Conflict Resolution 2

PCR 106
Introduction to Conflict Resolution Processes II
COURSE GUIDE
PCR 106
INTRODUCTION TO CONFLICT RESOLUTION PROCESSES II

Course Developer Dr. Osita Agbu Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, Lagos. Godwin S.M. Okeke University of Lagos Akoka. Dr. Emmanuel R. Aiyede Department of Political Science University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Mr. Oyedolapo B. Durojaye National Open University of Nigeria Lagos.
Course Writer
Course Editor
Course Co-ordinator
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

ii
PCR 106
National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Opposite Arewa Suites Victoria Island Lagos Abuja Annex 245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street Central Business District Abuja e-mail: [email protected] URL: www.nou.edu.ng National Open University of Nigeria 2006 First Printed 2006 ISBN: 978-058-817-5 All Rights Reserved Printed by Michael Olufemi Ventures Ltd. - 08028459472
For National Open University of Nigeria
iii
PCR 106
CONTENTS Introduction.. What you will learn in this course............. Course aims Course objectives.. Working through this course..................................................... Course materials Study units Set textbooks Assignment file Course Overview... Assessment. Tutor-marked assignments (TMAS) Final examination and grading Course marking scheme How to get the most from this course Tutors and tutorials Summary
PAGES 1 1-2 2 2-3 3 3-4 4-5 5 5 6 7 7 7-8 8 8-9 10 10
iv
Introduction
PCR 106: Introduction to Conflict Resolution Processes II introduces you to the various conflict resolution processes. It is a 3- credit units course and is the second part of PCR 605: Introduction to Conflict Resolution Processes I. At the end of the course you are expected to have adequate grasp of the meaning of conflict, the evolution of conflict resolution, what causes conflict, types, and dimensions of conflicts among others. Against this background, you will be equipped with the tools to face everyday practical challenges. This is necessary because in our everyday interactions we are faced with various types of challenges. It requires that we have to make choices among conflicting options. There is also the hard fact that the people we meet and interact with are also interested in the same issue(s) as we are. Then conflict occurs. Conflicts if not well managed can become violent. We have to realize that there is need for the maintenance of law and other for a peaceful society. When we get this at the back of our mind, then we have to be careful the way we conduct ourselves and in our relationship with others. This will reflect in the way we handle issues when we are involved in conflict, either directly or indirectly. It is also important to be mindful of the role(s) we play when we are involved in conflict resolution. This is important because the role(s) we play can go a long way in bringing about peaceful resolution, as well as escalation of the issues, which may result to violence. Here lies the importance of this course, as it is expected to equip the student with the necessary tools to enable you apply the knowledge gained to the utmost benefit. There are compulsory prerequisites for this course. The course guide tells you briefly what the course is all about, what you are expected to know in each unit, what course materials you need to use and how you can work your way through these materials. It also emphasizes the necessity for you to complete the tutor-marked assignments embedded therein. There are also periodic tutorial classes that are linked to this course.
What you will learn in this course

It is important to note that the study of this course is theoretical as well as practical. The theoretical consists of the body of insights, observations, research findings and formal propositions produced by the modern social sciences, especially those that deal with the nature and sources of human conflict and cooperation. It is ironical that most often this body of knowledge is only useful to the academics working on it. Their time is spent working on it, refining the details and trying to spell out the implications for public policy. It could be admitted that many
PCR 106
Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II
aspects of it remain controversial, but occasionally there are efforts made to use it as a remedial prescription for the worlds evils. In this regard, we may note that the ideas of scholars can, and sometimes do, have considerable effect in the world. This may not often be quickly or in the direction intended. More so it works where the leadership has a listening ear and where the academia is revered as the repository of knowledge. The practical consists of a set of procedures for dealing with conflict, especially when they are deep-rooted and frequently violent. The procedures are explicit and require a high level of expertise on the part of those who seek to apply them. There is always reason to believe that they can succeed in their objective if they are sincere. The process may raise difficulties of various kinds. As Christopher Mitchell and Michael Banks have noted, This has to be accepted when any new recommendations are put forward, especially when they confront the great unsolved problems of rebellion, terrorism, communal strife and warfare---in other words, the various forms taken by deep-rooted, protracted conflict.
Course Aims
This course aims to get you acquainted with the extant literature in the conflict resolution processes. From the knowledge gained the student is expected to apply them to the practical challenges of every day living, at home, workplaces etc. This also confers another level of responsibility on you as a responsible member of society to contribute positively in building it. It also includes cultivating friendly relationships in a harmonious environment in order to bring the principles of the conflict resolution processes into fruition, whenever the need arises.
Course Objectives
The overall objectives and expectations of this course are many. In addition to this each unit has its objectives which you will find at the beginning of each unit. You are expected to read them before working through the unit. You may have to cross- check intermittently with the objectives to be able to determine the progress you are making at each point. You are advised to also look at each unit objectives after completing that unit. By following the instructions above, you will be properly guided and this will assist you to get the utmost benefit from this course. Stated below are the overall objectives of this course: 1. Examine how conflict resolution as a field of study evolved;
ii
PCR 106
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Explain why violent conflict constitutes a problem; Define conflict and conflict resolution, and the cause(s) types of conflict; Identify and understand conflict handling styles; Understand the perspectives and be able to apply the approaches to peacemaking; State the methods of conflict analysis, conflict progression and conflict attitude; Understudy and manage anger; To understand the technique of mind control, what it is and its role in conflict resolution processes; Identity the place of conflict mapping in conflict resolution processes; Identify the approaches to decision-making and their application. To understand how trust can be built and the steps; To study and know the differences between the western and African approaches to conflict resolution. To know the significance of mediation in conflict resolution; and To generally know how to manage conflict in community organizations among others.
Working through this Course

To complete this course you are required to read the study units, read recommended books and read other materials provided by the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). Most of the units contain selfassessment exercises, and at points in the course, you are required to submit assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of this course, is a final examination. Stated below are the components of the course and what you are expected to do.
Course materials
Course Guide Study Units Textbooks and other Reference Sources Assignment File Presentation
In addition, you must obtain the text materials, which are provided by the NOUN. You may also want to purchase the other materials from the bookshops. Please, contact your tutor if you have problems in obtaining the text materials.
iii
PCR 106
Study Units
There are 25 Units in this course:
Module 1
Unit 1 Conflict Resolution as a Field of Study Unit 2 What is Conflict? Conflict handling Styles The Conflict Resolution Process
Unit 3 Unit 4
Module 2
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Conflict Escalation Perspective and Approaches to Peacemaking Conflict Resolution in International Relations Methods of Conflict Analysis Anger Management
Module 3
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Technique of Mind Control The Government and Mind Control Conflict Mapping Group Conflict Formation Approaches to Decision Making
Module 4
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Attitude Change and Persuasion Mental and Emotional Preparedness Building Trust Building and Transforming Peace from Below Conflict, Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation: An Overview
Module 5
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Differences between Western and African Approaches Recommendations on African Traditional Methods Facilitative Mediation Process The Mediators Job
iv
PCR 106
Module 6
Unit 1 Unit 2 Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change Practical Insights and Challenges to Conflict Resolution
Set Textbooks
The following books are suggested for further reading: Coleman, James S., (1957) Community Conflict, N.Y: The Free press Monograph Coser, L.A. and Bernard, R. (1964) Sociological Theory: A Book of Readings 2nd Ed. N.Y. Macmillan. Coser, L (1956) The Functions of social conflict, Philadelphia: The Free Press. Weeks, D. (1972) The Eight Essential Steps to Conflict Resolution: Preserving Relationships at work, at Home and in the community, Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher. See also the comprehensive list of reference texts on this course at the end.
Assignment File
In your assignment file, you will find all the details of the work you must submit to your tutor for marking. The marks you obtain for these assignments will count towards the final mark you obtain for this course. Further information on assignments will be found in the Assignment File itself, and later in this Course Guide in the section on assessment. There are many assignments for this course, with each unit having at least one assignment. These assignments are basically meant to assist you to understand the course.
Course Overview
This table brings together the units, the number of weeks it should take you to complete them, and the assignments that follow them. Unit 1 2 Title of work Course Guide Conflict Resolution as a field of study.
v
Weeks Activity
Assessment (end of unit)
PCR 106
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
What is conflict? Conflict handing styles The Conflict Resolution process Conflict Escalation Perspectives and Approaches to Peacemaking Conflict Resolution in International Relations Methods of Conflict Analysis Anger Management Technique of Mind Control The Government and Mind Control Conflict Mapping Group Conflict formation Approaches to Decision making Attitude Change and Persuasion Mental and Emotional Preparedness Building trust Building and Transforming Peace from below Conflict, conflict Resolution and Reconciliation Differences between Western and African Approaches Recommendations on African Traditional Methods Facilitative Mediation Process The Mediators Job Understanding conflict as a strategy in social change Practical insights and challenges to conflict resolution Revision Total
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
Assignment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1 1 1 2 17
11
13
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. First, are the tutor-marked assignments; second, is a written examination. In tackling these assignments, you are expected to apply the information, knowledge and experience acquired during the course. The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the deadlines stated in the Assignment File. The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will account for 30% of your total course mark.
vi
PCR 106
At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final examination of three hours duration. This examination will account for the other 70% of your total course mark.
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMAs)

There are over 21 tutor-marked assignments in this course. The best four (that is, the highest four of the 20 marks) will be counted. Each assignment counts for 20 marks but on the average when the four assignments are put together, then each assignment will count 10% towards your total course mark. This implies that the total marks for the best three (3) assignments, will constitute 30% of your total course mark. The Assignments for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment File. You will be able to complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your set books, reading and study units. However, it is always desirable at this level of your education to research more widely, and demonstrate that you have a very broad and in-dept knowledge of the subject matter. When each assignment is completed, send it together with a TMA (tutor-marked assignment) form to your tutor. Ensure that each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the deadline given in the Assignment File. If, for any reason you cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions will not be granted after the due date unless there are exceptional circumstances warranting such.
Final Examination and Grading

The final examination for PCR 106 Introduction to Conflict Resolution Processes II will be of three hours duration and have a value of 70% practice exercises and tutor-marked assignments you have previously encountered. All areas of the course will be assessed. Use the time between the completion of the last unit and sitting for the examination, to revise the entire course. You may find it useful to review your tutor-marked assignments and comment on them before the examination. The final examination covers information from all aspects of the course.
Course Marketing Scheme

Table 1: Course marking Scheme
vii
PCR 106
ASSESSMENT Assignment Final examination Total
MARKS Best three marks of the Assignments @10% each (on the average) = 30% of course marks 70% of overall course marks 100% of course marks
How to get the most from this course

1. In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecture. This is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to the lecturer. In the same way a lecturer might give you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read, and which are your text materials or set books. You are provided exercises to do at appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise. 2. Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit, and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. These learning objectives are meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is finished, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If this is made a habit, then you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from a reading section. If you run into any trouble, telephone your tutor. Remember that your tutors job is to help you. When you need assistance, do not hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it. Read this Course Guide thoroughly, it is for your first assignment. Organise a Study Schedule Design a Course Overview to guide you through the Course. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to the units. You need to gather all the information into one place, such as your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide on and write in your dates and schedule of work for each unit. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything to stay faithful to it. The major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties with
3. 4. 5. 6.
7.
viii
PCR 106
8. 9. 10. 11.
12.
13.
14.
your schedule, please, let your tutor know before it is too late for help. Turn to Unit 1, and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit. Assemble the study materials. You will need your set books and the unit you are studying at any point in time. Work through the unit. As you work through the unit, you will know what sources to consult for further information. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the assignment carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of the course and, therefore, will help you pass the examination. Submit all assignments not later than the due date. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor. When you are confident that you have achieved a units objectives, you can start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on schedule. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the Assignment is returned, pay particular attention to your tutors comments, both on the tutormarked assignment form and also the written comments on the ordinary assignments. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in the Course Guide).
Tutors and Tutorials

There are 15 hours of tutorial (fifteen sessions) provided in support of this course. You will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutormarked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible.
ix
PCR 106
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board. The following might be circumstances in which you will find help necessary. Contact your tutor ifYou do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings. You have difficulties within the exercises. You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutors comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment. You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face-to-face contact with your tutor and ask questions which are answered instantly.
Summary
PCR 106 aims at equipping you with the skills required in understanding conflict resolution processes. Upon completion of this course, you should be acquainted with the various concepts, and practices of conflict resolution. We wish you success with the course.
PCR 106
MAIN COURSE
Course Code Course Title Course Developer PCR 106 Introduction Processes II to Conflict Resolution
Dr. Osita Agbu Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, Lagos Mr. Godwin S.M. Okeke University of Lagos Akoka Dr Emmanuel R. Aiyede Department of Political Science University of Ibadan, Nigeria Mr. Oyedolapo B. Durojaye National Open University of Nigeria Lagos
Course Writer
Course Editor
Course Co-ordinator
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

xi
PCR 106
National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja Annex 245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street Central Business District Opposite Arewa Suites Abuja e-mail: [email protected] URL: www.nou.edu.ng National Open University of Nigeria 2006 First Printed 2006 ISBN: 978-058-817-5 All Rights Reserved Printed by Michael Olufemi Ventures Ltd. - 08028459472 For National Open University of Nigeria
xii
PCR 106
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 1
Unit 1 Conflict Resolution as a Field of Study .1-11 Unit 2 What is Conflict?................................................. 12-18 Conflict handling Styles. 19-27 The Conflict Resolution Process 28-32
Unit 3 Unit 4
Module 2.. 33
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Conflict Escalation33-38 Perspective and Approaches to Peacemaking...39-46 Conflict Resolution in International Relations..47-55 Methods of Conflict Analysis....56-61 Anger Management...62-76
Module 3..77
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Technique of Mind Control...77-85 The Government and Mind Control..86-92 Conflict Mapping..93-99 Group Conflict Formation.100-108 Approaches to Decision Making...109-117
Module 4...118
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Attitude Change and Persuasion118-124 Mental and Emotional Preparedness.125-133 Building Trust134-142 Building and Transforming Peace from Below143-148 Conflict, Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation: An Overview.149-157
Module 5..158
Unit 1 Differences between Western and African Approaches..158-168
xiii
PCR 106
Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4
Recommendations on African Traditional Methods.169-176 Facilitative Mediation Process..177-187 The Mediators Job.188-200
Module 6. 200
Unit 1 Unit 2 Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change.... 201-206 Practical Insights and Challenges to Conflict Resolution. 207-214
References and Bibliography.215-220
xiv
PCR 106
MODULE 1
Unit 1 Conflict Resolution as a Field of Study Unit 2 What is Conflict? Conflict handling Styles The Conflict Resolution Process
Unit 3 Unit 4
UNIT 1 CONFLICT RESOLUTION AS A FIELD OR STUDY

CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0 Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 The Evolution of Conflict Resolution 3.2 Conceptual Breakthrough in Conflict Resolution 3.3 Burton Vs Dollards Frustration/Aggression Theory 3.4 The Rosernberg model 3.5 Violent Conflict as a problem Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignments References/Further Readings
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Conflict Resolution as a field of study is relatively recent. The need for co-operative behaviour in our homes, schools, work places, warranted an indepth study for the processes that would assist in bringing about a harmonious environment for everyday living. This is why it is necessary at this point to understand how this discipline evolved before we can attempt its definition.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of studying this unit, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. Explain the evolution of conflict resolution as a field of study; Present a scholarly insight into the study of the course as a field of study; and Explain why violent conflict is viewed as a problem.
1
PCR 106
3.0
MAIN BODY 3.1 The Evolution of Conflict Resolution
Michael E. Salla (2000) in a scholarly work Conflict Resolution, Genetics and Alchemy: The Evolution of Conflict Transmutation, gives an indepth account of the evolution of conflict resolution as a field of study. According to him, conflict resolution is simultaneously an ancient and a new field of academic study. It is ancient insofar as humans have always attempted to regulate and settle conflicts by recourse to a variety of strategies. These include rule of law, political agreements, religious authority, and of course brute military force. All of these strategies have, to varying degrees, emphasized the role of abstract principles of justice, morality, and divine guidance in ending conflict. As a new field of study, conflict resolution attempts to move beyond this time honored set of strategies by developing theoretical insights into the nature and sources of conflict and how conflicts can be resolved to bring about durable settlements without the use of military force. The theoretical breakthrough that was to usher in conflict resolution as a social science in the modern era was the insight that 'cooperative conflict behavior' would eventually elicit favorable responses by other parties in a conflict. Competitive conflict behavior, on the other hand, would perpetuate itself and could result in destructive behavior. Such an insight is by no means an original one and can be found in virtually all societies. Indeed, in the New Testament account of Jesus' arrest, one of his disciples took out his sword in defense of Jesus and cut off the ear of one of the soldiers. Jesus admonished his disciple and said that "all who draw the sword will die by the sword." One of the first to develop the insight into the beneficial consequences of cooperation as a subject of academic enquiry was Morton Deutsche who wrote an article in 1949 titled, "A theory of cooperation and competition." In his later book, The Resolution of Conflict (1973), Deutsche was able to develop a much more sophisticated understanding of the processes and forces that lead to competitive or cooperative conflict behaviors. He developed Deutsche's 'crude law of social relations': "the characteristic processes and effects elicited by a given type of social relationship (for example, cooperative or competitive) also tend to elicit that type of social relationship." Deutsche's work set the agenda for conflict resolution until the 1980s and still exerts a powerful influence.
2
PCR 106
3.2
Conceptual Breakthrough in Conflict Resolution
The conceptual breakthrough in discovering the practical benefits of cooperative conflict behavior was a key departure from the ancient set of tools that were based on the assumption that cooperation, while morally desirable, was in many cases politically naive. One needs only look to the criticism Winston Churchill had of his leader, Neville Chamberlain, for cooperating with Adolph Hitler at Munich in 1938 to ward off World War II. The subsequent World War served for decades as a powerful reminder of the folly of believing that cooperation with tyrannical leaders would elicit cooperative responses. This has served to strengthen the belief by political elites that competitive and adversarial conflict behaviors would best serve the interests of their countries, and of course their own political careers. The conceptual insight that cooperation would elicit cooperative behavior by both sides in a conflict was mathematically supported in game theory where conflict resolution practitioners examined a variety of models to understand how parties negotiated in conflicts. It was argued that cooperation showed itself to be the most desirable means of behaving in conflict situations insofar as all sides in a conflict would eventually learn they could optimize their interests by cooperating. During the Cold War era, advocates of conflict resolution argued that the nuclear arms race could be diminished by applying the theoretical insight provided by game theory. Unilateral concessions by one side would eventually elicit, it was argued, similar responses by the other side. Charles Osgood's 1962 model of 'Graduated Initiatives in Tension reduction' (GRIT) exemplified the theoretical insight that cooperative conflict behavior would eventually elicit cooperative responses. The conceptual breakthrough that cooperation was not only morally desirable but also mathematically the means by which one could optimize outcomes, led to more research on why parties behaved competitively despite the advantages provided by cooperation. Human psychology was an important part of the work of the early conflict resolution theorists who invoked such elements as the role of negative stereotypes and enemy images in perceiving and dealing with the enemy. It was argued, for example, that prior to dropping the atomic bombs on Japan, American policy makers had concluded that negotiating Japan's surrender would be ineffective due to the variety of stereotypes through which Japanese leaders were perceived. A result of understanding the benefits of cooperative versus competitive conflict behaviors was that these two categories could be further broken
3
PCR 106
down into a variety of negotiating strategies adopted by conflicting parties. In their immensely popular 1981 book, Getting to Yes, Roger Fisher and William Ury argued that there were essentially three forms of conflict behavior. The first two, 'soft' and 'hard positional bargaining,' resulted in parties either surrendering or defending their respective positions. Hard positional bargaining was competitive, adversarial, and often led to undesirable outcomes for the weaker party. Soft positional bargaining, on the other hand, yielded too much in a negotiation to the stronger party and similarly led to an undesirable outcome. In the third conflict behavior, 'principled negotiation,' parties would instead cooperate in seeking to identify their underlying interests and make these the basis of a solution that would prove durable and satisfactory to both parties. Fisher and Ury broke new ground insofar as they suggested there were no value system that could be invoked as a means of resolving conflict. Cooperation itself became the ultimate value system and was stressed as the critical factor for conflict resolution. Fisher's and Ury's model led to a kind of amoral theoretical approach that has made some feel very uncomfortable with the idea that cooperation itself becomes the ultimate value system in resolving conflict. If there was no ultimate value system, couldn't that lead, in some cases, to parties cooperating to bring about immoral ends on the basis of their underlying interests? If so, what distinguished conflict resolution at the international level from the 'power politics' that sought to justify national interests as the ultimate basis for organizing and settling major international conflicts? Wouldn't the model advocated by Fisher and Ury justify resolutions to a conflict that preserved the interests of self-serving political leaders? For example, at a celebrated meeting between the leaders of Croatia and Serbia shortly after the beginning of war in the former Yugoslav Republic of Bosnia, Presidents Tudjman and Milosevic supposedly carved up Bosnia to suit each other's national interests. What distinguished this act of realpolitik from the principled negotiation of Fisher and Ury? The moral and social justice limitations inherent in Fisher and Ury's interest-based model led to efforts to develop a deeper and more satisfying theoretical basis for conflict resolution. The person who pioneered the next important evolutionary stage in conflict resolution was John Burton. Burton argued that one had to distinguish between the basic needs and interests of parties in a conflict. Basic needs represented the underlying motivations of humans, such as the needs for food, shelter, safety, identity, and love, which could all be satisfied due to the subjective nature of these needs. In contrast, interests were defined more narrowly as anything that could be negotiated by a party without threatening their underlying needs. As Burton writes: "'Disputes' involve
PCR 106
negotiable interests, while 'conflicts' are concerned with issues that are not negotiable, issues that relate to ontological human needs that cannot be compromised." This distinction led to the insight that conflict resolution based on human needs would lead to variable sum or win-win outcomes since no one's basic needs had to be compromised in a conflict. In contrast, an interest based approach to conflict resolution led to fixed-sum outcomes (win-lose) where parties typically had to compromise some of their interests as a result of cooperating to resolve the conflict.
3.3
Burton Vs Dollards Frustration/Aggression Theory
Burton applied John Dollard's theoretical insight that frustrationaggression formed an important causal chain in the emergence of violent conflict. Like Dollard, Burton believed that frustrated needs led to aggressive behavior and were the underlying source of all conflict and violence. In contrast, interests were negotiable, and unsatisfied interests would not necessarily result in aggression and violence. For example, two bordering countries may find themselves in a dispute over fishing quotas in an adjoining sea. One country has a traditional fishing community that relies on fishing while the other has a number of fishing companies that are active in the area. The interests of each country are to maximize the fishing quotas for their respective constituencies. However, the basic need of one country is to maintain the long-term livelihood of its fishing communities while the other wants to protect the commercial viability of its fishing companies. If interests are left unsatisfied, violent conflict will not necessarily occur. If needs are left unsatisfied, then violent conflict is much more likely. Burton's theory was an important advance on the Fisher and Ury model since it was connected to an explicit value system based on non-negotiable basic needs that could satisfy social justice and ethical concerns over the nature of a conflict settlement. Despite clear differences in terms of the underlying value system that underscored Burton's 'needs based' and Fisher and Ury's 'interest based' models of conflict resolution, both models were oriented toward generating cooperative outcomes to a conflict. Both aimed to equip practitioner's parties with the conceptual skills to become problem solvers in the sense of cooperative conflict behavior. It was focus on training individuals to be problem solvers who generate win-win outcomes that led to growing dissatisfaction in the field of conflict resolution. This dissatisfaction resulted in the next stage in the evolution of conflict resolution - conflict transformation. Robert Bush and Joseph Folger explain this evolution in terms of conflict resolution having reached the crossroads of two approaches to conflict:
5
PCR 106
The first approach, a problem solving approach, emphasizes mediation's [conflict resolution's] capacity for finding solutions and generating mutually acceptable settlements....The second approach, a transformative approach to mediation [conflict resolution] emphasizes mediation's [conflict resolution's] capacity forempowering parties to define issues and decide settlement terms for themselves and on helping parties to better understand one another's perspectives. Conflict transformation is concerned primarily with changing the attitudes and perceptions of the parties to one another. The insight here is that merely cooperating to generate 'win-win solutions' to conflict does not change underlying attitudes, which may easily resurface and fuel other conflicts. For example, if we return to the above dispute between two countries over fishing quotas, a solution could be reached that satisfied each country's interests and needs. However, if negative attitudes developed in each country during the conflict are not addressed, these could serve to generate further conflicts some time later. Janice Gross Stein elaborates on this process: Embedded enemy images are a serious obstacle to conflict management, routinization, reduction, or resolution. Once formed, enemy images tend to become deeply rooted and resistant to change, even when one adversary attempts to signal a change in intent to another. The images themselves then perpetuate and intensify the conflict. Merely providing parties with more effective tools to communicate and to develop win-win solutions to conflicts are seen as a short-term solution by advocates of conflict transformation. The conflict, therefore, has to be taken as an opportunity to transform the party's perceptions and feelings to prevent future conflicts. What is needed is a more radical attempt to change the underlying emotions and perceptions that influence the behavior of parties in a conflict. This means effort is needed in systematically getting parties to acknowledge and identify the respective feelings, needs, and perceptions of one another and to seek to improve these. Once these elements in a conflict have been satisfactorily dealt with, the stage is set for dealing with substantive issues. The focus on transforming feelings and perceptions, and recognizing the validity of needs, has led to the idea of empathy being introduced as a fundamental component of conflict resolution. According to Marshall Rosenberg, empathy corresponds to some attempt to acknowledge the feelings and needs of respective parties in a conflict without evaluation or judgment. He believes that if parties in a conflict were able to communicate their needs in ways that did not alienate or antagonize one
PCR 106
another, conflict would be quickly resolved. Rosenberg gives an example of how 'empathic' or 'nonviolent communication' can be used: I was presenting Nonviolent Communication in a mosque at Deheisha Refugee Camp in Bethlehem to about 170 Palestinian Moslem men. Attitudes toward Americans at that time were not favorable. As I was speaking, I suddenly noticed a wave of muffled commotion fluttering through the audience. "They're whispering that you are American!" my translator alerted me, just as a gentleman in the audience leapt to his feet. Facing me squarely, he hollered at the top of his lungs, "Murderer!" Immediately a dozen other voices joined him in chorus: "Assassin!" "Child-killer!" Murderer!" Fortunately, I was able to focus my attention on what the man was feeling and needing. In this case, I had some cues. On the way into the refugee camp, I had seen several empty tear gas canisters that had been shot into the camp the night before. Clearly marked on each canister were the words "Made in USA." I knew that the refugees harbored a lot of anger toward the US for supplying tear gas and other weapons to Israel. I addressed the man who had called me a murderer: I: Are you angry because you would like my government to use its resources differently? ... He: Damn right I'm angry! You think we need tear gas? We need sewers, not your tear gas! We need housing! We need to have our own country! I: So you're furious and would appreciate some support in improving your living conditions and gaining political independence? Our dialogue continued, with him expressing his pain for nearly twenty more minutes, and I listening for the feeling and need behind each statement... An hour later, the same man who had called me a murderer was inviting me to his home for a Ramadan dinner.
3.4
The Rosenberg Model
Rosenberg's model is relatively new, but it promises to play a revolutionary role in changing the way in which children are educated to resolve conflicts and can play a major role in more conventional arenas of conflict resolution.
7
PCR 106
Conflict transformation seeks to work at a much deeper level of the human psyche than the previous models of conflict resolution. For the cooperative model of conflict resolution, stress was on improving the basic communication and negotiation tactics of the parties in order to encourage cooperative conflict behavior that integrates the parties' positions and to achieve a suitable outcome. For the interest-based model, one had to penetrate the surface level of positions and dive into the deeper waters of underlying interests behind the positions to generate win-win outcomes. For the needs-based model, one had to go even deeper into the basic needs that underlie all interests and form the ultimate motivating forces of a conflict in order to achieve just and durable outcomes. The transformative-based model of conflict goes even deeper into the sources of conflict by focusing on the antagonistic perceptions and feelings fueled by frustrated needs of the conflicting parties. This is to accept the idea, initially proposed by Dollard, that the deepest source of conflict comes from a reservoir of frustrated needs. These frustrated needs manifest in terms of antagonistic perceptions and feelings that damage relationships between parties and ultimately fuel conflict and violence. By working with these antagonistic perceptions and feelings arising from frustrated needs, the transformative-based model goes much further in addressing the sources of conflict and therefore offers a more comprehensive model for resolving conflict than other models. The tools developed for this transformative task use a range of strategies from a communication theory, such as Rosenberg's, to conventional religious principles, such as reconciliation and forgiveness, and psychoanalytical techniques developed by conflict intervention practitioners. Empathy is viewed rightly as a powerful tool for dealing with the perceptions and feelings that fuel conflict. Empathy creates an interactive process between parties that encourages individual catharsis thereby releasing powerful negative emotions and perceptions that give rise to destructive conflict behavior. Furthermore, empathy allows individuals to make a connection at the levels of feelings and needs thereby embracing each other's humanity. Empathy, as a cognitive therapeutic mechanism that encourages catharsis and a humanistic connection, however, does have some important limitations. First, it is an interactive process that relies on individuals attempting to identify the respective feelings and needs that underscore a conflict. While this may do wonders in transforming the feelings and perceptions associated with a particular conflict, it only scratches the surface of deep-rooted feelings and perceptions that influence individual conflict behavior both consciously and unconsciously. While one conflict is resolved, and
PCR 106
feelings and needs acknowledged, similar conflict behaviors by the parties may result in further conflict. Essentially, without addressing the ingrained conflict behavior produced as a result of parenting and socialization, one cannot go much deeper than the surface level of feelings and perceptions associated with a current conflict, which may mask deeper feelings and thoughts rooted in the core identity of an individual. Conflict transformation may transform relationships, but it does not go far enough in addressing the underlying sources of conflict behavior. If conflict behavior is genetically recorded, all the models of conflict resolution discussed thus far do not adequately address this fundamental source of conflict behavior. There is a model of conflict resolution that can be used to address the deep emotions and thoughts that arise during a conflict and perpetuate undesirable conflict behavior. This is a model which, Salla (2000) terms 'conflict transmutation' since it uses principles and techniques found in alchemy as a set of contemplative practices that transform deeply encrusted feelings and thoughts that fuel destructive conflict behaviors. Alchemy therefore works at the ultimate substratum of conflict and needs to be more seriously considered in terms of its transformative effect on negative feelings and associated thoughts stored at the cellular level. Salla, offers a glimpse into what an alchemy-based model of conflict resoution would do in transforming basic emotions and thought patterns that influence conflict behavior by introducing insights drawn from the study of genetics. This is therefore a major contribution to the study and evolution of conflict resolution.
3.5
Violent Conflict as a Problem
If we want to understand conflict solution, the logic of the problem solving-approach requires that we think of violent conflict as a problem. Most often we tend to think of, for instance, a particular country that commits an act of untoward aggression. We also view with disdain the actions of a terrorist or focus our attention on the boundary that is in dispute or an economic arrangement that causes injustice and unrest. We may also think of the separate aspects of the overall problem---the violent behaviour involved, the nature of the parties that participate or the incompatible objectives sought. As expected, one of these must be causing the trouble, and has to be dealt with. When our mental frame is conditioned in this manner, three things are possible; 1. The inevitability of the violence, 2. The intransigence of the parties to the dispute, and 3. The intractability of the issues.
9
PCR 106
The coercion that leads to violence is often seen as an unwelcome fact of life, and something that happens regularly within societies and frequently in the international society. This is why the system provides for it and states methods to deal with it. The methods often look unwelcome to those who apply them, at every level, starting from the top decision makers down through civil servants, soldiers, policemen, social workers, or ordinary citizens. As it were, the methods may be unpleasant, but it has to be understood that the problems, intractable issues are made possible by uncivilized people. The procedures that we study therefore suggest a way out of the fatalistic trap. If, for instance, violent conflict is the problem to be solved, then the rest of the problem-solving logic follows. The parties create the problem by their pursuit of incompatible interests or goals. The issue arises when these goals clash with the goals of other parties, and parties respond by taking a hard stance on their goals. Here violent conflict may occur and the problem comes into existence. As Mitchell and Banks (ibid 3) have also noted, ambitions and actions by parties create the problem; not fate, not history, not some invisible and immutable characteristic of society, economy or polity. The parties do it. They do it at all social levels; individual, small group, large group or organization, nation state. In principle, the parties make the problem, they can unmake it
4.0
CONCLUSION
It can therefore be seen from our discussions that conflict resolution studies has become relevant in practice and as a field of study. The various approaches assist us to understand the way and manner to handle the various conflict situations in our affairs and daily activities.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit we have been able to look at the evolution of conflict resolution, the conceptual breakthrough, the theoretical framework, and the various models and approaches, and violent conflict as a problem.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. How can the conflict resolution process be studied? 2. Discuss violent conflict as a problem. 3. Discuss the evolution of conflict resolution.
10
PCR 106
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Morton Dentsch (1973) The Resolution of Conflict Michael E. Salla (2000) Conflict Resolution Genetics and Alchemy: The Evolution of Conflict Transmutation.
11
PCR 106
UNIT 2
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0
THE MEANING OF CONFLICT
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 What is Conflict? 3.2 Causes of Conflict? 3.2.1 Communication 3.2.2 Organizational Structure 3.2.3 Personal Variables 3.3 Types of Conflict 3.3.1 Relationship Conflicts 3.3.2 Data Conflicts 3.3.3 Interest Conflicts 3.3.4 Structural Conflicts 3.3.5 Value Conflicts 3.3.6 Pseudo Conflict 3.3.7 Ego Conflict 3.3.8 Simple Conflict Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Conflict as a phenomenon does not have one generally acceptable definition. There are general definitions and also inter-subjective definitions of conflict. However, one important factor that is common to all of them is that there is no one particular cause of conflict all over the world. There could be several causes to a particular conflict, just as there are many types of conflict.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of studying this unit, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. Define the meaning of conflict Highlight the causes of conflicts Identify the various types of conflict
12
PCR 106
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY What Is Conflict?
Different scholars have defined conflict in many ways. It has been defined as the existence of non-compatibility or disagreements between two actors (individuals, groups, organizations or nations) in their interaction over the issues of interests, values, beliefs, emotions, goals, space, positions, scarce resources, etc. In his work, Fink, defines conflict as any situation or process in which two or more social entities are linked by at least one form of antagonistic psychological relation or at least one form of antagonistic interaction (Fink; 1968:456). The psychological antagonisms are such things as incompatible goals, mutually exclusive interests, emotional hostility, factual or value dissensions and traditional enmities; while antagonistic interactions range from the most direct, violent and unregulated struggle to the most subtle, indirect and highly regulated forms of mutual interference (Ibid). Lewis Coser (1956:8) also defines conflict as A struggle over values and claims to secure status, power and resources, a struggle in which the aims of opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate rivals. Mack and Snyder made serious effort to characterize conflict as follows; 1. There are at least two parties (for analytically distinct units or entities) having some minimum degree of contact and visibility to each other; 2. There is mutually exclusive and/or mutually incompatible values and opposed another or parties, and control values, based on resource scarcity or opposition scarcity; 3 (a) There are behaviours designed to destroy, injure or thwart or otherwise; (b) A relationship in which the parties can gain (relatively) only at each others expense; 4. There are mutually opposed actions; 5. There are attempts to acquire power (to gain control of scarce resources and positions) or to exercise power ( i.e. to affect behaviour in certain directions ) or the actual acquisition or exercise of power. Conflict is a special kind of social interaction process or interaction relationship between parties who have mutually exclusive or incompatible values, a struggle between opposing forces; battle, opposition between ideas, interests, etc. controversy. It is an opposition between two simultaneous but incompatible wishes or impulses,
13
PCR 106
sometimes leading to emotional tension. It could also mean to come into opposition, clash or to fight. Struggle...battle...tension...are words the Collins English Dictionary uses to define conflict. But what are the feelings that define it? People experiencing conflict would refer to shock, betrayal, confusion, hopelessness, doubt, anger and uncertainty. Scholars have adopted several approaches to the study of conflict as a result of the non-acceptability of one single approach to the study. Some scholars have therefore advocated for a multidisciplinary approach to its study. They argue that no existing social science discipline by itself is sufficient to achieve comprehensive theory of conflict. Some scholars also advocate for a generalist approach to the study of conflict. They contend that granted that there should be a multi disciplinary approach to the study of conflict, a direct study of a particular conflict, for instance, international conflict, can not provide every detail to construct a universal theory that could be relevant to every phenomenon. For conflict situation to be possible, two or more parties will have to be interested in one thing which is the cause of conflict.
3.2
Causes of Conflict
Some identifiable causes of conflict include the following: communication failure value differences methodological differences lack of cooperation differences regarding responsibility non-compliance with rules. personality conflict goal differences substandard performance differences regarding authority competition over resources For purposes of analysis of the causes of conflict, it may be useful to identify three general categories: Communication, Organizational and personal.
14
PCR 106
3.2.1 Communication
Semantic difficulties Words do not mean the same thing to everyone who hears or uses them. If the communication is related to an activity that is critical to the organization, a semantic misunderstanding can easily lead to conflict. For instance, Misunderstandings - noise Noise in the communications process can take a number of forms. Most obviously, noise is physical - the parties in the organization cannot hear one another because too many people are talking at once, there is a radio blaring in the background, or the construction workers on the street are using a jackhammer. Noise also comes in the form of distorted signals the fax message is misunderstood because poor quality fax paper makes it difficult to read the letters on the page.
3.2.2 Organizational Structure

