medium other than air, the capacitance increases,
when dielectric is placed.

1.5.6 Applications of capacitors.

(i) They are used in the ignition system of automobile engines to eliminate
sparking.
(ii) They are used to reduce voltage fluctuations in power supplies and to
increase the efficiency of power transmission.
(iii) Capacitors are used to generate electromagnetic oscillations and in tuning
the radio circuits.
1.5.7 Capacitors in series and parallel
(i) Capacitors in series
Consider three capacitors of capacitance C1, C2 and C3 connected in series (Fig
1.28). Let V be the potential difference applied across the series combination. Each
capacitor carries the same amount of charge q. Let V1, V2, V3 be the potential
difference across the capacitors C1, C2, C3 respectively. Thus V = V1 + V2 + V3

The potential difference across c1 c2 c3

each capacitor is, + - + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + -
V1 = q ;V 2 = q ;V3 = q + - + - + -
C C C
1 2 3 v1 v2 v3
q q q 1 1 1
V
V= C +C + C = q C + C +C
1 2 3 1 2 3 + -
If CS be the effective capacitance of the
series combination, it should
acquire a charge q when a voltage V is applied across it.
q
i.e. V = CS

q =q+q +q
C C C C
s 1 2 3

∴ 1
=
1
+
1
+
1C
s
C C C
1 2 3

31
when a number of capacitors are connected in series, the reciprocal of the effective
capacitance is equal to the sum of reciprocal of the capacitance of the individual
capacitors.

(ii) Capacitors in parallel

Consider three capacitors of capacitances C 1, C2 and C3 connected in parallel
(Fig.1.29). Let this parallel combination be connected to a potential difference V. The
potential difference across each capacitor is the same. The charges on the three
capacitors are,
q1 = C1V, q2 = C2 V, q3 = C3V. c1

The total charge in the system of capacitors is

c2
q = q1 + q2 + q3
q = C1V + C2V + C3V
But q = Cp.V where Cp is the effective c3
capacitance of the system
∴ CpV = V (C1 + C2 + C3)
∴ CP = C1 + C2 + C3
V
Hence the effective capacitance of the + -
capacitors connected in parallel is the sum Fig 1.29 Capacitors
of the capacitances of the individual in parallel
capacitors.

1.5.8 Energy stored in a capacitor

The capacitor is a charge storage device. Work has to be done to store the
charges in a capacitor. This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy in the
capacitor.
Let q be the charge and V be the potential difference between the plates of the
capacitor. If dq is the additional charge given to the plate, then work done is, dw = Vdq

q q
dw = dq ∵V =
C C
Total work done to charge a capacitor is
2
q q 1q
w= ∫ dw = ∫ C dq =2C
0

32
 This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy (U) in the capacitor.

2
1q 1 2
U = 2 C = 2 CV (∵ q = CV)
This energy is recovered if the capacitor is allowed to discharge.

1.5.9 Distribution of charges on a conductor and action of points

Let us consider two conducting
spheres A and B of radii r 1 and r2 A
respectively connected to each other by B

a conducting wire (Fig 1.30). Let r1 be r1 r2

greater than r2. A charge given to the

q2
system is distributed as q1 and q2 on the
q1
surface of the spheres A and B. Let σ1,
Fig 1.30 Distribution of charges
σ2 be the charge densities on the sphere
A and B.

The potential at A,
q1
V =
1 4πεor1
q2
The potential at B, V2 = 4πεor2

Since they are connected, their potentials are equal

2
∵ q1 = 4πr1 σ1
q q2 and
1
= 2
4πε r 4πε r q = 4π r σ
o1 o2 2 2 2

σ1r1 = σ2r2
A
i.e., σr is a constant. From the above equation it + + ++ +
+ ++
is seen that, smaller the radius, larger is the charge +

+ +
+C
density.
+++
In case of conductor, shaped as in Fig.1.31 the ++ ++++
distribution is not uniform. The Fig 1.31 Action of point

33
charges accumulate to a maximum at the pointed end where the curvature is maximum
or the radius is minimum. It is found experimentally that a charged conductor with
sharp points on its surface, loses its charge rapidly.

The reason is that the air molecules which come in contact with the sharp points
become ionized. The positive ions are repelled and the negative ions are attracted by the
sharp points and the charge in them is therefore reduced.

Thus, the leakage of electric charges from the sharp points on the charged
conductor is known as action of points or corona discharge. This principle is made use
of in the electrostatic machines for collecting charges and in lightning arresters
(conductors).

1.6 Lightning conductor

This is a simple device used to protect tall buildings from the lightning.

It consists of a long thick copper rod passing through the building to ground. The
lower end of the rod is connected to a copper plate buried deeply into the ground. A
metal plate with number of spikes is connected to the top end of the copper rod and kept
at the top of the building.

When a negatively charged cloud passes over the building, positive charge will
be induced on the pointed conductor. The positively charged sharp points will ionize the
air in the vicinity. This will partly neutralize the negative charge of the cloud, thereby
lowering the potential of the cloud. The negative charges that are attracted to the
conductor travels down to the earth. Thereby preventing the lightning stroke from the
damage of the building.

Van de Graaff Generator

In 1929, Robert J. Van de Graaff designed an electrostatic machine which
7
produces large electrostatic potential difference of the order of 10 V.

The working of Van de Graaff generator is based on the principle of electrostatic

induction and action of points.
A hollow metallic sphere A is mounted on insulating pillars as

34
shown in the Fig.1.32. A ++ ++
+
pulley B is mounted at the + +
A
centre of the sphere and + +

another pulley C is mounted + +

near the bottom. A belt made + E B
+ +
of silk moves over the pulleys. + +
The pulley C is driven
continuously by an electric
motor. Two comb−shaped Belt
conductors D and E having
number of needles, are
mounted near the pulleys. The
comb D is maintained at a
positive potential of the order
4
of 10 volt by a power supply. + D
The upper comb E is C Insulating
connected to the inner side of - Pillar
the hollow metal sphere.

Fig 1.32 Van de Graaff Generator

Because of the high electric field near the comb D, the air gets ionised due to
action of points, the negative charges in air move towards the needles and positive
charges are repelled on towards the belt. These positive charges stick to the belt, moves
up and reaches near the comb E.

As a result of electrostatic induction, the comb E acquires negative charge and

the sphere acquires positive charge. The acquired positive charge is distributed on the
outer surface of the sphere. The high electric field at the comb E ionises the air. Hence,
negative charges are repelled to the belt, neutralises the positive charge on the belt
before the belt passes over the pulley. Hence the descending belt will be left uncharged.

Thus the machine, continuously transfers the positive charge to the sphere. As a
result, the potential of the sphere keeps increasing till it attains a limiting value
(maximum). After this stage no more charge

35
can be placed on the sphere, it starts leaking to the surrounding due to ionisation of the
air.
The leakage of charge from the sphere can be reduced by enclosing it in a gas
filled steel chamber at a very high pressure.
The high voltage produced in this generator can be used to accelerate positive
ions (protons, deuterons) for the purpose of nuclear disintegration.

Solved Problems
−12 −12
1.1 Three small identical balls have charges –3 × 10 C, 8 × 10 C and 4 ×
−12
10 C respectively. They are brought in contact and then separated. Calculate
(i) charge on each ball (ii) number of electrons in excess or deficit on each ball
after contact.
−12 −12 −12
Data : q 1= −3 × 10 C, q 2= 8 × 10 C, q 3= 4 × 10 C
Solution : (i) The charge on each ball

q1 + q 2 + q3 −3 +8+4 −12
q= = ×10
3 3
−12
= 3 × 10 C
(ii) Since the charge is positive, there is a shortage of electrons on each ball.

q 3 ×10−12
7
n = e = 1.6 ×10−19 = 1.875 × 10
7
∴ number of electrons = 1.875 × 10 .
−7
1.2 Two insulated charged spheres of charges 6.5 × 10 C each are separated by a
distance of 0.5m. Calculate the electrostatic force between them. Also calculate
the force (i) when the charges are doubled and the distance of separation is
halved. (ii) when the charges are placed in a dielectric medium water (εr = 80)

−7
Data : q1 = q2 = 6.5 × 10 C, r = 0.5 m
1 q1q2
Solution : F = 4πεo r2

36
 42 + 32

9 × 10 9 × (6.5 ×10 −7 )2
=
(0.5)2
 −2
= 1.52 × 10 N.
(i) If the charge is doubled and separation between them is halved then,

1 2q1 2q2
F1 = 2

4πεo ( 2)
r

F1 = 16 times of F.
−2
= 16 × 1.52 × 10
F1 = 0.24 N
(ii) When placed in water of εr = 80

F 1.52 × 10−2
F2 = εr = 80
−4
F 2 = 1.9 × 10 N
−8
1.3. Two small equal and unlike charges 2 ×10 C are placed at A and B at a
−8
distance of 6 cm. Calculate the force on the charge 1 × 10 C placed at P, where
P is 4cm on the perpendicular bisector of AB.
−8 −8
Data : q = +2 ×10 C, q = −2 × 10 C
1 2
−8
q3 = 1 ×10 C at P
XP = 4 cm or 0.04 m, AB = 6 cm or 0.06 m
F
Solution :

-8 P R
q3= +1 x 10 C
F
5cm 5cm

4cm

q1= +2 x 10-8C q2= -2 x 10-8C

A X B
3cm 3cm

−2
From ∆ APX, AP = = 5 cm or 5 ×10 m.

A repels the charge at P with a force F (along AP)

37
 1 q1q3 9 × 109 × 2 × 10−8 × 1×10−8
F = 4πεo r2 = (5 ×10−2 )2
−4
= 7.2 × 10 N along AP.
B attracts the charge at P with same F (along PB), because
BP = AP = 5 cm.
To find R, we resolve the force into two components
R = F cos θ + F cos θ = 2F cos θ
−4 3 BX = 3
= 2 × 7.2 × 10 × ∵ cos θ =
5 PB 5
−4
∴R = 8.64 × 10 N
1.4 Compare the magnitude of the electrostatic and gravitational force between an
electron and a proton at a distance r apart in hydrogen
−31 −27
atom. (Given : m = 9.11 × 10 kg ; mP = 1.67 × 10 kg ;
e

−11 2 −2 −19
G = 6.67 × 10 Nm kg ; e = 1.6 × 10 C)
Solution :
The gravitational attraction between electron and proton is
m e mp
F =G
g r2
Let r be the average distance between electron and proton in hydrogen atom.

The electrostatic force between the two charges.

1 q 1q 2
Fe = 4πεo r2
Fe 1 q1q2 1e 2
∴ Fg = 4πεo Gm e mP =4πεo Gm e mP
= 9 × 109 × (1.6 ×10−19 )2
6.67 × 10−11 × 9.11× 10− 31 × 1.67 ×10−27
Fe
F 39
g = 2.27 × 10
39
This shows that the electrostatic force is 2.27 × 10 times stronger than
gravitational force.

38
1.5 Two point charges +9e and +1e are kept at a distance of 16 cm from each other.
At what point between these charges, should a third charge q to be placed so that
it remains in equilibrium?

Data : r = 16 cm or 0.16 m; q1 = 9e and q2 = e

Solution : Let a third charge q be kept at a distance x from +
9e and (r – x) from + e r
+9e q +e
q1q2 + +
1
x (r-x)
F = 4πεo r2
1 9e × q 1 qe

= 4πεo x 2 = 4πεo (r − x )2
x2
2
∴ (r − x ) = 9
x
=3
r−x
or x = 3r – 3x
∴ 4x = 3r = 3 × 16 = 48 cm
48
∴ x = 4 =12 cm or 0.12 m
∴ The third charge should be placed at a distance of 0.12 m from charge 9e.

−7 −7
1.6 Two charges 4 × 10 C and –8 ×10 C are placed at the two corners A and B of
an equilateral triangle ABP of side 20 cm. Find the resultant intensity at P.
−7 −7
Data : q = 4 × 10 C; q = −8 ×10 C; r = 20 cm = 0.2 m
1 2
Solution : E1

P
E
E2
-
C
7

0
x
1
60º -8 x 10-7C
4
+
A X B
20cm

39
 Electric field E1 along AP
1 q 9 × 10 9 × 4 ×10−7
= 1 4 −1
=
E1 4πεo r 2 (0.2)2 = 9 × 10 N C
Electric field E2 along PB.
1 q 2
9 × 10 9 × 8 × 10 −7
4 -1
E 2 = 4πεo r 2 = 0.04 = 18 × 10 N C

∴ E = E12 + E22 + 2E1E2 cos120o

1
= 9 × 10 4 22 + 12 + 2 × 2 ×1 − 2 ( )
= 9 3 × 104 = 15.6 ×104 N C−1

1.7 Calculate (i) the potential at a point due a charge of

−7
4 × 10 C located at 0.09m away (ii) work done in bringing a charge
−9
of 2 × 10 C from infinity to the point.
−7 −9
Data :q 1= 4 × 10 C, q 2= 2 × 10 C, r = 0.09 m
Solution :
(i) The potential due to the charge q1 at a point is
1 q1
V=
4πεo r
9 × 109 × 4 ×10−7
= = 4 × 104 V
0.09
(ii) Work done in bringing a charge q2 from infinity to the point is
−9 4
W = q2 V = 2 × 10 × 4 × 10
−5
W = 8 × 10 J

4 −1
1.8 A sample of HCl gas is placed in an electric field of 2.5 × 10 N C . The dipole
−30
moment of each HCl molecule is 3.4 × 10 C m. Find the maximum torque
that can act on a molecule.
4 −1 −30
Data : E = 2.5 × 10 N C , p = 3.4 × 10 C m.
Solution : Torque acting on the molecule
o
τ = pE sin θ for maximum torque, θ = 90 = 3.4 ×
−30 4
10 × 2.5 × 10
−26
Maximum Torque acting on the molecule is = 8.5 × 10 N m.

40
 q
1.9 Calculate the electric potential at a 1 d q2
point P, located at the centre of the +12nc -24nc
square of point charges shown in the d
P
figure. d
Data : q1 = + 12 n C; r
q2 = −24 n C; q3 = +31n C; +31ncq3 d=1.3m q4+17nc
q4 = +17n C; d = 1.3 m
Solution :
Potential at a point P is
1 q q2 q q
1
V= + + 3+ 4
4πεo r r r r
d 1.3
The distance r =
2 = 2 = 0.919 m
Total charge = q1 + q2 + q3 + q4
= −9
(12 – 24 + 31 + 17) × 10
q = −9
36 × 10
9 × 109 × 36 ×10−9
∴ V =
0.919
V = 352.6 V

−9 −9 −9
1.10 Three charges – 2 × 10 C, +3 × 10 C, –4 × 10 C are placed at the vertices of
an equilateral triangle ABC of side 20 cm. Calculate the work done in shifting
the charges A, B and C to A1, B1 and C1 respectively which are

the mid points of the sides of A

the triangle. -2 x 10-9C

Data :
−9
q1 = −2 × 10 C;
A/ C/
−9
q2 = +3 × 10 C;
−9
q3 = − 4 × 10 C; -
9 C

AB = BC = CA = 20cm 0
x1 -4 x 10-9C
= 0.20 m +3 B B /
C

41
 Solution :
The potential energy of the system of charges,
1 qq q q q q
U= +1 2
+
2 3 3 1

4πεo r r r
Work done in displacing the charges from A, B and C to A1, B1 and C1
respectively
W = Uf – Ui
Ui and Uf are the initial and final potential energy of the system.
9 ×109 −18
[−6 × 10 −18 −18
Ui = 0.20 – 12 × 10 + 8 × 10 ]

−7
= − 4.5 × 10 J
9 ×109 [−6 × 10−18 – 12 × 10−18 + 8 × 10−18]
Uf = 0.10
−7
= −9 × 10 J
−7 −7
∴ work done = −9 × 10 – (−4.5 × 10 )W=
–7
− 4.5 × 10 J
4 −1
1.11 An infinite line charge produces a field of 9 × 10 N C at a distance of 2 cm.
Calculate the linear charge density.
4 −1 –2
Data : E = 9 × 10 N C , r = 2 cm = 2 × 10 m
λ
Solution : E = 2πεor
λ = E × 2πεor
1
4 1 −2 ∵ 2πεo = 9
= 9 × 10 × 18 ×10 9 × 2 ×10 18 ×10
−7 −1
λ = 10 Cm
3 2 −1
1.12 A point charge causes an electric flux of –6 × 10 Nm C to pass through a
spherical Gaussian surface of 10 cm radius centred on
the charge. (i) If the radius of the Gaussian surface is doubled, how much flux
will pass through the surface? (ii) What is the value of charge?

3 2 −1 −2
Data : φ = −6 × 10 N m C ; r = 10 cm = 10 × 10 m

42
 Solution :
(i) If the radius of the Gaussian surface is doubled, the electric flux through
the new surface will be the same, as it depends only on the net charge
enclosed within and it is independent
of the radius.
3 2 −1
∴ φ = −6 × 10 N m C
q −12 3
(ii) ∴ φ =ε or q = −(8.85 × 10 × 6 × 10 )
o
−8
q = − 5.31 × 10 C
2
1.13 A parallel plate capacitor has plates of area 200 cm and separation between the
plates 1 mm. Calculate (i) the potential difference between the plates if 1n C
charge is given to the capacitor (ii) with the same charge (1n C) if the plate
separation is increased to 2 mm, what is the new potential difference and (iii)
electric field between the plates.

−3 2 −4 2
Data: d = 1 mm = 1 × 10 m; A = 200 cm or 200 × 10 m ; q = 1 nC =
−9
1 × 10 C ;
Solution : The capacitance of the capacitor

C= ε o A = 8.85 × 10− 12 × 200 ×10−4

d1×10−3
−9
C = 0.177 × 10 F = 0.177 nF

(i) The potential difference between the plates

q 1×10−9
V = C = 0.177 ×10−9 = 5.65 V
(ii) If the plate separation is increased from 1 mm to 2 mm, the capacitance is
decreased by 2, the potential difference increases by the factor 2

∴ New potential difference is 5.65 × 2 = 11.3

V
(iii) Electric field is,
σ q 1 × 10−9
E =ε o = A.εo = 8.85 × 10 − 12 × 200 × 10−4
−1
= 5650 N C
43
1.14 A parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates has a capacitance of 8 pF.
What will be the capacitance, if the distance between the plates be reduced to
half and the space between them is filled with a substance of dielectric constant
6.
Data : Co = 8 pF , εr = 6, distance d becomes, d/2 with dielectric
Aεo
Solution : Co = = 8pF
d
when the distance is reduced to half and dielectric medium fills the gap, the new
capacitance will be
2ε Aε
εr Aε o = r o
C =
d /2 d
= 2εr Co
C = 2 × 6 × 8 = 96 pF

1.15 Calculate the effective

capacitance of the C1
combination shown in figure. 10 F
C
3

Data : C1 = 10µF ; C2 = 4 F
5µF ; C3 = 4µF C2
Solution : (i) C1 and C2 are 5 F
connected in series, the
effective capacitance of the capacitor of
the series combination is
1=1+1
CS C1 C2
1 1
= 10 + 5
10 × 5 10
∴ CS = 10 + 5 = 3 µF
(ii) This CS is connected to C3 in parallel.
The effective capacitance of the capacitor of the parallel combination is

Cp = Cs + C3

44
 10 22
= +4 = µF
3 3
Cp = 7.33 µF

2
1.16 The plates of a parallel plate capacitor have an area of 90 cm each and are
separated by 2.5 mm. The capacitor is charged by connecting it to a 400 V
supply. How much electrostatic energy is stored by the capacitor?

2 –4 2 –3
Data : A = 90 cm = 90 × 10 m ; d = 2.5 mm = 2.5 × 10 m; V = 400 V

Solution : Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

εo A 8.85 × 10− 12 × 90 ×10−4

C= d = 2.5 ×10−3
−11
= 3.186 × 10 F
1 2
Energy of the capacitor = ( 2 ) CV

1 −11 2
= 2 × 3.186 × 10 × (400)

−6
Energy = 2.55 x 10 J

45
 Self evaluation
(The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples. In the same way
any question and problem could be framed from the text matter. Students must be prepared to
answer any question and problem from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.)

−12
1.1 A glass rod rubbed with silk acquires a charge of +8 × 10 C. The number of
electrons it has gained or lost
−7 7
(a) 5 × 10 (gained) (b) 5 × 10 (lost)
−8 −12
(c) 2 × 10 (lost) (d) –8 × 10 (lost)
1.2 The electrostatic force between two point charges kept at a distance d apart, in a
medium εr = 6, is 0.3 N. The force between them at the same separation in
vacuum is
(a) 20 N (b) 0.5 N
(c) 1.8 N (d) 2 N
−1
1.3 Electic field intensity is 400 V m at a distance of 2 m from a point charge. It
−1
will be 100 V m at a distance?
(a) 50 cm (b) 4 cm
(c) 4 m (d) 1.5 m
1.4 Two point charges +4q and +q are placed 30 cm apart. At what point on the line
joining them the electric field is zero?
(a) 15 cm from the charge q (b) 7.5 cm from the charge q
(c) 20 cm from the charge 4q (d) 5 cm from the charge q
1.5 A dipole is placed in a uniform electric field with its axis parallel to the field. It
experiences
(a) only a net force
(b) only a torque
(c) both a net force and torque
(d) neither a net force nor a torque
1.6 If a point lies at a distance x from the midpoint of the dipole, the electric
potential at this point is proportional to
1 1
(a) x 2 (b) x 3
1 1

(c) x 4 (d) x3/2

46
1.7 Four charges +q, +q, −q and –q respectively are placed at the corners A, B, C
and D of a square of side a. The electric potential at the centre O of the square
is

1 q 1 2q
(a) 4πεo a (b) 4πεo a

1 4q
(c) 4πεo a (d) zero
1.8 Electric potential energy (U) of two point charges is

q1q2 q1q2
(a) 4πεor 2 (b) 4πε o r
(c) pE cos θ (d) pE sin θ
1.9 The work done in moving 500 µC charge between two points on equipotential
surface is
(a) zero (b) finite positive
(c) finite negative (d) infinite
1.10 Which of the following quantities is scalar?
(a) dipole moment (b) electric force
(c) electric field (d) electric potential
1.11 The unit of permittivity is
2 −1 −2 2 −2
(a) C N m (b) N m C
−1 −2 −2
(c) H m (d) N C m
1.12 The number of electric lines of force originating from a charge of 1 C is

11 −19
(a) 1.129 × 10 (b) 1.6 × 10
18 12
(c) 6.25 × 10 (d) 8.85 × 10
1.13 The electric field outside the plates of two oppositely charged plane sheets of
charge density σ is
+σ −σ
(a) 2 ε o (b) 2εo

σ
(c) εo (d) zero

47
1.14 The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor increases from 5 µf to 60 µf when a
dielectric is filled between the plates. The dielectric constant of the dielectric is

(a) 65 (b) 55
(c) 12 (d) 10
1.15 A hollow metal ball carrying an electric charge produces no electric field at points

(a) outside the sphere (b) on its surface

(c) inside the sphere (d) at a distance more than twice
1.16 State Coulomb’s law in electrostatics and represent it in vector form.
1.17 What is permittivity and relative permittivity? How are they related?
1.18 Explain the principle of superposition.
1.19 Define electric field at a point. Give its unit and obtain an expression for the
electric field at a point due to a point charge.
1.20 Write the properties of lines of forces.
1.21 What is an electric dipole? Define electric dipole moment?
1.22 Derive an expression for the torque acting on the electric dipole when placed in a
uniform field.
1.23 What does an electric dipole experience when kept in a uniform electric field and
non−uniform electric field?
1.24 Derive an expression for electric field due to an electric dipole (a) at a point on its
axial line (b) at a point along the equatorial line.
1.25 Define electric potential at a point. Is it a scalar or a vector quantity?
Obtain an expression for electric potential due to a point charge.
1.26 Distinguish between electric potential and potential difference.
1.27 What is an equipotential surface?
1.28 What is electrostatic potential energy of a system of two point charges?
Deduce an expression for it.
1.29 Derive an expression for electric potential due to an electric dipole.
1.30 Define electric flux. Give its unit.

48
1.31 State Gauss’s law. Applying this, calculate electric field due to
(i) an infinitely long straight charge with uniform charge density
(ii) an infinite plane sheet of charge of q.
1.32 What is a capacitor? Define its capacitance.
1.33 Explain the principle of capacitor. Deduce an expression for the capacitance of
the parallel plate capacitor.
1.34 What is dielectric ? Explain the effect of introducing a dielectric slab between the
plates of parallel plate capacitor.
1.35 A parallel plate capacitor is connected to a battery. If the dielectric slab of
thickness equal to half the plate separation is inserted between the plates what
happens to (i) capacitance of the capacitor (ii) electric field between the plates
(iii) potential difference between the plates.
1.36 Deduce an expression for the equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in
series and parallel.

q2
1.37 Prove that the energy stored in a parallel plate capacitor is 2C .
1.38 What is meant by dielectric polarisation?
1.39 State the principle and explain the construction and working of Van de Graaff
generator.
1.40 Why is it safer to be inside a car than standing under a tree during lightning?

Problems :
1.41 The sum of two point charges is 6 µ C. They attract each other with a force of 0.9
N, when kept 40 cm apart in vacuum. Calculate the charges.

−3
1.42 Two small charged spheres repel each other with a force of 2 × 10 N. The
charge on one sphere is twice that on the other. When one of the charges is
moved 10 cm away from the other, the force is
−4
5 × 10 N. Calculate the charges and the initial distance between them.

1.43 Four charges +q, +2q, +q and –q are placed at the corners of a square. Calculate
the electric field at the intersection of the diagonals of the square of side10 cm if
−9
q = 5/3 × 10 C.

49
 −9 −9
1.44 Two charges 10 × 10 C and 20 × 10 C are placed at a distance of 0.3 m
apart. Find the potential and intensity at a point mid−way between them.

−10 −10
1.45 An electric dipole of charges 2 × 10 C and –2 × 10 C separated by a
o −1
distance 5 mm, is placed at an angle of 60 to a uniform field of 10Vm . Find
the (i) magnitude and direction of the force acting on each charge. (ii) Torque
exerted by the field
−6 −6
1.46 An electric dipole of charges 2 × 10 C, −2 × 10 C are separated by a
distance 1 cm. Calculate the electric field due to dipole at a point on its. (i) axial
line 1 m from its centre (ii) equatorial line 1 m from its centre.

1.47 Two charges +q and –3q are separated by a distance of 1 m. At what point in
between the charges on its axis is the potential zero?
1.48 Three charges +1µC, +3µC and –5µC are kept at the vertices of an equilateral
triangle of sides 60 cm. Find the electrostatic potential energy of the system of
charges.
1.49 Two positive charges of 12 µC and 8 µC respectively are 10 cm apart. Find the
work done in bringing them 4 cm closer, so that, they are 6 cm apart.

1.50 Find the electric flux through each face of a hollow cube of side
10 cm, if a charge of 8.85 µC is placed at the centre.
−7
1.51 A spherical conductor of radius 0.12 m has a charge of 1.6 × 10 C distributed
uniformly on its surface. What is the electric field
(i) inside the sphere (ii) on the sphere (iii) at a point 0.18 m from the centre of
the sphere?
−2
1.52 The area of each plate of a parallel plate capacitor is 4 × 10 sq m. If the
−3
thickness of the dielectric medium between the plates is 10 m and the relative
permittivity of the dielectric is 7. Find the capacitance of the capacitor.

1.53 Two capacitors of unknown capacitances are connected in series and parallel. If
the net capacitances in the two combinations are 6µF and 25µF respectively,
find their capacitances.
1.54 Two capacitances 0.5 µF and 0.75 µF are connected in parallel and the
combination to a 110 V battery. Calculate the charge from the source and
charge on each capacitor.

50
 C1 30 F

C2 20 F
1.55 Three capacitors are connected in parallel to a 100 V battery
as shown in figure. What is the total energy stored in the
combination of capacitor? C3 10 F

100V
1.56 A parallel plate capacitor is maintained at some potential difference. A 3 mm thick
slab is introduced between the plates. To maintain the plates at the same
potential difference, the distance between the plates is increased by 2.4 mm.
Find the dielectric constant of the slab.
1.57 A dielectric of dielectric constant 3 fills three fourth of the space between the
plates of a parallel plate capacitor. What percentage of the energy is stored in
the dielectric?
2
F C2
C
1 A
1.58 Find the charges on the capacitor D B
shown in figure and the potential 2F
difference across them. 1 F C3

120V

1.59 Three capacitors each of capacitance 9 pF are connected in series (i) What is the
total capacitance of the combination? (ii) What is the potential difference across
each capacitor, if the combination is connected to 120 V supply?

51
 Answers

1.1 (b) 1.2 (c) 1.3 (c) 1.4 (c) 1.5 (d)

1.6 (a) 1.7 (d) 1.8 (b) 1.9 (a) 1.10 (d)

1.11 (a) 1.12 (a) 1.13 (d) 1.14 (c) 1.15 (c)

1.35 (i) increases (ii) remains the same (iii) remains the same
−6 −6
1.41 q1 = 8 × 10 C , q2 = –2 × 10 C
−9 −9
1.42 q = 33.33 × 10 C, q = 66.66 ×10 C, x = 0.1 m
1 2
4 –1
1.43 0.9 × 10 Vm
−1
1.44 V = 1800 V, E = 4000 Vm
−9 −11
1.45 2 × 10 N, along the field, τ = 0.866 × 10 Nm
–1
1.46 360 N/C, 180 N C
1.47 x = 0.25 m from +q
1.48 –0.255 J
1.49 5.70 J
5 2 −1
1.50 1.67 × 10 Nm C
5 –1 4 −1
1.51 zero, 10 N C , 4.44 × 10 N C
−9
1.52 2.478 × 10 F

1.53 C1 = 15 µF, C2 = 10µF

1.54 q = 137.5 µC, q1 = 55 µC, q2 = 82.5 µC

1.55 0.3 J
ε
1.56 r =5
1.57 50%
−6 −6 −6
1.58 q = 144 × 10 C, q = 96 × 10 C, q = 48 × 10 C
1 2 3

V1 = 72 V, V2 = 48 V
1.59 3 pF, each one is 40 V

52
 2. Current Electricity

The branch of Physics which deals with the study of motion of electric charges is
called current electricity. In an uncharged metallic conductor at rest, some (not all)
electrons are continually moving randomly through the conductor because they are very
loosely attached to the nuclei. The thermodynamic internal energy of the material is
sufficient to liberate the outer electrons from individual atoms, enabling the electrons to
travel through the material. But the net flow of charge at any point is zero. Hence, there
is zero current. These are termed as free electrons. The external energy necessary to
drive the free electrons in a definite direction is called electromotive force (emf). The
emf is not a force, but it is the work done in moving a unit charge from one end to the
other. The flow of free electrons in a conductor constitutes electric current.

2.1 Electric current

The current is defined as the rate of flow of charges across any cross sectional
area of a conductor. If a net charge q passes through any cross section of a conductor in
time t, then the current I = q / t, where q is in coulomb and t is in second. The current I
is expressed in ampere. If the rate of flow of charge is not uniform, the current varies
with time and the instantaneous value of current i is given by,

dq
i= dt
Current is a scalar quantity. The direction of conventional current is taken as the
direction of flow of positive charges or opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.

2.1.1 Drift velocity and mobility Consider a J i E

conductor XY X Y
connected to a battery (Fig 2.1). A steady vd
electric field E is established in the conductor
in the direction X to Y. In the absence of an
electric field, the free electrons in the
conductor move randomly in all possible Fig 2.1 Current carrying
directions. conductor

53
They do not produce current. But, as soon as an electric field is applied, the free
electrons at the end Y experience a force F = eE in a direction opposite to the electric
field. The electrons are accelerated and in the process they collide with each other and
with the positive ions in the conductor.

Thus due to collisions, a backward force acts on the electrons and they are
slowly drifted with a constant average drift velocity vd in a direction opposite to electric
field.
Drift velocity is defined as the velocity with which free electrons get drifted
towards the positive terminal, when an electric field is applied.

If τ is the average time between two successive collisions and the acceleration
experienced by the electron be a, then the drift velocity is given by,

v d = aτ
The force experienced by the electron of mass m is
F = ma
eE

Hence a= m
eE
∴v d =
m τ = µE
e τ
where µ = m is the mobility and is defined as the drift velocity acquired per
2 –1 –1
unit electric field. It takes the unit m V s . The drift velocity of electrons is
proportional to the electric field intensity. It is very small and is of the order of 0.1 cm
–1
s .
2.1.2 Current density
Current density at a point is defined as the quantity of charge passing per unit
time through unit area, taken perpendicular to the direction of flow of charge at that
point.
The current density J for a current I flowing across a conductor having an area of
cross section A is
J = (q / t ) = I AA
–2
Current density is a vector quantity. It is expressed in A m
* In this text book, the infinitesimally small current and instantaneous currents are
represented by the notation i and all other currents are represented by the notation I.

54
2.1.3 Relation between current and drift velocity
Consider a conductor XY of length L and area of cross section A (Fig 2.1). An
electric field E is applied between its ends. Let n be the number of free electrons per
unit volume. The free electrons move towards the left with a constant drift velocity vd.