Group interdependence The greater the degree of interdependence, the greater is the likelihood of communication difficulties Greater interdependence also increases the possibility that the parties need to share resources. If these resources are scarce, the probability of conflict is increased.
3.2.3 Personal Variables

Personality types Value systems
Personality types contribute to conflict in the sense that we are different human beings. Our personalities are different and the way we want to be identified also differ, and if we do not take time to understudy or recognize it we are bound to misunderstand each other and this may lead to conflict. In essence, we have to understand that we have personality types and the roles we play are important in the identification of our personality. Value systems also differ in our daily interactions with each other and the way and manner we prioritize our values are also different. This also requires that since values are often incompatible, we have to meet each other half way or else conflict is bound to occur. Mr. As priority may be to buy a car, and Mr. Bs priority may be to build a house. Mr. A and B therefore have different values. If however Mr. A is indebted to Mr.
15
PCR 106
B, he faces a personality value conflict of either paying his debt or have the payment put off till a later date. If Mr. B who has a value of building a house first gets to know that Mr. A who is owing him is about to buy a car without settling the debt owed him, this may lead to conflict and dispute between them.
3.3
Types of Conflict
By evaluating a conflict according to the five categories below relationship conflict data, interest, structural and value we can begin to determine the cause of conflict and design resolution strategies that will have a higher probability of success.
3.3.1 Relationship Conflicts

Relationship conflicts occur because of the presence of strong negative misperceptions or stereotypes, poor communication or miscommunication, repetitive negative behaviors. Relationship problems often fuel disputes and lead to an unnecessary escalating spiral of destructive conflict. Supporting the balanced expression of perspectives and emotions for acknowledgement (no one agreement) is one effective approach to managing relational conflict.
3.3.2 Data Conflicts

Data conflicts occur when people lack information necessary to make wise decisions, are misinformed, disagree on which data is relevant, interpret information differently, or have competing assessment procedures. Some of the conflicts may be unnecessary since they are caused by poor communication between the people in conflict. Other data conflicts may be genuine incompatibilities associated with data collection, interpretation or communication. Most data conflicts will have data solutions.
3.3.3 Interest Conflicts

Interest conflicts are caused by competition over perceived incompatible norms. Conflicts of interest result when one or more of the parties believe that in order to satisfy his or her needs, the needs and interests of an opponent must be sacrificed. A variety of interests and intentions underlie and motivate positions in negative and must be addressed for maximized resolution. Interest-based conflicts occur over substantive issues (such as money, physical resources, time, etc. procedural issues (the way the dispute is to be resolved); and psychological (perceptions of trust, fairness, desire for participation, respect, etc.). For an interestbased dispute to be resolved, parties must be assisted to define and
16
PCR 106
express their individual interests so that all of these interests may be jointly addressed. Interest-based conflict is best resolved through the maximizing of integration of the parties respective interests, positive intentions and designating experiential outcomes.
3.3.4 Structural Conflicts

Structural conflicts are caused by forces external to the people in dispute. Physical resources or authority, geographic constraints (distance or proximity, time too little or too much) organizational changes, and so forth can make structural conflict seem like a crisis. It can be helpful to assist parties in conflict to appreciate the external forces and constraints bearing upon them.
3.3.5 Value Conflicts

Value conflicts are caused by perceived or actual incompatible belief system. Values are beliefs that people use to give meaning to their lives. Values express what is good or bad, right or wrong, just or unjust. Differing values need not cause conflict. People can live together in harmony with different systems. Value disputes arise only when people attempt to force one set of values on others or lay claim to exclusive value systems that do not allow for divergent beliefs. It is of no use to try to change value and belief systems during relating short and strategic mediation interventions. It can, however, be helpful to each participants expression of their values and beliefs for acknowledgement to the other party. Other types of conflict include:
3.3.6 Pseudo Conflict

Which refers to those misunderstandings in which we perceive that there is a conflict when there is none. For instance, Peter and John may agree upon a topic but not realize this. They are interpreting one anothers messages as being counter to their own messages. This failure to understand and to realize their misunderstanding creates relational conflict. Solution lies in listening mindfully and checking your perceptions with your partner. Try to avoid assumptions and mind reading.
3.3.7 Ego Conflict

Occurs when we are emotionally interested in a decision. We believe that if others disagree with us, they are rejecting us. Thus, we become stubborn, willful, and proud. Solution lies in recognizing that conflicts
17
PCR 106
that occur between the best of friends. No one will agree with another all the time. Disagreements are not an indication that the relationship is in trouble. Learn to apologize and to take responsibility for creating an ego conflict.
3.3.8 Simple Conflict

This is a difference of opinion that both parties recognize, acknowledge and accept. The conflict may be over how to share limited resources, whom to support in an election, or where to dine. Solution lies in agreeing in an agreeable manner. If the issue is minor, it is easier to compromise or accommodate. If the issue is major, its better to collaborate to resolve the conflict.
4.0
CONCLUSION
In conclusion we could find out that although there are no generally acceptable definitions of conflict, but at least we can identify the causes. More so there is no one particular cause for all conflicts. A particular conflict may have many issues as contributory factors to the cause of such conflicts. One common denominator among all conflicts is that there is an incompatibility of interest between two or more contending parties.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit we have looked at the meaning of conflict, its causes and types. This is necessary in order to enable us understand the nature of conflicts and why they occur. 6.0
1. What are the approaches to the study of conflict? 2. What are the causes of conflict that you know? 3. Discuss the various types of conflict that you have studied.
7.0
REFERENCE/FURTHER READINGS
Coser, L. (1956) The Function of Social Conflict, Philadelphia: The Free Press. Cook, J.B. (1975) Compromise, Conflict and perspective, Dept., of Regional and Community Affairs, College of Public and Community service, University of Missouri.
18
PCR 106
UNIT 3
CONFLICT HANDLING STYLES
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Conflict Handling Styles 3.1.1 Key Lessons 3.2 Causes of Conflict 3.3 Myths about Conflict 3.4 Defining Conflict Levels 3.5 Conflict Handling styles 3.5.1 Conflict Handling 3.5.2 Prevention of Conflict 3.5.2 Management of Conflict Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignments References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Handling of conflict is not an easy task. That is why it must be taken seriously. In our homes, work places, various organizational settings, etc, conflicts/disagreements are bound to occur. We have to introduce methods and create avenues that would make for peaceful settlement of the disagreements or disputes. We also need to understand the circumstances involved and the myth about it, and be able to define the levels in order to have at least a reasonable outcome.
2.0
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this unit you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. Describe how to handle conflicts; Explain the causes of conflicted how to handle them; and Identify the different conflict handling styles
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Conflict Handling Styles
In an organizational setting, most employers would agree they spend too much time dealing with disagreements, differences, and other conflicts that arise in the workplace. Conflict Resolution Styles drives home the
19
PCR 106
message that we usually cant avoid ignoring these conflicts, but we can learn how to deal with them. It is a powerful tool for teaching employees how to handle conflict and minimize the stress, frustration, anxiety, and sleeplessness it can cause. The video is also a strong way to head off the potential high costs to business when conflict is not recognized ranging from avoidance and third-party mediation to physical threat and violence. Conflict Resolution styles uses real life, emotionally charged business scenarios to demonstrate and discuss five different approaches to handling conflict: Accommodate (I lose, you win) You put aside your needs and desires and give in to the other persons demands. Avoid (I lose, you lose) You avoid, postpone, or prevent a conflict and neither party wins because the conflict remains unresolved. Compromise (We both win, we both lose) You resolve the conflict quickly and efficiently by seeking a fair and equitable split between your respective positions. Compete (I win, you lose) You seek to win your position at the expense of the other party. Collaborate (I win, you win) You cooperate with the other party to find a resolution with a mutually satisfying outcome. We can use Conflict Resolution styles to encourage discussion among employees of: How they define a conflict situation The types of conflicts that arise in their workplace How they typically handle these conflicts Examples of when they have used each style Situations that could have been handled better using another conflict resolution style and why.
3.1.1 Key lessons

Everyone encounters situations where they must handle some type of conflict. Most people favor one conflict-handling style, but there is no onesize-fits-all response to conflict. Employees who master all five responses to conflict, assess each situation, and choose the most appropriate response style are most successful at resolving conflict.
3.2
20
Causes of Conflict
PCR 106
Most psychology books suggest that conflicts come from two tendencies: approach and avoidance. To approach is to have a tendency to do something or to move in a direction that will be pleasurable and satisfying. To avoid is to resist doing something, perhaps because it will not be pleasurable or satisfying. These two categories produce three kinds of conflicts: * * * Approach-Approach Conflict - this is due to the pursuit of desirable but incompatible goals. Approach-Avoidance Conflict - here is a desire both to do something and not to do it. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict - here there are two alternatives, both of which may be unpleasant.
Duffy Robbins in Youth Ministry Nuts and Bolts lists some of the causes of conflict: a lack of communication, a lack of understanding, ambiguous lines of authority, conflict of interest, disagreement on issues, the need for agreement, generational differences, theological disagreements, diversity in perspective, majoring in minors, environment and a lack of relationships.
3.3
Myths about Conflict
Myth1: Conflict can never lead to anything positive While confrontation is a risk, it is often a learning experience for those involved. Myth2: Conflicts are the result of clashing personalities Personalities do not conflict, behaviours do! Different people can work together for years without having conflict - until their behaviour conflicts. Differentiating personality from behaviour makes conflict manageable because if conflict is based on personalities, we can do little else but bear it. Myth 3: Conflict and anger go together Conflict with people does not mean that there is anger involved. There is a whole range of emotions that surface in conflict situations.
3.4
Defining Conflict Levels
Speed Leas and Paul Kittlaus, in Church Fights, distinguish three ways in which conflict is experienced: (1) Intrapersonal conflict (when a person has internal conflict); (2) Interpersonal conflict (when
21
PCR 106
personalities clash); and (3) Substantive conflict (disputes over facts, values, goals and beliefs). Duffy Robbins, Youth Ministry Nuts & Bolts, mentions four levels of conflict, that are actually four levels of substantive conflict: Level 1: Facts or Data - This level of conflict occurs when two parties simply have different information. This is the easiest kind of conflict to resolve. To resolve this conflict leaders simply ensure that both parties have the same information. Level 2: Processes or Methods - This level occurs when there is a difference of opinion over how things should be done. Because the issue here is how do we get there? rather than where should we go? compromise is usually a realistic option. Level 3: Goals or Purpose - On this level, parties cannot agree on a common goal. Negotiations at this level take patience and skill. Often youth leaders withdraw from this kind of conflict because they are not of the temperament to work through the hard issues and avoid the uncomfortable dialogues that accompany the resolution of conflict at this level. Level 4: Values - The deepest and most serious conflict relates to values - the parties disagree about basic meanings. Any resolution at this level is almost impossible. Defining the level of conflict can lead to the selection of appropriate responses to conflict resolution. But often what leaders think is the level is just a screen for a deeper level of conflict. One situation may include several different levels of conflict.
3.5
Conflict Handling Styles
As with leadership styles, different writers present models of conflict handling styles and it seems that there is not a best conflict handling styles but a best style for a given situation. A few models will be considered, together with an indication of when the style is most appropriate: A. McSwain and Treadwell, in Handbook of Practical Theology, suggest five styles: (1) The Problem Solver - refuses to deny or flee the conflict, presses for conversation and negotiation of the conflict until a satisfactory conclusion is reached. Most effective with groups
22
PCR 106
that share common goals and whose conflict stems from miscommunication. (2) The Super Helper - they constantly work to help others and give little though to self. This is the Messiah who is often passive in his/her own conflicts but always assists others to solve their conflicts. This style is to be avoided as you must deal with personal conflicts to effectively help others. The Power Broker - For this person, solutions are more important than relationships. Even if a person leaves the group, as long as a solution was achieved, they are satisfied. It can be used when substantive differences are so contradictory that mutually inclusive goals are not possible. The Facilitator - they adapt to a variety of situations and styles in order to achieve a compromise between competing factions. It is effective for conflicts where differences are attitudinal or emotional. The Fearful Loser - this person runs from conflict probably because they are personally insecure. This tends to produce hostility and a weakening of leadership.
(3)
(4)
(5)
B. Speed Leas in Discover Your Conflict Management Style, mentions six styles: (1) Persuading - trying to change anothers point of view, way of thinking, feelings or ideas. Techniques used include: rational approaches; deductive and inductive arguments; and other verbal means. Persuade when there is great trust; when one party is admired; when goals are compatible; and when one party does not have strong opinions on the subject. Compelling - the use of physical or emotional force, authority or pressure to oblige or constrain someone to act in a desired way. Use compelling infrequently; when you are threatened or under attack; when rights are being violated; when you have authority to demand compliance; when there is inadequate time to work through differences; and when all other means have failed. Avoiding - This is actually a category that combines four styles: avoidance (to evade or stay away from conflict); ignoring (act as if the conflict is not going on); fleeing (actively remove oneself from the arena in which conflict might take place); and accommodation (going along with an opposition to keep the
(2)
(3)
23
PCR 106
relationship). Strategies include: procrastination; saying yes to requests but not acting on them; showing concern for the other without responding to the problem; resigning; and studying the problem with no intention of doing anything about it. Avoid this style when people are fragile or insecure; when they need space to cool down; when there is conflict on many fronts simultaneously; when differences are trivial; when parties are unable to reconcile differences; and when the relationship is unimportant. (4) Collaborating - This is a process of co-labouring with others to resolve difficulties that are being experienced. It is also called joint or mutual problem solving. Collaborate when people are willing to play by collaboration rules; when there is plenty time for discussion; when the issue lends itself to collaboration; where resources are limited and negotiation would be better; and when conflict and trust levels are not too high. Negotiating - Also called bargaining, this involves collaborating with lower expectations. It is a process where both sides try to get as much as they can, realising there must be give and take. Where collaboration is a win/win strategy, negotiation is a sorta-win/ sorta-lose strategy. Negotiate when there is something that can be divided or traded; when compelling is not acceptable and collaboration has been tried and failed; when all parties are willing to bargain; when the different parties have equal power; and when trust is high. Supporting - Here one person will provide a support to the person who is experiencing conflict. It involves strengthening, encouraging or empowering one party so they can handle their difficulties. Support when the problem is the responsibility of someone else; when a party brings problems outside of your relationship with them; and when one party in the conflict is unwilling to deal with issues.
(5)
(6)
A third model focuses on the tension between relationships and goals in conflict handling. When a leader becomes engaged in a conflict there are two major concerns to deal with: (a) achieving personal goals and (b) preserving the relationship. The importance of goals and relationships affect how leaders act in a conflict situation. Given these two concerns the following five styles of managing conflict are found:
24
PCR 106
(1)
Withdrawing - people with this style tend to withdraw in order to avoid conflicts. They give up their personal goals and relationships; stay away from the issues over which the conflict is taking place and from the people they are in conflict with; and believe it is hopeless to try to resolve conflicts. They believe it is easier to withdraw (physically and psychologically) from a conflict than to face it. Forcing - people in this category try to overpower opponents by forcing them to accept their solution to the conflict. Their goals are highly important but the relationship is of minor importance. They seek to achieve their goals at all costs; are not concerned with the needs of other people and do not care if other people like or accept them. They assume that conflicts are settled by one person winning and the other losing. While winning gives them a sense of pride and achievement, losing gives them a sense of weakness, inadequacy, and failure. They try to win by attacking, overpowering, overwhelming, and intimidating other people. Smoothing - for those who fall into this category, the relationship is of great importance, while their own goals are of little importance. They want to be accepted and liked by other people; they think that conflict should be avoided in favour of harmony and believe that conflicts cannot be discussed without damaging relationships. They are afraid that if the conflict continues, someone will get hurt and that would ruin the relationship. They give up their goals to preserve the relationship. They try to smooth over the conflict in fear of harming the relationship. Compromising - people with this style are moderately concerned with their own goals and about their relationships with other
25
(2)
(3)
(4)
PCR 106
people. They seek a compromise. They give up part of their goals and persuade the other person in a conflict to give up part of their goals. They seek a solution to conflicts where both sides gain something. (5) Confronting - people in this category highly value their own goals and relationships. They view conflicts as problems to be solved and seek a solution that achieves both their own goals and the goals of the other person in the conflict. They believe conflict improves relationships by reducing tension between people. By seeking solutions that satisfy both themselves and the other person they maintain the relationship. They are not satisfied until a solution is found that achieves their own goals and the other persons goals and they want all tensions and negative feelings to be fully resolved.
3.5.1 Conflict Handling

There are two dimensions to handling conflict: prevention and management.
3.5.2 Prevention of Conflict

Applying good management principles in ministry and building quality relationships with people will help to prevent or at least lessen conflict.
3.5.3 Management of Conflict

In spite of the best efforts at prevention, conflict does arise. The secret is to learn to cope positively with conflict, and not to see it as an enemy to peace, but an opportunity for growth in relationships. Jesus gave an example of how to manage conflict. In John 2:13-17 he drives the money changes out of the Temple. The point here is not that leaders should take a whip to people they have conflict with, but that there are a number of ways in which leaders could deal with conflict and one that they should follow as they handle problem situations. In (1) - (3) the problem is left intact, while the leaders course of activity is changed. They adapt to the problem, i.e. the problem changes them! In (4) the problem is dealt with - problems need to be solved and not adapted to!
26
PCR 106
4.0
CONCLUSION
We can understand from the ongoing that the success or failure recorded in handling any particular conflict is determined by the style we apply and how suitable the style is in handling that particular conflict. Just as we argued in unit one that there is no generally acceptable definition of conflict there in also no one particular style that can be used to handle every conflict.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit discussed different conflict handling styles, the myths about conflict, and the definition of different conflict levels.
6.0
1. 2. 3. 4.
What are the steps to conflict resolution? Discuss the various conflict handling styles that you have studied. How can conflict be ameliorated? What is the myth about conflict?
7.0
Coser, L. (1956) The Function of Social Conflict, Philadelphia: The Free Press. Cook, J.B. (1975) Compromise, Conflict and perspective, Dept., of Regional and Community Affairs, College of Public and Community service, University of Missouri.
27
PCR 106
UNIT 4 CONTENT
1.0 2.0 3.0
THE CONFLICT RESOLUTION PROCESS
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 The Conflict Resolution Process 3.1.1 Clarify Goals 3.1.2 Reconcile Differences 3.1.3 Resolve Conflict 3.2 Assess Potential Conflict 3.3 Diffuse public conflict 3.4 Solve conflict problems Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked assignments References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The conflict resolution process is a painstaking event. It requires that we have to be careful so that we do not worsen the conflict situation. This is why it is necessary to understand the proper steps that will lead us to achieve positive results in solving conflict or conflict related problems. We must then digest the issues raised here accordingly.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
The objectives are as follows: 1. 2. To get introduced to the conflict resolution process; Identify the steps to resolving conflicts and apply them appropriately.
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY The Conflict Resolution Process
Parties should be asked to describe recent disagreements. What were the issues, who was involved, and how was the conflict handled? What are the differences between conflicts that were handled efficiently and those that were not? Can you see conflict styles evolving? With answers to questions like these the parties will be ready to work on clarifying goals, reconciling differences, and finding ways to resolve conflicts.
28
PCR 106
3.1.1 Clarify Goals

When people are in conflict they usually share many of the same goals in spite of their differences. Both sides usually want to see the conflict resolved in a way that will be mutually agreeable, beneficial to both, and inclined to enhance the relationship so that future communication will improve. The youth leader should try to discourage bargaining over positions and work from the basis of the common goals that people are striving for. People should first be reminded of the goals that they share, and then their differences discussed.
3.1.2 Reconcile Differences

The guidelines for reconciling differences are: Step 1: Take the initiative and go to the person who has wronged you This should be done in person and in private. In making this move, it is best if the person goes with a spirit of humility, with a willingness to listen, with a determination to be non-defensive and to forgive. Step 2: Take witnesses If the person will not listen or change, a return visit with one or two witnesses becomes necessary. These people are to listen, evaluate, determine facts and try to arbitrate and bring a resolution to the dispute. Step 3: Tell it to the organization you belong to. If the other person who has been visited still refuses to listen, change, or cooperate in resolving the dispute, they may be excommunicated from the organization.
3.1.3 Resolve Conflicts

When individuals or groups are in conflict, they have four main choices about the direction they will take. They may avoid conflict, maintain, escalate, or reduce it. Sometimes people do not want conflict resolution and may decide to go in different directions. Conflict resolution will involve the youth leader in negotiation and mediation. It is not always wise for leaders to get involved in someone elses conflict even when they are asked to do so, as they will feel pressurised to take sides; be required to make quick analytical decisions; and be responsible for keeping communication open. When youth leaders do choose to get involved they should try to: show respect for both parties; understand both positions without taking sides; reassure people and give them hope; encourage open communication and mutual listening; focus on things that can be changed; try to keep the conflict from escalating; summarise
29
PCR 106
the situation and positions frequently; and help the parties find additional help if the mediation is not effective. Some negotiators use the following four-step method in conflict resolution: Step 1: Separate the people from the problem This means treating one another with respect, avoiding defensive statements, name- calling, or character judgments, and giving attention instead to the issues. Each side should be encouraged and helped to understand the others fears, perceptions, insecurities and desires. Parties should think of themselves as partners in a side-by-side search for a fair agreement which is advantageous to each side. Step 2: Focus on the issues, not the positions When people identify the real issues and stop trying to defend rigid positions they are on their way to resolve their conflict. Step 3: Think of various options that might solve the problem In the beginning there is no attempt to evaluate the options or to arrive at a single solution. Each side makes suggestions in a brainstorming session. After a number of creative and perhaps new alternatives have been proposed, each option can be evaluated. Step 4: Insist on objective criteria Conflict is less likely to occur if both sides agree beforehand on an objective way to reach a solution. If both sides agree to abide by the results of a coin toss, a judges ruling, or an appraisers evaluation, the end results may not be equally satisfying to both parties but everybody agrees on the solution because it was determined by objective, fair and mutually accepted methods. William Willimon, in Handbook of Practical Theology, suggests the following guidelines for the early stages of resolving conflict:
3.2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Assess Potential Conflict

Obtain as much information as possible - many conflicts are the result of misinformation. Buy as much time as possible - delay as a means of creative avoidance to gain time to act wisely. Assess individuals involved in the conflict - what are their motives? Take the emotional temperature of the conflict - humour or distraction may lower anger levels.
30
PCR 106
3.3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Diffuse Public Conflict

Inform the whole group of the facts of the situation to help with later decision making. Find out about the history of the conflict from those concerned. Engage those in conflict with people who can help them reach a constructive engagement. Delay action until there has been time to attempt to manage the conflict.
3.4
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Solve Conflict Problems

Consider all the gathered facts, feelings and opinions about the conflict. List options to the problem, considering possible positive and negative consequences of each. List the options in the order of priority. De- personalise the options to avoid focus on the personalities of those involved. Develop a consensus for the option that most resolves the conflict, even if it involves compromise
4.0
CONCLUSION
We can then understand that for conflict resolution to be successful we have to see it as a painstaking enterprise. It requires that we have to put in our best in order to make sure that we at least get nearest to justice at times and be able to reach decisions that are generally acceptable to the parties in conflict.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit we have been able to treat conflict resolution processes, assess potential conflict, diffuse public conflict and solve conflict problems.
6.0
1. 2.
Discuss the relevant issues in the conflict resolution process. What steps can you take in resolving an ideal conflict situation?
31
PCR 106
7.0
REFERENCES/FURTHERREADINGS
Coser, L. (1956) The Function of Social Conflict, Philanphia: The Free Press. Cook, J.B. (1975) Compromise, Conflict and perspective, Dept., of Regional and Community Affairs, College of Public and Community services., University of Missouri.
32
PCR 106
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4
Unit 5
Conflict Escalation Perspective and Approaches to Peacemaking Conflict Resolution in International Relations Methods of Conflict Analysis
Anger Management
UNIT 1
CONFLICT ESCALATION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Conflict Escalation 3.2 Nine Stages of Conflict Escalation 3.3 Conflict as a case study 3.4 Brainstorming Escalators 3.5 Brainstorming De-escalations 3.6 Role play Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Often, when there is a conflict situation, we get confused because of improper knowledge of the cause, the parties involved and probably the dilemma faced when escalation occurs. This could be dangerous if the conflict gets out of control, which may lead to fewer alternatives on how to handle it, etc. It therefore requires careful study on how to handle a volatile situation when one occurs.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Explain conflict escalation and de-escalation; and 2. Highlight the steps of escalation.
33
PCR 106
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Conflict Escalation
Escalation of violence is often described as a security dilemma, the situation that occurs when both sides attempt to pre-empt aggression by the other. Information failures, in which neither side is precisely sure of the plans or intentions of the other, lead defensive actions by order to be perceived as offensive by the other. Leaders believe that they have no other choice than to match or surpass actions taken by the other, leading to a cycle that can quickly spinout of control (Posen). Kriesberg attributes such a spiral of violence to the logic of contentious interaction; a mutual expectation by the conflicting parties that the other side is only targeting at power and therefore, the only way they can be prevented is by even greater coercion. When a side thus increases the pressure, such expectations become self-fulfilled. The rise in terror and the toll of violence also leads to the expansion of the issues (or the addition of new issues under contention. Whereas before violence begins a disputed territory can seem perfectly divisible, as a result of the fighting the disputed land may be endowed with symbolic value and be prized even more since denying it to the enemy is in itself gratifying. Escalating conflicts are also dangerous because conflicts can get out of control; fewer and fewer alternatives for action are available; violence is increasingly viewed as potential action and used; victory or defeat of the opponent is pushed into the foreground and no longer the search for common solutions; the conflict becomes personal; emotions take the upper hand; destruction and extermination become the main objective of action. Friedrich Glasl defines nine stages of conflict escalation to describe the dynamics of escalation. A central task within the framework of constructively dealing with conflicts is to compare escalations in conflict with the various stages of de-escalation, and find answers and potential for action at all stages, in order to limit violence or exclude it altogether and make cooperation and solutions for negotiating the aim. Sensitivity and a realistic perception of the events of the conflict are just as important.
34
PCR 106
3.2
The Nine Stages of Conflict Escalation According to Friedrich Glasl