The number of conduction electrons in the conductor = nAL The charge of

an electron = e
The total charge passing through the conductor q = (nAL) e The time in which
L
the charges pass through the conductor, t = v
d

q (nAL )e
The current flowing through the conductor, I = t = (L /vd )
I = nAevd ...(1)
The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the drift
velocity.
I
From equation (1), A = nevd
I
J = nevd ∵J = ,current density
A
2.1.4 Ohm’s law
George Simon Ohm established the relationship between potential difference and
current, which is known as Ohm’s law. The current flowing through a conductor is,

I = nAevd
eE
But vd = m .τ
eE
∴ I= nAe mτ
nAe2 V
I = τV ∵E=
mL L
mL

where V is the potential difference. The quantity nAe 2τ is a constant for a given
conductor, called electrical resistance (R).
∴ IαV

55
 The law states that, at a constant temperature, the steady current flowing through
a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between the two ends of
the conductor.
1
(i.e) I α V or I = V
R
V Y
∴ V = IR or R = I
Resistance of a conductor is defined as the ratio
of potential difference across the I conductor to the current
flowing through it.
The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
The reciprocal of resistance is 0 V X
–1
conductance. Its unit is mho (Ω ).
Since, potential difference V is Fig 2.2 V−I graph of an
proportional to the current I, the graph ohmic conductor.
(Fig 2.2) between V and I is a straight line for a conductor. Ohm’s law holds good only
when a steady current flows through a conductor.
2.1.5 Electrical Resistivity and Conductivity
The resistance of a conductor R is directly proportional to the length of the
conductor l and is inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.

Rα l or R = ρl
A A
ρ is called specific resistance or electrical resistivity of the material of the
conductor.
2
If l = l m, A = l m , then ρ = R
The electrical resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance offered to
current flow by a conductor of unit length having unit area of cross section. The unit of
ρ is ohm−m (Ω m). It is a constant for a particular material.

1
The reciprocal of electrical resistivity, is called electrical conductivity, σ = ρ

-1 –1 –1
The unit of conductivity is mho m (Ω m )

56
2.1.6 Classification of materials in terms of resistivity
The resistivity of a material is the characteristic of that particular material. The
materials can be broadly classified into conductors and insulators. The metals and alloys
−6 −8
which have low resistivity of the order of 10 – 10 Ω m are good conductors of
electricity. They carry current without appreciable loss of energy. Example : silver,
aluminium, copper, iron, tungsten, nichrome, manganin, constantan. The resistivity of
metals increase with increase in temperature. Insulators are substances which have very
8 14
high resistivity of the order of 10 – 10 Ω m. They offer very high resistance to the
flow of current and are termed non−conductors. Example : glass, mica, amber, quartz,
wood, teflon, bakelite. In between these two classes of materials lie the semiconductors
−2
(Table 2.1). They are partially conducting. The resistivity of semiconductor is 10 –
4
10 Ω m. Example : germanium, silicon.

Table 2.1 Electrical resistivities at room temperature

(NOT FOR EXAMINATION)
Classification Material ρ (Ω m)
−8
conductors silver 1.6 × 10
−8
copper 1.7 × 10
−8
aluminium 2.7 × 10
−8
iron 10 × 10
Semiconductors germanium 0.46
silicon 2300
10 14
Insulators glass 10 – 10
8 11
wood 10 – 10
13
quartz 10
13 16
rubber 10 – 10
2.2 Superconductivity
Ordinary conductors of electricity become better conductors at lower
temperatures. The ability of certain metals, their compounds and alloys to conduct
electricity with zero resistance at very low temperatures is called superconductivity. The
materials which exhibit this property are called superconductors.

The phenomenon of superconductivity was first observed by Kammerlingh

Onnes in 1911. He found that mercury suddenly showed

57
zero resistance at 4.2 K (Fig 2.3). The first
theoretical explanation of superconductivity
was given by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer
in 1957 and it is called the BCS theory.
The temperature at which electrical R( )
resistivity of the material suddenly drops
to zero and the material changes from
0 4.2 K
normal conductor to a superconductor is
T (K)
called the transition temperature or critical Fig 2.3 Superconductivity
temperature TC . At the transition of mercury
temperature the following changes are
observed :
(i) The electrical resistivity drops to zero.
(ii) The conductivity becomes infinity
(iii) The magnetic flux lines are excluded from the material.
Applications of superconductors
(i) Superconductors form the basis of energy saving power systems, namely
the superconducting generators, which are smaller in size and weight, in comparison
with conventional generators.
(ii) Superconducting magnets have been used to levitate trains above its rails.
They can be driven at high speed with minimal expenditure of energy.

(iii) Superconducting magnetic propulsion systems may be used to launch

satellites into orbits directly from the earth without the use of rockets.

(iv) High efficiency ore–separating machines may be built using

superconducting magnets which can be used to separate tumor cells from healthy cells
by high gradient magnetic separation method.
(v) Since the current in a superconducting wire can flow without any change
in magnitude, it can be used for transmission lines.

(vi) Superconductors can be used as memory or storage elements in

computers.

58
 Table 2.2 Colour code for
carbon resistors

2.3 Carbon resistors

The wire wound resistors are expensive and huge in size. Hence, carbon resistors
are used. Carbon resistor consists of a ceramic core,
on which a thin layer of crystalline carbon
is deposited. These resistors are cheaper,
stable and
small in size. The resistance of a Colour Number
carbon resistor is indicated by the Black 0
colour code drawn on it (Table Brown 1
2.2). A three colour code carbon
Red 2
resistor is discussed here. The
Orange 3
silver or gold ring at one end
corresponds to the tolerance. It is Yellow 4
a tolerable range ( + ) of the Green 5
resistance. The tolerance of silver, Blue 6
gold, red and brown rings is 10%,
Violet 7
5%, 2% and 1% respectively. If
Grey 8
there is no coloured ring at this
end, the tolerance is 20%. The White 9
first two rings at the other end of
tolerance ring are significant figures of resistance in ohm. The third ring indicates the
powers of 10 to be multiplied or number of zeroes following the significant figure.

Example :
The first yellow ring in Fig 2.4
Violet
Yellow Orange Silver corresponds to 4. The next violet ring
corresponds to 7. The third orange ring
3
corresponds to 10 . The silver ring
47 000 + 10%
represents 10% tolerance. The total
3
Fig 2.4 Carbon resistor resistance is 47 × 10 + 10% i.e. 47 k Ω,
colour code. 10%. Fig 2.5 shows 1 k Ω, 5% carbon
 resistor. Black
Brown Red Gold
Presently four colour code carbon
resistors are also used. For certain
critical applications 1% and 2% tolerance 1 0 00 ±5%
resistors are used. Fig 2.5 Carbon resistor

59
2.4 Combination of resistors
In simple circuits with resistors, Ohm’s law can be applied to find the effective
resistance. The resistors can be connected in series and parallel.

2.4.1 Resistors in series R R R

R
R1 2 3 4
Let us consider the I
resistors of resistances R1,
V V V V
R2, R3 and R4 connected in 1 2 3 4

series as shown in Fig 2.6. Fig 2.6 Resistors in series

When resistors are connected in series, the current flowing through each resistor
is the same. If the potential difference applied between the ends of the combination of
resistors is V, then the potential difference across each resistor R 1, R2, R3 and R4 is V1,
V2, V3 and V4 respectively.

The net potential difference V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 By Ohm’s

law
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3, V4 = IR4 and V = IRs
where RS is the equivalent or effective resistance of the series combination.

Hence, IRS = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 or RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 Thus, the

equivalent resistance of a number of resistors in series
connection is equal to the sum of the resistance of individual resistors.
2.4.2 Resistors in parallel
Consider four resistors of V
resistances R 1
, R 2
,R 3
and R 4 are R1
I
connected in parallel as shown in Fig
1

R2
2.7. A source of emf V is connected to I2
the parallel combination. When R3
A B
resistors are in parallel, the potential I I3
difference (V) across each resistor is R4
the same. I4

A current I entering the R

combination gets divided into I1, I2, I3 Fig 2.7 Resistors in
and I4 through R1, R2, R3 and R4 parallel
respectively,
such that I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4.
60
 By Ohm’s law

V V V V V
R
I1 = R1 , I 2 = R2 , I 3 = R3 , I4 = R4 and I = P

where RP is the equivalent or effective resistance of the parallel combination.

∴ V=V+V+V+VR P R1

R 2 R 3 R4

1=1+1+1+1
RP R1 R2 R3 R4
Thus, when a number of resistors are connected in parallel, the sum of the
reciprocal of the resistance of the individual resistors is equal to the reciprocal of the
effective resistance of the combination.
2.5 Temperature dependence of resistance
The resistivity of substances varies with temperature. For conductors the
resistance increases with increase in temperature. If Ro is the resistance of a conductor
o o
at 0 C and Rt is the resistance of same conductor at t C, then

Rt = Ro (1 + αt)
where α is called the temperature coefficient
of resistance.
α=R −R t o R( )
R0
Rot
The temperature coefficient of resistance is
defined as the ratio of increase in resistance per 0ºC T (C)
o
degree rise in temperature to its resistance at 0 C. Its Fig 2.8 Variation of resistance with
o temperature
unit is per C.
The variation of resistance with temperature is shown in Fig 2.8.
Metals have positive temperature coefficient of resistance, i.e., their resistance
increases with increase in temperature. Insulators and semiconductors have negative
temperature coefficient of resistance, i.e., their resistance decreases with increase in
temperature. A material with a negative temperature coefficient is called a thermistor.
The temperature coefficient is low for alloys.

61
2.6 Internal resistance of a cell
The electric current in an external circuit flows from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal of the cell, through different circuit elements. In order to maintain
continuity, the current has to flow through the electrolyte of the cell, from its negative
terminal to positive terminal. During this process of flow of current inside the cell, a
resistance is offered to current flow by the electrolyte of the cell. This is termed as the
internal resistance of the cell.

A freshly prepared cell has low internal resistance and this increases with ageing.

Determination of internal resistance of a cell using voltmeter

The circuit connections are + V

made as shown in Fig 2.9. With
key K open, the emf of cell E is
found by connecting a high E
resistance voltmeter across it. I
Since the high resistance
voltmeter draws only a very feeble R
K
current for deflection, the circuit
Fig 2.9 Internal resistance of a
may be considered as an open cell using voltmeter.
circuit. Hence the voltmeter
reading gives the emf of the cell. A small value of resistance R is included in the
external circuit and key K is closed. The potential difference across R is equal to the
potential difference across cell (V).
The potential drop across R, V = IR ...(1)
Due to internal resistance r of the cell, the voltmeter reads a value V, less than
the emf of cell.
Then V = E – Ir or Ir = E−V ...(2)
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1)

Ir E−V E−V
= or r = R
IR V V
Since E, V and R are known, the internal resistance r of the cell can be
determined.

62
2.7 Kirchoff’s law
Ohm’s law is applicable only for simple circuits. For complicated circuits,
Kirchoff’s laws can be used to find current or voltage. There are two generalised laws :
(i) Kirchoff’s current law (ii) Kirchoff’s voltage law

Kirchoff’s first law (current law) 1

Kirchoff’s current law states that the
2
algebraic sum of the currents meeting at 5 I
I5
1

I
any junction in a circuit is zero. 2

The convention is that, the current O

flowing towards a junction is positive and I4 I3
the current flowing away from the junction 3
4
is negative. Let 1,2,3,4 and 5 be the
conductors meeting at a junction O in an Fig 2.10 Kirchoff’s
electrical circuit (Fig 2.10). Let I1, I2, I3, I4 current law
and I5 be the currents passing through the
conductors respectively. According to Kirchoff’s first law.
I1 + (−I2) + (−I3) + I4 + I5 = 0 or I1 + I4 + I5 = I2 + I3. The sum of the currents
entering the junction is equal to the sum
of the currents leaving the junction. This law is a consequence of conservation of
charges.
Kirchoff’s second law (voltage law)
Kirchoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the products of resistance
and current in each part of any closed circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the emf’s
in that closed circuit. This law is a consequence of conservation of energy.

In applying Kirchoff’s laws to electrical networks, the direction of current flow

may be assumed either clockwise or anticlockwise. If the assumed direction of current
is not the actual direction, then on solving the problems, the current will be found to
have negative sign. If the result is positive, then the assumed direction is the same as
actual direction.

It should be noted that, once the particular direction has been assumed, the same
should be used throughout the problem. However, in the application of Kirchoff’s
second law, we follow that the current in clockwise direction is taken as positive and the
current in anticlockwise direction is taken as negative.

63
 I
Let us consider the electric A 1 B C
R2
circuit given in Fig 2.11a.
I2 I3
Considering the closed loop
R3 R4
ABCDEFA, R1
I
I1R2 + I3R4 + I3r3 + I3R5 + 1

E E E
I4R6 + I1r1 + I1R1 = E1 + E3 1 r1 2 r2 3 r3
F I D
Both cells E1 and E3 send R6 4 E R5
I
3

currents in clockwise direction. Fig 2.11a Kirchoff’s laws

For the closed loop ABEFA
I1R2 + I2R3 + I2r2 + I4R6 + I1r1 + I1R1 = E1 – E2
Negative sIgn in E2 indicates that it sends current in the anticlockwise direction.

As an illustration of application of Kirchoff’s second law, let us calculate the

current in the following networks.
Illustration I
Applying first law to the Junction B, (FIg.2.11b)
I1 – I2 – I3 = 0
A I1 B I2 C
∴ I3 = I1 – I2 ...(1) I3
For the closed loop ABEFA,
132 60
132 I3 + 20I1 = 200 ...(2) 20
Substituting equation (1)
in equation (2) 200V 100V

132 (I – I ) + 20I = 200 D

1 2 1 F I1 E I2
152I1 – 132I2 = 200 ...(3) Fig 2.11b Kirchoff’s laws
For the closed loop BCDEB,
60I2 – 132I3 = 100
substituting for I3,
∴ 60I2 – 132 (I1 – I2) = 100
– 132I1 + 192I2 = 100 ...(4)
Solving equations (3) and (4), we obtain
Il = 4.39 A and I2 = 3.54 A

64
Illustration 2
Taking the current in the clockwise direction along ABCDA as positive (FIg
2.11c)
10 I + 0.5 I + 5 I + 0.5 I + 8 Ι + 0.5 I + 5 I + 0.5 Ι + 10 I = 50 – 70 – 30 + 40 I ( 10 + 0.5
+ 5 + 0.5 + 8 + 0.5 + 5 + 0.5 + 10) = −10
40 I = −10 10 50V 5 70V

− 10 A I B
∴ I= 40 = –0.25 A 0.5 0.5

8
The negative sign indicates that
10
the current flows in the anticlockwise
direction.
40V 5 30V
2.7.1 Wheatstone’s bridge
D C
An important application of 0.5 0.5

Kirchoff’s law is the Fig 2.11c Kirchoff’s laws

Wheatstone’s bridge (FIg 2.12). Wheatstone’s network consists of
B resistances P, Q, R and S connected to form
I3 a closed path. A cell of emf E is connected
P Q
IG between points A and C. The current I from
I
1 the cell is divided into I1, I2, I3 and I4 across
I G
A 2 C the four branches. The current through the
galvanometer is Ig. The resistance of
galvanometer is G.
R S
I4 Applying Kirchoff’s current law to
D junction B,
I1 – Ig – I3 = 0 ...(1)
I Applying Kirchoff’s current law to
E junction D
Fig 2.12
Wheatstone’s bridge I2 + Ig – I4 = 0 ...(2)

Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law to closed path ABDA

I1 P + IgG – I2 R = 0 ...(3)
Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law to closed path ABCDA
I1P + I3Q – I4S – I2R = 0 ...(4)

65
 When the galvanometer shows zero deflection, the points B and D are at same
potential and Ig = 0. Substituting Ig = 0 in equation (1),
(2) and (3)

I1 = I3 ...(5)
I I
2 = 4 ...(6)
I1P = I2R ...(7)
Substituting the values of (5) and (6) in equation (4)

I1P + I1Q – I2S – I2R = 0

I1 (P + Q) = I2 (R+S) ...(8)
Dividing (8) by (7)
I 1(P + Q) = I 2(R + S)
I 1P I 2R
∴P + Q = R + S
PR
Q S
1+ P=1+ R
Q S P R
∴ = or =
P R Q S
This is the condition for bridge balance. If P, Q and R are known, the resistance
S can be calculated.
2.7.2 Metre bridge P Q
Metre bridge
is one form of B
G1 G2
Wheatstone’s
bridge. It consists G HR
of thick strips of J
A C
copper, of negligible l1 l2
resistance, fixed to
a wooden board. ( )
K
Bt
There are two gaps
Fig 2.13 Metre bridge
G1 and G2 between
these strips. A uniform manganin wire AC of length one metre whose temperature
coefficient is low, is stretched along a metre scale and its ends are soldered to two
copper strips. An unknown resistance P is connected in the gap G 1 and a standard
resistance Q is connected in

66
the gap G2 (Fig 2.13). A metal jockey J is connected to B through a galvanometer (G)
and a high resistance (HR) and it can make contact at any point on the wire AC. Across
the two ends of the wire, a Leclanche cell and a key are connected.

Adjust the position of metal jockey on metre bridge wire so that the
galvanometer shows zero deflection. Let the point be J. The portions AJ and JC of the
wire now replace the resistances R and S of Wheatstone’s bridge. Then

P R r . AJ
Q = S = r . JC
where r is the resistance per unit length of the wire.
P = AJ = l 1

∴ Q JC l2
where AJ = l1 and JC = l2
l1
∴ P = Q l2
Though the connections between the resistances are made by thick copper strips
of negligible resistance, and the wire AC is also
l
1

soldered to such strips a small error will occur in the value of l2 due
to the end resistance. This error can be eliminated, if another set of readings are taken
with P and Q interchanged and the average value of P is found, provided the balance
point J is near the mid point of the wire AC.

2.7.3 Determination of specific resistance

The specific resistance of the material of a wire is determined by knowing the
resistance (P), radius (r) and length (L) of the wire using
2
the expression ρ = P πr
L
2.7.4 Determination of temperature coefficient of resistance
If R1 and R2 are the resistances of a given coil of wire at the temperatures t 1 and
t2, then the temperature coefficient of resistance of the material of the coil is determined
using the relation,
R 2 − R1
α=
R1t 2 − R 2 t1

67
2.8 Potentiometer
A
The Potentiometer is an
instrument used for the
measurement of potential
difference (Fig 2.14). It consists
of a ten metre long uniform wire
of manganin or constantan B
stretched in ten segments,
Fig 2.14 Potentiometer

each of one metre length. The segments are stretched parallel to each other on a
horizontal wooden board. The ends of the wire are fixed to copper strips with binding
screws. A metre scale is fixed on the board, parallel to the wire. Electrical contact with
wires is established by pressing the jockey J.

2.8.1 Principle of potentiometer

A battery Bt is ( )
connected between the I Bt K
ends A and B of a potentio- J
A B
meter wire through a

key K. A steady current I G

flows through the
HR

E
potentiometer wire (Fig
2.15). This forms the Fig 2.15 Principle of potentiometer
primary circuit. A primary cell is connected in series with the positive terminal A of the
potentiometer, a galvanometer, high resistance and jockey. This forms the secondary
circuit.
If the potential difference between A and J is equal to the emf of the cell, no
current flows through the galvanometer. It shows zero deflection. AJ is called the
balancing length. If the balancing length is l, the potential difference across AJ = Irl
where r is the resistance per unit length of the potentiometer wire and I the current in
the primary circuit.

∴ E = Irl,
since I and r are constants, E α l
Hence emf of the cell is directly proportional to its balancing length. This is the
principle of a potentiometer.

68
2.8.2 Comparison of emfs of two given cells using potentiometer
The potentiometer wire AB
is connected in series with a battery ( )
(Bt), Key (K), rheostat (Rh) as Bt K Rh
I
shown in Fig 2.16. This forms the
J
primary circuit. The end A of A B
potentiometer is connected to the
E1
terminal C of a DPDT switch (six C1 D1
way key−double pole double C D G HR
throw). The terminal D is connected C
2 D2
to the jockey (J) through a
E2
Fig 2.16 comparison of emf of two cells

galvanometer (G) and high resistance (HR). The cell of emf E 1 is connected between
terminals C1 and D1 and the cell of emf E2 is connected between C2 and D2 of the
DPDT switch.
Let I be the current flowing through the primary circuit and r be the resistance of
the potentiometer wire per metre length.
The DPDT switch is pressed towards C 1, D1 so that cell E1 is included in the
secondary circuit. The jockey is moved on the wire and adjusted for zero deflection in
galvanometer. The balancing length is l1. The potential difference across the balancing
length l1 = Irll. Then, by the principle of potentiometer,

E1 = Irll ...(1)
The DPDT switch is pressed towards E2. The balancing length l2 for zero
deflection in galvanometer is determined. The potential difference across the balancing
length is l2 = Irl2, then
E2 = Irl2 ...(2)
Dividing (1) and (2) we get
E l
1 = 1

E l
2 2

If emf of one cell (E1) is known, the emf of the other cell (E2) can be calculated
using the relation.

l
E2 = E1 l2
1

69
2.8.3 Comparison of emf and potential difference
1. The difference of potentials between the two terminals of a cell in an
open circuit is called the electromotive force (emf) of a cell. The difference in potentials
between any two points in a closed circuit is called potential difference.

2. The emf is independent of external resistance of the circuit, whereas

potential difference is proportional to the resistance between any two points.

2.9 Electric energy and electric power.

If I is the current flowing through a conductor of resistance R in time t, then the
quantity of charge flowing is, q = It. If the charge q, flows between two points having a
potential difference V, then the work done in moving the charge is = V. q = V It.

Then, electric power is defined as the rate of doing electric work.

Work done VIt

∴ Power = time = t = VI
Electric power is the product of potential difference and current strength.

2
Since V = IR, Power = I R
Electric energy is defined as the capacity to do work. Its unit is joule. In practice,
the electrical energy is measured by watt hour (Wh) or kilowatt hour (kWh). 1 kWh is
known as one unit of electric energy.
5
(1 kWh = 1000 Wh = 1000 × 3600 J = 36 × 10 J)
2.9.1 Wattmeter
A wattmeter is an instrument used to measure electrical power consumed i.e
energy absorbed in unit time by a circuit. The wattmeter consists of a movable coil
arranged between a pair of fixed coils in the form of a solenoid. A pointer is attached to
the movable coil. The free end of the pointer moves over a circular scale. When current
flows through the coils, the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the
power.

2.10 Chemical effect of current

The passage of an electric current through a liquid causes chemical changes and
this process is called electrolysis. The conduction

70
is possible, only in liquids +
wherein charged ions can be
dissociated in opposite directions
(Fig 2.17). Such liquids are called
electrolytes. The plates through
which current enters and leaves
an electrolyte are known as
+ Cathode
Anode
electrodes. The electrode towards +
which positive ions travel is
called the cathode and the other,
Fig 2.17 Conduction in liquids
towards which negative ions
travel is called anode. The positive ions are called cations and are mostly formed from
metals or hydrogen. The negative ions are called anions.
2.10.1 Faraday’s laws of electrolysis
The factors affecting the quantities of matter liberated during the process of
electrolysis were investigated by Faraday.
First Law : The mass of a substance liberated at an electrode is directly
proportional to the charge passing through the electrolyte.
If an electric current I is passed through an electrolyte for a time t, the amount of
charge (q) passed is I t. According to the law, mass of substance liberated (m) is

mαq or m = zIt
where Z is a constant for the substance being liberated called as electrochemical
–1
equivalent. Its unit is kg C .
The electrochemical equivalent of a substance is defined as the mass of
substance liberated in electrolysis when one coulomb charge is passed through the
electrolyte.
Second Law : The mass of a substance liberated at an electrode by a given
amount of charge is proportional to the *chemical equivalent of the substance.

If E is the chemical equivalent of a substance, from the second

law
mαE

Relative atomic mass mass of the atom

*Chemical equivalent = Valency = 1/12 of the mass C12 atom x valency

71
2.10.2 Verification of Faraday’s laws of electrolysis
First Law : A battery, a rheostat, a key and an ammeter are connected in series
to an electrolytic cell (Fig 2.18). The cathode is cleaned, dried, weighed and

then inserted in the cell. A

current I1 is passed for a time
t. The current is measured by A

the ammeter. The cathode is

taken out, washed, dried and Bt Cathode
weighed again. Hence the mass Anode
m1 of the substance deposited
is obtained.
The cathode is reinserted Rh
in the cell and a different
Fig 2.18 Verification of Faraday’s
current I2 is passed for the first law
same time t. The mass m2 of
the deposit is obtained. It is found that
m I
1 1
=
m 2 I2
∴ mαI ...(1)

The experiment is repeated for same current I but for different times t1 and t2. If
the masses of the deposits are m3 and m4 respectively, it is found that
m t
3 = 1

m 4 t2
∴ mαt ...(2)
From relations (1) and (2)
m α It or m α q Thus, the first law is verified.
Second Law : Two electrolytic cells containing different electro-lytes, CuSO 4
solution and AgNO3 solution are connected in series with a battery, a rheostat and an
ammeter (Fig 2.19). Copper electrodes are inserted in CuSO 4 and silver electrodes are
inserted in AgNO3.
The cathodes are cleaned, dried, weighed and then inserted in the respective cells.
The current is passed for some time. Then the cathodes are taken out, washed, dried and
weighed. Hence the masses of copper and silver deposited are found as m1 and m2.

72
 It is found that + +
m 1 = E1
, where E and
m2 E2 1

E2 are the chemical equivalents

of copper and silver Bt
respectively. A
CuSO4 AgNO3
mαE
Thus, the second law is
verified.
2.11 Electric cells
Rh Fig 2.19
The starting point to the
Verification of Faraday’s second law
development of
electric cells is the classic experiment by Luige Galvani and his wife Lucia on a
dissected frog hung from iron railings with brass hooks. It was observed that, whenever
the leg of the frog touched the iron railings, it jumped and this led to the introduction of
animal electricity. Later, Italian scientist and genius professor Alessandro Volta came
up with an electrochemical battery. The battery Volta named after him consisted of a
pile of copper and zinc discs placed alternately separated by paper and introduced in salt
solution. When the end plates were connected to an electric bell, it continued to ring,
opening a new world of electrochemical cells. His experiment established that, a cell
could be made by using two dissimilar metals and a salt solution which reacts with
atleast one of the metals as electrolyte.

2.11.1 Voltaic cell +

The simple cell or voltaic
cell consists of two electrodes, CuZn
one of copper and the other of
zinc dipped in a solution of dilute
sulphuric acid in a glass vessel Glass + Dilute H2 SO4
(Fig 2.20). On Vessel
+

connecting the two electrodes

externally, with a piece of wire, Fig 2.20 Voltaic cell
current flows

73
from copper to zinc outside the cell and from zinc to copper inside it. The copper
electrode is the positive pole or copper rod of the cell and zinc is the negative pole or
zinc rod of the cell. The electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid.
The action of the cell is explained in terms of the motion of the charged ions. At
++
the zinc rod, the zinc atoms get ionized and pass into solution as Zn ions. This leaves
the zinc rod with two electrons more, making it negative. At the same time, two
+
hydrogen ions (2H ) are discharged at the copper rod, by taking these two electrons.
This makes the copper rod positive. As long as excess electrons are available on the
zinc electrode, this process goes on and a current flows continuously in external circuit.
This simple cell is thus seen as a device which converts chemical energy into electrical
energy. Due to opposite charges on the two plates, a potential difference is set up
between copper and zinc, copper being at a higher potential than zinc. The difference of
potential between the two electrodes is 1.08V.

2.11.2 Primary Cell

The cells from which the electric energy is derived by irreversible chemical
actions are called primary cells. The primary cell is capable of giving an emf, when its
constituents, two electrodes and a suitable electrolyte, are assembled together. The three
main primary cells, namely Daniel Cell and Leclanche cell are discussed here. These
cells cannot be recharged electrically.

2.11.3 Daniel cell

+
Daniel cell is a primary cell
which cannot supply steady Zinc Rod
current for a long time. It
dilute H2 SO4
consists of a copper vessel

containing a strong solution of Porous Pot

copper sulphate (Fig 2.21). A zinc
rod is dipped in dilute sulphuric CuSO4 Solution

acid contained in a porous pot. Copper Vessel

The porous pot is placed inside

the copper sulphate solution. Fig 2.21 Daniel cell
++
The zinc rod reacting with dilute sulphuric acid produces Zn ions and 2
electrons.

74
 ++
Zn ions pass through the pores of the porous pot and reacts with copper
++ ++
sulphate solution, producing Cu ions. The Cu ions deposit on the copper vessel.
When Daniel cell is connected in a circuit, the two electrons on the zinc rod pass
through the external circuit and reach the copper vessel thus neutralizing the copper
ions. This constitutes an electric current from copper to zinc. Daniel cell produces an
emf of 1.08 volt.

2.11.4 Leclanche cell

A Leclanche cell consists

of a carbon electrode packed in a Carbon Rod
porous
Mixture of MnO2
pot containing manganese dioxide and
and Charcoal
charcoal powder (Fig 2.22). The
Porous Pot
porous pot is immersed in a
saturated solution of Zinc Rod
ammonium
Ammonium
chloride (electrolyte) contained Chloride Solution
in an outer glass vessel. A zinc Glass Vessel
rod is immersed in electrolytic solution.
Fig 2.22 Leclanche cell

++
At the zinc rod, due to oxidation reaction Zn atom is converted into Zn ions
++
and 2 electrons. Zn ions reacting with ammonium
chloride produces zinc chloride and ammonia gas.
++ + –
i.e Zn + 2 NH4Cl → 2NH3 + ZnCl2 + 2 H + 2e
The ammonia gas escapes. The hydrogen ions diffuse through the pores of the
porous pot and react with manganese dioxide. In this process the positive charge of
hydrogen ion is transferred to carbon rod. When zinc rod and carbon rod are connected
externally, the two electrons from the zinc rod move towards carbon and neutralizes the
positive charge. Thus current flows from carbon to zinc.

Leclanche cell is useful for supplying intermittent current. The emf of the cell is
about 1.5 V, and it can supply a current of 0.25 A.

75
2.11.5 Secondary Cells
The advantage of secondary cells is that they are rechargeable. The chemical
reactions that take place in secondary cells are reversible. The active materials that are
used up when the cell delivers current can be reproduced by passing current through the
cell in opposite direction. The chemical process of obtaining current from a secondary
cell is called discharge. The process of reproducing active materials is called charging.
The most common secondary cells are lead acid accumulator and alkali accumulator.

2.11.6 Lead – Acid +

accumulator
The lead acid
accumulator consists Pb

of a container made up PbO2

of hard rubber or glass
H2 SO4
or celluloid. The
container contains Glass / Rubber container
dilute sulphuric acid
which acts as the Fig 2.23 Lead - Acid accumulator

electrolyte. Spongy lead (Pb) acts as the negative electrode and lead oxide (PbO 2) acts
as the positive electrode (Fig 2.23). The electrodes are separated by suitable insulating
materials and assembled in a way to give low internal resistance.

When the cell is connected in a circuit, due to the oxidation reaction that takes
place at the negative electrode, spongy lead reacting with dilute sulphuric acid produces
lead sulphate and two electrons. The electrons flow in the external circuit from negative
electrode to positive electrode where the reduction action takes place. At the positive
electrode, lead oxide on reaction with sulphuric acid produces lead sulphate and the two
electrons are neutralized in this process. This makes the conventional current to flow
from positive electrode to negative electrode in the external circuit.

The emf of a freshly charged cell is 2.2 Volt and the specific gravity of the
electrolyte is 1.28. The cell has low internal resistance and hence can deliver high
current. As the cell is discharged by drawing current from it, the emf falls to about 2
volts. In the process of charging, the chemical reactions are reversed.

76
2.11.7 Applications of secondary cells
The secondary cells are rechargeable. They have very low internal resistance.
Hence they can deliver a high current if required. They can be recharged a very large
number of times without any deterioration in properties. These cells are huge in size.
They are used in all automobiles like cars, two wheelers, trucks etc. The state of
charging these cells is, simply monitoring the specific gravity of the electrolyte. It
should lie between 1.28 to 1.12 during charging and discharging respectively.

Solved problems
18
2.1 If 6.25 × 10 electrons flow through a given cross section in unit time, find the
–19
current. (Given : Charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10 C)
18 −19
Data : n = 6.25 × 10 ; e = 1.6 × 10 C;t=1s;I=?

q ne 6.25 × 1018 × 1.6 ×10−19

Solution : I = t = t = 1 =1A

−6 2
2.2 A copper wire of 10 m area of cross section, carries a current of 2 A. If the
28
number of electrons per cubic metre is 8 × 10 , calculate the current density and
average drift velocity.
−19
(Given e = 1.6 × 10 C)
−6 2
Data : A = 10 m ; Current flowing I=2A;n=8×
1028
−19
e = 1.6 × 10 C; J=?; vd =?

I = 2 6 2
Solution : Current density, J = −6
= 2 × 10 A/m
A 10
J = n e vd
J 2 ×106
−5 –1
or vd = ne = 8 × 1028 × 1.6 ×10−19 = 15.6 × 10 ms

2.3 An incandescent lamp is operated at 240 V and the current is

0.5 A. What is the resistance of the lamp ?
Data : V = 240 V ; I = 0.5 A ; R = ?

77
 Solution : From Ohm’s law

V 240
V = IR or R= I= 0.5 = 480 Ω

2.4 The resistance of a copper wire of length 5m is 0.5 Ω. If the diameter of the wire
is 0.05 cm, determine its specific resistance. Data : l = 5m ; R = 0.5 Ω ; d = 0.05
−4
cm = 5 × 10 m;
−4
r = 2.5 × 10 m;ρ=?