1. Calcification: standpoints calcify and take on a collision course. Awareness of the impending impact leads to agitation. Despite this, the conviction still remains that tension can be dissipated through discussion. The parties or positions are still mobile. Debate: polarization of thought, emotion and will takes place. Thinking in terms of black and white occurs along with a viewpoint of superiority and inferiority. Action: the idea that talking no longer helps and the strategy of fait accompli gains in importance. Empathy for the other side diminishes, and the danger of wrong interpretations grows. Images/Coalitions: rumors spread, stereotypes and clichs are formed. The parties maneuver each other into negative positions and fight. A search for supporters takes place. Loss of face: open and direct aggression (unlawful) ensues which aims to cause the opponents loss of face. Threat as a strategy: threats and counter threats increase. Escalation of the conflict accelerates due to ultimatums being made. Limited attempts to overthrow the opponent: the opponent is no longer viewed as a person. Limited attempts to overthrow the opponent are seen as a fitting and carried out. Reciprocating values: relatively slight personal damage is seen as a victory. Dissipation: the destruction and dissolution of the hostile system is pursued intensively as a goal. Together into the abyss: total confrontation ensues and there is no way back. Extermination of the opponent at the price of self-extermination is seen as accepted.
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
7.
8. 9.
3.3
Conflict as a case study.
Two teachers act out an argument. For example, we like to use an argument concerning which teacher is supposed to teach the next part of
35
PCR 106
the lesson: accusations fly and an argument ensues. This conflict should escalate into insults and eventually into a fight (or with one teacher storming out of the room.) You can incorporate interrupting, name calling, lying, talking at the same time, disrespect, yelling, and violating confidentiality (spilling secrets). Try to end the fight with a physical threat, after which you pause, break character and discuss what just happened. Make sure to define the action as a conflict. 1. Conflicts have different stages. a. b. c. d. The Cause -- an obviously minor problem Accusation Defense -- counter-accusation Verbal arguments which escalate into physical confrontation.
3.4
A.
Brainstorming Escalators
Attempt to create a definition for escalation. A conflict escalator is something which causes a conflict to get more intense, more quickly. In other words (that the students will remember), an escalator makes the problem worse. Examine what are some actions or conditions which cause conflicts to escalate. (These are the arrows on the staircase. An escalator makes the situation rise on the conflict staircase.) You may want to start the brainstorming session by asking the following questions: What caused the conflict to get worse? Ask the students what did each person do to cause the conflict to escalate (i.e., not listening, insults, getting into each others faces ...
C.
B.
What are some other escalators that make conflicts intensify?
Some examples are provided below. Fear Peer Pressure Weapons Pride Tone of voice Facial Expressions other Drugs Alcohol Self-esteem Bad Communication Body language Proximity to the actor
36
PCR 106
3.5
A.
Brainstorming De-Escalators
Students will examine what are some actions or conditions which cause conflicts to de-escalate. Ask the students what are some different courses that could have been taken so that the fight between the two teachers could have been avoided. Go through the steps of the staircase, asking students each step what could have been done to resolve the conflict at that point. Emphasize that you have the choice to resolve conflicts at any point in the argument. Ask the students to suggest ways in which conflicts can be resolved. We will call these things de-escalators. Conflict de-escalators help to keep the conflict from getting worse and sometimes even resolve conflicts. Ask the students what could each person do in order to resolve the conflict (i.e., listening, compromising, thinking from the other persons point of view...)? Write these on the board. Write a list of these de-escalators on the board. Some examples are provided below. -Listening -Tone of Voice -Compromise -Letting the other person speak -Relaxing -Thinking from the other persons POV -Respect -Not telling the other person that they are wrong
B.
C.
3.6
Role-Play
The goal of this activity is to examine how different escalators & deescalators affect a conflict. A. Short Role Play: This role play takes place in the cafeteria. Student A always sits in a particular seat, but one day s/he arrives to find that Student B has taken his seat. In the first scene, there is no escalation. The conflict begins with student A saying to student B you took my seat, but does not escalate. One of the teachers stops the scene and says that it needs something else.
B.
37
PCR 106
C.
She/he decides to throw in an escalator and asks the class for a suggestion from the list the board.
The teachers role plays the same scenario, using the escalators. The students should observe how this escalator changes the dynamics of the situation. Stop role-playing when the conflict has escalated to a sufficient point and discuss with the class how the escalator affected the conflict. Were the initial escalators the only ones used? Did the initial escalators lead to new escalators? How? How did the actors react to the escalators?
4.0
CONCLUSION
The nature of conflict requires that if we have to achieve a reasonable measure in solving the problem, then there is the need to be very careful. This could be the reason why we often run into problems or get confused we conflicts occur or we run into one. The stages outlined above could therefore be of help in understanding conflict escalation situations.
5.0
SUMMARY
We have treated conflict escalation, stages of conflict escalation, conflict as a case study, Brainstorming escalation, brainstorming de-escalation and role play.
6.0
1. 2. 3.
How do specific escalators make a situation worse? Give reasons why conflict escalation is dangerous. Discuss the 9 stages of conflict escalation according to Friedrich Glasl.
7.0
Gur, Ted and Charles Rutenberg (1967) The Conditions of Civil Violence: First Test of Causal model, Princeton, University
38
PCR 106
UNIT 2
PERSPECTIVES AND APPROACHES TO PEACEMAKING
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Perspectives and Approaches to peace making 3.2 Druckman and Decision Making 3.3 Bercovitch and Effective Mediation Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Decision-making requires a lot of things to be able to take the right decisions. This is why it is very important to be exposed to scholarly insights in this regard. We cannot take quality decisions if we do not have total grasp and knowledge of the intricacies in decision-making. Equipped with adequate tools, our decisions can play a major role in bringing about effective mediation in the conflict resolution process.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Explain the processes of decision-making and effective mediation; and 2. Describe the behaviour of mediators in conflict resolution scenarios.
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Perspectives and Approaches to Peacemaking
A group of scholars have ex-rayed approaches, methods and techniques to peacemaking in international conflict and we think it is important to discuss their views in this aspect in order to acquaint ourselves with the trends of thoughts of the leading scholars in this area. According Daniel Druckman in Negotiating in the International Context, four frameworks dominate research on negotiation. Druckman briefly describes each. He then outlines some of the points of agreement among the frameworks, and considers the usefulness of frameworks
39
PCR 106
generally. The essay concludes by suggesting ways to make scholarly research relevant to the practitioner. Game and decision theory views negotiation as a form of puzzle solving. Research employs scenarios such as the Prisoner's Dilemma, and focuses on how individuals make decisions under conditions of uncertainty, or when the choices are contingent on other people's actions. Other research views negotiation as a bargaining game, and focuses on when and why parties make concessions. Organization theorists approach negotiation as a form of organizational management, emphasizing complex communication among multiple parties. International relations scholars see negotiation as diplomatic politics, and focus attention on ways that political context affects negotiation. Taken together, these different perspectives yield a comprehensive view of negotiation. They describe negotiations as proceeding in stages. They recognize the existence of turning points--windows of opportunity where negotiations can be taken to the next level. The organizational approach recognizes that negotiators may occupy several roles at once. Negotiators may suffer from boundary role conflict, when the demands of their various roles are opposed or inconsistent. International negotiators are often caught between their role as an advocate for their constituencies, and as a negotiator committed to reaching a mutually acceptable outcome. The international relations model stresses the place of prenegotiation preparation in shaping the course of subsequent negotiations. A wide range of experiments has shown the significance of framing, that is, of how the parties perceive the conflict, their opponent, and their own options. Negotiation includes a bargaining phase. Researchers have evaluated concession strategies, and have identified starting mechanisms for initiating concession-making. They have identified variables that affect bargaining behavior, including the presence of "non-negotiable" values. Theoretical frameworks are useful for drawing together experimental data into a more comprehensive, unified view. Frameworks can be used to design more complex and realistic experimental scenarios. Frames guide comparative and qualitative case analyses, by suggesting which elements of cases are most relevant to developing a deeper understanding. Frameworks can yield predictions of negotiation behavior and outcomes. Expanded negotiations frameworks are also being used to guide post-settlement activities.
40
PCR 106
3.2
Druckman and Decision Making
Druckman offers three suggestions for making research relevant to practitioners: "include in the research variables over which policymakers have some control, do not define concepts at too high a level of abstraction, seek conditional generalizations."(p. 110) He notes that the research techniques of content analysis and decision analysis offer useful tools to the negotiation practitioner. Research groups have also developed computer programs that offer diagnostic and decision support tools. Research has given negotiators improved understanding of the role of emotion in negotiation, and similarly improved understanding of the impact of cultural differences on negotiations. Researchers have also developed training methods for negotiating across cultural differences. Again, Jacob Bercovitch in Mediation in International Conflict: An Overview of Theory, A Review of Pratice, states that mediation is not a mysterious art, as early myth would have it. Mediation can be studied, taught and understood. Bercovitch defines mediation as " a process of conflict management, related to but distinct from the parties' own negotiations, where those in conflict seek the assistance of, or accept an offer of help from, an outsider (whether an individual, an organization, a group, or a state) to change their perceptions or behavior, and do so without resorting to physical force or invoking the authority of law." (p. 130) Within this broad definition, mediators may adopt a variety of roles and approaches. Estimates of the rate of international mediation generally fall in the 60 percent range, although surveys have reported rates ranging from a low of 45 percent to a high of 82percent. Surveys also report significant success rates. Bercovitch says, "Mediation may well be the closest thing we have to an effective technique for dealing with conflicts in the twenty-first century."(p. 131) Studies of international mediation fall into four general approaches. Prescriptive studies offer advice to negotiators. Other studies seek to develop a comprehensive model of conflict resolution. Economists and game theorists seek mathematical models of rational negotiation behavior. The final approach seeks to distill conflict resolution guidelines from empirical case studies and experiments. Each approach has made valuable contributions to our understanding, although the author feels that the last approach has been the most productive. When and why should mediators mediate? Mediation is most useful in protracted conflicts, where the parties have reached an impasse but still want to end their fighting and are willing to compromise to do it. Traditionally, mediators intervene out of humanitarian interests.
41
PCR 106
However, many other motives may play a role in their decision, including the desire to affect history, to spread their own ideas, to limit the conflict's impact on their own (national) interests, to extend their own influence, because they were asked or because it is part of their job. Disputants may seek mediation to reduce conflict escalation and promote settlement, in the hope that the mediator will influence the other party, to show their commitment o resolution, to have a scapegoat should negotiations fail, or as a guarantor for the any settlement. Mediators engage in a wide array of roles, functions and behaviors. In the case of international mediators, these may be classified under three main strategies. Communication strategies include contacting the parties, transmitting messages, building trust and rapport, clarifying and supplying missing information. Formulation strategies include arranging the mediation setting and protocols, shaping the agenda, controlling timing and maintaining parties' focus, suggesting concessions, options and settlement proposals. Manipulative strategies include keeping the parties in negotiation, changing their expectations, pressing them to be flexible, filtering information, adding incentives or threatening punishment, and threatening to withdraw. The choice of strategy and behavior should depend on the nature of the conflict. International mediators may be individuals, states or other organizations. Conflict researchers and Quakers have both served as informal individual mediators. States usually serve as mediators by through their senior decision making officials. Smaller, less powerful states such as Sweden have a reputation for impartiality, and often conduct low-profile interventions by invitation. Larger, more powerful states have more resources to employ sanctions and inducements, and often offer to mediate in high-profile talks. Organizational mediators range from international groups such as the UN, to transnational groups like Amnesty International or the Red Cross, to regional groups like the European Union or the Arab League.
3.3
Bercovitch and Effective Mediation
Bercovitch identifies three factors that contribute to effective mediation. First, parties must be motivated to settle their conflict and seriously committed to mediation. Second, the conflict circumstances must be ripe for intervention. "The existence of a hurting stalemate (e.g. a military setback, a change in power relations, or a failure to impose a unilateral outcome) remains the best benchmark in a conflict for deciding when to initiate mediation."(p. 145). Certainly, the parties must have already tried and failed to negotiate on their own. Third, an appropriate mediator must be available. Bercovitch notes that "there is wide agreement among
42
PCR 106
scholars and practitioners that appropriate mediators should possess intelligence, tact, skills in drafting formal proposals, and a sense of humor, in addition to specific knowledge of the conflict at hand."(p. 146) High rank is associated with mediator effectiveness, as is the use directive strategies. Finally, Bercovitch considers methods and standards for evaluating international mediation efforts. Since mediation may pursue many different goals, different sets of criteria will be needed. Subjective criteria assess party satisfaction, perception of fairness, and the quality of the parties' relationship. Objective criteria focus on such elements as reductions in violent behavior, reaching an agreement, and the breadth and endurance of settlements. Both sorts of criteria are important. General assessments must be sensitive to the goals of the mediation and to the complex nature and context of the conflict. In his contribution, Richard Bilder in Adjudication: International Arbitral Tribunals and Courts, states that, "International adjudication is a method of international dispute settlement that involves the referral of the dispute to an impartial third-party tribunal--normally either an arbitral tribunal or an international court--for binding decision, usually on the basis of international law."(p. 155) Bilder examines the role of adjudication in international affairs. He weighs its advantages and disadvantages relative to other dispute resolution techniques, and considers its prospects for future use. This essay also offers an overview of the International Court of Justice. Many people equate an effective international legal order with the development of an international system of adjudication designed along the model of national legal systems. Bilder cautions that national legal systems may not be an appropriate model at the international level. Moreover, focusing on adjudication may reflect a Western cultural bias. There are many other methods of dispute resolution available at the international level, including negotiation, mediation, and diplomacy. Citizens are subject to the compulsory jurisdiction of their country's courts. In contrast, states can only be brought under a court's jurisdiction by their own consent, whether given at the time of a particular dispute, or in advance by treaty. International adjudication takes the form of either arbitration by an ad hoc tribunal, or judicial settlement by an international court. Arbitral tribunals are convened by the agreement of the parties to address a specific dispute. Tribunals usually have three members--one chosen by each side and a neutral third--although other (always odd) numbers are possible. Since the decision to submit to arbitration is consensual, the rate of compliance with arbitral decisions is high. Currently the International Court of
43
PCR 106
Justice (ICJ) is the only court with general and global jurisdiction. The International Criminal Court has global jurisdiction over certain international crimes. There are also many international courts with regional or specialized jurisdictions. The main advantage of arbitration (as opposed to the courts) is that it gives parties the most control. The parties select the arbitrators, select the procedures, and define the issue. Arbitration may be less formal and lower-profile that court adjudication. Since only states have standing in many international courts, non-state actors may prefer arbitration. The main draw back to arbitration is that the parties must be able to agree on the issues, procedures and arbitrators. This can be time consuming, and simply increase their conflict. It may be difficult to find experienced, impartial arbitrators who are available for such a temporary tribunal. Some observers are concerned that since arbitration tribunals have is less prestige, there may be less compliance with their awards. Arbitration can be more or less expensive that going to court. Courts have the primary advantage of being readily available. They are permanent entities, paid for by the international community and staffed with experienced, committed full-time judges. However, parties may be unwilling to risk losing a case in such a public and prestigious forum. Sometimes parties may lack confidence in the courts' competency or impartiality. The ICJ was established in 1945 by the UN Charter. It is composed of fifteen judges elected to nine-year terms. Parties may present their case to the full court, or may submit it to a special chamber of five judges the special Chamber on Environmental Matters, for example. The court rules according to international law, that is, relevant treaties and international agreements, customary international law, and generally accepted legal principles. It has no criminal jurisdiction. The court may also honor requests for advisory opinions by the UN. Many treaties include co promissory clauses, in which parties agree to refer future treaty disputes to the ICJ. More than a quarter of states have signed options clauses (albeit with significant reservations), which gives the ICJ compulsory jurisdiction in disputes with other option-clause states. States may protest being brought before the ICJ, in which case the Court must decide whether it does have jurisdiction in that case. ICJ decisions are binding only on the parties; they have no force as precedent. If necessary, the UN Security Council may take steps to enforce compliance. Compared to other dispute resolution techniques, adjudication has a number of advantages. It makes a final disposition of the dispute.
44
PCR 106
Submitting to adjudication reinforces the international rule of law. Adjudication proceedings are impartial, impersonal, principled, orderly, serious and authoritative. Adjudication may reduce tensions by "depoliticizing" an issue. Its rulings may offer guidance to other nations. Drawbacks to adjudication include the risk of losing, the possibility of biased judges, and the often-unpredictable outcomes. Adjudicative settlements are imposed, and focus narrowly on the legal issues. They tend to freeze the dispute in tits submitted form, and often overlook win-win or compromise solutions. Adjudication proceedings are adversarial, and so potentially escalatory. They are conservative in that they apply existing law as it is, without addressing deeper legal flaws. Sates may raise "nuisance suits" for purposes of propaganda or harassment. Without effective enforcement, adjudication may be ineffective. Bilder argues that international adjudication is most appropriate in cases, such as minor border disputes, that are emotionally volatile but do not involve significant national interests; complex technical or factual disputes; or as politically acceptable way of buying time in dangerous or awkward disputes. The existence of international courts with compulsory jurisdictions can encourage parties to negotiate mutually acceptable solutions, rather than risk being in brought to court. "Finally," Bilder suggests, "it is important to note that, for many people throughout the world, international adjudication symbolizes civilized and ordered behavior and the rule of law in international affairs."(p. 180) When powerful states refuse to submit to the court's jurisdiction, or to comply with their awards, it can undermine public respect and support for the rule of law. Bilder suggests six ways to encourage use of international adjudication. Establish new courts with specialized jurisdictions--Africa, or human rights, for instance. Increase the number and scope of co- promissory clauses in treaties. Authorize additional bodies, such as states, national courts, or regional organizations, to seek advisory opinions from the ICJ. Extend the court's jurisdiction to allow non-state actors to bring cases. A first step would be to allow non-state parties to file friend-ofthe-court briefs. "Make existing courts more 'user-friendly,' particularly to newer, smaller or poorer states, by simplifying and expediting procedures, broadening the parties range of choices over arbitrators and judges, expanding available remedies, and reducing costs."(p. 182). Finally, encourage more states to accept compulsory jurisdiction under the optional clause, without reservations.
45
PCR 106
4.0
CONCLUSION
It is pertinent to note that in order to make correct and effective decisions in conflict situations and also be able to mediate wisely, there is need for information and for the mediator to have tact, wit, intelligence, and also try as much as possible to be in control or on top of the situation.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit has been able to treat resolution and approaches to peacemaking, Druckman and decision making and Bercovitch and effective mediation.
6.0
What is the view of Druckman on decision-making? What is your Assessment of Bercovitch and effective Mediation.
1. 2.
7.0
Druckman D.; Broome, B.J.; Korper H.S., (1988) Value Differences and Conflict Resolution: Facilitation or Delinking? Journal of Conflict resolution, Vol. 32, No. 3, Sept., 1988.
46
PCR 106
UNIT 3
CONFLICT IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (IR)
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Social Psychological Dimensions of International Conflict 3.2 Types of Social-Psychological Processes 3.3 Fisher and Interactive Conflict Resolution (ICR) 3.4 C. Sampsons Religion and Peace-Building 3.5 Four Roles of Religious Intervention Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
A proper understanding of conflict and conflict resolution in international relations will enable us to understand the nature of conflict and its multifarious dimensions. The approach here is both social and Psychological, as well as religious, and the roles they play. The complex nature of the study is captured by the various approaches taken by the scholars in this regard.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to 1. Explain nature of conflict and conflict resolution at the international level; and 2. Describe interactive conflict resolution.
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Social-Psychological Dimensions of International Conflict, Herbert C. Kelman, pp. 191-238.
A social-psychological analysis is a necessary component of any general theory of international relations. Kelman outlines a social-psychological view of the nature of international conflict. He describes the social and psychological dynamics that tend to escalate conflict. Resolving conflicts requires reversing those dynamics.
47
PCR 106
Social psychology offers four theses about the nature of international conflicts, each of which expands significantly on traditional views on international relations. First, conflict is driven by people's collective fears and needs, and not solely by rational calculations of interest. Basic needs include issues of identity and security, and are often perceived in terms of survival. The threat that basic needs will not be met gives rise to existential fear. Such fear inhibits conflict resolution. For the parties, making concessions, or even reducing the intensity of their fighting, can seem to endanger their very survival. Effective conflict resolutions must address both sides' basic needs, and reassure their fears. Such resolutions must penetrate to the level of individuals. Second, international conflict is not a purely interstate or intergovernmental phenomenon; it is an inter-social phenomenon. International conflicts affect societies at all levels: economic, political, cultural, psychological and structural. Political actors must respond both to their international opponents, and to various factions within their own society. Extremist factions can block opportunities for resolution, while moderate factions can create opportunities. Coalitions between factions across conflict lines can foster resolution. Settlements that focus on the official, political level many fail to address the wider social aspects of conflict, and so fail to fully resolve the conflict. Third, international conflict involves the mutual exercise of influence on many levels. They are not simply contests of coercive power. Kelman observes that "responsiveness to the other's needs and fears is a fairly common form of influence in normal social relations."(p. 203). Use of threats and coercion can prompt similar retaliation and escalate conflict. More effective, positive incentives include "economic benefits, sharing essential resources, international approval, integration in regional or global institutions, or a general reduction in the level of tension."(p. 202). Effective resolution strategies must include the element of mutual reassurance, in the form of symbolic gestures, acknowledgements, or other confidence-building measures. A systematic strategy of responsiveness and reciprocity can transform the parties' relationship and their definition of the conflict in beneficial ways. Fourth, conflicts are not merely a series of actions and reactions deployed by stable actors. International conflicts display an interactive, escalatory, self-perpetuating dynamic that affects both the situation and the parties. Conflict causes certain cognitive and perceptual biases, which in turn tend to increase and perpetuate conflict, creating a viscous cycle of escalation.
48
PCR 106
3.2
Types of Social-Psychological Processes
Two types of social-psychological processes contribute to conflict escalation: normative and perceptual. Normative processes involve social factors that encourage conflict behavior. Pervasive existential fears about national survival and identity support conflict escalation. Moves toward de-escalation or resolution are seen as dangerously risky. Pervasive existential fear can also lead to extreme violence in the name of self-defense. By drawing on people's needs for security and selftranscendence, leaders may mobilize intense group loyalty, which produces overzealous adherence to conflict norms in the name of demonstrating group loyalty. Moves toward de-escalation or conciliation are seen as weak and disloyal, or even treasonous. Normative processes also limit the options available for consideration by decision-makers, who must worry about being ousted by "stronger," more extreme, leaders. Decision-makers tend to make choices based on the ready availability of resources for carrying out those choices. In a protracted conflict, resources for conflict tend to be most readily available. Decision-makers may succumb to groupthink, when, "in order to maintain the cohesiveness of the group, the members studiously avoid any actions that might break the evolving consensus. Thus, they are reluctant to raise questions, offer criticisms, and propose different approaches or solutions to the problem."(p. 219) Normative factors affect negotiation processes. Conflict norms pressure negotiators toward a zero sum view of the dispute; gains for another must entail losses for you. Fear of appearing weak also makes negotiators unwilling to compromise. Kelman observes that "conflict creates certain structural and psychological commitments, which then take on a life of their own"(p. 221). Parties with economic or identity interests vested in the conflict may be committed to maintaining the conflict status quo. Others may be committed to forestalling a compromise settlement. People may have incorporated the conflict into their basic worldview. Perceptual processes refer to cognitive process for interpreting conflictrelated information. Conflict makes it difficult to take the other's perspective, and hence views of the other tend to be self-centered. Parties in conflict tend to develop mirror images of self and other. Each party views itself as good and peaceful, fighting in self-defense, while the other side is inherently evil and aggressive. Moreover, each side assumes that the other sees them as they see themselves. For instance, each side assumes that the other will recognize their actions are simply defensive, while the other in fact sees them as aggressive. These
49
PCR 106
misunderstandings lead to further escalation. Conflict images are very resistant to disconfirmation. Through selective exposure, selective perception and selective recall parties avoid noticing disconfirming information. Inconsistent information may be explained away in ways that reconfirm the original image. Kelman notes that the social-psychological approach cannot give a sufficient, comprehensive theory of international conflict. It can, however, offer a new perspective, new insights, and suggest new techniques for understanding and managing international conflict.
3.3
Fisher and Interactive Conflict Resolution (ICR)
In Interactive Conflict Resolution, Ronald J.Fisher, reviews previous uses of interactive conflict resolution (ICR), outlines its contributions to a theory of conflict resolution practice, assesses the current state of the field, and finally identifies challenges that ICR must meet if it is to reach its full potential. "Interactive conflict resolution (ICR) involves problem-solving discussions between unofficial representatives of groups or states engaged in violent protracted conflict"(p. 239). It is primarily a socialpsychological approach to conflict resolution. ICR emphasizes the need for direct communication between opposing parties, and for a skilled intermediary to facilitate that communication. "The ultimate goals are deep understanding, mutual recognition and respect, and jointly acceptable and sustainable solutions--in sum, an improved relationship between the parties."(p. 241) Some ICR workshops focus on educating the parties about each other and the conflict process. Others focus on problem solving, and on transferring workshop gains to decision-making bodies. ICR discussions may be used as part of the pre-negotiation phase of conflict resolution, to identify and address barriers to negotiation and to improve the parties' relationship. ICR discussions may be held concurrently with official negotiations, to analyze the official process, to identify shared principles, or to address issues beyond the scope of the official negotiations. ICR workshops may also contribute to peace building, by promoting productive interactions between antagonists at various levels and sectors of society. ICR workshops were first used by John Burton in the mid-1960s to address escalating conflicts between Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia. These workshops pave the way for the 1966 Manila Peace Agreement. Other early ICR workshops addressed conflicts in Cyprus, Northern Ireland, and the Horn of Africa, with mixed success. Herbert
50
PCR 106
Kelman has held over thirty ICR workshops to address IsraeliPalestinian conflicts. During the 1980s, Edward Azar held ICR workshops to address the conflict between Argentina and the U.K. over the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, the Lebanese civil war, and the conflict in Sri Lanka. Many people have contributed to the theory and practice of ICR. Christopher Mitchell stresses a subjective approach to understanding conflict, and a problem solving approach to resolution. Herbert Kelman views his Middle East workshops as a program of action research, which integrates practices of conflict resolution with the study of conflict. His research has identified barriers to negotiation, and the psychological prerequisites for mutual acceptance. Kelman's workshops have come to focus on the prenegotiation stage. Fisher's own research has explored limitations on the effectiveness of ICR, and his workshops focus on exploring the parties' underlying needs and fears. Harold Saunders has been a key player in the ongoing Dartmouth Conference, which brings together U.S. and Soviet (now Russian) policy specialists. Many ICR interventions have been directed at the intercommunal level. Examples include workshops in sensitivity training for Israeli Jews and Arabs; problem solving workshops focused on economic development, safety and education; workshops to coordinate Middle East peacebuilding activities by Jewish- and Arab-American organizations, and grassroots reconciliation discussions. A Canadian newsmagazine sponsored a series of dialogues featuring participants from across the country, focused on the issue of Canadian unity. These workshops produced a statement of shared values and a suggested compromise solution. In the U.S., workshops have been held to address intergroup cleavages, such as those between pro- and anti-abortion rights groups, and between peace activists and defense analysts. ICR theory has arisen from ICR practice, and so there is as yet no comprehensive model of ICR. Theoretical underpinnings of ICR include Burton's model of controlled communication, which emphasizes the role of a third-party in creating a non-threatening, analytical atmosphere in which the parties can realize and correct misperceptions of the other. Burton locates the roots of protracted conflicts in groups' pursuits of their basic human needs. He argues the problem solving approaches to decision making may allow us to "prevent" conflict by promoting collaboration and awareness of basic human needs. Leonard Doob has explored methods for evaluating ICR interventions, and examined the planning, timing, choice and implementation of effective interventions. Kelman distinguishes problem-solving processes from human relations training, and stresses the social-psychological nature of the process. Fisher has explored the role, tactics, and qualities of
51
PCR 106
effective third-party consultants in ICR. In related fields, Azar has proposed a model of prenegotiation, Saunders has developed a relational model of problem solving, and John MacDonald and Louise Diamond have developed a typology of multitrack diplomacy. Currently the field of ICR still lacks a rigorous, comprehensive theoretical model. What theory does exist tends to focus on static pictures of practice, rather than dynamic understanding of processes. Fisher notes that "research remains the weakest link in the theoryresearch-practice loop."(p. 263). Case study analyses predominate. More controlled, quantitative studies and longitudinal field research are needed. Research evaluating the effects of ICR interventions is particularly difficult, complex and costly. Practice is the strongest link in the loop. Workshops have grown in number, and are being applied to a wider range of issues. Many past workshops have generated positive results. One new and promising development is the move toward continuing series of workshops, which can make more sustained contributions to conflict resolution. Fisher identifies challenges that ICR must address if it is to fulfill its conflict resolution potential. First, it must explore ways to transfer workshop gains to official decision-making processes. Second, it must develop rigorous assessments of its effectiveness. Next, more training for ICR scholar-practitioner is needed. More, and more reliable, funding is also needed. Finally, ICR must develop strong institutional bases of support, in order to increase available resources, personnel, training opportunities, and credibility for the field. A move toward professionalisation of ICR would help address these challenges.
3.4
C. Sampsons Religion and Peace Building
Cynthia Sampson in Religion and Peace Building explores the roles that religious groups and individuals have played in conflict resolution and peacebuilding. She reviews some of the main religious institutions engaged in peacebuilding, and concludes with a case study of South Africa's transition from apartheid to democracy. Religious groups have been very active in peacebuilding in recent decades. Sampson suggests several reasons for this increased activity. Religions are organized at national and international levels, and so offer existing channels for communication and organization. Religions offer ethical visions that can motivate believers to action. In cases where the central government is in disarray, religious organizations may be the only institutions with some degree of popular credibility, trust and moral authority. Indigenous religious groups are long-term players, who are
52
PCR 106
present throughout the conflict's lifecycle. Finally, issues that have traditionally been in the domain of religion are central to many modern conflicts. Quoting John Paul Lederach, Sampson notes "the primary arena of church activity and faith--that of the spiritual, emotional, and relational well-being of people--lies at the heart of contemporary conflict."(p. 275) Many religious actors have no formal training in conflict resolution. However, two religious practitioners have contributed significantly to peacebuilding theory. Adam Curle, a Quaker conciliator, has developed a peacemaking framework that emphasizes the importance of a balance of power between conflicting parties. Building peace requires restructuring the parties' relationship to empowering the weaker party and address structural sources of inequality. Lederach is a Mennonite conciliator who focuses on transforming violent destructive conflict into constructive, peaceful relationships. In facilitating such transformations, religious actors will act both as mediator and as advocates. Religious advocacy in peacebuilding is always nonviolent, and generally focused on promoting empowerment and human rights. Religious peacemakers tend to focus on building relationships and community.
3.5
Four Roles of Religious Intervention
Sampson classes religious intervention under four roles: advocates, intermediaries, observers, and educators. She offers examples of each role. Advocates work to empower the disenfranchised, and to restructure relationships and unjust social structures. Independent advocates are able to promote the weaker group's cause to the opposition and to the greater community. Activists are a subset of advocates. Activists are affiliated directly with the less powerful party, and so may be less credible to the opposition or general community. Another subset of actors are truth-tellers, who identify and speak out against injustices. The Catholic Church played a truth-telling role in Rhodesia's war of independence. The Catholic Church helped lead the nonviolent opposition to the Marcos regime in the Philippines, monitored elections, and ultimately declared that the Marcos regime has lost its mandate to govern. The Evangelische Kriche church played an activist role in the East Germany's nonviolent revolution of 1990. In Vietnam and Burma, Buddhist monks have been active opponents to repressive regimes. Intermediary roles include "fact finding, good offices, peace-process advocacy, facilitation, conciliation and mediation, usually in some combination."(p. 284). Church leaders successfully mediated a peace agreement in Sudan in 1972. When that agreement broke down in 1983and fighting resumed, church leaders were again called upon to mediate a settlement. A Conciliation Commission of religious figures
53
PCR 106
paved the way for Indian refugees to return to Nicaragua. The Jain monk Acharya Sushil Kumar pressed for negotiations and mediated the Hindu-Sikh conflict at the Golden Temple in Punjab.
4.0
CONCLUSION
"In a conflict situation, the observer provides a watchful, compelling physical presence that is intended to discourage violence, corruption, human rights violations, or other behavior deemed threatening and undesirable."(p. 286). Observation can take very actives forms-monitoring and verifying elections, for instance, or even physically interposing observers between opposing sides. Church organizations in Zambia cooperated closely to monitor the 1991 elections, and later hosted a meeting between political opponents that resulted in a new national constitution. The ecumenical group Witnesses For Peace, and Mennonite Christian Peacemaker Teams, have been active observers in Central America. Education may focus on training in conflict resolution, democracy, or living with diversity. Educators may work to increase awareness of injustice, or to promote healing and reconciliation. The Gandhi Peace Foundation, the International Fellowship of Reconciliation, and Nonviolence International each provide training in nonviolent action at locations across the globe. Northern Ireland is home to a number of ecumenical intentional communities, in which Catholic and Protestant members work together to bring together their larger communities. In Mozambique the Christian Council launched a two stage training program to educate regional church leaders (who in turn trained local representatives) on an array of issues relevant to peace building and resettlement. Some of the main institutional religious peace builders include the Catholic Church; the Society of Friends, also known as the Quakers; the Mennonite Church; the international, non-denominational group, Moral Re-Armament; The International Network of Engaged Buddhists, and other followers of engaged Buddhism; and the Nairobi Peace Initiative, which, although not itself a religious organization, actively engages religious groups across Africa in peace building. South Africa's transition from apartheid to democracy involved more than twenty different religious actors, ranging from individuals to churches to coalitions, from many different denominations and active at every level of society. Many members of the Dutch Reformed Church spoke out against their church's support of apartheid, and many clergy members were defrocked for their opposition. Many other denominational leaders spoke out and organized against apartheid.
54
PCR 106
Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his advocacy of nonviolent opposition to apartheid. As other opposition groups were banned or arrested, the churches and mosques became the only places where anti-apartheid activists could meet. Churches issued theological condemnations of apartheid, and calls to action. Other religious organizations worked to bridge social divisions, hosting conferences, interfaith dialogues, and retreats. Several international interdenominational organizations and the Vatican worked to oppose apartheid on the international level. In conclusion, Sampson notes future trends in religious peace-building. Religious communities are taking an increasingly systematic, intentional approach to peacemaking. Religious universities have developed conflict and peace programs, and churches are incorporating more explicit peace-building efforts into their outreach and development activities. Interreligious organizations are also following that trend. Non-religious peace-building groups are targeting religious groups as ripe for training and mobilization. Religious relief and development NGOs are expanding their mandates and training to include peacebuilding activities. Indigenous religious groups are being called upon to provide spiritual, emotional and psychological support to people who have suffered from violent, protracted conflict. There is also an increased number of religion based citizen's groups focused on bringing about peace, justice, and reconciliation. The Internet has allowed people from across the globe to hold dialogues within and across denominations and religions.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit handled social psychological dimensions of international conflict, types of social psychological processes, C. Sampsons religion and peace-building and four roles of religious intervention.
6.0
1. 2. 3.
Discuss comprehensively and systematically the perspectives/ approaches of two scholars above on peace making. What is the central message of the scholars on peacemaking? What is Interactive Conflict Resolution? (ICR)?
7.0
Gamson, W. A. Rancorous Conflict in Community Conflicts: The Search for Community Power.
55
PCR 106
UNIT 4
METHODS OF CONFLICT ANALYSIS, CONFLICT PROGRESSION AND CONFLICT ATTITUDE
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0 Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Methods of Conflict Analysis, Conflict Progression and Conflict attitude 3.2 Ten Methods of Conflict Analysis 3.2.1 Methods for Visualising Individual Aspect of a Conflict 3.3 Conflict Progression 3.4 Conflict Attitude 3.5 Implications Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignments References/Further Readings
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In as much as we need to study conflict resolution processes, it is important to understand the methods of analyzing conflict or when there is conflict progression and how to adopt or cultivate a proper conflict attitude. This will further equip us with the right analytical tools when we face the necessary challenges.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to 1. Describe the various methods of Conflict analysis 2. Identify the right conflict attitude
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Methods of Conflict Analysis, Conflict Progression and Conflict Attitude
In order to deal with a conflict constructively, it first needs to be understood. A conflict does not just have to be made apparent in terms of its dynamics, contours and effects, but also the forms of behaviour, background interests and needs of the conflicting parties need to be perceived.
56
PCR 106
It is important here to visualize the level at which information and options for action exist. Tilman Grammes and Agnes Tandler differentiate the following levels of reality for educational work: Documentary Evidence: the oral and written evidence as a legacy of an event: speeches, minutes, notes in files, forms, pamphlets, etc. Media Evidence: the reports triggered by an event: newspaper articles, radio and television reports, news agency reports, commentaries, readers letters, etc. Reflective evidence: summary reports, analyses, scientific studies, etc. Didactic Evidence: school books, teaching material, etc. The subjective experience of those involved in a conflict is represented by differentiating between these levels of reality. In a conflict, various different interests and needs are always joggling for influence (power) and to be heard against different levels of reality and various possibilities. Analyzing conflicts has nothing to do with compiling a body of information and evidence, but mainly deals with interpreting, appraising and evaluating this information. Since communication in all its forms (verbal, symbolic, non-verbal) needs to be understood as the key to dealing with conflicts constructively, special importance is ascribed to the analysis of the requirements for successful communication. Social psychologists repeatedly point out quite correctly that we can only put our finger on something if we have terms at out disposal to name it, and that we can only comprehend something if we have (at least preliminary) descriptive models at out disposal. Hence, conflict analysis deals with systematizing perception and providing explanatory aids. It becomes clear here that there is not just one correct method of analyzing conflicts, but that various methodological approaches exist and that their useful application depends on the specific situation at hand.
3.2
The Ten Methods of Conflict Analysis
Analytical methods with the whole conflict in view: 1. Initial mapping and approaches 2. Systematic questioning: the analytical raster from Ulrike Wasmuth. 3. Systematic questioning, the analytical raster from the media Peace Centre. 4. Circular questions/Changes in perspectives. 5. Mapping: visualizing conflicts.
57
PCR 106
6. Working with case studies.
3.2.1 Methods for Visualizing Individual Aspects of a Conflict

7. Frozen pictures. 8. Energy field analysis. 9. Recognizing and formulating ones own position. 10. Me in conflict: a picture of myself.
3.3
Conflict Progression
Volumes upon volumes have been written about the progression or timeline of the conflict attempting to identify the chronology of a conflict from the first outbreaks of violence to its resolution. Mot theories of conflict stages portray an orderly evolution from peaceful resolution through escalation, de-escalation and finally, termination. Identifying the stages can be essential for designing successful strategies for prevention or third party intervention. Most conflicts however, do not follow a prescribed trajectory. If they did, it would still be difficult to identify when the conflict advanced from one stage to the next. Some authors have developed time lines that are more dynamic than a straight progression, attempting to catch some additional complex dimensions of conflict. Some authors have developed time lines that are more dynamic than a straight progression attempting to catch some of the additional dimensions of conflict. One such example is Kriesberg & Thorsonss two-dimensional Conflict Progression Cycle. It illustrates a conflict progression through a series of common points on a circle while being interspersed with context and conditions that are unique to every conflict. It indicates that a conflict emerges, manifests, escalates, deescalates, and terminates, resulting in an outcome that also can become the starting point for another circle of renewed conflict. One of the greater challenges for researchers is to try to integrate either the phases, or time-line of conflict with the different tasks of prevention and intervention into a complex framework of conflict management strategies. One of the most influential conceptual approaches to these challenges is I. William Zartmans Ripe Moment Theory. Zartman says intervention is rarely successful unless it happens when the conflict is at the point of a mutually Hurting Stalemate. This happens when violence is in a deadlock and parties see negotiation as a better outcome than continued fighting. At such points, third parties can take important steps to facilitate a negotiated outcome. Important to remember is that a Mutually Hurting Stalemate is ostensibly perceptive in other words, if
58
PCR 106
the antagonists can be convinced their present course of action is taking them to an impending catastrophe, they may opt for an alternative short of violence as more desirable than continued fighting. Another scholar who matches the stages of conflict with third party intervention is Donald Rothchild. He suggests that conflicts move through a dynamic process of five phases in order of levels of conflict activity in an adversary relationship. For each phase (the potential conflict phase, the gestation phase, the triggering and escalation phase, the post- conflict and the military/security phase), Rothchild identifies specific problems that third parties should target. Further, he suggests corresponding coercive and non-coercive incentives third parties can use in order to turn the conflict around. Similarly, Michael Lund attempts to combine conflict progression with different strategies management and prevention. In his book Preventing Violent Conflicts, he presents a dialogue called The Life History of a conflict, where different measures are proposed depending on intensity of violence and the progression of deteriorations in a conflict relationship. It includes three dimensions: the progression of conflict and the inherent problems to each stage, including duration, and a chronology of corresponding conflict management strategies to be implemented. Because conflict progression is described in Lunds diagram by a curve rather than by a one-dimensional continuum, it is more flexible, making possible a description ups and downs of most conflicts. Whereas an escalation described on a one-dimension continuum takes you back in time to an earlier point on the graph, the curve allows you escalations and de-escalations as new phases with new opportunities for action.
3.4
Conflict Attitude
According to Richard W. Scholl, Professor of Management, University of Rhode Island; 1. Attitudes are defined as a mental predisposition to act that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor. Individuals generally have attitudes that focus on objects, people or institutions. Attitudes are also attached to mental categories. Mental orientations towards concepts are generally referred to as values. Attitudes are comprised of four components: Cognitions Cognitions are our beliefs, theories, expectancies, cause and effect beliefs, and perceptions relative to the focal object.
A.
59
PCR 106
B. C. D.
Affect The affective component refers to our feeling with respect to the focal object such as fear, liking, of anger. Behavioral Intentions Behavioral intentions are our goals, aspirations, and our expected responses to the attitude object. Evaluation Evaluations are often considered the central component of attitudes. Evaluations consist of the imputation of some degree of goodness or badness to an attitude object. When we speak of a positive or negative attitude toward an object, we are referring to the evaluative component. Evaluations are function of cognitive, affect and behavioral intentions of the object. It is most often the evaluation that is stored in memory, often without the corresponding cognitions and affect that were responsible for its formation.
3.5
Implications
1. Stage of group development influences other processes (e.g., cohesiveness, conformity, production) 2. Interventions must take group's stage into account (e.g., leadership, therapy) 3. Diagnosing stage group is important both for facilitators and group leaders.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Groups are like relationships - you have to work at them. In the work place, they constitute an important unit of activity but one whose support needs are only recently becoming understood. By making the group itself responsible for its own support, the responsibility becomes an accelerator for the group process. What is vital is that these needs are recognized and explicitly dealt with by the group. Management must allocate time and resources to these needs identified by the group, and the group process must be planned, monitored and reviewed just like any other managed process.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit we treated methods of conflict analysis, conflict progression and conflict attitude. As well, we treated ten methods of conflict analysis, conflict progression, conflict attitude and implications.
6.0
1. What is conflict progression?
60
PCR 106
2. Enumerate and discuss the methods of conflict analysis that you know. 3. What is conflict attitude?
7.0
Ardrey, R. (1970) The Territorial Imperative, N.Y. Atheneum
61
PCR 106
UNIT 5
ANGER MANAGEMENT
4.0 5.0
62
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Anger Management 3.2 What is anger? 3.2.1 The Nature of Anger 3.2.2 Expressing Anger 3.2.3 Anger Management 3.2.4 Are you Angry? 3.2.5 Why are some People Angrier than Others? 3.2.6 Is it Good to Let it All Hang Out? 3.3 Strategies to keep anger at bay 3.3.1 Relaxation 3.3.2 Cognitive Restructuring 3.3.3 Problem Solving 3.3.4 Better Communication 3.3.5 Using Humor 3.3.6 Changing Your Environment 3.3.7 Do You Need Counselling? 3.3.8 What About Assertiveness Training? 3.3.9 Note the Following 3.4 Coping with anger 3.5 Dealing with anger 3.5.1 What Causes a Person to Experience Anger? 3.5.2 What are some Ways of Dealing with Anger? 3.5.3 What are some of the Non-Productive Ways of Dealing with Anger? 3.5.4 Many People are not even aware they are angry, or that theyre not expressing it. How does a Person become aware of Whether theyre expressing their Anger or not? 3.5.5 Is there a Decision-Making Process Related to Expressing Anger? 3.5.6 How about the Trust Factor? Would You have to Trust Somebody before you express angry feelings to them, or does trust have anything to do with it? 3.5.7 For the Person who hasnt learned too much about expressing anger, are there preliminary steps that one can start taking to learn more about their angry feelings? Conclusion Summary
PCR 106
6.0 7.0
Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The management of anger plays a vital role in conflict resolution process. It is important to understand what anger is, what causes it, how we can manage it, the strategies we can adopt to manage it well, among others. This goes a long way to assist us handle conflict situations properly. We are also bound to ask ourselves a lot of questions that are relevant to the study of anger in order to be able to manage it properly. 2.0 1. 2.
OBJECTIVES
To be introduce to the environment of anger and how to manage it. To be equipped with the strategies to manage anger.
3.0 3.1
Topics:

MAIN BODY Anger Management
What is anger? Anger Management. Strategies to keep anger at bay. Do you need counseling?
We all know what anger is, and we've all felt it: whether as a fleeting annoyance or as full-fledged rage. Anger is a completely normal, usually healthy, human emotion. But when it gets out of control and turns destructive, it can lead to problems problems at work, in your personal relationships, and in the overall quality of your life. And it can make you feel as though you're at the mercy of an unpredictable and powerful emotion. This brochure is meant to help you understand and control anger. According to Susan Kramer in Anger Management anger invades our natural peacefulness, an unsettling visitor. Beside angers stress in the mind, it is generally known that anger raises blood pressure. Anger is a response to frustration. If we remain steady and thoughtful we avoid frustration. Frustration grabs hold when we give up control of our mind. There is no productive reason to give in to expressions of anger. The situation is compounded by the addition of disharmony. We are replacing our natural state of happiness with unnatural discord.
63
PCR 106
Working out constructive solutions that bring back peace and harmony for every one avoids frustration and the resulting breakdown in anger. All situations have a harmonious resolve, they always will. Our actions for the best resolve of the situation realign us with our natural balanced state of happiness. As a meaningful solution we can resort to Meditation. Sitting or even walking along, bring your attention to your breathing. If you are holding your breath in spurts, consciously begin taking even breaths. Counts 1, 2 breathe in; counts 3, 4 breathe out. Continue for at least a minute. Continue breathing evenly but turn your attention to your thoughts. Think about the situation that has you upset and angry. Think about how you could resolve the situation so everyone benefits. Take time to write out our thoughts in a journal. Then next time you are angry remember that all problems have a resolve that aligns with the highest good for all concerned. Happy by choice, avoiding frustration by thoughtfully, peacefully aligning with the highest good.
3.2
What is Anger?
3.2.1 The Nature of Anger

Anger is "an emotional state that varies in intensity from mild irritation to intense fury and rage," according to Charles Spielberger, PhD, a psychologist who specializes in the study of anger. Like other emotions, it is accompanied by physiological and biological changes; when you get angry, your heart rate and blood pressure go up, as do the levels of your energy hormones, adrenaline, and noradrenaline. Anger can be caused by both external and internal events. You could be angry with a specific person (Such as a coworker or supervisor) or event (a traffic jam, a canceled flight), or your anger could be caused by worrying or brooding about your personal problems. Memories of traumatic or enraging events can also trigger angry feelings.
3.2.2 Expressing Anger

The instinctive, natural way to express anger is to respond aggressively. Anger is a natural, adaptive response to threats; it inspires powerful, often aggressive, feelings and behaviors, which allow us to fight and to
64
PCR 106
defend ourselves when we are attacked. A certain amount of anger, therefore, is necessary to our survival. On the other hand, we can't physically lash out at every person or object that irritates or annoys us; laws, social norms, and common sense place limits on how far our anger can take us. People use a variety of both conscious and unconscious processes to deal with their angry feelings. The three main approaches are expressing, suppressing, and calming. Expressing your angry feelings in an assertivenot aggressivemanner is the healthiest way to express anger. To do this, you have to learn how to make clear what your needs are, and how to get them met, without hurting others. Being assertive doesn't mean being pushy or demanding; it means being respectful of yourself and others. Anger can be suppressed, and then converted or redirected. This happens when you hold in your anger, stop thinking about it, and focus on something positive. The aim is to inhibit or suppress your anger and convert it into more constructive behavior. The danger in this type of response is that if it isn't allowed outward expression, your anger can turn inwardon yourself. Anger turned inward may cause hypertension, high blood pressure, or depression. Unexpressed anger can create other problems. It can lead to pathological expressions of anger, such as passive-aggressive behavior (getting back at people indirectly, without telling them why, rather than confronting them head-on) or a personality that seems perpetually cynical and hostile. People who are constantly putting others down, criticizing everything, and making cynical comments haven't learned how to constructively express their anger. Not surprisingly, they aren't likely to have many successful relationships. Finally, you can calm down inside. This means not just controlling your outward behavior, but also controlling your internal responses, taking steps to lower your heart rate, calm yourself down, and let the feelings subside. As Dr. Spielberger notes, "when none of these three techniques work, that's when someoneor somethingis going to get hurt."
3.2.3 Anger Management

The goal of anger management is to reduce both your emotional feelings and the physiological arousal that anger causes. You can't get rid of, or
65
PCR 106
avoid, the things or the people that enrage you, nor can you change them, but you can learn to control your reactions.
3.2.4 Are You Too Angry?