ρl RA
Solution : R = A or ρ = l
2 −4 2 −7 2
A = πr = 3.14 × (2.5 × 10 ) = 1.9625 × 10 m

−7
ρ = 0.5 ×1.9625 ×10 5
−8
ρ = 1.9625 × 10 Ωm
o
2.5 The resistance of a nichrome wire at 0 C is 10 Ω. If its temperature coefficient
o
of resistance is 0.004/ C, find its resistance at boiling point of water. Comment
on the result.
o o 0 o
Data : At 0 C, Ro = 10 Ω ; α = 0.004/ C ; t = 100 C ; At t C, Rt = ?

Solution : Rt = Ro (1+ α t)
= 10 (1 + (0.004 × 100))
Rt = 14 Ω
As temperature increases the resistance of wire also increases.

2.6 Two wires of same material and length have resistances 5 Ω and
10 Ω respectively. Find the ratio of radii of the two wires.
Data : Resistance of first wire R1 = 5 Ω ;
Radius of first wire = r1
Resistance of second wire R2 = 10 Ω
Radius of second wire = r2
Length of the wires = l
Specific resistance of the material of the wires = ρ

78
 ρ l
Solution : R = A ; A = π r 2

ρl ρl
∴ R1 = π r12 ; R2 = π r22
R r2 r R 10 2
2 1 1 2

R =r 2
or r = R = 5 = 1
1 2 2 1

r1 : r2 = 2 :1

2.7 If a copper wire is stretched to make it 0.1% longer, what is the percentage
change in resistance?
Data : Initial length of copper wire l1 = l
Final length of copper wire after stretching
l2 = l + 0.1% of l

0.1
= l + 100 l

= l (1 + 0.001)
l2 = 1.001 l
During stretching, if length increases, area of cross section
decreases.
Initial volume = A1l1 = A1l
Final volume = A2l2 = 1.001 A2l
Resistance of wire before stretching = R1.
Resistance after stretching = R2
Solution : Equating the volumes
A1l = 1.001 A2l

(or) A1 = 1.001A2
ρl
R= A
ρl1 ρl
R1 = A and R2 = A 2
1 2

79
 ρl ρ1.001l
R1 = and R2 =
1.001A2 A2
R2 2
= (1.001) =1.002
R1

Change in resistance = (1.002 – 1) = 0.002

Change in resistance in percentage = 0.002 × 100 = 0.2%

o
2.8 The resistance of a field coil measures 50 Ω at 20 C and 65 Ω at
o
70 C. Find the temperature coefficient of resistance.
o
Data : At R = 50 Ω ; 70 C, R = 65 Ω ; α = ?
20 70
Solution : Rt = Ro (1 + α t)
R20 = Ro (1 + α 20)
50 = Ro (1 + α 20) ...(1)
R70 = Ro (1+ α 70)
65 = Ro (1 + α 70 ] ...(2)
Dividing (2) by (1)

65 = 1 + 70α
50 1 + 20α
65 + 1300 α = 50 + 3500 α
2200 α = 15
o
α = 0.0068 / C

2.9 An iron box of 400 W power is used daily for 30 minutes. If the cost per unit is
75 paise, find the weekly expense on using the iron box.

Data : Power of an iron box P = 400 W

rate / unit = 75 p
consumption time t = 30 minutes / day
cost / week =?
Solution :
Energy consumed in 30 minutes = Power × time in hours = 400 × ½ =
200 W h

80
 Energy consumed in one week = 200 × 7 = 1400 Wh = 1.4 unit Cost / week =
Total units consumed × rate/ unit
= 1.4 × 0.75 = Rs.1.05

2.10 Three resistors are connected in series with 10 V supply as shown in the figure.
Find the voltage drop across each resistor.
R1 5 R2 3 R3 2
V V V
1 2 3

10V
Data : R1 = 5Ω, R2 = 3Ω, R3 = 2Ω ; V = 10 volt Effective
resistance of series combination,
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10Ω

V 10
R
Solution : Current in circuit I = s = 10 = 1A

Voltage drop across R1, V1 = IR1 = 1 × 5 = 5V

Voltage drop across R2, V2 = IR2 = 1 × 3 = 3V
Voltage drop across R3, V3 = IR3 = 1 × 2 = 2V

2.11 Find the current flowing across three resistors 3Ω, 5Ω and 2Ω connected in
parallel to a 15 V supply. Also find the effective resistance and total current
drawn from the supply.
Data : R1 = 3Ω, R2 = 5Ω, R3 = 2Ω ; Supply voltage V = 15 volt
Solution :
Effective resistance of parallel combination 3
I1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + + I2 R1 5
R R R R
P 1 2 3 3 5 2 R2
Rp = 0.9677 Ω I3 2
R3
I
Current through R1, I 1 = V = 15 = 5A
R1 3
15V

81
 V 15
Current through R2, I2 = = = 3A
R2 5
V 15
I3 = = = 7.5A
Current through R3, R3 2
V 15
Total current I = RP = 0.9677 = 15.5 A

2.12 In the given network, calculate the effective resistance between points A and B

(i) 5 10 5 10 5 10

A B
5 5 5
10 10 10

Solution : The network has three identical units. The simplified form of one unit
is given below :
5 10
R1 = 15

10 5 R2 = 15
The equivalent resistance of one unit is
1 1 1 1 1
R R R
P= 1 + 2 = 15 + 15 or RP = 7.5 Ω
Each unit has a resistance of 7.5 Ω. The total network reduces
to 7.5 7.5 7.5
A B
R/ R/ R/

The combined resistance between points A and B is

R = R′ + R′ + R′ (∵ Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 ) R =
7.5 + 7.5 + 7.5 = 22.5 Ω

2.13 A 10 Ω resistance is connected in series with a cell of emf 10V.

A voltmeter is connected in parallel to a cell, and it reads. 9.9 V.
Find internal resistance of the cell.
Data : R = 10 Ω ; E = 10 V ; V = 9.9 V ; r=?
82
 10V 10
Solution : r =
E−V R

V R
= 10 − 9.9 ×10 V
9.9 I 9.9V
= 0.101 Ω

Self evaluation
(The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples. In the same way
any question and problem could be framed from the text matter. Students must be prepared to
answer any question and problem
from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.)

2.1 A charge of 60 C passes through an electric lamp in 2 minutes.

Then the current in the lamp is
(a) 30 A (b) 1 A (c) 0.5 A (d) 5 A
2.2 The material through which electric charge can flow easily is
(a) quartz (b) mica (c) germanium (d) copper
2.3 The current flowing in a conductor is proportional to
(a) drift velocity
(b) 1/ area of cross section
(c) 1/no of electrons
(d) square of area of cross section.
2.4 A toaster operating at 240V has a resistance of 120Ω. The power
is
(a) 400 W (b) 2 W (c) 480 W (d) 240 W
2.5 If the length of a copper wire has a certain resistance R, then on
doubling the length its specific resistance
th
(a) will be doubled (b) will become 1/4
(c) will become 4 times (d) will remain the same.
2.6 When two 2Ω resistances are in parallel, the effective resistance is
(a) 2 Ω (b) 4 Ω (c) 1 Ω (d) 0.5 Ω
2.7 In the case of insulators, as the temperature decreases, resistivity
(a) decreases (b) increases

83
 (c) remains constant (d) becomes zero
o o
2.8 If the resistance of a coil is 2 Ω at 0 c and α = 0.004 / C, then its resistance at
o
100 C is
(a) 1.4 Ω (b) 0 Ω (c) 4 Ω (d) 2.8 Ω
2.9 According to Faraday’s law of electrolysis, when a current is passed, the mass of
ions deposited at the cathode is independent of

(a) current (b) charge (c) time (d) resistance

2.10 When n resistors of equal resistances (R) are connected in series, the effective
resistance is
(a) n/R (b) R/n (c) 1/nR (d) nR 2.11 Why is copper wire not suitable
for a potentiometer?
2.12 Explain the flow of charges in a metallic conductor.
2.13 Distinguish between drift velocity and mobility. Establish a relation between drift
velocity and current.
2.14 State Ohm’s law.
2.15 Define resistivity of a material. How are materials classified based on resistivity?

2.16 Write a short note on superconductivity. List some applications of

superconductors.
2.17 The colours of a carbon resistor is orange, orange, orange. What is the value of
resistor?
2.18 Explain the effective resistance of a series network and parallel network.

2.19 Discuss the variation of resistance with temperature with an expression and a
graph.
2.20 Explain the determination of the internal resistance of a cell using voltmeter.

2.21 State and explain Kirchoff’s laws for electrical networks.

2.22 Describe an experiment to find unknown resistance and temperature coefficient of
resistance using metre bridge?
2.23 Define the term specific resistance. How will you find this using a metre bridge?

84
2.24 Explain the principle of a potentiometer. How can emf of two cells be compared
using potentiometer?
2.25 Distinguish between electric power and electric energy
2.26 State and Explain Faraday’s laws of electrolysis. How are the laws verified
experimentally?
2.27 Explain the reactions at the electrodes of (i) Daniel cell (ii) Leclanche cell

2.28 Explain the action of the following secondary cell.

(i) lead acid accumulator
2.29 Why automobile batteries have low internal resistance?
Problems
2.30 What is the drift velocity of an electron in a copper conductor having area 10 ×
−6 2 28
10 m , carrying a current of 2 A. Assume that there are 10 × 10 electrons /
3
m .
20
2.31 How much time 10 electrons will take to flow through a point, so that the
−19
current is 200 mA? (e = 1.6 × 10 C)
2.32 A manganin wire of length 2m has a diameter of 0.4 mm with a resistance of 70 Ω.
Find the resistivity of the material.
2.33 The effective resistances are 10Ω, 2.4Ω when two resistors are connected in series
and parallel. What are the resistances of individual resistors?

2.34 In the given circuit, what is the total resistance and current supplied by the

battery.
2

6V

3 3 3

2.35 Find the effective resistance between A and B in the given circuit
2 2
2
A B

1 1

85
 2.36 Find the voltage drop across 18 Ω resistor in the given circuit
18 12

6 6
30V

2.37 Calculate the current I1, I2 and I3 in the given electric circuit.
1
I1 3V

2
I2 2V

I3
10

0
2.38 The resistance of a platinum wire at 0 C is 4 Ω. What will be the resistance of the
o
wire at 100 C if the temperature coefficient of resistance of platinum is 0.0038 /
0
C.
2.39 A cell has a potential difference of 6 V in an open circuit, but it falls to 4 V when a
current of 2 A is drawn from it. Find the internal resistance of the cell.

2.40 In a Wheatstone’s bridge, if the galvanometer shows zero deflection, find the
unknown resistance. Given P = 1000Ω Q = 10000 Ω and R = 20 Ω

2.41 An electric iron of resistance 80 Ω is operated at 200 V for two hours. Find the
electrical energy consumed.
2.42 In a house, electric kettle of 1500 W is used everyday for 45 minutes, to boil water.
Find the amount payable per month (30 days) for usage of this, if cost per unit is
Rs. 3.25
2.43 A 1.5 V carbon – zinc dry cell is connected across a load of 1000 Ω.
Calculate the current and power supplied to it.
2.44 In a metre bridge, the balancing length for a 10 Ω resistance in left gap is 51.8 cm.
Find the unknown resistance and specific resistance of a wire of length 108 cm
and radius 0.2 mm.

86
 2.45 Find the electric current flowing A
through the given circuit connected
to a supply of 3 V. 5
5 R2 3V
R1
R
3

B 5 C

2.46 In the given circuit, find the current 4V 2

through each branch of the circuit and C D

the potential drop across the 10 Ω I1 5V 4 I1

resistor. I2 I2
B E

(I1 +I2 ) 10
F
A

Answers
2.1 (c) 2.2 (d) 2.3 (a) 2.4 (c)
2.5 (d) 2.6 (c) 2.7 (b) 2.8 (d)
2.9 (d) 2.10 (d)
−5 –1
2.17 33 k Ω 2.30 1.25 × 10 m s
2.31 80s 2.32 4.396 µ Ω m
2.33 6 Ω and 4Ω 2.34 3 Ω and 2A
2.35 3.33 Ω 2.36 24 V
2.37 0.5 A, –0.25 A, 0.25 A 2.38 5.52 Ω
2.39 1 Ω 2.40 200 Ω
2.41 1 kWh 2.42 Rs. 110
–6
2.43 1.5 mA; 2.25 mW 2.44 1.082 × 10 Ω m
2.45 0.9 A 2.46 0.088A, 0.294A, 3.82 V

87
 3. Effects of electric current

The ideas of electric current, electromotive force having been already discussed
in the preceding chapter, we shall discuss in this chapter the physical consequences of
electric current. Living in an electrical and interestingly in an electronic age, we are
familiar with many practical applications of electric current, such as bulbs,
electroplating, electric fans, electric motors etc. In a source of emf, a part of the energy
may go into useful work like in an electric motor. The remaining part of the energy is
dissipated in the form of heat in the resistors. This is the heating effect of current. Just
as current produces thermal energy, thermal energy may also be suitably used to
produce an emf. This is thermoelectric effect. This effect is not only a cause but also a
consequence of current. A steady electric current produces a magnetic field in
surrounding space. This important physical consequence of current is magnetic effect of
electric current.

3.1 Heating effect : Joule’s law

In a conductor, the free electrons are always at random motion making collisions
with ions or atoms of the conductor. When a voltage V is applied between the ends of
the conductor, resulting in the flow of current I, the free electrons are accelerated.
Hence the electrons gain energy at the rate of VI per second. The lattice ions or atoms
receive this energy VI from the colliding electrons in random bursts. This increase in
energy is nothing but the thermal energy of the lattice. Thus for a steady current I, the
amount of heat produced in time t is

H = VIt ...(1)
For a resistance R,
2
H = I Rt ...(2) and
V2
H = R t ...(3)
The above relations were experimentally verified by Joule and are known as
Joule’s law of heating. By equation (2) Joule’s law implies

88
 A+

+
V

that the heat produced is (i) directly proportional to the square of the current for a given
R (ii) directly proportional to resistance R for a given I and (iii) directly proportional to
the time of passage of current. Also by equation (3), the heat produced is inversely
proportional to resistance R for a given V.

3.1.1Verification of Joule’s law K

+
Joule’s law is verified using Joule’s Rh
calorimeter. It consists of a resistance coil R enclosed Bt

inside a copper calorimeter (Fig 3.1).

The ends of the coil are connected to two

terminals, fixed to the lid of the calorimeter. A
stirrer and a thermometer T are inserted through
two holes in the lid. Two thirds of the volume of the
calorimeter is filled with water. The calorimeter is
enclosed in a wooden box to minimise loss of heat.

A battery (Bt), a key (K), a Fig 3.1 Joule’s calorimeter rheostat (Rh) and an
ammeter (A) are
connected in series with the calorimeter. A voltmeter (V) is connected across the ends
of the coil R.
(i) Law of current
The initial temperature of water is measured as θ1. Let W be the heat capacity of
the calorimeter and contents. Now a current of I 1 is passed for a time of t (about 20
minutes). The final temperature (θ2) (after applying necessary correction) is noted. The
quantity of heat gained by calorimeter and the contents is calculated as H 1 = W (θ
2−θ1). Water is then cooled to θ1. The experiment is repeated by passing currents I 2,
I3 .. etc., through the same coil for the same interval of time t and the corresponding
quantities of heat H2, H3 etc. are calculated. It is found that
H
1 H2 H3
2
I = I2 = I2
1 2 3

89
 H
i.e I2 = a constant
2
i.e H α I
i.e. Hence, law of current is verified.
(ii) Law of resistance
The same amount of current I is passed for the same time t through different
coils of resistances R1, R2, R3 etc. The corresponding quantities of heat gained H 1, H2,
H 3 etc. are calculated. It is found that,

H1 H H
=R =R
2 3

R
1 2 3

H
R = constant
i.e H α R. Hence, law of resistance is verified.
(iii) Law of time
The same amount of current I is passed through the same resistance R for
different intervals of time t1, t2, t3 etc. The corresponding quantities of heat gained H1,
H2, H3 etc. are calculated. It is found that

H1 H2 H3
t
t1 = t2 = 3

H
t = constant
i.e H α t. Hence, law of time is verified. 3.1.2

Some applications of Joule heating (i) Electric heating

device

Electric iron, electric heater, electric toaster are some of the appliances that work
on the principle of heating effect of current. In these appliances, Nichrome which is an
alloy of nickel and chromium is used as the heating element for the following reasons.

(1) It has high specific resistance

(2) It has high melting point
(3) It is not easily oxidized

90
(ii) Fuse wire
Fuse wire is an alloy of lead 37% and tin 63%. It is connected in series in an
electric circuit. It has high resistance and low melting point. When large current flows
through a circuit due to short circuiting, the fuse wire melts due to heating and hence
the circuit becomes open. Therefore, the electric appliances are saved from damage.

(iii) Electric bulb

Since the resistance of the filament in the bulb is high, the quantity of heat
produced is also high. Therefore, the filament is heated to incandescence and emits
o
light. Tungsten with a high melting point (3380 C) is used as the filament. The filament
is usually enclosed in a glass bulb containing some inert gas at low pressure.

Electric arc and electric welding also work on the principle of heating effect of
current.
In some cases such as transformers and dynamos, Joule heating effect is
undesirable. These devices are designed in such a way as to reduce the loss of energy
due to heating.
3.1.3 Seebeck effect
In 1821, German Physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that in a circuit
consisting of two dissimilar metals like iron and copper, an emf is developed when the
junctions are maintained at different temperatures.

Two dissimilar metals connected to form two junctions is called thermocouple.

The emf developed in the circuit is thermo electric emf. The current through the circuit
is called thermoelectric current. This
Cu G
Cu G

Fe Fe

1 ºC
2 ºC 2ºC 1ºC
Hot Cold Hot
Junction Cold Junction Junction
Junction

(a) (b)
Fig 3.2 Seebeck effect

91
effect is called thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. If the hot and cold junctions are
interchanged, the direction of current also reverses. Hence Seebeck effect is reversible.
In a Cu-Fe thermocouple (Fig 3.2a), the direction of the current is from copper to iron at
the hot junction (Fig 3.2b).

The magnitude and sign of thermo emf depends on the materials of the two
conductors and the temperatures of the hot and cold junctions. Seebeck after studying
the thermoelectric properties of different pairs of metals, arranged them in a series
called thermoelectric series. The direction of the current at the hot junction is from the
metal occurring earlier in the series to the one occurring later in the series. The
magnitude of thermoemf is larger for metals appearing farther apart in the series. The
thermo-electric series of metals is :

Bi, Ni, Pd, Pt, Cu, Mn, Hg, Pb, Sn, Au, Ag, Zn, Cd, Fe, Sb.
The position of the metal in the series depends upon the temperature. The
thermoemf of any thermocouple has the temperature dependence given by the relation,

2
V=αθ+½βθ ,
where θ is the temperature difference between the junctions and
α and β are constants depending on the nature of the materials.

3.1.4Neutral and Inversion temperature

The graph showing the variation of
thermoemf with temperature of the hot
junction, taking the temperature of the
cold junction (θC) as origin is shown in Thermo
Fig 3.3. For small difference in emf
(mv)

temperature between the junctions, the

graph is a straight line. For large
difference in temperature, the graph is a
parabola. C n i
Temperature of hot junction
Fig 3.3 Graph showing the variation
Keeping the temperature of of thermo emf with temperature
the cold junction constant, the temperature of the hot junction is gradually increased.
The thermo emf rises to a maximum at a

92
temperature (θn) called neutral temperature and then gradually decreases and eventually
becomes zero at a particular temperature (θi) called temperature of inversion. Beyond
the temperature of inversion, the thermoemf changes sign and then increases.

For a given thermocouple, the neutral temperature is a constant, but the

temperature of inversion depends upon the temperature of cold junction. These
temperatures are related by the expression
θc + θ
i
2 = θn
3.1.5Peltier effect
In 1834, a French scientist Peltier discovered that when electric current is passed
through a circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, heat is evolved at one junction and
absorbed at the other junction. This is called Peltier effect. Peltier effect is the converse
of Seebeck effect.

Cu Cu

1 2 1 2
Cooled Heated Heated Cooled

Fe Fe
(a) (b)
Fig 3.4 Peltier effect
In a Cu-Fe thermocouple, at the junction 1 (Fig 3.4a) where the current flows
from Cu to Fe, heat is absorbed (so, it gets cooled) and at the junction 2 where the
current flows from Fe to Cu heat is liberated (so, it gets heated). When the direction of
the current is reversed (Fig 3.4b) junction 1 gets heated and the junction 2 gets cooled.
Hence Peltier effect is reversible.

Peltier Co-efficient (π)

The amount of heat energy absorbed or evolved at one of the junctions of a
thermocouple when one ampere current flows for one second (one coulomb) is called
Peltier coefficient. It is denoted by π. Its unit is volt. If H is the quantity of heat
absorbed or evolved at one junction then H = π It

The Peltier coefficient at a junction is the Peltier emf at that junction. The Peltier
coefficient depends on the pair of metals in contact and the temperature of the junction.

93
3.1.6 `Thomson effect
Thomson suggested that when a current flows through unequally heated
conductors, heat energy is absorbed or evolved throughout the body of the metal.

Heat Heat
evolved evolved

C C
A M N B A M N B

(a) Positive effect (b) Negative effect

Fig. 3.5 Thomson effect
Consider a copper bar AB heated in the middle at the point C and current
flowing as shown in Fig. 3.5a. When no current is flowing, the point M and N
equidistant from C are at the same temperature. When current is passed from A to B. N
shows higher temperature compared to M. Similarly, B will show higher temperature as
compared to A. It means from A to C heat is absorbed and from C to B heat is evolved.
This is known as positive Thomson effect. Similar effect is observed in the case of Sb,
Ag, Zn, Cd, etc. When the current is passed from B to A, M will show higher
temperature as compared to N.

In the case of Iron (fig. 3.5b), when it is heated at the point C and current is
flowing from A to B, M shows higher temperature as compared to N. It means from A
to C, heat is evolved and from C to B heat is absorbed. This is negative Thomson effect.
Similar effect is observed in the case of Pt, Bi, Co, Ni, Hg, etc.

If we take a bar of lead and heat it at the middle point C, the point M and N
equidistant from C show the same temperature when current is flowing from A to B or
from B to A. Therefore, in the case of lead, Thomson effect is nil. Due to this reason,
lead is used as one of the metals to form a thermo couple with other metals for the
purpose of drawing thermo electric diagrams.

94
Thomson coefficient (σ)
The amount of heat energy absorbed or evolved when one ampere current flows
for one second (one coulomb) in a metal between two points which differ in
o
temperature by 1 C is called Thomson coefficient. It is denoted by σ. Its unit is volt per
o
C.
3.1.7 Thermopile
Thermopile is a device used to detect thermal radiation. It works on the principle of
Seebeck effect.

Bi A

5
Sheild
4

Incident
radiation 3 G

1
B
Sb

Fig 3.6 Thermopile

Since a single thermocouple gives a very small emf, a large number of

thermocouples are connected in series. The ends are connected to a galvanometer G
(Fig. 3.6). One set of junctions (1,3,5) is blackened to absorb completely the thermal
radiation falling on it. The other set of junctions (2,4) called cold junction is shielded
from the radiation.
When thermal radiation falls on one set of junctions (1, 3, 5) a difference in
temperature between the junctions is created and a large thermo emf is produced. The
deflection in the galvanometer is proportional to the intensity of radiation.

3.2 Magnetic effect of current

In 1820, Danish Physicist, Hans Christian Oersted observed that current through
a wire caused a deflection in a nearby magnetic needle. This indicates that magnetic
field is associated with a current carrying conductor.

95
 I

Fig 3.7 Magnetic

field around a
straight conductor
carrying current

3.2.1Magnetic field around a straight conductor carrying current

A smooth cardboard with iron filings spread over it, is
fixed in a horizontal plane with the help
of a clamp. A straight wire passes through a hole made at the
centre of the cardboard (Fig 3.7).
A current is passed through the wire by
connecting its ends to a battery. When the cardboard is gently
tapped, it is found that the iron filings arrange themselves along
concentric circles. This clearly shows that magnetic field is
developed around a current carrying conductor.

To find the direction of the magnetic field, let us

imagine, a straight wire passes through the
plane of the paper and perpendicular to it. When a compass needle is placed, it comes to
rest in such a way that its axis is always tangential to a circular field around the
conductor. When the current is inwards (Fig 3.8a) the direction of the magnetic field
around the conductor looks clockwise.

N S
S N

S N N S

(a ) Current inwards (b) Current Outwards

Fig 3.8
 When the direction of the current is reversed, that it is outwards, (Fig 3.8b) the
direction of the magnetic pole of the compass needle also changes showing the reversal
of the direction of the magnetic field. Now, it is anticlockwise around the conductor.
This proves that the direction of the magnetic field also depends on the direction of the
current in the conductor. This is given by Maxwell’s rule.

Maxwells’s right hand cork screw rule

If a right handed cork screw is rotated to advance along the direction of the
current through a conductor, then the direction of rotation of the screw gives the
direction of the magnetic lines of force around the conductor.

96
 Fig 3.9 Magnetic field due to a circular loop
carrying current

3.2.2Magnetic field due to a circular loop carrying current

A cardboard is
fixed in a
horizontal plane.
A circular loop
of wire passes
through two holes
in the cardboard as
shown in Fig 3.9.
Iron filings are
sprinkled over the
cardboard. Current is
passed through the
loop and the card board
is gently
tapped. It is observed that the iron filings arrange themselves along the resultant
magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force are almost circular around the wire where it
passes through the cardboard. At the centre of the loop, the line of force is almost
straight and perpendicular to the plane of the circular loop.
which the magnetic field due to
3.3 Biot – Savart Law current in a conductor depends.

Biot and Savart conducted many

The results of the
experiments to determine the factors on
experiments are summarized as
Biot-Savart law.
 Let us consider a conductor XY
carrying a current I (Fig 3.10). AB = dl is a
small element of the conductor. P is a point
at a distance r from the mid point O of AB. Y
According to Biot and Savart, the magnetic
induction dB at P due to the element of d
l
f

length dl is n
o

io
t
c
e

B
r

dl di

A
O

r
I

P
X

Fig 3.10 Biot - Savart Law

97
 (i) directly proportional to the current (I)
(ii) directly proportional to the length of the element (dl )
(iii) directly proportional to the sine of the angle between dl and the line
joining element dl and the point P (sin θ)
(iv) inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the
1
point from the element ( r2 )

I dl sin θ
∴ dB α r2
I dl sin θ
dB = K r2 , K is the constant of proportionality
µ
The constant K = 4π where µ is the permeability of the medium.
µ I dl sin θ
dB = 4π r2
µ = µr µo where µr is the relative permeability of the medium and µ0 is the
–7
permeability of free space. µo = 4π × 10 henry/metre. For air

µr = 1.
µo I . dl sinθ
So, in air medium dB = 4π . r2
µo Idl × r µo Idl × r
In vector form, dB = or dB =
3 2
4π r 4π r
The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing current element Idl
and r (i.e plane of the paper) and acts inwards. The unit of magnetic induction is tesla
-2
(or) weber m .
3.3.1Magnetic induction due to infinitely long straight conductor carrying current

XY is an infinitely long straight conductor carrying a current I (Fig 3.11). P is a

point at a distance a from the conductor. AB is a small element of length dl. θ is the
angle between the current element I dl and the line joining the element dl and the point
P. According to Biot-Savart law, the magnetic induction at the point P due to the current
element Idl is

µo Idl.sinθ

dB = 4π r2 ...(1)
98
 AC is drawn perpendicular to BP from A. Y
OPA = φ, APB = dφ
B
AC AC dl C
In ∆ ABC, sin θ = AB = dl A
∴ AC = dl sin θ ...(2) r 2
From ∆ APC, AC = rdφ ...(3) a
O P
From equations (2) and (3), rdφ=dl sinθ ...(4)
1
substituting equation (4) in equation (1)
I
µo I rdφ µo I dφ
dB = 4π r2 = 4π r ...(5)
a
In ∆ OPA, cos φ = r
a X
∴ r = cos φ ...(6) Fig 3.11 Straight
substituting equation (6) in equation (5) conductor
µo I
dB = 4π a cos φ dφ
The total magnetic induction at P due to the conductor XY is
φ2 φ2
µo I
4
B= ∫ dB = ∫ πa cos φ dφ
−φ1 −φ1

µo I
B= 4 πa [sin φ1 + sin φ2]
o
For infinitely long conductor, φ1 = φ2 = 90
∴ B=
µI
o 2
πa
If the conductor is placed in a medium of permeability µ,

µI
B=
2 πa
3.3.2Magnetic induction along the axis of a circular coil carrying current

Let us consider a circular coil of radius ‘a’ with a current I as shown in Fig 3.12.
P is a point along the axis of the coil at a distance x from the centre O of the coil.

99
 AB is an A dl B dB Cos
infinitesimally small element C R
r
of length dl. C is the mid a
point of AB and CP = r I P N
O x dB Sin

According to Biot M
– Savart law, the magnetic A/ B/ dB Cos
induction at P due to the Fig. 3.12 Circular coil
element dl is
µo I dl sin θ
dB = , where θ is the angle between Idl and r 4π r2
o
Here, θ = 90
∴ dB =
µ
o I dl 4π
r2
The direction of dB is perpendicular to the current element Idl and CP. It is
therefore along PR perpendicular to CP.
Considering the diametrically opposite element A′B′, the magnitude of dB at P
due to this element is the same as that for AB but its direction is along PM. Let the
angle between the axis of the coil and the line joining the element (dl) and the point (P)
be α.
dB is resolved into two components :- dB sin α along OP and dB cos α
perpendicular to OP. dB cos α components due to two opposite elements cancel each
other whereas dB sin α components get added up. So, the total magnetic induction at P
due to the entire coil is
µ µ
o Idl a o Ia
B = ∫ dB sin α = ∫ 4π r2 r = 4π r3 ∫ dl
µoIa
= 4π r3 2πa
µoIa2
3 2 2 2
= 2 22 (∵ r =a +x )
2(a +x )
If the coil contains n turns, the magnetic induction is
µonIa2
3
2 2
B = 2(a +x ) 2
At the centre of the coil, x = 0
B = µ 2anIo

100
3.3.3Tangent galvanometer
Tangent galvanometer is a
device used for measuring current. It
works on the principle of tangent law.
A magnetic needle suspended at a
point where there are two crossed
fields at right angles to each other will
come to rest in the direction of the
resultant of the two fields.

Construction
It consists of a circular coil of
wire wound over a non magnetic
frame of brass or wood. The vertical
frame is mounted on a horizontal
circular turn table provided with three
levelling screws. The vertical frame
Fig 3.13 Tangent galvanometer (This
can be rotated about its vertical diagram need not be drawn in the
diameter. examination)

There is a small upright projection at the centre of the turn table on which a compass
box is supported.
The compass box consists of a small pivoted magnet to which a thin long
aluminium pointer is fixed at right angles. The aluminium pointer can move over a
circular scale graduated in degrees. The scale consists of four quadrants. The compass
box is supported such that the centre of the pivoted magnetic needle coincides with the
centre of the coil. Since the magnetic field at the centre of the coil is uniform over a
very small area, a small magnetic needle is used so that it remains in an uniform field
even in deflected position. Usually the coil consists of three sections of 2,5 and 50 turns,
which are of different thickness, used for measuring currents of different strength.

Theory
When the plane of the coil is placed parallel to the horizontal component of
Earth’s magnetic induction (Bh) and a current is passed

101
through the coil, there will be two magnetic fields acting Bh

perpendicular to each other : (1) the magnetic induction

(B) due to the current in the coil acting normal to the N
plane of the coil and (2) the horizontal component of
B
Earth’s magnetic induction (Bh) (Fig 3.14).

S
Due to these two crossed fields, the pivoted
magnetic needle is deflected through an angle θ.
According to tangent Law, Fig 3.14 Tangent law

B = Bh tan θ ...(1)
If a current I passes through the coil of n turns and of radius a, the magnetic
induction at the centre of the coil is
µonI
B= 2a ...(2)
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1)
µonI
= Bh tan θ 2a
2aBh

∴I= µon tan θ

I = K tan θ ...(3)
2aBh
where K = µon is called the reduction factor of the tangent
galvanometer. It is a constant at a place. Using this equation, current in the circuit can
be determined.
0
Since the tangent galvanometer is most sensitive at a deflection of 45 , the
0 0
deflection has to be adjusted to be between 30 and 60 .
3.4 Ampere’s Circuital Law
Biot – Savart law expressed in an alternative way is called Ampere’s circuital
law.
The magnetic induction due to an infinitely long straight current carrying
conductor is

B =
µI
o

2πa
B (2πa) = µoI
B (2πa) is the product of the magnetic field and the circumference of the circle
of radius ‘a’ on which the magnetic field is constant. If L

102
is the perimeter of the closed curve and I o is the net current enclosed by the closed
curve, then the above equation may be expressed as,

BL = µoIo ....(1)
In a more generalized way, Ampere’s circuital law is written as
→→
∫ B. dl = µoIo ....(2)
The line integral does not depend on the shape of the path or the position of the
wire within the magnetic field. If the current in the wire is in the opposite direction, the
integral would have the opposite sign. If the closed path does not encircle the wire (if a
wire lies outside the path), the line integral of the field of that wire is zero. Although
derived for the case of a number of long straight parallel conductors, the law is true for
conductors and paths of any shape. Ampere’s circuital law is hence defined using
equation (1) as follows :

→→
The line integral ∫ B. dl for a closed curve is equal to µo times
the net current Io through the area bounded by the curve.
3.4.1 Solenoid
A long closely wound helical P
coil is called a solenoid. Fig 3.15
shows a section of stretched out
solenoid. The magnetic field due to
the solenoid is the vector sum of the
magnetic fields due to current
through individual turns of the
solenoid. The magnetic fields
associated with each single turn are Fig 3.15 Magnetic field due to a
almost concentric circles and hence current carrying solenoid.
tend to cancel between the turns. At the interior mid point, the field is strong and along
the axis of the solenoid (i.e) the field is parallel to the axis. For a point such as P, the
field due to the upper part of the solenoid turns tend to cancel the field due to the lower
part of the solenoid turns, acting in opposite directions. Hence the field outside the
solenoid is nearly zero. The direction of the magnetic field due to circular closed loops
(solenoid) is given by right hand palm-rule.

103
Right hand palm rule
The coil is held in the right hand so that the fingers point in
the direction of the current in the windings. The extended thumb,
points in the direction of the magnetic field.

3.4.2 Magnetic induction due to a long solenoid carrying current.

Let us consider an infinitely long solenoid having n turns per

unit length carrying a current of I. For such an ideal solenoid
(whose length is very large compared to its radius), the magnetic Fig 3.16 Right
field at points outside the solenoid is zero. hand palm rule

A long solenoid
d c
appears like a long
cylindrical metal sheet (Fig
3.17). The upper view of dots
a b
l is like a uniform current
sheet coming out of the
plane of the paper. The lower
Fig 3.17 Magnetic field due row of crosses is like a
to a long solenoid. uniform current sheet going
into the plane of the paper.
To find the magnetic induction (B) at a point inside the solenoid, let us
→→
consider a rectangular Amperean loop abcd. The line integral ∫ B. dl
for the loop abcd is the sum of four integrals.

→→ b →→ c →→ d →→ a →→
∴ ∫ B. dl = ∫ B. dl + ∫ B. dl + ∫ B. dl + ∫ B. dl
a b c d

If l is the length of the loop, the first integral on the right side
→
is Bl. The second and fourth integrals are equal to zero because B is
→
at right angles for every element dl along the path. The third integral is zero since the
magnetic field at points outside the solenoid is zero.
→→
∴∫ B. dl = Bl ...(1)
Since the path of integration includes nl turns, the net current enclosed by the
closed loop is

104
 Io = Inl ...(2)
Ampere’s circuital law for a closed loop is
→→
∫ B. dl = µoIo ...(3)
Substituting equations (1) and (2) in equation (3)
Bl = µo Inl
∴ B = µonI ...(4)
The solenoid is commonly used to obtain uniform magnetic field. By inserting a
soft iron core inside the solenoid, a large magnetic field is produced

B = µnI = µo µrnI ...(5)

when a current carrying solenoid is freely suspended, it comes to rest like a suspended
bar magnet pointing along north-south. The magnetic polarity of the current carrying
solenoid is given by End rule.
End rule
When looked
from one end, if the S N N S
current through the (a) (b)
Fig 3.18 End rule
solenoid is along
clockwise direction Fig 3.18a, the nearer end corresponds to south pole and the other
end is north pole.
When looked from one end, if the current through the solenoid is along anti-
clock wise direction, the nearer end corresponds to north pole and the other end is south
pole (Fig 3.18b)
3.5 Magnetic Lorentz force
Z Z

v v

B B

θ θ
+q -q
O v sin θ Y O v sin θ Y
F F

X (a) X (b)
Fig 3.19 Lorentz force

105
 Let us consider a uniform magnetic field of induction B acting along the Z-axis.
A particle of charge + q moves with a velocity v in YZ plane making an angle θ with
the direction of the field (Fig 3.19a). Under the influence of the field, the particle
experiences a force F.
H.A.Lorentz formulated the special features of the force F (Magnetic lorentz
force) as under :
(i) the force F on the charge is zero, if the charge is at rest. (i.e) the moving
charges alone are affected by the magnetic field.
(ii) the force is zero, if the direction of motion of the charge is either parallel or
anti-parallel to the field and the force is maximum, when the charge moves
perpendicular to the field.
(iii) the force is proportional to the magnitude of the charge (q)
(iv) the force is proportional to the magnetic induction (B)
(v) the force is proportional to the speed of the charge (v)
(vi) the direction of the force is oppositely directed for charges of opposite sign
(Fig 3.19b).
All these results are combined in a single expression as
→ → →
F = q ( v × B)
The magnitude of the force is
F = Bqv sin θ
Since the force always acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
charge, the force does not do any work.
In the presence of an electric field E and magnetic field B, the total force on a
moving charged particle is
→ → → →
F = q [(v × B) + E]
3.5.1 Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field.
Let us consider a uniform magnetic field of induction B acting along the Z-axis.
A particle of charge q and mass m moves in XY plane.
At a point P, the velocity of the particle is v. (Fig 3.20)
→ → →
The magnetic lorentz force on the particle is F = q ( v × B). Hence
→ → →
F acts along PO perpendicular to the plane containing v and B.
Since the force acts perpendicular to its velocity, the force does not do any work. So,
the magnitude of the velocity remains constant and only

106
its direction changes. The force F acting Z
towards the point O acts as the centripetal
force and makes the particle to move along B
a circular path. At points Q and R, the
B
particle experiences force along QO and Bv
R
RO respectively.
Q
O F v
→ → F
B Y
Since v and B are at right angles to F
each other P
X v
0
F = Bqv sin 90 = Bqv
Fig 3.20 Motion of a
This magnetic lorentz force charged particle
provides the necessary centripetal force.

2
Bqv = mv
r
mv
r = ...(1)
Bq
It is evident from this equation, that the radius of the circular path is proportional
to (i) mass of the particle and (ii) velocity of the particle

v Bq
From equation (1), r = m
Bq
ω= m ...(2)
This equation gives the angular frequency of the particle inside the magnetic
field.
Period of rotation of the particle,
2π
T= ω
2π m
T= ...(3)
Bq
From equations (2) and (3), it is evident that the angular frequency and period of
rotation of the particle in the magnetic field do not depend upon (i) the velocity of the
particle and (ii) radius of the circular path.

107
3.5.2 Cyclotron
Cyclotron is a device used to accelerate charged particles to high energies. It was
devised by Lawrence.
Principle
Cyclotron works on the principle that a charged particle moving normal to a
magnetic field experiences magnetic lorentz force due to which the particle moves in a
circular path.
Construction
D.P
It consists of a hollow metal cylinder
divided into two sections D1 and D2 called Dees, T
enclosed in an evacuated chamber (Fig 3.21). The
Dees are kept separated and a source of ions is
S
placed at the centre in the gap between the Dees.
They are placed between the pole

pieces of a strong electromagnet. The magnetic D1 D2

field acts perpendicular to the plane of the Dees.
The Dees are connected to a high frequency S
oscillator.
Fig 3.21 Cyclotron

Working
When a positive ion of charge q and mass m is emitted from the source, it is
accelerated towards the Dee having a negative potential at that instant of time. Due to
the normal magnetic field, the ion experiences magnetic lorentz force and moves in a
circular path. By the time the ion arrives at the gap between the Dees, the polarity of the
Dees gets reversed. Hence the particle is once again accelerated and moves into the
other Dee with a greater velocity along a circle of greater radius. Thus the particle
moves in a spiral path of increasing radius and when it comes near the edge, it is taken
out with the help of a deflector plate (D.P). The particle with high energy is now
allowed to hit the target T.

When the particle moves along a circle of radius r with a velocity v, the magnetic
Lorentz force provides the necessary centripetal force.

108
 mv 2
Bqv =
r

∴ v = Bq = constant ...(1)
r m
The time taken to describe a semi-circle
πr
t= v …(2)
Substituting equation (1) in (2),
πm
t = Bq …(3)
It is clear from equation (3) that the time taken by the ion to describe a semi-
circle is independent of
(i) the radius (r) of the path and (ii) the velocity (v) of the particle Hence, period
of rotation T = 2t

2π m
∴ T= = constant ...(4)
Bq
So, in a uniform magnetic field, the ion traverses all the circles in exactly the
same time. The frequency of rotation of the particle,

1 Bq
υ= T = 2π m …(5)
If the high frequency oscillator is adjusted to produce oscillations of frequency
as given in equation (5), resonance occurs.
Cyclotron is used to accelerate protons, deutrons and
α - particles.

Limitations
(i) Maintaining a uniform magnetic field over a large area of the Dees is
difficult.
(ii) At high velocities, relativistic variation of mass of the particle upsets the
resonance condition.
(iii) At high frequencies, relativistic variation of mass of the electron is
appreciable and hence electrons cannot be accelerated by cyclotron.

109
3.6 Force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.

Z
Let us consider a conductor PQ
of length l and area of cross section A.
The conductor is placed in a uniform
B
magnetic field of induction B making
an angle θ with the field [Fig 3.22]. A I
current I flows along PQ. Hence, the Q
electrons are drifted along QP with
Y
drift velocity vd. If n is the number of vd l
free electrons per unit volume in the
conductor, then the current is
I = nAvde P
Multiplying both sides by the length l Fig 3.22 Force on a current carrying
of the conductor, conductor placed in a magnetic field

∴ Il = nAvdel.
Therefore the current element,
→ →
Il = –nAvdel ...(1)
The negative sign in the equation indicates that the direction of current is
opposite to the direction of drift velocity of the electrons.
Since the electrons move under the influence of magnetic field, the magnetic
lorentz force on a moving electron.
→→ →
f = –e (vd × B) …(2)
The negative sign indicates that the charge of the electron is negative.

The number of free electrons in the conductor

N = nAl ...(3)
The magnetic lorentz force on all the moving free electrons
→ →
F = Nf
Substituting equations (2) and (3) in the above equation
→ → →
F = nAl { –e (v × B) }
d
→ → →
F = –nAl e vd × B ...(4)

110
 Fig. 3.23 Force between two long
parallel current-carrying
conductors

Substituting equation (1) in equation (4)

→ → →
F = Il × B
 This total force on all the moving free electrons is the force on the current
carrying conductor placed in the magnetic field.
Magnitude of the force
The magnitude of the force is F = BIl sin θ
o
(i) If the conductor is placed along the direction of the magnetic field, θ = 0 ,
Therefore force F = 0.
(ii) If the conductor is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field,
o
θ = 90 , F = BIl. Therefore the conductor experiences maximum force.
Direction of force
The direction of the force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic
field is given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
The forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the left hand are stretched in
mutually perpendicular directions. If the forefinger points in the direction of the
magnetic field, the middle finger points in the direction of the current, then the thumb
points in the direction of the force on the conductor.

3.6.1 Force between two long parallel current-carrying conductors

AB and CD are two straight B D

very long parallel conductors placed
I1 I2 B1
in air at a distance a. They carry
I inwards
currents I1 and 2 respectively. F F
(Fig 3.23). The magnetic induction
due to current I1 in AB at a distance B2
a is outwards
a
µ o I1
B1 = 2πa ...(1)
This magnetic field acts A C
perpendicular to the plane of the
paper and inwards. The conductor
CD with current I2 is situated in this
magnetic field. Hence, force on a

segment of length l of CD due to magnetic field B1 is

111
 F = B1I2l substituting
equation (1)
µo I1 I2l
F= 2π a ...(2)
By Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, F acts towards left. Similarly, the
magnetic induction due to current I2 flowing in CD at a distance a is
µo I 2
B2 = 2π a ...(3)
This magnetic field acts perpendicular to the plane of the paper and outwards.
The conductor AB with current I1, is situated in this field. Hence force on a segment of
length l of AB due to magnetic field
B2 is
F = B2I1l
substituting equation (3)
µo I1 I2l
∴F = …(4)
2π a
By Fleming’s left hand rule, this force acts towards right. These two forces given
in equations (2) and (4) attract each other. Hence, two parallel wires carrying currents in
the same direction attract each other and if they carry currents in the opposite direction,
repel each other.
Definition of ampere
The force between two parallel wires carrying currents on a segment of length l
is
µ I I
F= o 1 2 l

2π a
∴ Force per unit length of the conductor is
F µo I1 I2
l = 2π a
If I1 = I2 = 1A, a = 1m
F µo 1 × 1 4π × 10-7 -7 -1
l = 2π 1 = 2π = 2 × 10 Nm

The above conditions lead the following definition of ampere.

Ampere is defined as that constant current which when flowing through two
parallel infinitely long straight conductors of negligible cross section and placed in air
-7
or vacuum at a distance of one metre apart, experience a force of 2 × 10 newton per
unit length of the conductor.

112
3.7 Torque experienced by a current loop in a uniform magnetic field

Let us consider a rectangular loop PQRS of length l and breadth b (Fig 3.24). It
carries a current of I along PQRS. The loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field of
induction B. Let θ be the angle between the normal to the plane of the loop and the
direction of the magnetic field.

F
2 S

B F4

P n
F
B 4

I S

B
B R

F3 B P n
N

Q n
F
1 F3
Fig 3.24 Torque on a current loop Fig 3.25 Torque
placed in a magnetic field
→ →
Force on the arm QR, F1 = I(QR) × B
→
o
Since the angle between I(QR) and B is (90 – θ),
o
Magnitude of the force F1 = BIb sin (90 – θ)
ie. F1 = BIb cos θ
→ →
Force on the arm SP, F2 = I(SP) × B
→
o
θ
Since the angle between I(SP) and B is (90 + ), Magnitude of
the force F2 = BIb cos θ

The forces F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and have the
same line of action. Hence their resultant effect on the loop is zero.

→ →
Force on the arm PQ, F3 = I(PQ) × B
→
Since the angle between I(PQ) and B is 90o,

113
 o
Magnitude of the force F3 = BIl sin 90 = BIl
F3 acts perpendicular to the plane of the paper and outwards.
→ →
Force on the arm RS, F4 = I(RS) × B
→

Since the angle between I(RS) and B is 90o,

o
Magnitude of the force F4 = BIl sin 90 = BIl
F4 acts perpendicular to the plane of the paper and inwards.
The forces F3 and F4 are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and have
different lines of action. So, they constitute a couple.
Hence, Torque = BIl × PN = BIl × PS × sin θ (Fig 3.25)
= BIl × b sin θ = BIA sin θ If the
coil contains n turns, τ = nBIA sin θ
So, the torque is maximum when the coil is parallel to the magnetic field and
zero when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

3.7.1 Moving coil galvanometer

Moving coil galvanometer is a device used for measuring the current in a circuit.

Principle
Moving coil galvanometer works on the principle that a current carrying coil
placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque.
Construction
It consists of a rectangular coil of a large number of turns of thin insulated
copper wire wound over a light metallic frame (Fig 3.26). The coil is suspended
between the pole pieces of a horse-shoe magnet by a fine phosphor – bronze strip from
a movable torsion head. The lower end of the coil is connected to a hair spring (HS) of
phosphor bronze having only a few turns. The other end of the spring is connected to a
binding screw. A soft iron cylinder is placed symmetrically inside the coil. The
hemispherical magnetic poles produce a radial magnetic field in which the plane of the
coil is parallel to the magnetic field in all its positions (Fig 3.27).

114
 A small plane mirror (m) attached to the suspension wire is used along with a
lamp and scale arrangement to measure the deflection of the coil.

T
T1 2

P S

N S
Q R
s N S

Fig 3.26 Moving coil galvanometer Fig 3.27 Radial magnetic field
Theory
Let PQRS be a single turn of the coil (Fig 3.28). A current I flows through the
coil. In a radial magnetic field, the plane of the coil is always parallel to the magnetic
field. Hence the sides QR and SP are always parallel to the field. So, they do not
experience any force. The sides PQ and RS are always perpendicular to the field.

PQ = RS = l, length of the coil and PS = QR = b, breadth of the

coil
Force on PQ, F = BI (PQ) = BIl. According to Fleming’s left hand rule, this
force is normal to the plane of the coil and acts outwards.

P S

F F
I

B P S
F b

Q
R F

Torque on the coil

Fig 3.28 Fig 3.29

115
 Force on RS, F = BI (RS) = BIl.
This force is normal to the plane of the coil and acts inwards. These two equal,
oppositely directed parallel forces having different lines of action constitute a couple
and deflect the coil. If there are n turns in the coil,

moment of the deflecting couple = n BIl × b (Fig 3.29)

= nBIA
When the coil deflects, the suspension wire is twisted. On account of elasticity, a
restoring couple is set up in the wire. This couple is proportional to the twist. If θ is the
angular twist, then,
moment of the restoring couple = Cθ
where C is the restoring couple per unit twist
At equilibrium, deflecting couple = restoring couple nBIA = Cθ

C
∴ I = nBA θ

C
I = K θ where K = nBA is the galvanometer constant.

i.e I α θ. Since the deflection is directly proportional to the current flowing

through the coil, the scale is linear and is calibrated to give directly the value of the
current.
3.7.2 Pointer type moving coil galvanometer
The suspended coil galvanometers are very sensitive. They can measure current
-8
of the order of 10 ampere. Hence these galvanometers have to be carefully handled.
So, in the laboratory, for experiments like Wheatstone’s bridge, where sensitivity is not
required, pointer type galvanometers are used. In this type of galvanometer, the coil is
pivoted on ball bearings. A lighter aluminium pointer attached to the coil moves over a
scale when current is passed. The restoring couple is provided by a spring.

3.7.3 Current sensitivity of a galvanometer.

The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced
when unit current passes through the

116
galvanometer. A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if it produces large deflection for a
small current.
C
In a galvanometer, I = nBA θ
θ nBA
∴ Current sensitivity = …(1)
I C
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer can be increased by
(i) increasing the number of turns
(ii) increasing the magnetic induction
(iii) increasing the area of the coil
(iv) decreasing the couple per unit twist of the suspension wire. This explains
why phosphor-bronze wire is used as the suspension wire which has small couple per
unit twist.
3.7.4 Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer
The voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the
deflection per unit voltage.
θ = θ
∴Voltage sensitivity = nBA ...(2)
V IG CG
where G is the galvanometer resistance.
An interesting point to note is that, increasing the current sensitivity does not
necessarily, increase the voltage sensitivity. When the number of turns (n) is doubled,
current sensitivity is also doubled (equation 1). But increasing the number of turns
correspondingly increases the resistance (G). Hence voltage sensitivity remains
unchanged.

3.7.5 Conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter

A galvanometer is a device used to detect the flow of current in an electrical
circuit. Eventhough the deflection is directly proportional to the current, the
galvanometer scale is not marked in ampere. Being a very sensitive instrument, a large
current cannot be passed through the galvanometer, as it may damage the coil.
However, a galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance
in parallel with it. As a result, when large current flows in a circuit, only a small fraction
of the current passes through the galvanometer and the remaining larger portion of the
current passes through the low

117
 resistance. The low resistance
I Ig I connected in parallel with the
G
galvanometer is called shunt
resistance. The scale is marked
I-Ig
in ampere.
S
The value of shunt
resistance depends on the
fraction of the total current
Ammeter
Fig 3.30 Conversion of galvanometer required to be passed through
into an ammeter the galvanometer. Let I g be the
maximum current that can be
passed through the galvanometer. The current I g will give full scale deflection in the
galvanometer.
Galvanometer resistance = G
Shunt resistance = S
Current in the circuit = I
∴ Current through the shunt resistance = Is = (I–Ig)
Since the galvanometer and shunt resistance are parallel, potential is common.

∴ Ig . G = (I- Ig)S
Ig
S=G
I-Ig ...(1)
The shunt resistance is very small because Ig is only a fraction
of I.
The effective resistance of the ammeter Ra is (G in parallel with S)
1 1 1
R
a = G + S
GS
∴ Ra = G + S
Ra is very low and this explains why an ammeter should be connected in series.
When connected in series, the ammeter does not appreciably change the resistance and
current in the circuit. Hence an ideal ammeter is one which has zero resistance.

118
 R
G

Voltmeter
Fig 3.31 Conversion of
galvanometer into voltmeter

3.7.6 Conversion of galvanometer into a voltmeter

Voltmeter is an instrument
used to measure potential difference
between the two ends of a current
carrying conductor.
Ig
A galvanometer can be
converted into a voltmeter by connecting a
high resistance in series with it. The scale is
calibrated in volt. The value of the resistance

connected in series decides the range of the voltmeter.

Galvanometer resistance = G

The current required to produce full scale deflection in the galvanometer = Ig

Range of voltmeter = V
Resistance to be connected in series = R
Since R is connected in series with the galvanometer, the current through the
galvanometer,
V
I =
g R+G
V
∴ R = Ig – G
From the equation the resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer
is calculated.
The effective resistance of the voltmeter is
Rv = G + R
 Rv is very large, and hence a voltmeter is connected in parallel in a circuit as it
draws the least current from the circuit. In other words, the resistance of the voltmeter
should be very large compared to the resistance across which the voltmeter is connected
to measure the potential difference. Otherwise, the voltmeter will draw a large current
from the circuit and hence the current through the remaining part of the circuit
decreases. In such a case the potential difference measured by the voltmeter is very
much less than the actual potential difference. The error is eliminated only when the
voltmeter has a high resistance. An ideal voltmeter is one which has infinite resistance.

119
3.8 Current loop as a magnetic dipole
Ampere found that the distribution of magnetic lines of force around a finite
current carrying solenoid is similar to that produced by a bar magnet. This is evident
from the fact that a compass needle when moved around these two bodies show similar
deflections. After noting the close resemblance between these two, Ampere
demonstrated that a simple current loop behaves like a bar magnet and put forward that
all the magnetic phenomena is due to circulating electric current. This is Ampere’s
hypothesis.

The magnetic induction at a point along the axis of a circular coil carrying
current is
µonIa2
B= 3
2 (a 2 +x2 )
2

The direction of this magnetic field is along the axis and is given by right hand
2
rule. For points which are far away from the centre of the coil, x>>a, a is small and it
is neglected. Hence for such points,
µ nIa2
B= o

2x3
2
If we consider a circular loop, n = 1, its area A = πa

B= µ o IA ...(1)
∴ 3

2πx
The magnetic induction at a point along the axial line of a short bar magnet is

µo 2M
B = 4π . x3
µo M
B = 2π . x 3 ...(2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we find that
M = IA ...(3)
Hence a current loop is equivalent to a magnetic dipole of moment M = IA

The magnetic moment of a current loop is defined as the product of the current
and the loop area. Its direction is perpendicular to the plane of the loop.

120
3.9 The magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron
According to Neil Bohr’s atom model, the negatively charged electron is
revolving around a positively charged nucleus in a circular orbit of radius r. The
revolving electron in a closed path constitutes an electric current. The motion of the
electron in anticlockwise direction produces conventional current in clockwise
direction.
e

Current, i = T where T is the period of revolution of the electron.

2πr
T=
v
ev
∴ i= 2π r

Due to the orbital motion of the electron, there will be orbital magnetic moment µl
µl = i A, where A is the area of the orbit
2
µ = ev . πr
l 2π r
µ = evr
l 2
If m is the mass of the electron
e
µl= 2m (mvr)
mvr is the angular momentum (l) of the electron about the central nucleus.

e
µl = 2m l … (1)
µl e
l = 2m is called gyromagnetic ratio and is a constant. Its value
10 -1
is 8.8 × 10 C kg . Bohr hypothesised that the angular momentum has only discrete
set of values given by the equation.
nh
l= 2π ...(2) where n is a natural number
–34
and h is the Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10 Js.
substituting equation (2) in equation (1)

121
 e nh neh
µl = 2m . 2π = 4πm
The minimum value of magnetic moment is
eh
(µ ) = ,n=1
l min 4πm
eh
The value of 4 m is called Bohr magneton
π
By substituting the values of e, h and m, the value of Bohr magneton is found to
–24 2
be 9.27 × 10 Am
In addition to the magnetic moment due to its orbital motion, the electron
possesses magnetic moment due to its spin. Hence the resultant magnetic moment of an
electron is the vector sum of its orbital magnetic moment and its spin magnetic moment.

Solved problems
3.1 In a Joule’s calorimeter experiment, the temperature of a given quantity of water
o
increases by 5 C when current passes through the resistance coil for 30 minutes
and the potential difference across the coil is 6 volt. Find the rise in temperature
of water, if the current passes for 20 minutes and the potential difference across
the coil is 9 volt.

0
Data : V1 = 6V, t1 = 30 × 60 s, θ2 – θ1 = dθ = 5 C
′
V2 = 9V, t2 = 20 × 60 s, dθ = ?
V12
Solution : t1 = w dθ
R
V2
2
′
R t2 = w dθ
V 2 t2 dθ ′
V 2 t = dθ
2

1 1

V 2 2 t2
∴dθ′= ⋅ ⋅ dθ
V1 2 t1
2
= (9)× 20×60 × 5
2

(6) 30×60
o
∴ dθ′ = 7.5 C.

122
3.2 Calculate the resistance of the filament of a 100 W, 220 V electric bulb.

Data : P = 100 W, V = 220 V, R = ?

V2
Solution : P =
R
V2 (220)2

∴R= P = 100 = 484 Ω

3.3 A water heater is marked 1500 W, 220 V. If the voltage drops to
180 V, calculate the power consumed by the heater.
Data : P1 = 1500 W, V1 = 220 V, V2 = 180 V, P2 = ?
V2
1

Solution : (i) P1 = R
V12 (220)2
∴R= P1 = 1500 = 32.26Ω
V2 (180)2
2

∴ P2 = R = 32.26
∴ P2 = 1004 Watt
Aliter
V2 1
V2 2

P1 = R , P2 = R
PV2
∴ 1
= 1
P2
V2 2
V2 (180)2
2

∴ P2 = P1 × V1 2 = 1500 × (220)2
∴ P2 = 1004 Watt.
-6
3.4 A long straight wire carrying current produces a magnetic induction of 4 × 10 T
at a point, 15 cm from the wire. Calculate the current through the wire.

-6 -2
Data : B = 4 × 10 T, a=15 x 10 m, I=?
µo I
Solution : B =
2πa
−6
∴ I = B × 2π a = 4 × 10 × 2π × 15 ×10−2

µo4π ×10−7
∴ I = 3A

123
3.5 A circular coil of 200 turns and of radius 20 cm carries a current of 5A. Calculate
the magnetic induction at a point along its axis, at a distance three times the
-1
radius of the coil from its centre. Data : n = 200; a = 20cm = 2 × 10 m; I = 5A;
x = 3a; B = ?
µonIa2
Solution : B = 2(a 2 + x2 )3/2
µonIa2 µ o nIa 2 µonI
B= 2 2 3 /2 = 2 3 /2 =
2(a + 9a ) 2(10a ) a × 20 10
µonI 10 4π × 10 −7 × 200 × 5 × 10
B= a × 200 = 2 × 10 −1 × 200
-5
B = 9.9 x 10 T
3.6 A current of 4A flows through 5 turn coil of a tangent galvanometer having a
diameter of 30 cm. If the horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic induction is
-5
4 × 10 T, find the deflection produced in the coil

–1 –5 –1
Data : n = 5; I = 4A; d = 3 × 10 m; Bh = 4 × 10 T; a = 1.5 × 10
m; θ = ?
2aB
tanθ
Solution : I = µon
h

µonI 4π × 10−7 × 5 × 4
−1 −5
∴ tanθ = 2aBh = 2 × 1.5 × 10 × 4 ×10
tan θ = 2.093
o
∴ θ = 64 28′
0
3.7 In a tangent galvanometer, a current of 1A produces a deflection of 30 . Find the
0
current required to produce a deflection of 60 .
I 0 0
Data : 1 = 1A; θ1 = 30 ; θ2 = 60 ; I2 = ?

Solution : I1 = k tan θ1 ; I2 = k tan θ2

∴ I2 =tanθ2
I tanθ
1 1
o
tan60 1× 3
I 2 =I 1 × o = = 3 3 = 3A
tan30 1
3
I2 = 3A

124
3.8 A solenoid is 2m long and 3 cm in diameter. It has 5 layers of windings of 1000
turns each and carries a current of 5A. Find the magnetic induction at its centre
along its axis.
Data : l = 2m, N = 5 × 1000 turns, I = 5A, B = ?

N
Solution : B = µonI = µo .I
l

4π × 10 −7 × 5000 × 5
B=
2
-2
B = 1.57 x 10 T
5 -1
3.9 An α-particle moves with a speed of 5 × 10 ms at an angle of
o -4
30 with respect to a magnetic field of induction 10 T. Find the
force on the particle. [ α particle has a +ve charge of 2e]
-4 5 -1 0
Data : B = 10 T, q = 2e, v = 5 × 10 ms , θ = 30 , F = ?
Solution F = Bqv sin θ
o
= B(2e) v sin 30
-4 -19 5 1
=10 × 2 × 1.6 × 10 × 5 × 10 ×2
-18
F = 8 × 10 N
3.10 A stream of deutrons is projected with a velocity of
4 -1
10 ms in XY – plane. A uniform magnetic field of induction
-3
10 T acts along the Z-axis. Find the radius of the circular path
-27
of the particle. (Mass of deuteron is 3.32 × 10 kg and charge
-19
of deuteron is 1.6 x 10 C)
4 –1 –3 –27
Data : v = 10 ms , B = 10 T, m = 3.32 × 10 kg
-19
e = 1.6 x 10 C, r = ?
2
mv
Solution : Bev =
r

mv 3.32 ×10−27 ×104

−3 −19 –1
∴ r = Be = 10 ×1.6 ×10 = 2.08 × 10
r = 0.208m

125
 3.11 A uniform magnetic field of induction 0.5 T acts perpendicular to the plane of the
Dees of a cyclotron. Calculate the frequency
-27
of the oscillator to accelerate protons. (mass of proton = 1.67 × 10 kg)
-27 -19
Data : B = 0.5 T, m = 1.67 × 10 kg, q= 1.6 × 10 C, ν = ?
p
Bq
Solution: ν = 2πmp

0.5 × 1.6 ×10−19 7 6

= = 0.763 × 10 = 7.63 × 10 Hz
2 × 3.14 × 1.67 ×10−27
∴ ν = 7.63 MHz
3.12 A conductor of length 50 cm carrying a current of 5A is placed perpendicular to a
-3
magnetic field of induction 2 × 10 T. Find the force on the conductor.

-1 -3 o
Data : l = 50 cm = 5×10 m, I= 5A, B = 2×10 T; θ = 90 , F = ?
Solution: F = BIl sinθ
-3 -1 0
= 2 × 10 × 5 × 5 × 10 × sin 90
-3
∴ F = 5 × 10 N
3.13 Two parallel wires each of length 5m are placed at a distance of 10 cm apart in air.
They carry equal currents along the same direction and experience a mutually
-4
attractive force of 3.6 × 10 N. Find the current through the conductors.

Data : I1 = I2= I,
-1
l = 5m, a =10 m,
-4
F = 3.6×10 N, I = ?
µo I 1 I 2l
Solution: F =
2πa

2 ×10−7 I 2l
F =
a

2 F .a 3.6 ×10−4 ×10−1

∴I = = = 36
2 ×10−7l 2 ×10−7 ×5
∴ I = 6A

126
3.14 A, B and C are three parallel conductors each
of length 10 m, carrying currents as shown
in the figure. Find the magnitude and
F1 F2
direction of the resultant force on the
conductor B.
4A 5A

Solution : Between the wires A and B, 3A

force of attraction exists.
10 cm
F1 acts towards left 10 cm
−7 −7
2 ×10 I I l 2×10 × 3× 4×10
1 2

F1 = a = 10−1 A B C
-5
F 1 = 24 × 10 N

Between the wires B and C, force of attraction exists F2 acts

towards right
2 ×10−7 I I l 2×10−7 × 4× 5×10
1 2

F2 = a = 10−1
-5
F2 = 40 × 10 N
-5
F2 – F1 = 16 × 10 N
-5
The wire B is attracted towards C with a net force of 16 × 10 N.

3.15 A rectangular coil of area 20 cm × 10 cm with 100 turns of wire is suspended in a

-3
radial magnetic field of induction 5 × 10 T. If the galvanometer shows an
0
angular deflection of 15 for a current of 1mA, find the torsional constant of the
suspension wire.
-1 -1 2 -3
Data : n = 100, A = 20 cm × 10 cm = 2 × 10 × 10 m B = 5 × 10
0 -3
T, θ = 15 , I = 1mA = 10 A, C = ?
0 π π
Solution : θ = 15 = 180 × 15 = 12 rad

nBIA = Cθ

102 × 5 × 10-3 × 10-3 × 2 × 10-1 × 10-1

∴C= nBIA
=
θ π

-5 -1 12
C = 3.82 × 10 N m rad
127
3.16 A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 20 Ω produces full scale deflection for a
current of 50 mA. How you will convert the galvanometer into (i) an ammeter of
range 20 A and (ii) a voltmeter of range 120 V.

-3
Data : G = 20 Ω ; Ig = 50 x 10 A ; I = 20 A, S = ?
V = 120 V, R = ?

Ig 20 × 50 × 10-3 1
-3
Solution : (i) S = G . I-Ig = 20 - 50 × 10 = 20 - 0.05
S = 0.05 Ω
V
A shunt of 0.05 Ω should be connected in parallel (ii) R = I g –

G
120
= – 20 = 2400-20 = 2380 Ω
50 × 10-3
R = 2380 Ω
A resistance of 2380 Ω should be connected in series with the galvanometer.

3.17 The deflection in a galvanometer falls from 50 divisions to 10 divisions when 12 Ω

resistance is connected across the galvanometer. Calculate the galvanometer
resistance.
Data : θ1 = 50 divs, θg = 10 divs, S = 12Ω G = ?
Solution : I α θ1
Ig α θg
In a parallel circuit potential is common.
∴ G. Ig = S (I-Ig)

S (I - Ig ) 12 (50 - 10)
∴G= =
Ig 10
∴ G = 48 Ω
16
3.18 In a hydrogen atom electron moves in an orbit of radius 0.5 Å making 10
revolutions per second. Determine the magnetic moment associated with orbital
motion of the electron.

128
 -10 16 -1
Data : r = 0.5 Å = 0.5x10 m, n = 10 s
Solution :
Orbital magnetic moment µl = i.A ...(1)

e
i= T = e.n ...(2)
2
A = πr ...(3)
substituting equation (2), (3) in (1)
2
µl = e.n. πr
-19 16 -10 2
= 1.6 × 10 × 10 × 3.14 (0.5 × 10 )
-23
= 1.256 × 10
-23 2
∴ µl = 1.256 × 10 Am

Self evaluation
(The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples. In the same way
any question and problem could be framed from the text matter. Students must be prepared to
answer any question and problem
from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.)
3.1 Joule’s law of heating is
2
I 2
(a) H = R t (b) H = V Rt
2
(c) H = VIt (d) H = IR t
3.2 Nichrome wire is used as the heating element because it has
(a) low specific resistance (b) low melting point
(c) high specific resistance (d) high conductivity
3.3 Peltier coefficient at a junction of a thermocouple depends on
(a) the current in the thermocouple
(b) the time for which current flows
(c ) the temperature of the junction
(d) the charge that passes through the thermocouple
o
3.4 In a thermocouple, the temperature of the cold junction is 20 C, the
o
neutral temperature is 270 C. The temperature of inversion is
o o
(a) 520 C (b) 540 C
o o
(c) 500 C (d) 510 C

129
3.5 Which of the following equations represents Biot-savart law?
µo Idl → µo Idl sin θ
(a) dB = 4π r2 (b) dB = 4π r2
→ µo Idl × r → µo Idl × r
(c) dB = 4π r2 (d) dB = 4π r3
3.6 Magnetic induction due to an infinitely long straight conductor placed in a
medium of permeability µ is
µoI µoI
(a) 4π a (b) 2π a
µI µI
(c) 4π a (d) 2π a
o
3.7 In a tangent galvanometer, for a constant current, the deflection is 30 . The
0
plane of the coil is rotated through 90 . Now, for the same current, the
deflection will be
0 0
(a) 30 (b) 60
0 0
(c) 90 (d) 0
3.8 The period of revolution of a charged particle inside a cyclotron does not depend
on
(a) the magnetic induction (b) the charge of the particle
(c) the velocity of the particle (d) the mass of the particle
3.9 The torque on a rectangular coil placed in a uniform magnetic field is large,
when
(a) the number of turns is large
(b) the number of turns is less
(c) the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field
(d) the area of the coil is small
3.10 Phosphor – bronze wire is used for suspension in a moving coil galvanometer,
because it has
(a) high conductivity (b) high resistivity
(c) large couple per unit twist (d) small couple per unit twist 3.11 Of the
following devices, which has small resistance?
(a) moving coil galvanometer (b) ammeter of range 0 – 1A (c) ammeter of
range 0–10 A (d) voltmeter

130
3.12 A galvanometer of resistance G Ω is shunted with S Ω .The effective resistance of
the combination is Ra. Then, which of the following statements is true?

(a) G is less than S

(b) S is less than Ra but greater than G.
(c) Ra is less than both G and S
(d) S is less than both G and Ra
3.13 An ideal voltmeter has
(a) zero resistance
(b) finite resistance less than G but greater than Zero
(c) resistance greater than G but less than infinity
(d) infinite resistance
3.14 State Joule’s law
3.15 Explain Joule’s calorimeter experiment to verify Joule’s laws of heating.

3.16 Define Peltier coefficient

3.17 Define Thomson coefficient
3.18 State Biot – Savart law
3.19 Obtain an expression for the magnetic induction at a point due to an infinitely long
straight conductor carrying current.
3.20 Deduce the relation for the magnetic induction at a point along the axis of a
circular coil carrying current.
3.21 Explain in detail the principle, construction and theory of a tangent galvanometer.

3.22 What is Ampere’s circuital law?

3.23 Applying Amperes circuital law, find the magnetic induction due to a straight
solenoid.
3.24 Define ampere
3.25 Deduce an expression for the force on a current carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field.
3.26 Explain in detail the principle, construction and the theory of moving coil
galvanometer.

131
3.27 Explain how you will convert a galvanometer into (i) an ammeter and (ii) a
voltmeter.
Problems
o
3.28 In a thermocouple, the temperature of the cold junction is – 20 C and the
o
temperature of inversion is 600 C. If the temperature of the cold junction is
o
20 C, find the temperature of inversion.
3.29 Find the magnetic induction at a point, 10 cm from a long straight wire carrying a
current of 10A
3.30 A circular coil of radius 20 cm has 100 turns wire and it carries a current of 5A.
Find the magnetic induction at a point along its axis at a distance of 20 cm from
the centre of the coil.
3.31 Three tangent galvanometers have turns ratio of 2:3:5. When connected in series
o o o
in a circuit, they show deflections of 30 , 45 and 60 respectively. Find the
ratio of their radii.
3.32 A straight wire of length one metre and of resistance 2 Ω is connected across a
battery of emf 12V. The wire is placed normal to a magnetic field of induction 5
-3
× 10 T. Find the force on the wire.

3.33 A circular coil of 50 turns and radius 25 cm carries a current of 6A. It is

-3
suspended in a uniform magnetic field of induction 10 T. The normal to the
0
plane of the coil makes an angle of 60 with the field. Calculate the torque of the
coil.
3.34 A uniform magnetic field 0.5 T is applied normal to the plane of the Dees of a
Cyclotron. Calculate the period of the alternating potential
-27
to be applied to the Dees to accelerate deutrons (mass of deuteron = 3.3 × 10 kg
-19
and its charge = 1.6 × 10 C).
-4 2
3.35 A rectangular coil of 500 turns and of area 6 × 10 m is suspended inside a
-4
radial magnetic field of induction 10 T by a suspension wire of torsional
-10
constant 5 × 10 Nm per degree. calculate the current required to produce a
o
deflection of 10 .
3.36 Two straight infinitely long parallel wires carrying equal currents and placed at a
-5
distance of 20 cm apart in air experience a mutally attractive force of 4.9 × 10
N per unit length of the wire. Calculate the current.

3.37 A long solenoid of length 3m has 4000 turns. Find the current through the solenoid
if the magnetic field produced at the centre of the solenoid along its axis is 8 ×
-3
10 T.
132
3.38 A galvanometer has a resistance of 100 Ω. A shunt resistance 1 Ω is connected
across it. What part of the total current flows through the galvanometer?

3.39 A galvanometer has a resistance of 40 Ω. It shows full scale deflection for a

current of 2 mA. How you will convert the galvanometer into a voltmeter of
range 0 to 20V?
3.40 A galvanometer with 50 divisions on the scale requires a current sensitivity of 0.1
m A/division. The resistance of the galvanometer is 40 Ω. If a shunt resistance
0.1 Ω is connected across it, find the maximum value of the current that can be
measured using this ammeter.

Answers

3.1 (c) 3.2 (c) 3.3 (c) 3.4 (a) 3.5 (d)

3.6 (d) 3.7 (d) 3.8 (c) 3.9 (a) 3.10 (d)

3.11 (c) 3.12 (c) 3.13 (d)

o -5
3.28 560 C 3.29 2 × 10 T

-4
3.30 5.55 × 10 T 3.31 6 : 3√3 : 5

-2 -2
3.32 3 × 10 N 3.33 5.1 × 10 N m

-7
3.34 2.6 × 10 s 3.35 0.166 m A

3.36 7 A 3.37 4.77 A

3.38 1/101 3.39 9960 Ω in series

3.40 2 A

133
 4. Electromagnetic Induction and
Alternating Current

In the year 1820, Hans Christian Oersted demonstrated that a current carrying
conductor is associated with a magnetic field. Thereafter, attempts were made by many
to verify the reverse effect of producing an induced emf by the effect of magnetic field.

4.1 Electromagnetic induction

Michael Faraday demonstrated the reverse effect of Oersted experiment. He
explained the possibility of producing emf across the ends of a conductor when the
magnetic flux linked with the conductor changes. This was termed as electromagnetic
induction. The discovery of this phenomenon brought about a revolution in the field of
power
generation. ^
n
4.1.1Magnetic flux
The magnetic flux (φ) linked
with a surface held in a magnetic
field (B) is defined as the number
A
of magnetic lines of force crossing B
a closed area (A) (Fig 4.1). If θ is
the angle between the direction of
the field and normal to the area,
then
φ =
B.A Fig 4.1 Magnetic flux
φ = BA cos θ
4.1.2 Induced emf and current – Electromagnetic induction.
Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit an
emf is produced. This emf is known as the induced emf and the current that flows in the
closed circuit is called induced current. The phenomenon of producing an induced emf
due to the changes in the magnetic flux associated with a closed circuit is known as
electromagnetic induction.

134
 Faraday discovered the
electromagnetic induction by conducting
several experiments.
G
Fig 4.2 consists of a
C
cylindrical coil C made up of several turns of
insulated copper wire connected in series to a
sensitive galvanometer G. A strong bar magnet
NS with its north pole pointing towards the coil is N
moved

S
up and down. The following inferences were
made by Faraday. Fig 4.2 Electromagnetic
Induction
(i) Whenever there is a
relative motion between the coil and the magnet, the galvanometer shows deflection
indicating the flow of induced current.
(ii) The deflection is momentary. It lasts so long as there is relative
motion between the coil and the magnet.
(iii) The direction of the flow of current changes if the magnet is moved
towards and withdrawn from it.
(iv) The deflection is more when the magnet is moved faster, and less
when the magnet is moved slowly.
(v) However, on reversing the magnet (i.e) south pole pointing towards
the coil, same results are obtained, but current flows in the opposite direction.

1 2

C1 C2 Faraday
demonstrated the electro-
magnetic induction by
another experiment also.
G Fig 4.3 shows two
coils C1 and C2 placed
K close to each other.
()
Rh
Bt
Fig 4.3 Electromagnetic Induction The coil C1 is
connected to a battery Bt
through a key K and a rheostat. Coil C2 is connected to a
sensitive galvanometer G and kept close to C1. When the key
K is pressed, the galvanometer connected with the coil C2 shows a
135
sudden momentary deflection. This indicates that a current is induced in coil C 2. This is
because when the current in C1 increases from zero to a certain steady value, the
magnetic flux linked with the coil C1 increases. Hence, the magnetic flux linked with
the coil C2 also increases. This causes the deflection in the galvanometer.
On releasing K, the galvanometer shows deflection in the opposite direction.
This indicates that a current is again induced in the coil C 2. This is because when the
current in C1 decreases from maximum to zero value, the magnetic flux linked with the
coil C1 decreases. Hence, the magnetic flux linked with the coil C 2 also decreases. This
causes the deflection in the galvanometer in the opposite direction.

4.1.3 Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction

Based on his studies on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, Faraday
proposed the following two laws.
First law
Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an
emf is induced in the circuit. The induced emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic
flux continues.
Second law
The magnitude of emf induced in a closed circuit is directly proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.

Let φ1 be the magnetic flux linked with the coil initially and φ2 be the magnetic
flux linked with the coil after a time t. Then
φ2 − φ1
Rate of change of magnetic flux =
t
According to Faraday’s second law, the magnitude of induced
φ2 − φ1
emf is, e α . If dφ is the change in magnetic flux in a time dt,
t
dφ
then the above equation can be written as e α dt
4.1.4Lenz’s law
The Russian scientist H.F. Lenz in 1835 discovered a simple law giving the
direction of the induced current produced in a circuit. Lenz’s law states that the induced
current produced in a circuit always flows in such a direction that it opposes the change
or cause that produces it.

136
 G

Fig 4.4 Lenz’s law

If the coil has N number of turns and φ is the magnetic flux linked with each turn
of the coil then, the total magnetic flux linked
with the coil at any time is Nφ
d Ndφ N (φ2 − φ1 )
∴ e = – dt (Nφ) e = – dt = – t
Lenz’s law - a consequence of conservation of energy
Copper coils are wound on a cylindrical cardboard and
S
the two ends of the coil are connected to a sensitive
galvanometer. A magnet is moved towards the coil (Fig 4.4).
The upper face of the coil acquires north polarity. N

Consequently work has to be done to move

the magnet further against the force of repulsion.
When we withdraw the magnet away from the coil,
its upper face acquires south polarity. Now the
workdone is against the force of attraction. When
the magnet is moved, the number of magnetic lines
of force linking the coil changes, which causes an induced
current to flow through the coil. The direction of the induced
current, according to
Lenz’s law is always to oppose the motion of the magnet. The workdone in moving the
magnet is converted into electrical energy. This energy is dissipated as heat energy in
the coil. If on the contrary, the direction of the current were to help the motion of the
magnet, it would start moving faster increasing the change of magnetic flux linking the
coil. This results in the increase of induced current. Hence kinetic energy and electrical
energy would be produced without any external work being done, but this is impossible.
Therefore, the induced current always flows in such a direction to oppose the cause.
Thus it is proved that Lenz’s law is the consequence of conservation of energy.

4.1.5 Fleming’s right hand rule

The forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the right hand are held in the
three mutually perpendicular directions. If the forefinger points along the direction of
the magnetic field and the thumb is along the direction of motion of the conductor, then
the middle finger points in the direction of the induced current. This rule is also called
generator rule.

137
 K
()
Bt
Fig 4.5 Self Induction

4.2. Self Induction

The property of a coil which enables to
produce an opposing induced emf in it when the
current in the coil changes is called self induction.

A coil is connected in series with a battery

and a key (K) (Fig. 4.5). On pressing the key, the
current through the
coil increases to a maximum value and correspondingly the magnetic flux linked with
the coil also increases. An induced current flows through the coil which according to
Lenz’s law opposes the further growth of current in the coil.

On releasing the key, the current through the coil decreases to a zero value and
the magnetic flux linked with the coil also decreases. According to Lenz’s law, the
induced current will oppose the decay of current in the coil.

4.2.1 Coefficient of self induction

When a current I flows through a coil, the magnetic flux (φ) linked with the coil
is proportional to the current.
φ α I or φ = LI
where L is a constant of proportionality and is called coefficient of self induction
or self inductance.
If I = 1A, φ = L × 1, then L = φ Therefore, coefficient of self induction of a coil
is numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked with a coil when unit current flows
through it. According to laws of electromagnetic induction.

e=– d φ = − d ( LI ) or e = – L dI
dt dt dt
dI –1
If dt = 1 A s , then L = −e
 The coefficient of self induction of a coil is numerically equal to the opposing
emf induced in the coil when the rate of change of current through the coil is unity. The
unit of self inductance is henry (H).
One henry is defined as the self-inductance of a coil in which a change in current
of one ampere per second produces an opposing emf of one volt.

138
4.2.2 Self inductance of a long solenoid
Let us consider a solenoid of N turns with length l and area of cross section A. It
carries a current I. If B is the magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid, then

Magnetic flux per turn = B × area of each turn

µoNI
But, B = l

µo NIA
Magnetic flux per turn = l

Hence, the total magnetic flux (φ) linked with the solenoid is given by the
product of flux through each turn and the total number of turns.
µ NIA
φ = ol ×N

µo N2IA
i.e φ = ...(1)
l
If L is the coefficient of self induction of the solenoid, then

φ = LI ...(2)
From equations (1) and (2)
µ N2IA
LI = o

∴ L=
µ Ν2 Α
ο l

If the core is filled with a magnetic material of permeability µ,

µΝ 2 Α
then, L =
l
4.2.3 Energy associated with an inductor
Whenever current flows through a coil, the self−inductance opposes the growth
of the current. Hence, some work has to be done by external agencies in establishing the
current. If e is the induced emf then,

139
 dI
e=–L dt
The small amount of work dw done in a time interval dt is dw = e.I dt

dI
= −L dt I.dt

The total work done when the current increases from 0 to maximum value (Io) is
Io

w = ∫ dw = ∫ −L I dI
0

This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy in the coil.

∴ Energy stored in the coil
I

1 2
= −L ∫o IdI = – L Io
0 2
Negative sign is consequence of Lenz’s Law. Hence, quantitatively,
1 2
the energy stored in an inductor is 2 L Io 4.2.4
Mutual induction
Whenever there is a change in the
magnetic flux linked with a coil, there is G
also a change of flux linked with the
neighbouring coil, producing an induced S
emf in the second coil. This phenomenon of
producing an induced emf in a coil due to
the change in current in the other coil is P Cell
known as mutual induction. current

P and S are two coils placed close to + - ()

each other (Fig. 4.6). P is connected to a K

battery through a key K. S is connected to Fig 4.6 Mutual induction

a galvanometer G. On pressing K, current in P starts increasing from zero to a
maximum value. As the flow of current increases, the magnetic flux linked with P
increases. Therefore, magnetic flux linked with S also increases producing an induced
emf in S. Now, the galvanometer shows the deflection. According to Lenz’s law the
induced current in S would oppose the increase in current in P by flowing in

140
a direction opposite to the current in P, thus delaying the growth of current to the
maximum value. When the key ‘K’ is released, current starts decreasing from maximum
to zero value, consequently magnetic flux linked with P decreases. Therefore magnetic
flux linked with S also decreases and hence, an emf is induced in S. According to
Lenz’s law, the induced current in S flows in such a direction so as to oppose the
decrease in current in P thus prolonging the decay of current.

4.2.5 Coefficient of mutual induction

IP is the current in coil P and φs is the magnetic flux linked with coil S due to the
current in coil P.
∴ φs α IP or φs = M IP
where M is a constant of proportionality and is called the coefficient of mutual
induction or mutual inductance between the two coils.

IfIP = 1A, then, M = φs

Thus, coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal to the
magnetic flux linked with one coil when unit current flows through the neighbouring
coil. If es is the induced emf in the coil (S) at any instant of time, then from the laws of
electromagnetic induction,

e = − dφs =−d (MI ) = − M dIP

s dt dt P dt
es
dI
∴ M=– P

dt

dIP –1
If dt = 1 A s , then, M = −e s

Thus, the coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal to the
emf induced in one coil when the rate of change of current through the other coil is
unity. The unit of coefficient of mutual induction is henry.

One henry is defined as the coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of

coils when a change of current of one ampere per second in one coil produces an
induced emf of one volt in the other coil.
The coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of coils depends on the
following factors

141
 (i) Size and shape of the coils, number of turns and permeability of material on
which the coils are wound.
(ii) proximity of the coils
Two coils P and S have their axes perpendicular to each other (Fig. 4.7a). When
a current is passed through coil P, the magnetic flux linked with S is small and hence,
the coefficient of mutual induction between the two coils is small.

The two coils are placed in such a way that they have a common axis (Fig. 4.7b).
When current is passed through the coil P the magnetic flux linked with coil S is large
and hence, the coefficient of mutual induction between the two coils is large.

P P
P S

S
S

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 4.7 Mutual induction

If the two coils are wound on a soft iron core (Fig 4.7c) the mutual induction is
very large.
4.2.6 Mutual induction of two long solenoids.
S1 and S2 are two long solenoids each of length l. The solenoid S2 is wound
closely over the solenoid S1 (Fig 4.8).
N1 and N2 are the number of turns in the solenoids S1 and S2 respectively. Both
the solenoids are considered to have the same area
of cross section A as they are closely
S
1
wound together. I1 is the current flowing
through the solenoid S1. The magnetic S2

field B1 produced at any point inside the Fig 4.8 Mutual induction

between two long solenoids

solenoid S1 due to the current I1 is
B =µ NI I ...(1)
1 o l 1
The magnetic flux linked with each turn of S2 is equal to B1A.

142
 Total magnetic flux linked with solenoid S2 having N2 turns is
φ2 = B1AN2
Substituting for B1 from equation (1)
N
µ 1I A
φ2 = o 1 N2
l
µo N 1N 2 AI1
φ2 = l ...(2)
But φ2 = MI1 ...(3)
where M is the coefficient of mutual induction between S1 and S2.
From equations (2) and (3)
µo N 1N 2 AI1
MI1 = l
N A
µoN1 2
M =
l
If the core is filled with a magnetic material of permeability µ,
µN N A
M = 1l 2

4.3 Methods of producing induced emf

d φ
We know that the induced emf is given by the expression e = – dt = −
d
dt (NBA cos θ)
Hence, the induced emf can be produced by changing
(i) the magnetic induction (B)
(ii) area enclosed by the coil (A) and
(iii) the orientation of the coil (θ) with respect to the magnetic field.
4.3.1 Emf induced by changing the magnetic induction.
The magnetic induction can be changed by moving a magnet either towards or
away from a coil and thus an induced emf is produced in the coil.

The magnetic induction can also be changed in one coil by changing the current
in the neighbouring coil thus producing an induced emf.

dB
∴ e = – NA cos θ
dt

143
 4.3.2 Emf induced by changing the area enclosed by the coil

PQRS is a conductor bent in the shape as shown in the Fig 4.9. L1M1 is a sliding
conductor of length l resting on the arms PQ and RS. A uniform magnetic field ‘B’ acts
perpendicular to the plane of the conductor. The closed area of the conductor is
L1QRM1. When L1M1 is moved through a
B
distance dx in time dt,
the new area is
L2QRM2. Due to the Q L1 L2
change in area P
L2L1M1M2, there is a l

change in the flux

S
linked with the R M M 1 2
dx

conductor. Therefore,
an induced emf is
Fig 4.9 Emf induced by changing the area
produced.
Change in area dA = Area L2L1M1M2
∴ dA = l dx
Change in the magnetic flux, dφ = B.dA = Bl dx

dφ
But e=– dt

Bldx
∴ e=– = – Bl v
dt
where v is the velocity with which the sliding conductor is
moved.
4.3.3 Emf induced by changing the orientation of the coil
PQRS is a rectangular coil of N turns and area A placed in a uniform magnetic
field B (Fig 4.10). The coil is rotated with an angular velocity ω in the clockwise
direction about an axis perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. Suppose,
initially the coil is in vertical position, so that the angle between normal to the plane of
the coil and magnetic field is zero. After a time t, let θ (=ωt) be the angle through
which the coil is rotated. If
φ is the flux linked with the coil at this instant, then
φ = NBA cos θ

144
 The induced emf is,

d φ
Q R Q

d
e=– dt = −NBA dt cos (ωt) R
R Q

Q
Q R

∴ e = NBAω sin ωt ...(1) P S P

The maximum value of S S

N S P P P S S
the induced emf is, Eo = NABω

Hence, the induced emf e +E0

O _ ωt
3 2
can be represented as e = Eo sin 2
2
ωt -E0
The induced emf e varies Fig 4.10 Induced emf by changing the
sinusoidally with time t and the orientation of the coil
frequency
ω
being ν cycles per second ν = .
2π
(i) When ωt = 0, the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field B and hence e
= 0.

(ii) When ωt = π/2, the plane of the coil is parallel to B and hence e = Eo

(iii) When ωt = π, the plane of the coil is at right angle to B and hence e = 0.

(iv) When ωt = 3π/2, the plane of the coil is again parallel to B and the
induced emf is e = −Eo.
(v) When ωt = 2π, the plane of the coil is again perpendicular to B and hence
e = 0.
If the ends of the coil are connected to an external circuit through a resistance R,
current flows through the circuit, which is also sinusoidal in nature.

4.4 AC generator (Dynamo) – Single phase

The ac generator is a device used for converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The generator was originally designed by a Yugoslav scientist Nikola
Tesla.
Principle
It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction,

145
according to which an emf is induced in a coil when it is rotated in a uniform magnetic
field.
Essential parts of an AC generator
(i) Armature
Armature is a rectangular coil consisting of a large number of loops or turns of
insulated copper wire wound over a laminated soft iron core or ring. The soft iron core
not only increases the magnetic flux but also serves as a support for the coil

(ii) Field magnets

The necessary magnetic field is provided by permanent magnets in the case of
low power dynamos. For high power dynamos, field is provided by electro magnet.
Armature rotates between the magnetic poles such that the axis of rotation is
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
(iii) Slip rings

The ends of the armature coil are connected to two hollow metallic rings R 1 and
R2 called slip rings. These rings are fixed to a shaft, to which the armature is also fixed.
When the shaft rotates, the slip rings along with the armature also rotate.

(iv) Brushes
B1 and B2 are two flexible metallic plates or carbon brushes. They provide
contact with the slip rings by keeping themselves pressed against the ring. They are
used to pass on the current from the armature to the external power line through the slip
rings.
Working
Whenever, there is a change in
B C
orientation of the coil, the magnetic flux linked
with the coil changes, producing an induced
emf in the coil. The direction of the induced
current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
N S
A D
Suppose the armature ABCD is initially B R
To
in the vertical position. It is rotated in the
1 1

Power
anticlockwise direction. The side AB of the coil Line
B2 R2
moves downwards and the side DC moves
Fig 4.11 AC dynamo

146
upwards (Fig. 4.11). Then according to Flemings right hand rule the current induced in
arm AB flows from B to A and in CD it flows from D to C. Thus the current flows
along DCBA in the coil. In the external circuit the current flows from B1 to B2.

t On further rotation, the

ω
in
s

e=E0 arm AB of the coil moves

e upwards and DC moves
3 7__ downwards. Now the current in
2 3 2 4
_ 2 5__ ωt the coil flows along ABCD. In
2
2 the external circuit the current
flows from B2 to B1. As the
rotation of the coil continues,
Fig 4.12 emf varies sinusoidally the induced current in the
external circuit keeps changing
its direction for every half a rotation of the coil. Hence the induced current is alternating
in nature (Fig 4.12). As the armature completes
ν rotations in one second, alternating current of frequency ν cycles per second is
produced. The induced emf at any instant is given by e= Eo sin ωt

The peak value of the emf, Eo = NBAω

where N is the number of turns of the coil,

A is the area enclosed by the coil,
B is the magnetic field and
ω is the angular velocity of the coil
4.4.1 AC generator (Alternator) – Three phase
A single phase a.c. generator or alternator has only one armature winding. If a
number of armature windings are used in the alternator it is known as polyphase
alternator. It produces voltage waves equal to the number of windings or phases. Thus a
polyphase system consists of a numerous windings which are placed on the same axis
but displaced from one another by equal angle which depends on the number of phases.
Three phase alternators are widely preferred for transmitting large amount of power
with less cost and high efficiency.

147
Generation of three phase emf N

In a three – phase a.c. generator three coils are fastened

o
rigidly together and displaced from each other by 120 . It is
made to rotate about a fixed axis in a uniform magnetic field. c 2
Each coil is provided B a1 with a separate set of slip rings and b 2

brushes.

A
a
2
148
 Fig 4.14 Eddy current

4.5 Eddy currents

Foucault in the year 1895 observed that when a mass of metal moves in a
magnetic field or when the magnetic field through a stationary mass of metal is altered,
induced current is produced in the metal. This induced current flows in the metal in the
form of closed loops resembling ‘eddies’ or whirl pool. Hence this current is called
eddy current. The direction of the eddy current is given by Lenz’s law.

When a conductor in
the form of a disc
or a metallic plate as shown
in Fig 4.14, swings between
the poles of a magnet, eddy
S
currents are set up inside the N
plate. This current acts in a
direction so as to oppose the
motion of the conductor with a strong retarding force, that the conductor almost comes
to rest. If the metallic plate with holes drilled in it is made to swing inside the magnetic
field, the effect of eddy current is greatly reduced consequently the plate swings freely
inside the field. Eddy current can be minimised by using thin laminated sheets instead
of solid metal.

Applications of Eddy current

(i) Dead beat galvanometer
 When current is passed through a galvanometer, the coil oscillates about its
mean position before it comes to rest. To bring the coil to rest immediately, the coil is
wound on a metallic frame. Now, when the coil oscillates, eddy currents are set up in
the metallic frame, which opposes further oscillations of the coil. This inturn enables
the coil to attain its equilibrium position almost instantly. Since the oscillations of the
coil die out instantaneously, the galvanometer is called dead beat galvanometer.

(ii) Induction furnace

In an induction furnace, high temperature is produced by generating eddy
currents. The material to be melted is placed in a varying magnetic field of high
frequency. Hence a strong eddy current is developed inside the metal. Due to the
heating effect of the current, the metal melts.

149
(iii) Induction motors
Eddy currents are produced in a metallic cylinder called rotor, when it is placed
in a rotating magnetic field. The eddy current initially tries to decrease the relative
motion between the cylinder and the rotating magnetic field. As the magnetic field
continues to rotate, the metallic cylinder is set into rotation. These motors are used in
fans.
(iv) Electro magnetic brakes
A metallic drum is coupled to the wheels of a train. The drum rotates along with
the wheel when the train is in motion.When the brake is applied, a strong magnetic field
is developed and hence, eddy currents are produced in the drum which oppose the
motion of the drum. Hence, the train comes to rest.

(v) Speedometer
In a speedometer, a magnet rotates according to the speed of the vehicle. The
magnet rotates inside an aluminium cylinder (drum) which is held in position with the
help of hair springs. Eddy currents are produced in the drum due to the rotation of the
magnet and it opposes the motion of the rotating magnet. The drum inturn experiences a
torque and gets deflected through a certain angle depending on the speed of the vehicle.
A pointer attached to the drum moves over a calibrated scale which indicates the speed
of the vehicle.

4.6 Transformer
Transformer is an
Laminated
electrical device used for
Steel Core
converting low alternating
voltage into high alternating φ
voltage and vice versa. It
transfers electric power from
one circuit to another. The
transformer is based on Secondary
Primary Winding
the principle of electromagnetic Winding
Fig 4.15 Transformer
induction.
A transformer consists of primary and secondary coils insulated from each other,
wound on a soft iron core (Fig 4.15). To minimise eddy

150
currents a laminated iron core is used. The a.c. input is applied across the primary coil.
The continuously varying current in the primary coil produces a varying magnetic flux
in the primary coil, which in turn produces a varying magnetic flux in the secondary.
Hence, an induced emf is produced across the secondary.

Let EP and ES be the induced emf in the primary and secondary coils and N P
and NS be the number of turns in the primary and secondary coils respectively. Since
same flux links with the primary and secondary, the emf induced per turn of the two
coils must be the same

E
EP = s
(i.e) N N
P s

E s = Ns
or …(1)
EP Np
For an ideal transformer, input power = output power
Ep Ip = Es Is
where Ip and Is are currents in the primary and secondary coils.
Es IP
E I
(i.e.) P = s ...(2)
From equations (1) and (2)
E s Ns IP
E P =N p =IS = k
where k is called transformer ratio.
(for step up transformer k > 1 and
for step down transformer k < 1)
In a step up transformer Es > Ep implying that Is < Ip. Thus a step up transformer
increases the voltage by decreasing the current, which is in accordance with the law of
conservation of energy. Similarly a step down transformer decreases the voltage by
increasing the current.

Efficiency of a transformer
Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to the input
power.

151
 output power E s Is
η= input power = E P IP
The efficiency η = 1 (ie. 100%), only for an ideal transformer where there is no
power loss. But practically there are numerous factors leading to energy loss in a
transformer and hence the efficiency is always less than one.

Energy losses in a transformer

(1) Hysteresis loss
The repeated magnetisation and demagnetisation of the iron core caused by the
alternating input current, produces loss in energy called hysterisis loss. This loss can be
minimised by using a core with a material having the least hysterisis loss. Alloys like
mumetal and silicon steel are used to reduce hysterisis loss.

(2) Copper loss

The current flowing through the primary and secondary windings lead to Joule
heating effect. Hence some energy is lost in the form of heat. Thick wires with
considerably low resistance are used to minimise this loss.

(3) Eddy current loss (Iron loss)

The varying magnetic flux produces eddy current in the core. This leads to the
wastage of energy in the form of heat. This loss is minimised by using a laminated core
made of stelloy, an alloy of steel.
(4) Flux loss
The flux produced in the primary coil is not completely linked with the
secondary coil due to leakage. This results in the loss of energy. This loss can be
minimised by using a shell type core.
In addition to the above losses, due to the vibration of the core, sound is
produced, which causes a loss in the energy.

4.6.1 Long distance power transmission

The electric power generated in a power station situated in a remote place is
transmitted to different regions for domestic and industrial use. For long distance
transmission, power lines are made of

152
conducting material like aluminium. There is always some power loss associated with
these lines.

Line wire

Step-up Step-down
Generating Transformer Transformer City
Station Sub-Station
Fig 4.16 Distance transmission of power
If I is the current through the wire and R the resistance,
2
a considerable amount of electric power I R is dissipated as heat. Hence, the power at
the receiving end will be much lesser than the actual power generated. However, by
transmitting the electrical energy at a higher voltage, the power loss can be controlled as
is evident from the following two cases.

Case (i) A power of 11,000 W is transmitted at 220 V.

Power P = VI
P 11,000
∴ I= V = 220 = 50A
If R is the resistance of line wires,
2 2
Power loss = I R = 50 R = 2500(R) watts
Case (ii) 11,000 W power is transmitted at 22,000 V
P 11,000
∴ I = V = 22,000 = 0.5 A
2 2
Power loss = I R = (0.5) R = 0.25(R) watts
Hence it is evident that if power is trasmitted at a higher voltage the loss of
energy in the form of heat can be considerably reduced.
For transmitting electric power at 11,000 W at 220 V the current capacity of line
wires has to be 50 A and if transmission is done at 22,000 V, it is only 0.5 A. Thus, for
carrying larger current (50A) thick wires have to be used. This increases the cost of
transmission. To support these thick wires, stronger poles have to be erected which
further adds on to the cost. On the other hand if transmission is done at high voltages,
the wires required are of lower current carrying capacity. So thicker wires can be
replaced by thin wires, thus reducing the cost of transmission considerably.

153
 For example, 400MW power produced at 15,000 V in the power station at
Neyveli, is stepped up by a step-up transformer to 230,000 V before transmission. The
power is then transmitted through the transmission lines which forms a part of the grid.
The grid connects different parts of the country. Outside the city, the power is stepped
down to 110,000 V by a step-down transformer. Again the power is stepped down to
11,000 V by a transformer. Before distribution to the user, the power is stepped down to
230 V or 440 V depending upon the need of the user.

4.7 Alternating current

As we have seen earlier a rotating coil in a magnetic field, induces an alternating
emf and hence an alternating current. Since the emf induced in the coil varies in
magnitude and direction periodically, it is called an alternating emf. The significance of
an alternating emf is that it can be changed to lower or higher voltages conveniently and
efficiently using a transformer. Also the frequency of the induced emf can be altered by
changing the speed of the coil. This enables us to utilize the whole range of
electromagnetic spectrum for one purpose or the other. For example domestic power in
India is supplied at a frequency of 50 Hz. For transmission of audio and video signals,
the required frequency range of radio waves is between 100 KHz and 100 MHz. Thus
owing to its wide applicability most of the countries in the world use alternating current.

4.7.1 Measurement of AC
Since alternating current varies continuously with time, its average value over
one complete cycle is zero. Hence its effect is measured by rms value of a.c.

RMS value of a.c.

The rms value of alternating current is defined as that value of the steady current,
which when passed through a resistor for a given time, will generate the same amount
of heat as generated by an alternating current when passed through the same resistor for
the same time.
The rms value is also called effective value of an a.c. and is denoted by I rms or
Ieff.
when an alter-nating current i=Io sin ωt flows through a resistor of

154
resistance R, the
amount of heat produced in I02

the resistor in a small time dt

is +I 0

I
2 rms
dH = i R dt
0 t
The total amount of
heat produced in the -I0
resistance in one complete
2
cycle is Fig 4.17 Variation I, I and Irms with time

T
H= ∫i 2
R dt = ∫ ( I o 2 sin 2 ωt ) R dt
T

O O

T 1 − cos 2ωt ) I o 2R T T
=I 2R ∫ dt = ∫ dt − ∫ cos 2ωt .dt
o O 2 2 O 0

=
I o2R
t −
sin 2ωt T
=
Io
2
2
R
T
−
sin 4π
{ ∵T =
2π
}
2 2ω 0 2ω ω
H =
I
o

2
R
T
2

But this heat is also equal to the heat produced by rms value of AC in the same
resistor (R) and in the same time (T),
2
(i.e) H = I rms RT

∴ I2r
ms

RT
=
Io
2
R
T
2
I
o
I =
rms 2 = 0.707 I0
Similarly, it can be calculated that
Eo
E = .
rms 2
 Thus, the rms value of an a.c is 0.707 times the peak value of the a.c. In other
words it is 70.7 % of the peak value.

155
4.7.2 AC Circuit with resistor
Let an alternating source of emf be connected across a resistor of resistance R.

The instantaneous value of the applied emf is

e = Eo sin ωt ...(1)
e
R

e,i
O
2
e=E0 sin t
(a)
i
e
R
(c)
(b)
Fig 4.18 a.c. circuit with a resistor
If i is the current through the circuit at the instant t, the potential drop across R
is, e = i R
Potential drop must be equal to the applied emf.
Hence, iR = Eo sin ωt
E
i = Ro sin ωt ; i = Io sin ωt ...(2)

E
where Io = R0 , is the peak value of a.c in the circuit. Equation
(2) gives the instantaneous value of current in the circuit containing R. From the
expressions of voltage and current given by equations (1) and
(2) it is evident that in a resistive circuit, the applied voltage and current are in phase
with each other (Fig 4.18b).
Fig 4.18c is the phasor diagram representing the phase relationship between the
current and the voltage.
4.7.3 AC Circuit with an inductor
Let an alternating source of emf be applied to a pure inductor of inductance L.
The inductor has a negligible resistance and is wound on a laminated iron core. Due to
an alternating emf that is applied to the inductive coil, a self induced emf is generated
which opposes the applied voltage. (eg) Choke coil.

156
 The instantaneous value of applied emf is given by
e = Eo sin ωt ...(1)
di
Induced emf e′ = −L . dt
where L is the self inductance of the coil. In an ideal inductor
circuit induced emf is equal and opposite to the applied voltage.
Therefore e = −e′
di
E sin ωt = − −L
o dt
di
∴ Eo sin ωt =L dt
e=E0 sin t
(a) Eo
di = sin ωt dt
e L
Integrating both the sides

Eo
i = L ∫ sin ω t dt
e,i

O 2 t Eo cos ωt E o cos ωt
= − =–
L ω ωL
E π
o

i= ωL sin(ωt –2)
(b)
Fig 4.19 Pure inductive circuit π
i = I . sin (ωt – ) ...(2)
o 2
E
where Io = ω Lo . Here, ωL is the resistance offered by the coil. It is called

inductive reactance. Its unit is ohm .

From equations (1) and (2) it is clear that in an

eL
a.c. circuit containing a pure inductor the current i
lags behind the voltage e by the phase angle of π/2.
Conversely the voltage across L leads the current by
the phase angle of π/2. This fact is presented
graphically in Fig 4.19b.
i
Fig 4.19c represents the phasor diagram of a.c. Fig 4.19c
circuit containing only L. Phasor diagram

157
Inductive reactance
XL = ωL = 2πν L, where ν is the frequency of the a.c. supply For d.c. ν = 0;
∴ XL = 0
Thus a pure inductor offers zero resistance to d.c. But in an a.c.
circuit the reactance of the coil increases with increase in frequency.
4.7.4 AC Circuit with a capacitor
An alternating source of emf is connected across a capacitor of capacitance C
(Fig 4.20a). It is charged first in one direction and then in the other direction.

Y
e
i
e,i

i
C O
X

90º

e=E0 sin t Y/ ec
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 4.20 Capacitive circuit

The instantaneous value of the applied emf is given by

e = Eo sin ωt ...(1)
At any instant the potential difference across the capacitor will be equal to the
applied emf
∴ e = q/C, where q is the charge in the capacitor

dq d
But i= dt = dt (Ce)

d
i = dt (C Eo sin ωt) = ω CEo. cos ωt
E
ωt + π
o
sin

i=
(1/ωC ) 2
π
i=I sin ωt + ...(2)
o 2

158
 E
o

where I =
o (1/ωC)
1

ωC = XC is the resistance offered by the capacitor. It is called capacitive

reactance. Its unit is ohm .
From equations (1) and (2), it follows that in an a.c. circuit with a capacitor, the
current leads the voltage by a phase angle of π/2. In otherwords the emf lags behind the
current by a phase angle of π/2. This is represented graphically in Fig 4.20b.

Fig 4.20c represents the phasor diagram of a.c. circuit containing only C.
1 1
∴ XC = =
ωC 2π ν C
where ν is the frequency of the a.c. supply. In a d.c. circuit
ν =0
∴ XC = ∞
Thus a capacitor offers infinite resistance to d.c. For an a.c. the capacitive
reactance varies inversely as the frequency of a.c. and also inversely as the capacitance
of the capacitor.

4.7.5 Resistor, inductor and capacitor in series

Let an alternating source of emf e be connected to a series combination of a
resistor of resistance R, inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of capacitance C (Fig
4.21a).
VL
R L C
VL -VC B
V V
VR L C

I 90º φ V
O
e=E0 sin t 90º VR A I

Fig 4.21a RLC sereis circuit 4.21b voltage phasor

VC diagram
Let the current flowing through the circuit be I.
The voltage drop across the resistor is, VR = I R (This is in phase with I)

159
 The voltage across the inductor coil is VL = I XL (VL leads I
by π/2)

The voltage across the capacitor is, VC = IXC (VC lags

behind I by π/2)
The voltages across the different components are represented in the voltage
phasor diagram (Fig. 4.21b).
o
VL and VC are 180 out of phase with each other and the resultant of V L and
VC is (VL – VC), assuming the circuit to be predominantly inductive. The applied
voltage ‘V’ equals the vector sum of VR, VL and VC.
2 2 2
OB = OA + AB ; XL
2 2
V =V 2 + (V –V)
R L C B
R (L C ) XL-XC
V= V 2

+V −V 2

Z
XL-XC
φ
V = ( IR )2 − ( IX L − IXC )2 O R A

= I R 2 + ( X L − XC )2
XC
Fig 4.22 Impedance
V
=Z= R 2 + ( X L − XC )2 diagram
I

The expression R 2 + ( X L − XC )2 is the net effective opposition

offered by the combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor known as the impedance
of the circuit and is represented by Z. Its unit is ohm. The values are represented in the
impedance diagram (Fig 4.22).
Phase angle φ between the voltage and current is given by

VL −VC I XL − I XC
tan φ = =
VR IR
tan φ = X L − XC = net reactance
R resistance
X L − XC
–1
∴ φ = tan R
∴ Io sin (ωt + φ) is the instantaneous current flowing in the circuit.

160
Series resonance or voltage resonance in RLC circuit
The value of current at any instant in a series RLC circuit is given
by
I= V = V = V
Z R 2 + ( X L − XC )2 2 1 2
R + (ωL − ω )
C

At a particular value of the angular frequency, the inductive reactance and the
capacitive reactance will be equal to each other (i.e.)

1
ωL = ω C , so that the impedance becomes minimum and it is given by Z = R

i.e. I is in phase with V

The particular frequency νo at which the impedance of the circuit becomes
minimum and therefore the current becomes maximum is called Resonant frequency of
the circuit. Such a circuit which admits maximum current is called series resonant
circuit or acceptor circuit. Thus the maximum current through the circuit at resonance is

V
Io = R

Maximum current flows through the circuit, since the impedance of the circuit is
merely equal to the ohmic resistance of the circuit. i.e Z = R

1
ωL = ωC
1
ω = 2π νo = LC
1
ν =
o 2π LC
Acceptor circuit
The series resonant circuit is often called an ‘acceptor’ circuit. By offering
minimum impedance to current at the resonant frequency it is able to select or accept
most readily this particular frequency among many frequencies.

In radio receivers the resonant frequency of the circuit is tuned

161
to the frequency of the signal desired to be detected. This is usually done by varying the
capacitance of a capacitor.
Q-factor
The selectivity or sharpness of a resonant circuit is measured by the quality
factor or Q factor. In other words it refers to the sharpness of tuning at resonance.

The Q factor of a series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the voltage
across a coil or capacitor to the applied voltage.

voltage across L or C
Q= ...(1)
applied voltage

Voltage across L = I ωoL …(2)

where ωo is the angular frequency of the a.c. at resonance.
The applied voltage at resonance is the potential drop across R, because the
o
potential drop across L is equal to the drop across C and they are 180 out of phase.
Therefore they cancel out and only potential drop across R will exist.

Applied Voltage = IR ...(3)

Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equation (1)
I ωo
L ωoL
Q= =
IR R L 1
1 L 1 ∵ωo =
Q= LC R =R C LC
Q is just a number
having values between 10 to
Q-infinite
100 for normal frequencies. R-zero
Circuit with high Q values
Current I

would respond to a very Q-high

(R-low)
narrow frequency range and
vice versa. Thus a circuit with a high
Q value is sharply tuned while one Q-low
with a low Q has a flat resonance. (R-high)

Q-factor can be increased by having 0

Frequency
a coil of large inductance but of
Fig 4.23 variation of current with
small ohmic resistance.
frequency

162
 Current frequency curve is quite flat for large values of resistance and becomes
more sharp as the value of resistance decreases. The curve shown in Fig 4.23 is also
called the frequency response curve.

4.7.6 Power in an ac circuit

In an a.c circuit the current and emf vary continuously with time. Therefore
power at a given instant of time is calculated and then its mean is taken over a complete
cycle. Thus, we define instantaneous power of an a.c. circuit as the product of the
instantaneous emf and the instantaneous current flowing through it.

The instantaneous value of emf and current is given by

e = Eo sin ωt
i = Io sin (ωt + φ)
where φ is the phase difference between the emf and current in an a.c circuit

The average power consumed over one complete cycle is

T
∫ ie dt T

P = 0 = ∫ [ I o sin(ω t + φ )E o sinωt ]dt .

av T 0

∫ dt T
0
On simplification, we obtain

P = E o Io
av 2 cos φ
Eo Io
P = . .cosφ = E rms Irms cosφ
av 2 2
Pav = apparent power × power factor
where Apparent power = Erms Irms and power factor = cos φ
The average power of an ac circuit is also called the true power of the circuit.

Choke coil
A choke coil is an inductance coil of very small resistance used for controlling
current in an a.c. circuit. If a resistance is used to control current, there is wastage of
power due to Joule heating effect in the resistance. On the other hand there is no
dissipation of power when a current flows through a pure inductor.

163
Construction
It consists of a large number of turns of
insulated copper wire wound over a soft iron
core. A laminated core is used to minimise eddy
current loss (Fig. 4.24). Fig 4.24 Choke coil
Working
The inductive reactance offered by the coil is given by
XL = ωL
In the case of an ideal inductor the current lags behind the emf
π
by a phase angle 2 .
∴ The average power consumed by the choke coil over a complete
cycle is
Pav = Erms Irms cos π/2 = 0
However in practice, a choke coil of inductance L possesses a small resistance r.
Hence it may be treated as a series combination of an inductor and small resistance r. In
that case the average power consumed by the choke coil over a complete cycle is

Pav = E rms Irms cos φ

r
P =E I
av rms rms r + ω 2 L2
2
...(1)
r
where r 2 + ω 2 L2 is the power factor. From equation (1) the
value of average power dissipated works out to be much smaller than the power loss
2
I R in a resistance R.

Fig.4.24a A.F Choke Fig.4.24b R.F. Choke

Chokes used in low frequency a.c. circuit have an iron core so that the
inductance may be high. These chokes are known as audio – frequency (A.F) chokes.
For radio frequencies, air chokes are used since a low inductance is sufficient. These are
called radio frequency (R. F) or high frequency (H.F) chokes and are used in wireless
receiver circuits (Fig. 4.24a and Fig. 4.24b).

Choke coils can be commonly seen in fluorescent tubes which work on

alternating currents.

164
 Solved problems
2
4.1 Magnetic field through a coil having 200 turns and cross sectional area 0.04 m
−2 −2
changes from 0.1 wb m to 0.04 wb m in 0.02 s Find the induced emf.
2 −2
Data : N = 200, A = 0.04 m , B1 = 0.1 wb m , B2 = 0.04
−2
wb m , t = 0.02 s, e = ?
dφ d
Solution : e = − dt = − dt (φ )
d dB (B 2 − B1)
e=− (NBA) = − NA . = − NA.
dt dt dt
−2 (0.04 − 0.1)
e = − 200 × 4 × 10 0.02
e = 24 V
−1
4.2 An aircraft having a wingspan of 20.48 m flies due north at a speed of 40 ms .
−5
If the vertical component of earth’s magnetic field at the place is 2 × 10 T,
Calculate the emf induced between the ends of the wings.
−1 −5
Data : l = 20.48 m; v = 40 ms ; B = 2 × 10 T; e = ?
Solution : e =−Blv
−5
= − 2 × 10 × 20.48 × 40 e = −
0.0164 volt
4.3 A solenoid of length 1 m and 0.05 m diameter has 500 turns. If a current of 2A
passes through the coil, calculate (i) the coefficient of self induction of the coil
and (ii) the magnetic flux linked with a the coil.

Data : l = 1 m; d = 0.05 m; r = 0.025 m; N = 500 ; I = 2A ;

(i) L = ? (ii) φ = ?
2 2 2
µoN A µoN πr
Solution : (i) L = =
l l
−7 2 2 2 −3
= 4π × 10 × (5 × 10 ) × 3.14(0.025) = 0.616 × 10
1
∴ L = 0.616 mH
(ii) Magnetic flux φ = LI
−3 −3
= 0.616 × 10 × 2 = 1.232 × 10
φ = 1.232 milli weber

165
4.4 Calculate the mutual inductance between two coils when a current of 4 A
changing to 8 A in 0.5 s in one coil, induces an emf of 50 mV in the other coil.

Data : I1 = 4A; I2 = 8A; dt = 0.5s;

−3
e = 50 mV = 50 × 10 V, M = ?
dI
Solution : e = − M . dt
−3 −3
∴ M=− e =− e = − 50 ×10 = − 6.25 × 10
8−4
dI I 2 − I1
0.5

dt dt
∴ M = 6.25 mH
2
4.5 An a.c. generator consists of a coil of 10,000 turns and of area 100 cm . The coil
−2
rotates at an angular speed of 140 rpm in a uniform magnetic field of 3.6 × 10
T. Find the maximum value of the emf induced.
2 2 –2 2
Data : N = 10,000 A = 10 cm = 10 m ,
140 −2
ν = 140 rpm = rps, B = 3.6 × 10 T E =?
60 o

4 −2 −2 7
= 10 × 10 × 3.6 × 10 ×2π× 3

Eo = 52.75 V
4.6 Write the equation of a 25 cycle current sine wave having rms value of 30 A.

Data : ν = 25 Hz, Irms = 30 A

Solution : i = Io sin ωt
=I
rms 2 sin 2πνt
i = 30 2 sin2π × 25 t
i = 42.42 sin 157 t
4.7 A capacitor of capacitance 2 µF is in an a.c. circuit of frequency 1000 Hz. If the
rms value of the applied emf is 10 V, find the effective current flowing in the
circuit.

166
 Data : C = 2µF, ν = 1000 Hz, Eeff = 10V

1 1
Solution : Xc = C ω = C × 2π v
1
X = = 79.6 Ω
c 2 × 10−6 × 2π ×103
E
eff 10
I =
rms XC = 7 9 .6
∴ Irms = 0.126 A
4.8 A coil is connected across 250 V, 50 Hz power supply and it draws a current of
2.5 A and consumes power of 400 W. Find the self inductance and power factor.

Data : Erms = 250 V. ν = 50 Hz; Irms = 2.5A; P = 400 W; L = ?, cos φ = ?

Solution : Power P = Erms Irms cos φ

P
E I
∴cos φ = rms rms

400
= 250 × 2.5
cos φ = 0.64
E
rms 250
I
Impedance Z = rms = 2.5 = 100 Ω
From the phasor diagram

XL
sin φ =
Z

2
∴ XL = Z . sin φ = Z (1 − cos φ )
2
= 100 √ [1 – (0.64) ]
∴ XL = 76.8 Ω

But XL = L ω = L 2 πν
X 76.8
∴ L= L = 2π v
2π × 50

∴ L = 0.244 H

167
4.9 A bulb connected to 50 V, DC consumes 20 w power. Then the bulb is connected
to a capacitor in an a.c. power supply of 250 V, 50 Hz. Find the value of the
capacitor required so that the bulb draws the same amount of current.

Data : P = 20 W; V = 50 V; ν = 50 Hz; C= ?
Solution : P = VI
P 20
∴ I = V = 50 = 0.4 A
V 50
∴ Resistance, R = I = 0.4 = 125 Ω
V 250
Z XL
The impedence, Z = I = 0.4 = 625Ω φ
R
2
2 1 2 1 2
∴ Z= R + = R +
ωc 2πνC
1
Z2 = R 2 +
4π 2ν2C2
1

C = 2πν Z 2 − R2
1 1
2 2
= 2π × 50 (625) − (125) = 2π × 50 × 612.37
C = 5.198 µF
4.10 An AC voltage represented by e = 310 sin 314 t is connected in series to a 24 Ω
resistor, 0.1 H inductor and a 25 µF capacitor. Find the value of the peak voltage,
rms voltage, frequency, reactance of the circuit, impedance of the circuit and
phase angle of the current.

−6
Data : R = 24 Ω, L = 0.1 H, C = 25 × 10 F
Solution : e = 310 sin 314 t ... (1)
and e = Eo sin ωt ... (2)
comparing equations (1) & (2)
Eo = 310 V
E
o 310
E =
rms 2 = 2 = 219.2 V
168
 ωt = 314 t
2πν = 314
314

ν = 2 × 3.14 = 50 Hz
1 1
Reactance = XL – XC = L ω – Cω = L.2πv − C .2πv
1
= 0.1 × 2 π × 50 –
25 × 10−6 × 2π × 50
= 31.4 – 127.4 = −96 Ω
XL – XC = −96 Ω
∴ XC – XL = 96 Ω
2 2
Z = R + ( X C − XL )

2 2
= 24 + 96

= 576 + 9216
= 98.9 Ω

XC − XL
tan φ =
R
127.4 − 31.4
=
24

96
tan φ = 24 = 4
o
φ = 76
o
Predominance of capacitive reactance signify that current leads the emf by 76

169
 Self evaluation
(The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples. In the same way
any question and problem could be framed from the text matter. Students must be prepared to
answer any question and problem
from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.)

4.1 Electromagnetic induction is not used in

(a) transformer (b) room heater
(c) AC generator (d) choke coil
2
4.2 A coil of area of cross section 0.5 m with 10 turns is in a plane which is
2
pendendicular to an uniform magnetic field of 0.2 Wb/m . The flux though the
coil is
(a) 100 Wb (b) 10 Wb
(c) 1 Wb (d) zero
4.3 Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of
(a) conservation of charges (b) conservation of flux
(c) conservation of momentum (d) conservation of energy
4.4 The self−inductance of a straight conductor is
(a) zero (b) infinity
(c) very large (d) very small
4.5 The unit henry can also be written as
−1 −1
(a) Vs A (b) Wb A
(c) Ω s (d) all
4.6 An emf of 12 V is induced when the current in the coil changes at the rate of 40 A
–1
S . The coefficient of self induction of the coil is
(a) 0.3 H (b) 0.003 H
(c) 30 H (d) 4.8 H
4.7 A DC of 5A produces the same heating effect as an AC of
(a) 50 A rms current (b) 5 A peak current
(c) 5A rms current (d) none of these
4.8 Transformer works on
(a) AC only (b) DC only
(c) both AC and DC (d) AC more effectively than DC

170
4.9 The part of the AC generator that passes the current from the coil
to the external circuit is
(a) field magnet (b) split rings
(c) slip rings (d) brushes
4.10 In an AC circuit the applied emf e = E sin (ωt + π/ ) leads the
o 2
current I = I sin (ωt – π/ ) by
o 2
(a) π/2 (b) π/4
(c) π (d) 0
4.11 Which of the following cannot be stepped up in a transformer?
(a) input current (b) input voltage
(c) input power (d) all
4.12 The power loss is less in transmission lines when
(a) voltage is less but current is more
(b) both voltage and current are more
(c) voltage is more but current is less
(d) both voltage and current are less
4.13 Which of the following devices does not allow d.c. to pass through?
(a) resistor (b) capacitor
(c) inductor (d) all the above
4.14 In an ac circuit
(a) the average value of current is zero.
(b) the average value of square of current is zero.
(c) the average power dissipation is zero.
(d) the rms current is 2 time of peak current.
4.15 What is electromagnetic induction?
4.16 State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
4.17 Define self−inductance. Give its unit
4.18 Define the unit of self−inductance.
4.19 Define coefficient of mutual induction.
4.20 Give the practical application of self−induction.
4.21 State Fleming’s right hand rule.

171
4.22 Define rms value of a.c.
4.23 State the methods of producing induced emf.
4.24 What is a poly phase AC generator?
4.25 What is inductive reactance?
4.26 Define alternating current and give its expression.
4.27 What is capacitive reactance?
4.28 Mention the difference between a step up and step down transformer.

4.29 What is resonant frequency in LCR circuit?

4.30 Define power factor.
4.31 Why a d.c ammeter cannot read a.c?
4.32 Obtain an expression for the rms value of a.c.
4.33 Define quality factor.
4.34 A capacitor blocks d.c but allows a.c. Explain.
4.35 What happens to the value of current in RLC series circuit, if frequency of the
source is increased?
4.36 State Lenz’s law and illustrate through an experiment. Explain how it is in
accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
4.37 Differentiate between self−inductance and mutual inductance.
4.38 Obtain an expression for the self−inductance of a long solenoid.
4.39 Explain the mutual induction between two long solenoids. Obtain an expression
for the mutual inductance.
4.40 Explain how an emf can be induced by changing the area enclosed by the coil.

4.41 Discuss with theory the method of inducing emf in a coil by changing its
orientation with respect to the direction of the magnetic field.

4.42 What are eddy currents? Give their applications. How are they minimised?

4.43 Explain how power can be transmitted efficiently to long distance.

4.44 Obtain an expression for the current flowing in a circuit containing resistance only
to which alternating emf is applied. Find the phase relationship between voltage
and current.

172
4.45 Obtain an expression for the current in an ac circuit containing a pure inductance.
Find the phase relationship between voltage and current.

4.46 Obtain an expression for the current flowing in the circuit containing capacitance
only to which an alternating emf is applied. Find the phase relationship between
the current and voltage.
4.47 Derive an expression for the average power in an ac circuit.
4.48 Describe the principle, construction and working of a choke coil.
4.49 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a.c. over dc.
4.50 Describe the principle, construction and working of a single – phase a.c
generator.

4.51 Describe the principle, construction and working of three−phase a.c generator.

4.52 Explain the principle of transformer. Discuss its construction and working.

4.53 A source of altemating emf is connected to a series combination of a resistor R an

inductor L and a capacitor C. Obtain with the help of a vector diagram and
impedance diagram, an expression for
(i) the effective voltage (ii) the impedance (iii) the phase relationship between
the current and the voltage.
Problems
4.54 A coil of 100 turns and resistance 100 Ω is connected in series with a
galvanometer of resistance 100 Ω and the coil is placed in a magnetic field. If
–3 –4
the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes from 10 Wb to 2 × 10 Wb in a
time of 0.1 s, calculate the induced emf and current.

4.55 Two rails of a railway track insulated from each other and the ground are
connected to a millivoltmeter. The train runs at a speed of 180 Km/hr. Vertical
−4 2
component of earth’s magnetic field is 0.2 × 10 Wb/m and the rails are
separated by 1m. Find the reading of the voltmeter.

4.56 Air core solenoid having a diameter of 4 cm and length 60 cm is wound with 4000
turns. If a current of 5A flows in the solenoid, calculate the energy stored in the
solenoid.

173
4.57 An iron cylinder 5cm in diameter and 100cm long is wound with 3000 turns in a
single layer. The second layer of 100 turns of much finer wire is wound over the
first layer near its centre. Calculate the mutual inductance between the coils
(relative permeability of the core = 500).

4.58 A student connects a long air core coil of manganin wire to a 100V DC source and
records a current of 1.5A. When the same coil is connected across 100V, 50 Hz
a.c. source, the current reduces to 1 A. Calculate the value of reactance and
inductance of the coil.
4.59 An emf e = 100 sin 200 πt is connected to a circuit containing a capacitance of
0.1µF and resistance of 500 Ω in series. Find the power factor of the circuit.

4.60 The primary of a transformer has 400 turns while the secondary has 2000 turns. If
the power output from the secondary at 1100 V is 12.1 KW, calculate the
primary voltage. If the resistance of primary is 0.2 Ω and that of secondary is 2
Ω and the efficiency of the transformer is 90% calculate

(i) heat loss in the primary coil

(ii) heat loss in the secondary coil
4.61 A resistance of 50 Ω, an inductance of 0.5 H and a capacitance of 5 µF are
connected in series with an a.c. supply of e = 311 sin (314t). Find (i) frequency
of a.c. supply (ii) maximum voltage (iii) inductive reactance (iv) capacitive
reactance (v) impedance.

4.62 A radio can tune over the frequency range of a portion of broadcast band (800
KHz to 1200 KHz). If its LC circuit has an effective inductance of 200 µ H, what
must be the range of its variable capacitance?

4.63 A transformer has an efficiency of 80%. It is connected to a power input of at 4

KW and 100 V. If the secondary voltage is 240 V. Calculate the primary and
secondary currents.
4.64 An electric lamp which works at 80 volt and 10 A D.C. is connected to 100 V, 50
Hz alternating current. Calculate the inductance of the choke required so that
the bulb draws the same current of 10 A.

174
 Answers
4.1 (b) 4.2 (c) 4.3 (d) 4.4 (a) 4.5 (d)

4.6 (a) 4.7 (c) 4.8 (a) 4.9 (d) 4.10 (c)

4.11 (c) 4.12(c) 4.13 (b) 4.14 (a)

4.54 0.8 V and 4 mA 4.55 1 mV

4.56 0.52575 joule 4.57 0.37 H

4.58 74.54 Ω and 0.237 H 4.59 0.0314

4.60 220V, (i) 747 W (ii) 242 W

4.61 (i) 50 Hz (ii) 311 V (iii) 157 Ω (iv) 636.9 Ω (v) 482.5 Ω

4.62 87.9 pF to 198 pF

4.63 40 A, 13.3 A

4.64 0.019 H

175
 Nobel Laurate in Physics

Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman

KL., MA., Ph.D., D.Sc., L.L.D., F.R.S.

176
 Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was born at
Thiruchirapalli in Tamilnadu on 7th November, 1888. His father
Mr.R.Chandrasekara Iyer was a teacher. Venkata Raman had his
school education at Vizagapatnam, as his father worked as a
lecturer in Physics at that place. He completed his B.A., degree
with distinction in Presidency College, Chennai in 1904. Venkata
Raman continued his post-graduation in the same college and
passed the M.A., degree examination in January 1907 securing a
first class and obtaining record marks in his subjects.
Raman appeared for the finance examination in February
1907 and again secured the first place. He began his life as an
Assistant Accountant General in Calcutta in June 1907.
Eventhough, Raman worked as an officer in finance department,
he spent the morning and evening hours, out of office hours in
Physics laboratories. He converted a part of his house as a
laboratory and worked with improvised apparatus. Raman left
Government Service in July 1917 and joined as a Professor of
Physics in the University of Calcutta. The British Government
knighted him in 1929 as “Sir,” but he did not like the use of “Sir”
before his name.
The discovery of the Raman effect was not an accident, but
was the result of prolonged and patient research extending over a
period of nearly seven years. These researches began in the
summer of 1921. When, during the voyage made on the occasion
of his first visit to Europe, Raman’s attention was attracted to the
beautiful blue colour exhibited by the water of the deep sea. On
his return to India, he started a series of experimental and
theoretical studies on scattering of light by the molecules of
transparent media such as air, water or ice and quartz. The
experiment of Professor Raman revealed that the scattered light is
different from the incident light. This led to the discovery of a new
effect. For his investigation on the scattering of light and the
discovery of the effect known after him, Raman effect, Nobel Prize
was awarded to Raman on 10th December, 1930.
Sir. C.V. Raman joined the Indian Institute of Science and
Technology, Bangalore as its first Indian director in 1933. He
established a research laboratory known as Raman Institute in
1943. He continued his research, until death put a full stop to his
activities at the age of 82.

177
 5. Electromagnetic Waves and Wave optics

The phenomenon of Faraday’s electromagnetic induction concludes that a

changing magnetic field at a point with time produces an electric field at that point.
Maxwell in 1865, pointed out that there is a symmetry in nature (i.e) changing electric
field with time at a point produces a magnetic field at that point. It means that a change
in one field with time (either electric or magnetic) produces another field. This idea led
Maxwell to conclude that the variation in electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to
each other, produces electromagnetic disturbances in space. These disturbances have the
properties of a wave and propagate through space without any material medium. These
waves are called electromagnetic waves.

5.1.1 Electromagnetic waves

According to Maxwell, an accelerated charge is a source of electromagnetic
radiation.
In an electromagnetic wave, electric and magnetic field vectors are at right
angles to each
Y
other and both are at
B B
right angles to the E E
direction of propagation.
They possess the wave
X
character and propagate
through free space
E E
without any material Z B B
medium. These waves are
Fig 5.1 Electromagnetic waves.
transverse in nature.
→
Fig 5.1 shows the variation of electric field E along Y direction and
→
magnetic field B along Z direction and wave propagation in + X
direction.

178
5.1.2 Characteristics of electromagnetic waves
(i) Electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated charges.
(ii) They do not require any material medium for propagation.
→→
(iii) In an electromagnetic wave, the electric (E) and magnetic (B)
field vectors are at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation. Hence
electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
→ →
(iv) Variation of maxima and minima in both E and B occur simultaneously.

(v) They travel in vacuum or free 1 space with a velocity

8−1
3 × 10 m s given by the relation C = .
µ o εo
(µo – permeability of free space and εo - permittivity of free
space)
(vi) The energy in an electromagnetic wave is equally divided between electric
and magnetic field vectors.
(vii) The electromagnetic waves being chargeless, are not deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
5.1.3 Hertz experiment
The existence of electromagnetic waves was confirmed experimentally by Hertz
in 1888. This experiment is based on the fact that an oscillating electric charge radiates
electromagnetic waves. The energy of these waves is due to the kinetic energy of the
oscillating charge.

The experimental arrangement is as shown in Fig 5.2. It consists of two metal

plates A and B placed at a distance of 60 cm from each other. The metal plates are

connected to two polished metal spheres A

S1 and S2 by means of thick copper To Induction

wires. Using an induction coil a high Coil
S
1

potential difference is applied across the S2

small gap between the spheres.
Detector

B
Due to high potential difference
across S1 and S2, the Fig 5.2 Hertz experiment
air in the small gap between the spheres gets ionized and provides a path for the
discharge of the plates. A spark is produced between
179
S1 and S2 and electromagnetic waves of high frequency are radiated. Hertz was able to
7
produce electromagnetic waves of frequency about 5 × 10 Hz.

Here the plates A and B act as a capacitor having small capacitance value C and
the connecting wires provide low
inductance L. The high frequency oscillation of charges between the 1
plates is given by ν = π
2 LC
5.1.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum
After the demonstration of electromagnetic waves by Hertz, electromagnetic
waves in different regions of wavelength were produced by different ways of excitation.

Wavelength Frequency (Hz)

Gamma rays

1022
1021
1020
º X- rays
1019
1018
1A

1 nm
1017
Ultraviolet 1016
1 m
1015
1014
Visible light
Infrared
1013
1012
1011
1 cm Microwaves
1010
109
1m
TV. FM 108
Radio waves 107
1 km Standard broadcast 106
105
104
Long waves
103
Fig 5.3 Electromagnetic spectrum
180
 The orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves according to their wavelength
or frequency is called the electromagnetic spectrum.
Electromagnetic spectrum covers a wide range of wavelengths (or) frequencies.
The whole electromagnetic spectrum has been classified into different parts and sub
parts, in order of increasing wavelength and type of excitation. All electromagnetic
waves travel with the velocity of light. The physical properties of electromagnetic
waves are determined by their wavelength and not by their method of excitation. The
overlapping in certain parts of the spectrum shows that the particular wave can be
produced by different methods.

Table 5.1 shows various regions of electromagnetic spectrum with source,

wavelength and frequency ranges of different electromagnetic waves.

Table 5.1
(NOT FOR EXAMINATION)
Sl.No. Name Source Wavelength Frequency
range (m) range (Hz)
22 18
1. γ – rays Radioactive 10−14 − 10−10 3 × 10 – 3x 10
nuclei, nuclear
reactions
−10 −8 18 16
2. x − rays High energy 1 × 10 –3 × 10 3 × 10 – 1 × 10
electrons suddenly
stopped by a metal
target
3. Ultra−violet Atoms and
−10 −7 17 14
(UV) molecules in an 6 x 10 –4 × 10 5 x 10 – 8 × 10
electrical discharge
4. Visible light incandescent solids
−7 −7 14 14
Fluorescent 4 x 10 – 8 x 10 8 x 10 – 4 x 10
lamps
−7 −5 14 13
5. Infra−red (IR) molecules of 8 x 10 – 3x 10 4 x 10 – 1 × 10
hot bodies
−3 11 9
6. Microwaves Electronic 10 – 0.3 3 x 10 – 1 x 10
device
(Vacuum tube)
4 7 4
7. Radio charges 10−10 3 x 10 – 3 x 10
frequency accelerated through
waves conducting wires

181
5.1.5 Uses of electromagnetic spectrum
The following are some of the uses of electromagnetic waves.
1. Radio waves : These waves are used in radio and television communication
systems. AM band is from 530 kHz to 1710 kHz. Higher frequencies upto 54 MHz are
used for short waves bands.
Television waves range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz. FM band is from 88 MHz to
108 MHz. Cellular phones use radio waves in ultra high frequency (UHF) band.

2. Microwaves : Due to their short wavelengths, they are used in radar

communication system. Microwave ovens are an interesting domestic application of
these waves.
3. Infra red waves :
(i) Infrared lamps are used in physiotherapy.
(ii) Infrared photographs are used in weather forecasting.
(iii) As infrared radiations are not absorbed by air, thick fog, mist etc, they are
used to take photograph of long distance objects.
(iv) Infra red absorption spectrum is used to study the molecular structure.

4. Visible light : Visible light emitted or reflected from objects around us

provides information about the world. The wavelength range of visible light is 4000 Å
to 8000 Å.
5. Ultra−violet radiations
(i) They are used to destroy the bacteria and for sterilizing surgical instruments.

(ii) These radiations are used in detection of forged documents, finger prints in
forensic laboratories.
(iii) They are used to preserve the food items.
(iv) They help to find the structure of atoms.
6. X rays :
(i) X rays are used as a diagonistic tool in medicine.
(ii) It is used to study the crystal structure in solids.
7. γ−rays : Study of γ rays gives useful information about the nuclear structure
and it is used for treatment of cancer.

182
5.2 Types of spectra
When white light falls on a prism, placed in a spectrometer, the waves of
different wavelengths are deviated to different directions by the prism. The image
obtained in the field of view of the telescope consists of a number of coloured images of
the slit. Such an image is called a spectrum.

If the slit is illuminated with light from sodium vapour lamp, two images of the
slit are obtained in the yellow region of the spectrum. These images are the emission
o o
lines of sodium having wave lengths 5896A and 5890A . This is known as spectrum
of sodium.
The spectra obtained from different bodies can be classified into two types (i)
emission spectra and (ii) absorption spectra.
(i) Emission spectra
When the light emitted directly from a source is examined with a spectrometer,
the emission spectrum is obtained. Every source has its own characteristic emission
spectrum.
The emission spectrum is of three types.
1. Continuous spectrum 2. Line spectrum and 3. Band spectrum
1. Continuous spectrum
It consists of unbroken luminous bands of all wavelengths containing all the
colours from violet to red. These spectra depend only on the temperature of the source
and is independent of the characteristic of the source.

Incandescent solids, liquids, Carbon arc, electric filament lamps etc, give
continuous spectra.
2. Line spectrum
Line spectra are sharp lines of definite wavelengths. It is the characteristic of the
emitting substance. It is used to identify the gas.
Atoms in the gaseous state,
i.e. free excited atoms emit line
H H H H
spectrum. The substance in atomic
state Fig 5.4 Line spectrum of hydrogen
such as sodium in sodium vapour lamp, mercury in mercury vapour lamp and gases in
discharge tube give line spectra (Fig. 5.4).

183
3. Band Spectrum
It consists of a number of bright bands with a sharp edge at one end but fading
out at the other end.
Band spectra are obtained from molecules. It is the characteristic of the
molecule. Calcium or Barium salts in a bunsen flame and gases like carbon−di−oxide,
ammonia and nitrogen in molecular state in the discharge tube give band spectra. When
the bands are examined with high resolving power spectrometer, each band is found to
be made of a large number of fine lines, very close to each other at the sharp edge but
spaced out at the other end. Using band spectra the molecular structure of the substance
can be studied.

(ii) Absorption Spectra

When the light emitted from a source is made to pass through an absorbing
material and then examined with a spectrometer, the obtained spectrum is called
absorption spectrum. It is the characteristic of the absorbing substance.

Absorption spectra is also of three types

1. continuous absorption spectrum
2. line absorption spectrum and
3. band absorption spectrum
1. Continuous absorption spectrum
A pure green glass plate when placed in the path of white light, absorbs
everything except green and gives continuous absorption spectrum.

2. Line absorption spectrum

º º º º
5896 A 5890 A 5896 A 5890 A

Fig 5.5 Emission and absorption spectrum of sodium

When light from the carbon arc is made to pass through sodium vapour and then
examined by a spectrometer, a continuous spectrum of carbon arc with two dark lines in
the yellow region is obtained as shown in Fig.5.5.

3. Band absorption spectrum

If white light is allowed to pass through iodine vapour or dilute solution of blood
or chlorophyll or through certain solutions of organic

184
and inorganic compounds, dark bands on continuous bright background are obtained.
The band absorption spectra are used for making dyes.

5.2.1 Fraunhofer lines

If the solar spectrum is closely examined, it is found that it consists of large
number of dark lines. These dark lines in the solar spectrum are called Fraunhofer lines.
Solar spectrum is an example of line absorption spectrum.

The central core of the sun is called photosphere which is at a very high
temperature of the order of 14 million kelvin. It emits continuous spectrum. The sun’s
outer layer is called chromosphere. This is at a comparatively lower temperature at
about 6000 K. It contains various elements in gaseous state.

When light from the central core of the sun passes through sun’s atmosphere,
certain wavelengths are absorbed by the elements present in the chromosphere and the
spectrum is marked by dark lines.
By comparing the absorption spectra of various substances with the Fraunhofer
lines in the solar spectrum, the elements present in the sun’s atmosphere have been
identified.
5.2.2 Fluorescence
When an atomic or molecular system is excited into higher energy state by
−5
absorption of energy, it returns back to lower energy state in a time less than 10
second and the system is found to glow brightly by emitting radiation of longer
wavelength.
When ultra violet light is incident on certain substances, they emit visible light.

It may be noted that fluorescence exists as long as the fluorescing substance

remain exposed to incident ultraviolet light and re-emission of light stops as soon as
incident light is cut off.
5.2.3 Phosphorescence
There are some substances in which the molecules are excited by the absorption
of incident ultraviolet light, and they do not return immediately to their original state.
The emission of light continues even after the exciting radiation is removed. This type
of delayed fluorescence is called phosphorescence.

185
5.3 Theories of light
Any theory regarding propagation of light must explain the properties of light.
Since, light is a form of energy, it is transferred from one place to another. Light does
not require a material medium for its propagation.

In general, there are two possible modes of propagation of energy from one place
to another (i) by stream of material particles moving with a finite velocity (ii) by wave
motion, wherein the matter through which the wave propagates does not move along the
direction of the wave. The various theories of light put forward by famous physicists are
given below.

5.3.1 Corpuscular theory

According to Newton, a source of light or a luminous body continuously emits
tiny, massless (negligibly small mass) and perfectly elastic particles called corpuscles.
They travel in straight lines in a homogeneous medium in all directions with the speed
of light.
The corpuscles are so small that a luminous body does not suffer any appreciable
loss of mass even if it emits light for a long time.
Light energy is the kinetic energy of the corpuscles. The sense of vision is
produced, when the corpuscles impinge on the retina of the eye. The sensation of
different colours was due to different sizes of the corpuscles. On account of high speed,
they are unaffected by the force of gravity and their path is a straight line. When the
corpuscles approach a surface between two media, they are either attracted or repelled.
Reflection of the particles is due to repulsion and refraction is due to attraction.

According to this theory, the velocity of light in the denser medium is greater
than the velocity of light in rarer medium. But the experimental results of Foucault and
Michelson showed that velocity of light in a denser medium is lesser than that in a rarer
medium. Further, this theory could not explain the phenomena of interference,
diffraction and polarisation.

5.3.2 Wave theory

According to Huygens, light is propagated in the form of waves, through a
continuous medium. Huygens assumed the existence of an invisible, elastic medium
called ether, which pervades all space. The

186
disturbance from the source is propagated in the form of waves through space and the
energy is distributed equally in all directions. Huygens assumed these waves to be
longitudinal. Initially rectilinear propagation of light could not be explained. But the
difficulty was overcome when Fresnel and Young suggested that light waves are
transverse. The wave theory could satisfactorily explain all the basic properties, which
were earlier proved by corpuscular theory and in addition, it explains the phenomena of
interference, diffraction and polarisation.

According to Huygens, the velocity of light in a denser medium is lesser than

that in a rarer medium. This is in accordance with the experimental result of Foucault.

5.3.3 Electromagnetic theory

Maxwell showed that light was an electromagnetic wave, conveying
electromagnetic energy and not mechanical energy as believed by Huygens, Fresnel and
others. He showed that the variation of electric and magnetic intensities had precisely
the same characteristics as a transverse wave motion. He also showed that no medium
was necessary for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.

5.3.4 Quantum theory

The electromagnetic theory, however failed to account for the phenomenon of
photo electric effect. In 1900, Planck had suggested that energy was emitted and
absorbed, not continuously but in multiples of discrete pockets of energy called
Quantum which could not be subdivided into smaller parts. In 1905, Einstein extended
this idea and suggested that light waves consist of small pockets of energy called

Fig 5.6 Wave and Quantum nature

187
photons. The energy associated with each photon is E = h ν , where h is Planck’s
–34
constant (h = 6.626 × 10 J s) and ν is the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation.

It is now established that photon seems to have a dual character. It behaves as

particles in the region of higher energy and as waves in the region of lower energy (Fig.
5.6).

5.4 Scattering of light

Lord Rayleigh was the first to deal with scattering of light by air molecules. The
scattering of sunlight by the molecules of the gases in Earth’s atmosphere is called
Rayleigh scattering.
The basic process in scattering is absorption of light by the molecules followed
by its re-radiation in different directions. The strength of scattering depends on the
wavelength of the light and also the size of the particle which cause scattering.

The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the

wavelength. This is known as Rayleigh scattering law. Hence, the shorter wavelengths
are scattered much more than the longer wavelengths. The blue appearance of sky is
due to scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere. According to Rayleigh’s scattering law,
blue light is scattered to a greater extent than red light. This scattered radiation causes
the sky to appear blue.

At sunrise and sunset the rays from the sun have to travel a larger part of the
atmosphere than at noon. Therefore most of the blue light is scattered away and only the
red light which is least scattered reaches the observer. Hence, sun appears reddish at
sunrise and sunset.

5.4.1 Tyndal scattering

When light passes through a colloidal solution its path is visible inside the
solution. This is because, the light is scattered by the particles of solution. The
scattering of light by the colloidal particles is called Tyndal scattering.

5.4.2 Raman effect

In 1928, Sir C.V. Raman discovered experimentally, that the monochromatic
light is scattered when it is allowed to pass through a substance. The scattered light
contains some additional frequencies

188
other than that of incident frequency. This is known as Raman effect.
The lines whose frequencies have been modified in Raman effect are called
Raman lines. The lines having frequencies lower than the incident frequency are called
Stoke’s lines and the lines having frequencies higher than the incident frequency are
called Anti−stokes lines. This series of lines in the scattering of light by the atoms and
molecules is known as Raman Spectrum.

The Raman effect can be easily understood, by considering the scattering of

photon of the incident light with the atoms or molecules. Let the incident light consist of
photons of energy hνo.
1. If a photon strikes an atom or a molecule in a liquid, part of the energy of the
incident photon may be used to excite the atom of the liquid and the rest is scattered.
The spectral line will have lower frequency and it is called stokes line.

2. If a photon strikes an atom or a molecule in a liquid, which is in an excited

state, the scattered photon gains energy. The spectral line will have higher frequency
and it is called Anti−stoke’s line.
3. In some cases, when a light photon strikes atoms or molecules, photons may
be scattered elastically. Then the photons neither gain nor
Virtual level
Virtual level Virtual level

hνo hν S hνAS

ν ν ν
3 3 3
hν o 2
hνo 2
hν o 2

1 1 1
0 0 0
Rayleigh line Stokes line Anti -stokes
line
(ν = 0, 1, 2 .... are the vibration levels of the ground electronic state.)
Fig 5.7 Raman Spectrum

189
lose energy. The spectral line will have unmodified frequency.
If νo is the frequency of incident radiation and νs the frequency of scattered
radiation of a given molecular sample, then Raman Shift or Raman frequency ∆ν is
given by the relation ∆ν = νο − νs.
The Raman shift does not depend upon the frequency of the incident light but it
is the characteristic of the substance producing Raman effect. For Stoke’s lines, ∆ν is
positive and for Anti–stoke’s lines ∆ν is negative.

The intensity of Stoke’s line is always greater than the corresponding

Anti−stoke’s Line. The different processes giving rise to Rayleigh, Stoke’s and Anti-
stokes lines are shown in Fig 5.7.
When a system interacts with a radiation of frequency νo, it may make an
upward transition to a virtual state. A virtual state is not one of the stationary states of
the molecule. Most of the molecules of the system return back to the original state from
the virtual state which corresponds to Rayleigh scattering. A small fraction may return
to states of higher and lower energy giving rise to Stoke’s line and Anti-stoke’s line
respectively.

5.4.3 Applications of Raman Spectrum

(i) It is widely used in almost all branches of science.
(ii) Raman Spectra of different substances enable to classify them according to
their molecular structure.
(iii) In industry, Raman Spectroscopy is being applied to study the properties of
materials.
(iv) It is used to analyse the chemical constitution.

5.5 Wave front

When a stone is dropped in a still
water, waves spread out along the surface
of water in all directions with same velocity.
Every particle on the surface vibrates. At
any instant, a photograph of the surface of
water would show circular rings on which
the disturbance is maximum (Fig. 5.8). It
is clear that all the particles on such a
circle are vibrating in phase, because these Fig 5.8 Water waves
particles are at the same distance from the source. Such a surface which envelopes the
particles that are in the same state of vibration is

190
known as a wave front. The wave front at any instant is defined as the locus of all the
particles of the medium which are in the same state of vibration.

A point source of light at a finite distance in an isotropic medium* emits a

spherical wave front (Fig 5.9a). A point source of light in an isotropic medium at
infinite distance will give rise to plane wavefront (Fig. 5.9b). A linear source of light
such as a slit illuminated by a lamp, will give rise to cylindrical wavefront (Fig 5.9c).

Source
Rays

Source

(a) (b)
(c)
Fig 5.9 Wavefront
5.5.1 Huygen’s principle
Huygen’s principle helps us to locate the new position and shape of the
wavefront at any instant, knowing its position and shape at any previous instant. In
other words, it describes the progress of a wave front in a medium.

Huygen’s principle states that, (i) every point on a given wave front may be
considered as a source of secondary wavelets which spread out with the speed of light
in that medium and (ii) the new wavefront is the forward envelope of the secondary
wavelets at that instant.
Huygen’s construction for a spherical and plane wavefront is shown in Fig.
5.10a. Let AB represent a given wavefront at a time t = 0. According to Huygen’s
principle, every point on AB acts as a source of secondary wavelets which travel with
the speed of light c. To find the position of the wave front after a time t, circles are
drawn with points P, Q, R ... etc as centres on AB and radii equal to ct. These are the
traces of secondary wavelets. The arc A1B1 drawn as a forward envelope of the small
circles is the new wavefront at that instant. If the source of light is at a large distance,
we obtain a plane wave front A1 B1 as shown in Fig 5.10b.

* Isotropic medium is the medium in which the light travels with same speed in all
directions.

191
 A
A1

A1
A P

P
Q

R
R
B
B1
B B1
(a) (b)
Fig 5.10 Huygen’s principle

5.5.2 Reflection of a plane wave front at a plane surface

Let XY be a plane reflecting surface and AB be a plane wavefront incident on
the surface at A. PA and QBC are perpendiculars drawn to AB at A and B respectively.
Hence they represent incident rays. AN is the normal drawn to the surface. The wave
front and the surface are perpendicular to the plane of the paper (Fig. 5.11).

According to Huygen’s principle each point on the wavefront acts as the source
of secondary wavelet. By the time, the secondary wavelets from B travel a distance BC,
the secondary wavelets from A on the reflecting surface would travel the same distance
BC after reflection. Taking A as centre and BC as radius an arc is drawn. From C a
tangent CD is drawn to this arc. This tangent CD not only envelopes the wavelets from
C and A but also the wavelets from all the points between C and A. Therefore CD is the
reflected plane wavefront and AD is the reflected ray.

Laws of reflection
(i) The incident wavefront AB, the reflected wavefront CD and the reflecting
surface XY all lie in the same plane.
0
(ii) Angle of incidence i = ∠ PAN = 90 − ∠ NAB = ∠ BAC
0
Angle of reflection r = ∠ NAD = 90 − ∠ DAC = ∠ DCA In right
angled triangles ABC and ADC

192
 0
∠B = ∠ D = 90
BC = AD and AC is common
∴ The two triangles are congruent
∠ BAC = ∠ DCA
i.e. i = r
Thus the angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
Q
N
M
D
B
P E
i r
i r
X Y
A C
Fig 5.11 Reflection of a plane wavefront at a plane surface.

5.5.3 Refraction of a plane wavefront at a plane surface

Let XY be a plane refracting surface separating two media 1 and 2 of refractive
indices µ1 and µ2 (Fig 5.12). The velocities of light in these two media are respectively
c1 and c2. Consider a plane wave front AB incident on the refracting surface at A. PA
and QBC are perpendiculars drawn to AB at A and B respectively. Hence they represent
incident rays. NAN1 is the normal drawn to the surface. The wave front and the surface
are perpendicular to the plane of the paper.

According to Huygen’s
principle each point on the wave front act Q N
as the source of secondary wavelet. By the 1
time, the secondary wavelets from B, C
P 1
reaches C, the secondary wavelets from the B
point A would travel a distance AD = C 2t, i
where t is the time taken by the wavelets to i C
travel the distance BC. X A r Y
r
D 2

∴ BC = C1t and AD = C2t = N 1 C2

BC Fig 5.12 Refraction of a plane
C2 C1 . Taking A as centre and wavefront at the plane surface.

193
 BC
C2 as radius an arc is drawn in the second medium. From C a C1

tangent CD is drawn to this arc. This tangent CD not only envelopes the wavelets from
C and A but also the wavelets from all the points between C and A. Therefore CD is the
refracted plane wavefront and AD
is the refracted ray.
Laws of refraction
(i) The incident wave front AB, the refracted wave front CD and the refracting
surface XY all lie in the same plane.
0
(ii) Angle of incidence i = ∠ PAN = 90 − ∠ NAB = ∠ BAC
0
Angle of refraction r = ∠ N1AD = 90 − ∠ DAC = ∠ ACD
sin i = BC /AC = BC = BC = C1 = a constant = µ
C 1 2
sin r AD /AC AD C2 2

BC. C 1

1µ2 is called the refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium.
This is Snell’s law of refraction.
If 1µ2 > 1, the first medium is rarer and the second medium is
C
1

denser. Then C2 > 1. This means that the velocity of light in rarer
medium is greater than that in a denser medium. This conclusion from wave theory is in
agreement with the result of Foucault’s experiment.

It is clear from above discussions that the refractive index of a medium µm is

given by
µ velocity of light in vacuum Ca
m = =
velocity of light in the medium Cm
The frequency of a wave does not change when a wave is reflected or refracted
from a surface, but wavelength changes on refraction.
Ca νλa λa
µ
i.e. m = Cm = νλm =λm
λa
λ
∴ m = µm
where λa and λm are the wavelengths in air and medium respectively.

194
5.5.4 Total internal reflection by wave theory
Let XY be a plane surface which separates a rarer medium (air) and a denser
medium. Let the velocity of the wavefront in these media be Ca and Cm respectively.

A plane wavefront AB passes from denser medium to rarer surface with

medium. It is incident on the be the angle of incidence i. Let r
angle of refraction.

sin i = (BC / AC ) =BC = c m t = cm

sin r (AD / AC ) AD c a t ca

RARER
D
r r =90º
r C D A
X X A i C C Y
i Y

A YX

i B i=C B i>C B
D
DENSER

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 5.13 Total internal reflection
cm
Since c < 1 , i is less than r. This means that the refracted
a

wavefront is deflected away from the surface XY.

In right angled triangle ADC, there are three possibilities
(i) AD < AC (ii) AD = AC and (iii) AD > AC
(i) AD < AC : For small values of i, BC will be small and so AD > BC but less
than AC (Fig. 5.13a)
AD
sin r = AC , which is less than unity
0
i.e r < 90
0
For each value of i, for which r < 90 , a refracted wavefront is possible

(ii) AD = AC : As i increases r also increases. When AD = AC, sin r = 1 (or) r

0
= 90 . i.e a refracted wavefront is just possible (Fig. 5.13b). Now the refracted ray
grazes the surface of separation of
0
the two media. The angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction is 90 is called
the critical angle C.
195
 (iii) AD > AC : When AD > AC, sin r > 1. This is not possible (Fig 5.13c).
Therefore no refracted wave front is possible, when the angle of incidence increases
beyond the critical angle. The incident wavefront is totally reflected into the denser
medium itself. This is called total internal reflection.

Hence for total internal reflection to take place (i) light must travel from a denser
medium to a rarer medium and (ii) the angle of incidence inside the denser medium
must be greater than the critical angle. i.e i > C.
5.6 Superposition principle
When two or more waves simultaneously pass through the same medium, each
wave acts on every particle of the medium, as if the other waves are not present. The
resultant displacement of any particle is the vector addition of the displacements due to
the individual waves.
Y
Y2
Y2
Y
Y1

Y1

Fig 5.14 Superposition principle

→ →
This is known as principle of superposition. If Y1 and Y2 represent the
individual displacement then the resultant displacement is given by
→ → →
Y = Y1 + Y2
5.6.1 Coherent sources
Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of the same wave
length and start with same phase or have a constant phase difference.

Two independent monochromatic sources, emit waves of same wave length. But
the waves are not in phase. So they are not coherent. This is because, atoms cannot emit
light waves in same phase and these sources are said to be incoherent sources.

5.6.2 Phase difference and path difference

A wave of length λ corresponds to a phase of 2π. A distance of δ corresponds to
2 π
a phase of φ = λ ×δ

196
5.6.3 Interference of light
Two slits A and B
illuminated by a single
monochromatic source S act as
A
coherent sources. The waves from
these two coherent sources travel S B
in the same medium and
superpose at various points as
shown in Fig. 5.15. The crest of
the wavetrains are shown by
thick continuous lines and Fig 5.15 Interference phenomenon
troughs are shown by broken lines. At points where the crest of one wave meets the
crest of the other wave or the trough of one wave meets the trough of the other wave,
the waves are in phase, the displacement is maximum and these points appear bright.
These points are marked by crosses (x). This type of interference is said to be
constructive interference.

At points where the crest of one wave meets the trough of the other wave, the
waves are in opposite phase, the displacement is minimum and these points appear dark.
These points are marked by circles (O). This type of interference is said to be
destructive interference. Therefore, on a screen XY the intensity of light will be
alternatively maximum and minimum i.e. bright and dark bands which are referred as
interference fringes. The redistribution of intensity of light on account of the
superposition of two waves is called interference.

The intensity of light (I) at a point due to a wave of amplitude (a) is given by I
∝ a2.
If a1 and a2 are the amplitude of the two interfering waves, then
I1 ∝ a12 and I2 ∝ a22

=I a1
2

1
∴ I2 a22
For constructive interference, Imax ∝ (a1 + a2)2 and for destructive interference, Imin ∝ (a1 – a2)
2
2
I (a + a 2 )
max 1
2
∴ I = (a − a )
min 1 2

197
5.6.4 Condition for sustained interference
The interference pattern in which the positions of maximum and minimum
intensity of light remain fixed with time, is called sustained or permanent interference
pattern. The conditions for the formation of sustained interference may be stated as :

(i) The two sources should be coherent

(ii) Two sources should be very narrow
(iii) The sources should lie very close to each other to form distinct and broad
fringes.
5.6.5 Young’s double slit experiment
The phenomenon of interference Y
was first observed and demonstrated
by Thomas Young in 1801. The A
experimental set up is shown in
Fig 5.16. P
S
Light from a narrow slit S, B
illuminated by a monochromatic
source, is allowed to fall on two
X
narrow slits A and B placed very close
to each other. The width of each slit is Fig 5.16 Young’s double slit
about 0.03 mm and they are about experiment
0.3 mm apart. Since A and B are equidistant from S, light waves from S reach A and B
in phase. So A and B act as coherent sources.
According to Huygen’s principle, wavelets from A and B spread out and
overlapping takes place to the right side of AB. When a screen XY is placed at a
distance of about 1 metre from the slits, equally spaced alternate bright and dark fringes
appear on the screen. These are called interference fringes or bands. Using an eyepiece
the fringes can be seen directly. At P on the screen, waves from A and B travel equal
distances and arrive in phase. These two waves constructively interfere and bright
fringe is observed at P. This is called central bright fringe.

When one of the slits is covered, the fringes disappear and there is uniform
illumination on the screen. This shows clearly that the bands are due to interference.

198
5.6.6 Expression for bandwidth
Let d be the distance between two coherent sources A and B of wavelength λ. A
screen XY is placed parallel to AB at a distance D from the coherent sources. C is the
mid point of AB. O is a point on the screen equidistant from A and B. P is a point at a
distance x from O, as shown in Fig 5.17. Waves from A and B meet at P in phase or out
of phase depending upon the path difference between two waves.

P
Dark fringe

x
A
Central
d C bright
O fringe
M
B
Bright fringe

D
Y

Fig 5.17 Interference band width

Draw AM perpendicular to BP
The path difference δ = BP – AP
AP = MP
∴ δ = BP – AP = BP – MP = BM In
right angled ∆ ABM, BM = d sin θ If θ is small,
sin θ = θ
∴ The path difference δ = θ.d
OP x
In right angled triangle COP, tan θ = CO = D
For small values of θ, tan θ = θ

xd
∴ The path difference δ = D
Bright fringes
By the principle of interference, condition for constructive interference is the
path difference = nλ

199
 xd
∴ = nλ
D
where n = 0,1,2 … indicate the order of bright fringes.
D
∴ x = d nλ
th
This equation gives the distance of the n bright fringe from the point O.

Dark fringes
By the principle of interference, condition for destructive interference is the path
λ
difference = (2n−1) 2

where n = 1,2,3 … indicate the order of the dark fringes.

D λ
∴ x= (2n − 1)
d 2
th
This equation gives the distance of the n dark fringe from the point O. Thus, on
the screen alternate dark and bright bands are seen on either side of the central bright
band.
Band width (β)
The distance between any two consecutive bright or dark bands is called
bandwidth.
th th
The distance between (n+1) and n order consecutive bright fringes from O is
given by
D D D
x –x =
(n+1) n d (n + 1)λ − d nλ = d λ
D
Bandwitdth, β= d λ
Similarly, it can be proved that the distance between two
D λ
consecutive dark bands is also equal to d . Since bright and dark
fringes are of same width, they are equi−spaced on either side of central maximum.

Condition for obtaining clear and broad interference bands

(i) The screen should be as far away from the source as possible.
(ii) The wavelength of light used must be larger.
(iii) The two coherent sources must be as close as possible.

200
5.6.7 Colours of thin films
Everyone is familiar with the brilliant colours exhibited by a thin oil film spread
on the surface of water and also by a soap bubble. These colours are due to interference
between light waves reflected from the top and the bottom surfaces of thin films. When
white light is incident on a thin film, the film appears coloured and the colour depends
upon the thickness of the film and also the angle of incidence of the light.

Interference in thin films

Consider a transparent thin film of uniform thickness t and its refractive index µ
bounded by two plane surfaces K and K′ (Fig 5.18).
A ray of monochromatic light AB incident on the surface K of the film is partly
reflected along BC and partly refracted into the film along BD. At the point D on the
surface K′, the ray of light is partly reflected along DE and partly transmitted out of the
film along DG. The reflected light then emerges into air along EF which is parallel to
BC. The ray EH after refraction at H, finally emerges along HJ.

BC and EF are reflected

rays parallel to each other and
C
DG and HJ are transmitted rays A M F
parallel to each other. Rays BC
i
and EF interfere and similarly L i
the rays DG and HJ interfere.
t K B r E
r
H
K′
D
Interference due to the
reflected beam J
N
EM is drawn normal to
G
BC from E. Now the path Fig 5.18 Interference in thin films
difference between the waves
BC and EF
δ = (BD+DE)in film – (BM)in air
We know, that a distance in air is numerically equal to µ times the distance in
medium
δ = µ (BD + DE) – BM

201
 sini
∵µ=
sinr

DL t
BD = BD

From the figure, it is clear that BD = DE

∴ δ = (2µ . BD) – BM
BM
In the ∆ BME, sin i = BE
BM = BE sin i = BE . µ sin r
BM = µ . BE sin r
1
BL BE
In the ∆ BDL, sin r = =
2

BD BD
BE = 2 (BD) sin r
2
∴ BM = µ(2BD) sin r
2
∴ δ = 2µBD – 2µBD sin r
2
δ = 2µBD cos r
In the ∆ BDL, cos r =
∴ δ = 2µt cos r
A ray of light travelling in air and getting reflected at the surface of a denser
medium, undergoes an automatic phase change of π (or) an additional path difference
of λ/2.
Since the reflection at B is at the surface of a denser medium, there is an
λ
additional path difference 2 .
 λ
The effective path difference in this case, δ = 2µt cos r + 2
(i) For the constructive interference, path difference δ = nλ, where n = 0,1,2,3
and the film appears bright
λ
2µt cos r + 2 = nλ
λ
∴ 2µt cos r = (2n–1) 2
(ii) For the destructive interference, path difference
λ
δ = (2n+1) 2
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 … and the film appers dark.
λ λ

202
 ∴ 2µt cos r = nλ
If light is incident normally i = 0 and hence r = 0. Therefore the condition for
λ
bright fringe is 2µt = (2n–1) 2 and for dark fringe is 2µt = nλ.

Interference due to the transmitted light

The path difference between the transmitted rays DG and HJ is, in a similar way,
δ = 2µt cos r. In this case there is no additional path difference introduced because both
reflections at the point D and E take place backed by rarer medium

Hence, condition for brightness is 2 µt cos r = nλ and condition for darkness is

λ
2µt cos r = (2n – 1) 2

5.6.8 Newton’s rings

An important application of interference in thin films is the formation of
Newton’s rings. When a plano convex lens of long focal length is placed over an
optically plane glass plate, a thin air film with varying thickness is enclosed between
them. The thickness of the air film is zero at the point of contact and gradually increases
outwards from the point of contact. When the air film is illuminated by monochromatic
light normally, alternate bright and dark concentric circular rings are formed with dark
spot at the centre. These rings are known as Newton’s rings. When viewed with white
light, the fringes are coloured (shown in the wrapper of the text book).

Experiment
Fig 5.19 shows an experimental arrangement for producing and observing
Newton’s rings. A monochromatic source of light S is kept at the focus of a condensing
lens L1. The parallel beam of light emerging from L 1 falls on the glass plate G kept at
o
45 . The glass plate reflects a part of the incident light vertically downwards, normally
on the thin air film, enclosed by the plano convex lens L and plane glass plate P. The
reflected beam from the air film is viewed with a microscope. Alternate bright and dark
circular rings with dark spot as centre is seen.

203
 M

L1

45º
S

L Air film
P
O
Fig 5.19 Newton’s rings
Theory
The formation of Newton’s rings can be explained on the basis of interference
between waves which are partially reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the air
film. If t is the thickness of the air film at a point on the film, the refracted wavelet from
the lens has to travel a distance t into the film and after reflection from the top surface
of the glass plate, has to travel the same distance back to reach the point again.

Thus, it travels a total path 2t. One of the two reflections takes place at the
surface of the denser medium and hence it introduces an additional phase change of π
or an equivalent path difference
λ
2 between two wavelets.
∴ The condition for brightness is, Path
λ
difference, δ = 2t + 2 = nλ

λ
∴ 2t = (2n–1) 2
where n = 1, 2, 3 … and λ is the wavelength of light used.

204
 The condition for darkness is,
λ λ
path difference δ = 2t + 2 = (2n+1) 2
∴ 2t = nλ
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ....
The thickness of the air film at the point of contact of lens L with glass plate P is
zero. Hence, there is no path difference between the interfering waves. So, it should
appear bright. But the wave reflected from the denser glass plate has suffered a phase
change of π while the wave reflected at the spherical surface of the lens has not
suffered any phase change. Hence the point O appears dark. Around the point of contact
alternate bright and dark rings are formed.

th
5.6.9 Expression for the radius of the n dark ring
Let us consider the vertical section SOP of the plano convex lens through its
centre of curvature C, as shown in Fig 5.20. Let R be the radius of curvature of the
plano convex lens and O be the point of contact of the lens with the plane surface. Let t
be the thickness of the air film at S and P. Draw ST and PQ perpendiculars to the plane
surface of the glass plate. Then ST = AO = PQ = t

th
Let rn be the radius of the n dark ring which passes through the points S and P.

Then SA = AP = rn
If ON is the vertical diameter of the circle, then by the law of segments

SA. AP = OA. AN
2
rn = t(2R–t)
2 2
rn = 2 Rt (neglecting t comparing with 2R) N
r 2
2t = n

R
According to the condition for darkness 2t = nλ C
S A P
r 2
t
∴ n = nλ
R T O Q
2 Fig 5.20 Radius of
rn = nRλ or rn = nR λ Newton’s rings

205
 Since R and λ are constants, we find that the radius of the dark ring is directly

proportional to square root of its order. i.e. r1 ∝ 1, r2 ∝ 2, r3 ∝ 3, and so on. It is

clear that the rings get closer as n increases.
5.6.10 Applications of Newtons rings
(i) Using the method of Newton’s rings, the wavelength of a given
th
monochromatic source of light can be determined. The radius of n dark ring and
th
(n+m) dark ring are given by
2 2
r = nRλ and r = (n+m) Rλ
n n+m
r 2 –r 2 = mRλ
n+m n
r 2 −r2
n +m n

∴ λ =
mR
Knowing rn+m, rn and R, the wavelength can be calculated.
(ii) Using Newton’s rings, the refractive index of a liquid can
calculated. Let λa and λm represent the wavelength of light in air and
th
in medium (liquid). If r n is the radius of the n dark ring in air and
th
if r′ n is the radius of the n dark ring in liquid, then
rn 2 = nR λ a
nRλa λa
2 λ
r′n = nR λm = µ [∵ µ = m ]
r 2
n

∴ µ =r 1n 2

5.7 Diffraction
Sound is propagated in the form of waves. Sound produced in an adjoining room
reaches us after bending round the edges of the walls. Similarly, waves on the surface of
water also bend round the edges of an obstacle and spread into the region behind it. This
bending of waves around the edges of an obstacle is called diffraction. Diffraction is a
characteristic property of waves. The waves are diffracted, only when the size of the
obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of the wave.

Fresnel showed that the amount of bending produced at an obstacle depends

upon the wavelength of the incident wave. Since the sound waves have a greater
wavelength, the diffraction effects are pronounced. As the wavelength of light is very
small, compared to that of sound wave and even tiny obstacles have large size,
compared to the wavelength of light waves, diffraction effects of light are very small.

206
 In practice, diffraction of light can be observed by looking at a source of white
light through a fine piece of cloth. A series of coloured images are observed.

5.7.1 Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction

Diffraction phenomenon can be classified under two groups
(i) Fresnel diffraction and (ii) Fraunhofer diffraction. In the Fresnel diffraction, the
source and the screen are at finite distances from the obstacle producing diffraction. In
such a case the wave front undergoing diffraction is either spherical or cylindrical. In
the Fraunhofer diffraction, the source and the screen are at infinite distances from the
obstacle producing diffraction. Hence in this case the wavefront undergoing diffraction
is plane. The diffracted rays which are parallel to one another are brought to focus with
the help of a convex lens. Fraunhofer pattern is easier to observe practically by a
spectrometer.

5.7.2 Diffraction grating

An arrangement consisting of a large number of equidistant parallel narrow slits
of equal width separated by equal opaque portions is known as a diffraction grating.

The plane transmission grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which

opaque rulings are made with a fine diamond pointer. The modern commercial form of
grating contains about 6000 lines per centimetre.

The rulings act as obstacles having a definite width ‘b’ and the transparent space
between the rulings act as slit of width ‘a’. The combined width of a ruling and a slit is
called grating element (e). Points on successive slits separated by a distance equal to the
grating element are called corresponding points.

Theory
MN represents the section of a plane transmission grating. AB, CD, EF … are
the successive slits of equal width a and BC, DE … be the rulings of equal width b (Fig.
5.21). Let e = a + b.
Let a plane wave front of monochromatic light of wave length λ be incident
normally on the grating. According to Huygen’s principle, the points in the slit AB, CD
… etc act as a source of secondary wavelets which spread in all directions on the other
side of the grating.

207
 M P2
A
P1
a B
b C
G
D O
E

F P1

P2
N

Fig 5.21 Diffraction grating

Let us consider the secondary diffracted wavelets, which makes an angle θ with
the normal to the grating.
The path difference between the wavelets from one pair of corresponding points
A and C is CG = (a + b) sin θ. It will be seen that the path difference between waves
from any pair of corresponding points is also (a + b) sin θ

The point P1 will be bright, when

(a + b) sin θ = m λ where m = 0, 1, 2, 3
In the undiffracted position θ = 0 and hence sin θ = 0.
(a + b) sin θ = 0, satisfies the condition for brightness for m = 0. Hence the
wavelets proceeding in the direction of the incident rays will produce maximum
intensity at the centre O of the screen. This is called zero order maximum or central
maximum.
If (a + b) sin θ1 = λ, the diffracted wavelets inclined at an angle θ1 to the
incident direction, reinforce and the first order maximum is obtained.

Similarly, for second order maximum, (a + b) sin θ2 = 2λ

On either side of central maxima different orders of secondary maxima are
formed at the point P1, P2.
In general, (a + b) sin θ = m λ is the condition for maximum intensity, where m
is an integer, the order of the maximum intensity.
mλ
sin θ = a+b or sin θ = Nmλ

208
 1
where N = a + b , gives the number of grating element or number of lines per
unit width of the grating.
When white light is used, the diffraction pattern consists of a white central
maximum and on both sides continuous coloured images are formed.

In the undiffracted position, θ = 0 and hence sin θ = 0. Therefore sin θ = Nmλ is

satisfied for m= 0 for all values of λ. Hence, at O all the wavelengths reinforce each
other producing maximum intensity for all wave lengths. Hence an undispersed white
image is obtained.
λ
As θ increases, (a + b) sin θ first passes through 2 values for all colours from
violet to red and hence darkness results. As θ further increases, (a + b) sin θ passes
through λ values of all colours resulting in the formation of bright images producing a
spectrum from violet to red. These spectra are formed on either side of white, the
central maximum.

5.7.3 Experiment to determine the wavelength of

monochromatic light using a plane transmission grating. S

The wavelength of a spectral line can be very

accurately determined with the help of a diffraction grating C
and spectrometer.
Initially all the preliminary adjustments of the
spectrometer are made. The slit of collimator is illuminated
by a monochromatic light, whose wavelength is to be
determined. The telescope is brought in line with collimator
to view the direct image. The given plane transmission
2 2
grating is then mounted on the prism table with its plane is
1 1
perpendicular to the incident beam of light coming from the
collimator. The telescope is slowly turned to one side until
the first order diffraction image coincides with the vertical T Direct T
cross wire of the eye piece. The reading of the position of ray
the telescope is noted (Fig. 5.22). Fig 5.22 Diffraction of
monochromatic light

209
Similarly the first order diffraction image on the other side, is made to coincide with the
vertical cross wire and corresponding reading is noted. The difference between two
positions gives 2θ. Half of its value gives θ, the diffraction angle for first order
maximum. The wavelength
sin θ
of light is calculated from the equation λ = Nm . Here N is the number of rulings
per metre in the grating.
5.7.4 Determination of wavelengths of spectral lines of white light
Monochromatic light is now replaced by the given source of white light. The
source emits radiations of different wavelengths, then the beam gets dispersed by
grating and a spectrum of constituent wavelengths is obtained as shown in Fig 5.23.

R
2 Second Order

Grating
V
2

R1
First Order

2 V1

1 Zero Order
1 (Central Maximum)

2 V1
First Order
R1

V2

R2 Second Order

Fig 5.23 Diffraction of white light

knowing N, wave length of any line can be calculated from the relation

sinθ
λ= Nm
5.7.5 Difference between interference and diffraction
Interference Diffraction
1. It is due to the superposition of It is due to the superposition
secondary wavelets from two of secondary wavelets emitted
different wavefronts produced from various points of the
by two coherent sources. same wave front.
2. Fringes are equally spaced. Fringes are unequally spaced.
3. Bright fringes are of same Intensity falls rapidly
intensity
4. Comparing with diffraction, it It has less number of fringes.
has large number of fringes
210
5.8. Polarisation
The phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction are common to
both transverse waves and longitudinal waves. But the transverse nature of light waves
is demonstrated only by the phenomenon of polarisation.

5.8.1 Polarisation of transverse waves.

Let a rope AB be passed through two parallel vertical slits S 1 and S2 placed
close to each other. The rope is fixed at the end B. If the free end A of the rope is
moved up and down perpendicular to its length, transverse waves are

generated with
vibrations parallel to
the slit. These waves
D B
pass through both S1 A C
and S2 without any
change in their
amplitude. But if S2 is S1 S2
made horizontal, the (a)
two slits are
perpendicular to each
other. Now, no
vibrations will pass D B
through S2 and A C
amplitude of vibra-
tions will become zero.
S1 S2
i.e the portion S2B is
without wave motion (b)
as shown in fig 5.24. Fig 5.24 Polarisation of transverse waves
On the otherhand, if longitudinal waves are generated in the rope by moving the
rope along forward and backward, the vibrations will pass through S 1 and S2
irrespective of their positions.
This implies that the orientation of the slits has no effect on the propagation of
the longitudinal waves, but the propagation of the transverse waves, is affected if the
slits are not parallel to each other.
A similar phenomenon has been observed in light, when light passes through a
tourmaline crystal.

211
 Source

Polarised Light Polarised Light

A B
(a)
Source

Polarised Light
No Light

B
A
(b)
Fig 5.25 Polarisation of transverse waves

Light from the source is allowed to fall on a tourmaline crystal which is cut
parallel to its optic axis (Fig. 5.25a).
The emergent light will be slightly coloured due to natural colour of the crystal.
When the crystal A is rotated, there is no change in the intensity of the emergent light.
Place another crystal B parallel to A in the path of the light. When both the crystals are
rotated together, so that their axes are parallel, the intensity of light coming out of B
does not change. When the crystal B alone is rotated, the intensity of the emergent light
from B gradually decreases. When the axis of B is at right angles to the axis of A, no
light emerges from B (Fig. 5.25b).

If the crystal B is further rotated, the intensity of the light coming out of B
gradually increases and is maximum again when their axis are parallel.

Comparing these observations with the mechanical analogue discussed earlier, it

is concluded that the light waves are transverse in nature.

Light waves coming out of tourmaline crystal A have their vibrations in only one
direction, perpendicular to the direction of

212
propagation. These waves are said to be polarised. Since the vibrations are restricted to
only one plane parallel to the axis of the crystal, the light is said to be plane polarised.
The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations into a particular plane is known as
polarisation.
5.8.2 Plane of vibration and plane of polarisation
The plane containing the optic axis in which the vibrations occur is known as
plane of vibration. The plane which is at right angles to the plane of vibration and which
contains the direction of propagation of the polarised light is known as the plane of
polarisation. Plane of polarisation does not contain vibrations in it.

In the Fig 5.26 PQRS P S

represents the plane of vibration H G
and EFGH represents the plane
of polarisation.

E F
5.8.3 Representation of light R
Q
vibrations
Fig 5.26 Planes of vibration and
In an unpolarised light, the polarisation
vibrations in all directions may be
supposed to be made up of two mutually perpendicular
vibrations. These are represented by double
arrows and dots (Fig 5.27).

The vibrations in the plane of

the paper are represented by double
Fig 5.27 Light vibrations
arrows, while the vibrations
perpendicular to the plane of the paper are represented by dots.
5.8.4 Polariser and Analyser
A device which produces plane polarised light is called a polariser. A device
which is used to examine, whether light is plane polarised or not is an analyser. A
polariser can serve as an analyser and vice versa.
A ray of light is allowed to pass through an analyser. If the intensity of the
emergent light does not vary, when the analyser is rotated, then the incident light is
unpolarised; If the intensity of light varies between maximum and zero, when the
analyser is rotated

213
 o
through 90 , then the incident light is plane polarised; If the intensity of light varies
o
between maximum and minimum (not zero), when the analyser is rotated through 90 ,
then the incident light is partially plane polarised.

5.8.5 Polarisation by reflection

The simplest method of producing plane polarised light is by reflection. Malus,
discovered that when a beam of ordinary light is reflected from the surface of
transparent medium like glass or water, it gets polarised. The degree of polarisation
varies with angle of incidence.

Consider a beam of unpolarised light AB, incident at any angle on the reflecting
glass surface XY.
Vibrations in AB
which are parallel to the
Incident
beam Reflected plane of the diagram are
A beam C shown by arrows. The
i
ip p vibrations which are
perpendicular to the plane of
B Y
X the diagram and parallel to
the reflecting surface, shown
r
by dots (Fig. 5.28).
Refracted
beam
A part of the light is
reflected along BC, and the
D rest is refracted along BD.
Fig 5.28 Polarisation by reflection On examining the reflected
beam with an analyser, it is found that the ray is partially plane polarised.

When the light is allowed to be incident at a particular angle, (for glass it is

o
57.5 ) the reflected beam is completely plane polarised. The angle of incidence at
which the reflected beam is completely plane polarised is called the polarising angle
(ip).
5.8.6 Brewster’s law
Sir David Brewster conducted a series of experiments with different reflectors
and found a simple relation between the angle of polarisation and the refractive index of
the medium. It has been observed experimentally that the reflected and refracted rays
are at right angles to

214
each other, when the light is incident at polarising angle.
From Fig 5.28, ip +900 + r = 180
0
0
r = 90 – i
p
sinip
From Snell’s law, =µ
sinr
where µ is the refractive index of the medium (glass)
Substituting for r, we get
sinip =µ ; sin ip = µ
sin(90 − ip ) cos ip
∴ tan ip = µ
The tangent of the polarising angle is numerically equal to the refractive index of
the medium.
5.8.7 Pile of plates
The phenomenon
of polarisation by
reflection is used in the
construction of pile of
plates. It consists of a
number of glass plates
placed one over the
other as shown in
Fig 5.29 in a tube of
suitable size. The plates
Fig.5.29 Pile of plates
are inclined at an angle
o
of 32.5 to the axis of the tube. A beam of monochromatic light is allowed to fall on the
o
pile of plates along the axis of the tube. So, the angle of incidence will be 57.5 which
is the polarising angle for glass.
The vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence are reflected at each
surface and those parallel to it are transmitted. The larger the number of surfaces, the
greater is the intensity of the reflected plane polarised light. The pile of plates is used as
a polariser and an analyser.

5.8.8 Double refraction

Bartholinus discovered that when a ray of unpolarised light is incident on a
calcite crystal, two refracted rays are produced. This

215
phenomenon is called double refraction (Fig. 5.30a). Hence, two images of a single
object are formed. This phenomenon is exhibited by several other crystals like quartz,
mica etc.

E E

O
O

(a) (b)
Fig 5.30 Double refraction
When an ink dot on a sheet of paper is viewed through a calcite crystal, two
images will be seen (Fig 5.30b). On rotating the crystal, one image remains stationary,
while the other rotates around the first. The stationary image is known as the ordinary
image (O), produced by the refracted rays which obey the laws of refraction. These rays
are known as ordinary rays. The other image is extraordinary image (E), produced by
the refracted rays which do not obey the laws of refraction. These rays are known as
extraordinary rays.

Inside a double refracting crystal the ordinary ray travels with same velocity in
all directions and the extra ordinary ray travels with different velocities along different
directions.
A point source inside a refracting crystal produces spherical wavefront
corresponding to ordinary ray and elliptical wavefront corresponding to extraordinary
ray.
Inside the crystal there is a particular direction in which both the rays travel with
same velocity. This direction is called optic axis. The refractive index is same for both
rays and there is no double refraction along this direction.

5.8.9 Types of crystals

Crystals like calcite, quartz, ice and tourmaline having only one optic axis are
called uniaxial crystals.
Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite and aragonite having two optic axes are called
biaxial crystals.

216
5.8.10 Nicol prism
Nicol prism was designed by William Nicol. One of the most common forms of
the Nicol prism is made by taking a calcite crystal whose length is three times its
0
breadth. It is cut into two halves along the diagonal so that their face angles are 72 and
0
108 . And the two halves are joined together by a layer of Canada balsam, a transparent
cement as shown in Fig 5.31. For sodium light, the refractive index for ordinary light is
1.658 and for extra−ordinary light is 1.486. The refractive index for Canada balsam is
1.550 for both rays, hence Canada balsam does not polarise light.

A monochromatic beam of unpolarised light is incident on the face of the nicol

prism. It splits up into two rays as ordinary ray (O) and extraordinary ray (E) inside the
nicol prism (i.e) double refraction takes place. The ordinary ray is totally internally
reflected at the layer of Canada balsam and is prevented from emerging from the other
face. The extraordinary ray alone is transmitted through the crystal which is plane
polarised. The nicol prism serves as a polariser and also an

analyser. A
108º E

72º O
B
Fig 5.31 Nicol prism
5.8.11 Polaroids
A Polaroid is a material which polarises light. The phenomenon of selective
absorption is made use of in the construction of polariods. There are different types of
polaroids.
A Polaroid consists of micro crystals of herapathite (an iodosulphate of quinine).
Each crystal is a doubly refracting medium, which absorbs the ordinary ray and
transmits only the extra ordinary ray. The modern polaroid consists of a large number of
ultra microscopic crystals of herapathite embedded with their optic axes, parallel, in a
matrix of nitro –cellulose.

Recently, new types of polariod are prepared in which thin film of polyvinyl
alcohol is used. These are colourless crystals which transmit more light, and give better
polarisation.

217
5.8.12 Uses of Polaroid
1. Polaroids are used in the laboratory to produce and analyse plane polarised light.

2. Polaroids are widely used as polarising sun glasses.

3. They are used to eliminate the head light glare in motor cars.
4. They are used to improve colour contrasts in old oil paintings.
5. Polaroid films are used to produce three – dimensional moving pictures.

6. They are used as glass windows in trains and aeroplanes to control the intensity of
light. In aeroplane one polaroid is fixed outside the window while the other is
fitted inside which can be rotated. The intensity of light can be adjusted by
rotating the inner polaroid.
7. Aerial pictures may be taken from slightly different angles and when viewed
through polaroids give a better perception of depth.
8. In calculators and watches, letters and numbers are formed by liquid crystal
display (LCD) through polarisation of light.
9. Polarisation is also used to study size and shape of molecules.
5. 8.13 Optical activity
When a plane polarised light is made to pass through certain substances, the
plane of polarisation of the emergent light is not the same as that of incident light, but it
has been rotated through some angle. This phenomenon is known as optical activity.
The substances which rotate the plane of polarisation are said to be optically active.
Examples : quartz, sugar crystals, turpentine oil, sodium chloride etc.

Optically active substances are of two types, (i) Dextro−rotatory (right handed)
which rotate the plane of polarisation in the clock wise direction on looking towards the
source. (ii) Laevo – rotatory (left handed) which rotate the plane of polarisation in the
anti clockwise direction on looking towards the source.

Light from a monochromatic source S, is made to pass through a polariser P. The

plane polarised light is then made to fall on an analyser A, which is in crossed position
with P. No light comes out of A. When a quartz plate is inserted between the polariser
and analyser some light emerges out of the analyzer A (Fig. 5.32). The emerging light is
cut off again, when the analyzer is rotated through a certain angle.

218
 This implies that light emerging from quartz is still plane polarised, but its plane
of polarisation has been rotated through certain angle.

P A

S No light

P A
S

Light
Optically
active
substance

Fig 5.32 Optical activity

The amount of optical rotation depends on :
(i) thickness of crystal
(ii) density of the crystal or concentration in the case of solutions.
(iii) wavelength of light used
(iv) the temperature of the solutions.
5.8.14 Specific rotation
The term specific rotation is used to compare the rotational effect of all optically
active substances.
Specific rotation for a given wavelength of light at a given temperature is
defined as the rotation produced by one-decimeter length of the liquid column
containing 1 gram of the active material in 1cc of the solution.

If θ is the angle of rotation produced by l decimeter length of a solution of

concentration C in gram per cc, then the specific rotation S at a given wavelength λ for
a given temperature t is given by
θ
S = l .c .

The instrument used to determine the optical rotation produced by a substance is

called polarimeter.
Sugar is the most common optically active substance and this optical activity is
used for the estimation of its strength in a solution by measuring the rotation of plane of
polarisation.

219
 Solved problems
5.1 In Young’s double slit experiment two coherent sources of intensity ratio of 64 :
1, produce interference fringes. Calculate the ratio of maximium and minimum
intensities.
I
max
Data : I :I : : 64 : 1 =?
I
1 2 min
I 1 a2 64
1

Solution : = 2 =
I
2 a2 1
a
∴ 1 8
= ; a = 8a
a 1 2
2 1
+
2 2
I
max
(a a1 ) (8a 2 + a 2 )
= =
2

2 2
I
min (a − a2 )
1 (8a2 − a2 )
2
(9a2 ) 81
= 2 =
(7a2 ) 49
Imax : Imin : : 81 : 49
5.2 In Young’s experiment, the width of the fringes obtained with light of
wavelength 6000 Å is 2 mm. Calculate the fringe width if the entire apparatus is
−7
immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.33. Data : λ = 6000 Å = 6 × 10 m; β
−3
= 2mm = 2 × 10 m
µ = 1.33; β′ = ?

D λ′ λD β λ
Solution : β′ = = = ∵µ=
d µd µ λ′

2 ×10−3 -3
∴β′ = 1.33 = 1.5 x 10 m (or) 1.5 mm

5.3 A soap film of refractive index 1.33, is illuminated by white light incident at an
o
angle 30 . The reflected light is examined by spectroscope in which dark band
corresponding to the wavelength 6000Å is found. Calculate the smallest
thickness of the film.
o –7
Data : µ = 1.33; i = 30 ; λ = 6000 Å = 6 × 10 mn=1
(Smallest thickness); t = ?

220
 sini
Solution : µ = sinr

sini sin30o 0.5

sin r = µ = 1.33 = 1.33 = 0.3759

2
∴ cos r = 1 − 0.3759 = 0.9267
2 µt cos r = nλ

λ 6 ×10−7
t = 2 µ cos r = 2 × 1.33 × 0.9267

6 ×10−7
t = 2.465
–7
t = 2.434 × 10 m

5.4 A plano – convex lens of radius 3 m is placed on an optically flat glass plate and
th
is illuminated by monochromatic light. The radius of the 8 dark ring is 3.6 mm.
Calculate the wavelength of light used.

−3
Data : R = 3m ; n = 8 ; r8 = 3.6 mm = 3.6 × 10 m;λ=?

Solution : rn = nRλ
rn 2= nRλ
r 2 (3.6 ×10−3 )2
n −10
λ = nR = 8×3 = 5400 × 10 m (or) 5400 Å

5.5 In Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of certain order of dark ring is
measured to be double that of second ring. What is the order of the ring?

Data : dn = 2d2 ; n = ?
2
Solution : d n = 4nRλ ...(1)
2
d = 8Rλ ...(2)
2
(1) d 2 n
⇒ n
=
(2) d2 2 2

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 4d22 = n
d22 2
∴ n = 8.
5.6 Two slits 0.3 mm apart are illuminated by light of wavelength 4500 Å. The
screen is placed at 1 m distance from the slits. Find the separation between the
second bright fringe on both sides of the central maximum.

−3 −7
Data : d = 0.3 mm = 0.3 × 10 m ; λ = 4500 Å = 4.5 × 10 m, D = 1 m ; n =
2 ; 2x = ?

D
Solution : 2x = 2 d nλ

2 ×1× 2 × 4.5 ×10−7

=
0.3 ×10−3
−3
∴ 2x = 6 × 10 m (or) 6 mm

5.7 A parallel beam of monochromatic light is allowed to incident normally on a

plane transmission grating having 5000 lines per centimetre. A second order
o
spectral line is found to be diffracted at an angle 30 . Find the wavelength of the
light.
2 o
Data : N = 5000 lines / cm = 5000 × 10 lines / m m = 2 ; θ = 30 ;
λ=?
sinθ
Solution : sin θ = Nm λ λ= Nm

sin30o 0.5
λ = 5 ×105 × 2 = 5 ×105 × 2
−7
λ = 5 × 10 m = 5000 Å.

o
5.8 A 300 mm long tube containing 60 cc of sugar solution produces a rotation of 9
o
when placed in a polarimeter. If the specific rotation is 60 , calculate the
quantity of sugar contained in the solution.

222
 Data : l = 300 mm = 30 cm = 3 decimeter
o o
θ = 9 ; S = 60 ; v = 60 cc m = ?

θ θ
Solution : S = l × c = l × (m /v)

θ .v
m=
l×s
9 × 60
=
3 × 60
m=3g

Self evaluation
(The questions and problems given in this self evaluation are only samples. In the same way
any question and problem could be framed from the text matter. Students must be prepared to
answer any question and problem from the text matter, not only from the self evaluation.)

5.1 In an electromagnetic wave

(a) power is equally transferred along the electric and magnetic fields

(b) power is transmitted in a direction perpendicular to both the fields

(c) power is transmitted along electric field

(d) power is transmitted along magnetic field

5.2 Electromagnetic waves are

(a) transverse
(b) longitudinal
(c) may be longitudinal or transverse
(d) neither longitudinal nor transverse

5.3 Refractive index of glass is 1.5. Time taken for light to pass through a glass plate
of thickness 10 cm is
–8 –10
(a) 2 × 10 s (b) 2 × 10 s
–8 –10
(c) 5 × 10 s (d) 5 × 10 s

223
 5.4 In an electromagnetic wave the phase difference between electric
→ →
field E and magnetic field B is
(a) π/4 (b) π/2
(c) π (d) zero

5.5 Atomic spectrum should be

(a) pure line spectrum (b) emission band spectrum
(c) absorption line spectrum (d) absorption band spectrum.

5.6 When a drop of water is introduced between the glass plate and
plano convex lens in Newton’s rings system, the ring system
(a) contracts (b) expands
(c) remains same (d) first expands, then contracts
5.7 A beam of monochromatic light enters from vacuum into a medium
of refractive index µ. The ratio of the wavelengths of the incident
and refracted waves is
(a) µ : 1 (b) 1 : µ
2 2
(c) µ : 1 (d) 1 : µ
5.8 If the wavelength of the light is reduced to one fourth, then the amount of
scattering is
(a) increased by 16 times (b) decreased by 16 times (c) increased by
256 times (d) decreased by 256 times
th th
5.9 In Newton’s ring experiment the radii of the m and (m + 4) dark
rings are respectively 5 mm and 7 mm. What is the value of m?
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 8 (d) 10
5.10 The path difference between two monochromatic light waves of wavelength 4000 Å
−7
is 2 × 10 m. The phase difference between them is

(a) π π (b) 2π
(c) 3 2 (d) π/2
5.11 In Young’s experiment, the third bright band for wavelength of light 6000 Å
coincides with the fourth bright band for another source in the same
arrangement. The wave length of the another source is
(a) 4500 Å (b) 6000 Å
(c) 5000 Å (d) 4000 Å

224
 5.12 A light of wavelength 6000 Å is incident normally on a grating
0.005 m wide with 2500 lines. Then the maximum order is
(a) 3 (b) 2
(c) 1 (d) 4

5.13 A diffraction pattern is obtained using a beam of red light. What happens if the red
light is replaced by blue light?
(a) bands disappear
(b) no change
(c) diffraction pattern becomes narrower and crowded together
(d) diffraction pattern becomes broader and farther apart

o
5.14 The refractive index of the medium, for the polarising angle 60 is
(a) 1.732 (b) 1.414
(c) 1.5 (d) 1.468
5.15 What are electromagnetic waves?
5.16 Mention the characteristics of electromagnetic waves.
5.17 Give the source and uses of electromagnetic waves.
5.18 Explain emission and absorption spectra.
5.19 What is fluoresence and phosphorescence?
5.20 Distinguish the corpuscle and photon.
5.21 What is Tyndal Scattering?
5.22 How are Stoke’s and Anti-stoke’s line formed?
5.23 Why the sky appears blue in colour?
5.24 Explain the Raman scattering of light.
5.25 Explain Huygen’s principle.
5.26 On the basis of wave theory, explain total internal reflection.
5.27 What is principle of superposition of waves?
5.28 Give the conditions for sustained interference.
5.29 Derive an expression for bandwidth of interference fringes in Young’s double slit
experiment.
5.30 Discuss the theory of interference in thin transparent film due to reflected light
and obtain condition for the intensity to be maximum and minimum.

225
5.31 What are Newton’s rings? Why the centre of the Newton’s rings is dark?

5.32 Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.

5.33 Discuss the theory of plane transmission grating.
5.34 Describe an experiment to demonstrate transverse nature of light.
5.35 Differentiate between polarised and unpolarised light.
5.36 State and explain Brewster’s law.
5.37 Bring out the difference’s between ordinary and extra ordinary light.
5.38 Write a note on : (a) Nicol prism (b) Polaroid
5.39 What is meant by optical rotation? On what factors does it depend?
Problems
5.40 An LC resonant circuit contains a capacitor 400 pF and an inductor 100 µH. It is
sent into oscillations coupled to an antenna. Calculate the wavelength of the
radiated electromagnetic wave.
5.41 In Young’s double slit experiment, the intensity ratio of two coherent sources are
81 : 1. Calculate the ratio between maximum and minimum intensities.

5.42 A monochromatic light of wavelength 589 nm is incident on a water surface

having refractive index 1.33. Find the velocity, frequency and wavelength of
light in water.
14
5.43 In Young’s experiment a light of frequency 6 × 10 Hz is used. Distance between
the centres of adjacent fringes is 0.75 mm. Calculate the distance between the
slits, if the screen is 1.5 m away.

5.44 The fringe width obtained in Young’s double slit experiment while using a light of
wavelength 5000 Å is 0.6 cm. If the distance between the slit and the screen is
halved, find the new fringe width.

5.45 A light of wavelength 6000 Å falls normally on a thin air film, 6 dark fringes are
seen between two points. Calculate the thickness of the air film.

–4
5.46 A soap film of refractive index 4/3 and of thickness 1.5 × 10 cm is illuminated by
o
white light incident at an angle 60 . The reflected light is examined by a
spectroscope in which dark band

226
 corresponds to a wavelength of 5000 Å. Calculate the order of the dark band.

th
5.47 In a Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of the 20 dark ring was found to be
th
5.82 mm and that of the 10 ring 3.36 mm. If the radius of the plano−convex
lens is 1 m. Calculate the wavelength of light used.

5.48 A plane transmission grating has 5000 lines / cm. Calculate the angular
separation in second order spectrum of red line 7070 Å and blue line 5000 Å.

5.49 The refractive index of the medium is 3 . Calculate the angle of refraction if the
unpolarised light is incident on it at the polarising angle of the medium.

5.50 A 20 cm long tube contains sugar solution of unknown strength. When observed
o
through polarimeter, the plane of polarisation is rotated through 10 . Find the
o
strength of sugar solution in g/cc. Specific rotation of sugar is 60 / decimetre /
unit concentration.

Answers

5.1 (b) 5.2 (a) 5.3 (d) 5.4 (d) 5.5 (a)

5.6 (a) 5.7 (a) 5.8 (c) 5.9 (d) 5.10 (a)

5.11 (a) 5.12 (a) 5.13 (c) 5.14 (a)

5.40 377 m 5.41 25 : 16

8 –1 14
5.42 2.26 × 10 m s , 5.09 × 10 Hz, 4429 Å
5.43 1 mm 5.44 3 mm

–7
5.45 18 × 10 m 5.46 6
o
5.47 5645Å 5.48 15
o
5.49 30 5.50 0.0833 g/cc

227