There are psychological tests that measure the intensity of angry feelings, how prone to anger you are, and how well you handle it. But chances are good that if you do have a problem with anger, you already know it. If you find yourself acting in ways that seem out of control and frightening, you might need help finding better ways to deal with this emotion.
3.2.5 Why Are Some People Angrier Than Others?

According to Jerry Deffenbacher, a psychologist who specializes in anger management, some people really are more "hotheaded" than others are; they get angry more easily and more intensely than the average person does. There are also those who don't show their anger in loud spectacular ways but are chronically irritable and grumpy. Easily angered people don't always curse and throw things; sometimes they withdraw socially, sulk, or get physically ill. People who are easily angered generally have what some psychologists call a low tolerance for frustration, meaning simply that they feel that they should not have to be subjected to frustration, inconvenience, or annoyance. They can't take things in stride, and they're particularly infuriated if the situation seems somehow unjust: for example, being corrected for a minor mistake. What makes these people this way? A number of things are responsible. One cause may be genetic or physiological: There is evidence that some children are born irritable, touchy, and easily angered, and that these signs are present from a very early age. Another may be sociocultural. Anger is often regarded as negative; we're taught that it's all right to express anxiety, depression, or other emotions but not to express anger. As a result, we don't learn how to handle it or channel it constructively. Research has also found that family background plays a role. Typically, people who are easily angered come from families that are disruptive, chaotic, and not skilled at emotional communications.
3.2.6 Is It Good To "Let it All Hang Out?"

Psychologists now say that this is a dangerous myth. Some people use this theory as a license to hurt others. Research has found that "letting it rip" with anger actually escalates anger and aggression and does nothing to help you (or the person you're angry with) resolve the situation.
66
PCR 106
It's best to find out what it is that triggers your anger, and then to develop strategies to keep those triggers from tipping you over the edge.
3.3
Strategies to Keep Anger at Bay
3.3.1 Relaxation
Simple relaxation tools, such as deep breathing and relaxing imagery, can help calm down angry feelings. There are books and courses that can teach you relaxation techniques, and once you learn the techniques, you can call upon them in any situation. If you are involved in a relationship where both partners are hot-tempered, it might be a good idea for both of you to learn these techniques. Some simple steps you can try:

Breathe deeply, from your diaphragm; breathing from your chest won't relax you. Picture your breath coming up from your "gut." Slowly repeat a calm word or phrase such as "relax," "take it easy." Repeat it to yourself while breathing deeply. Use imagery; visualize a relaxing experience, from either your memory or your imagination. Nonstrenuous, slow yoga-like exercises can relax your muscles and make you feel much calmer.
Practice these techniques daily. Learn to use them automatically when you're in a tense situation.
3.3.2 Cognitive Restructuring

Simply put, this means changing the way you think. Angry people tend to curse, swear, or speak in highly colorful terms that reflect their inner thoughts. When you're angry, your thinking can get very exaggerated and overly dramatic. Try replacing these thoughts with more rational ones. For instance, instead of telling yourself, "oh, it's awful, it's terrible, everything's ruined, tell yourself, "it's frustrating, and it's understandable that I'm upset about it, but it's not the end of the world and getting angry is not going to fix it anyhow." Be careful of words like "never" or "always" when talking about yourself or someone else. "This or that machine never works," or "you're always forgetting things" are not just inaccurate, they also serve to make you feel that your anger is justified and that there's no way to solve the problem. They also alienate and humiliate people who might otherwise be willing to work with you on a solution.
67
PCR 106
Remind yourself that getting angry is not going to fix anything, that it won't make you feel better (and may actually make you feel worse). Logic defeats anger, because anger, even when it's justified, can quickly become irrational. So use cold hard logic on yourself. Remind yourself that the world is "not out to get you," you're just experiencing some of the rough spots of daily life. Do this each time you feel anger getting the best of you, and it'll help you get a more balanced perspective. Angry people tend to demand things: fairness, appreciation, agreement, willingness to do things their way. Everyone wants these things, and we are all hurt and disappointed when we don't get them, but angry people demand them, and when their demands aren't met, their disappointment becomes anger. As part of their cognitive restructuring, angry people need to become aware of their demanding nature and translate their expectations into desires. In other words, saying, "I would like" something is healthier than saying, "I demand" or "I must have" something. When you're unable to get what you want, you will experience the normal reactionsfrustration, disappointment, hurtbut not anger. Some angry people use this anger as a way to avoid feeling hurt, but that doesn't mean the hurt goes away.
3.3.3 Problem Solving

Sometimes, our anger and frustration are caused by very real and inescapable problems in our lives. Not all anger is misplaced, and often it's a healthy, natural response to these difficulties. There is also a cultural belief that every problem has a solution, and it adds to our frustration to find out that this isn't always the case. The best attitude to bring to such a situation, then, is not to focus on finding the solution, but rather on how you handle and face the problem. Make a plan, and check your progress along the way. Resolve to give it your best, but also not to punish yourself if an answer doesn't come right away. If you can approach it with your best intentions and efforts and make a serious attempt to face it head-on, you will be less likely to lose patience and fall into all-or-nothing thinking, even if the problem does not get solved right away.
3.3.4 Better Communication

Angry people tend to jump toand act onconclusions, and some of those conclusions can be very inaccurate. The first thing to do if you're in a heated discussion is slow down and think through your responses. Don't say the first thing that comes into your head, but slow down and think carefully about what you want to say. At the same time, listen
68
PCR 106
carefully to what the other person is saying and take your time before answering. Listen, too, to what is underlying the anger. For instance, you like a certain amount of freedom and personal space, and your "significant other" wants more connection and closeness. If he or she starts complaining about your activities, don't retaliate by painting your partner as a jailer, a warden, or an albatross around your neck. It's natural to get defensive when you're criticized, but don't fight back. Instead, listen to what's underlying the words: the message that this person might feel neglected and unloved. It may take a lot of patient questioning on your part, and it may require some breathing space, but don't let your angeror a partner'slet a discussion spin out of control. Keeping your cool can keep the situation from becoming a disastrous one.
3.3.5 Using Humor

"Silly humor" can help defuse rage in a number of ways. For one thing, it can help you get a more balanced perspective. When you get angry and call someone a name or refer to them in some imaginative phrase, stop and picture what that word would literally look like. If you're at work and you think of a coworker as a "dirtbag" or a "single-cell life form," for example, picture a large bag full of dirt (or an amoeba) sitting at your colleague's desk, talking on the phone, going to meetings. Do this whenever a name comes into your head about another person. If you can, draw a picture of what the actual thing might look like. This will take a lot of the edge off your fury; and humor can always be relied on to help unknot a tense situation. The underlying message of highly angry people, Dr. Deffenbacher says, is "things oughta go my way!" Angry people tend to feel that they are morally right, that any blocking or changing of their plans is an unbearable indignity and that they should NOT have to suffer this way. Maybe other people do, but not them! When you feel that urge, he suggests, picture yourself as a god or goddess, a supreme ruler, who owns the streets and stores and office space, striding alone and having your way in all situations while others defer to you. The more detail you can get into your imaginary scenes, the more chances you have to realize that maybe you are being unreasonable; you'll also realize how unimportant the things you're angry about really are. There are two cautions in using humor. First, don't try to just "laugh off" your problems; rather, use humor to help
69
PCR 106
yourself face them more constructively. Second, don't give in to harsh, sarcastic humor; that's just another form of unhealthy anger expression. What these techniques have in common is a refusal to take yourself too seriously. Anger is a serious emotion, but it's often accompanied by ideas that, if examined, can make you laugh.
3.3.6 Changing Your Environment

Sometimes it's our immediate surroundings that give us cause for irritation and fury. Problems and responsibilities can weigh on you and make you feel angry at the "trap" you seem to have fallen into and all the people and things that form that trap. Give yourself a break. Make sure you have some "personal time" scheduled for times of the day that you know are particularly stressful. One example is the working mother who has a standing rule that when she comes home from work, for the first 15 minutes "nobody talks to Mom unless the house is on fire." After this brief quiet time, she feels better prepared to handle demands from her kids without blowing up at them. Some Other Tips for Easing Up on Yourself Timing: If you and your spouse tend to fight when you discuss things at nightperhaps you're tired, or distracted, or maybe it's just habittry changing the times when you talk about important matters so these talks don't turn into arguments. Avoidance: If your child's chaotic room makes you furious every time you walk by it, shut the door. Don't make yourself look at what infuriates you. Don't say, "well, my child should clean up the room so I won't have to be angry!" That's not the point. The point is to keep yourself calm. Finding alternatives: If your daily commuting through traffic leaves you in a state of rage and frustration, give yourself a projectlearn or map out a different route, one that's less congested or more scenic. Or find another alternative, such as a bus or commuter train.
3.3.7 Do You Need Counseling?

If you feel that your anger is really out of control, if it is having an impact on your relationships and on important parts of your life, you might consider counseling to learn how to handle it better. A psychologist or other licensed mental health professional can work with
70
PCR 106
you in developing a range of techniques for changing your thinking and your behavior. When you talk to a prospective therapist, tell her or him that you have problems with anger that you want to work on, and ask about his or her approach to anger management. Make sure this isn't only a course of action designed to "put you in touch with your feelings and express them"that may be precisely what your problem is. With counseling, psychologists say, a highly angry person can move closer to a middle range of anger in about 8 to 10 weeks, depending on the circumstances and the techniques used.
3.3.8 What About Assertiveness Training?

It's true that angry people need to learn to become assertive (rather than aggressive), but most books and courses on developing assertiveness are aimed at people who don't feel enough anger. These people are more passive and acquiescent than the average person; they tend to let others walk all over them. That isn't something that most angry people do. Still, these books can contain some useful tactics to use in frustrating situations. Remember, you can't eliminate angerand it wouldn't be a good idea if you could. In spite of all your efforts, things will happen that will cause you anger; and sometimes it will be justifiable anger. Life will be filled with frustration, pain, loss, and the unpredictable actions of others. You can't change that; but you can change the way you let such events affect you. Controlling your angry responses can keep them from making you even more unhappy in the long run.
3.3.9 Note the following:

1. Instant Anger release technique 3. Anger robs Todays Happiness 5. Handling Adversity 7. Positive Thinking 9. Regulated Breathing Technique 11. Difficult People 13. Emotions 15. Constructive Criticism 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14. 16. Resolving Issues Adjusting Goals Creating Good Habits Diffusing Temper tantrums Making Wise Choices Analyzing and Processing Getting Even Finding Contentment
3.4
Coping with Anger
Anger is probably the most poorly handled emotion in our society. From time to time we all experience this very powerful feeling. Some of the common causes of anger include frustration, hurt, annoyance,
71
PCR 106
disappointment, harassment and threats. It is helpful to realize that anger can be our friend or foe, depending on how we express it. Knowing how to recognize and express it appropriately can help us to reach goals, handle emergencies, solve problems and even protect our health. However, failure to recognize and understand our anger may lead to a variety of problems. Some experts believe that suppressed anger is an underlying cause of both anxiety and depression. Anger that is not expressed can disrupt relationships, affect thinking and behavior patterns, and create a variety of physical problems, such as high blood pressure, heart problems, headaches, skin disorders, and digestive problems. What's even worse is the correlation between the dangers of uncontrolled anger and crime, emotional and physical abuse, and other violent behavior. Redford Williams, an internist and behavioral specialist at Duke University Medical Center has developed a 12-step program that can help people learn to deal with their angry emotions: 1. Williams suggests monitoring your cynical thoughts by maintaining a "hostility log." This will teach you about the frequency and kinds of situations that provoke you. 2. Acknowledge any problems in coping with anger. 3. Seek the support of important people in your life in coping with your feelings and in changing your behavior patterns. 4. By keeping your hostility log you are able to realize when and where you are having aggressive thoughts, so that when you find yourself in these situations, you can utilize such techniques as deep breathing, positive self-talk, or thought stopping, which can help you interrupt the anger cycle. 5. Put yourself in the other person's shoes. This will help you gain a different perspective. Keep in mind that we are all humans, subject to making mistakes. 6. Learn how to laugh at yourself and see humor in situations. 7. Learn how to relax. Although you may have heard that expressing anger is better than keeping it in, remember that frequent outbursts of anger are often counter-productive and may alienate others. 8. It is also important that you practice trusting other people. It's usually easier to be angry than to trust, so by learning how to trust others you are less likely to direct your anger at them. 9. Good listening skills improve communication and can facilitate trusting feelings between people. This trust can help you deal with potentially hostile emotions; reducing and possibly eliminating them.
10. Learn how to assert yourself. This is a constructive alternative to aggression. When you find yourself angry at another person, try to explain to them what is bothering you about their behavior and why. It takes more words, and work to be assertive than it does to let your anger show; but the
72
PCR 106
rewards are worth it. If you live each day as if it were your last, you will realize that life is too short to get angry over everything.
11. The final step requires forgiving those who have angered you. By letting go of the resentment and relinquishing the goal of retribution, you'll find the weight of anger lifted from your shoulders.
3.5
Dealing with Anger
3.5.1 Q: What causes a person to experience anger?

A: There are basically two ways of experiencing anger. You can feel angry with yourself over not having done as well as you had hoped on an examination, or you can have the other kind of anger which is directed at someone else or some object. In other words, you can stub your toe walking over a carpet and be angry about that, or you can be angry at a sales person in the store, or with a spouse of girlfriend/boyfriend as a result of an argument or dispute. Internal anger is directed at yourself for something that you have done or not done and external anger is the result of an interaction with another person.
3.5.2 Q: What are some ways of dealing with anger?

A: Probably the most productive way is taking your angry feelings to the source, in other words, directly to the person involved. If your angry feelings are directed at yourself and you are angry with yourself about something, try to express those feelings to a friend, a colleague or a counselor. In other words, you want to kind of get it off your chest. It is very important to get out angry feelings regardless of what kind of anger youre feeling.
1.7.3 Q: What are some of the non-productive ways of dealing with anger?
A: Instead of expressing feelings, the non-productive way would be to bottle them up, keeping those feelings inside. An expression that is frequently used is "sandbagging". Sandbagging your angry feelings means to avoid the person for whom anger is directed, sidestepping the issue, keeping the anger inside, instead of being direct with a person. Sandbagging results in being indirect and sarcastic. Many people fear hurting someone elses feelings if they share angry feelings. Yet by holding on to anger, the other person ends up feeling hurt and relationships are damaged. Having a lot of angry feelings that are pent up could lead to punitive kinds of behavior or resentment, directly or indirectly. People that you are involved with, for example a boyfriend of girlfriend or a spouse, know when you are angry. There are ways in which you show it indirectly. And when you dont express that anger
73
PCR 106
directly to them, usually they resent it, and the frustration can cause people to withdraw from each other.
3.5.4 Q: Many people are not even aware they are angry, or that theyre not expressing it. How does a person become aware of whether theyre expressing their anger or not?
A: One way for people to tell whether they are angry is if they are short tempered. If you find your honking your horn at traffic, if you are not able to concentrate on your work like you want to, these are all ways of knowing that something is wrong. Agitated feelings are good clues to unexpressed anger. Also, there are occasionally some physical symptoms that go along with unexpressed anger, such as migraine headaches, peptic ulcers, upset stomach, tension headaches. Usually your body tells you that something is wrong. You are bottling something up, and you are not expressing those angers.
3.5.5 Q: Is there a decision-making process related to expressing anger?

A: When you have angry feelings, you have to decide if this is the right time and the right place to express these feelings. You may in fact be in the company of others when you have these angry feelings, and you may want to find a nice quiet place where you can explain and express those feelings, or tell those feelings to the person you feel has caused them or at least is directly involved with you. So, it very much is a decision.
3.5.6 Q: How about the trust factor? Would you have to trust somebody before you express angry feelings to them, or does trust have anything to do with it?
A: Expressing anger is a lot easier if we trust someone. On the other hand, level of trust is not imperative. We may feel angry toward a clerk in a store or a salesperson and we dont know what the level of trust is. I think the most important thing is to trust yourself. Trust your feelings and let your feelings out.
3.5.7 Q: For the person who hasnt learned too much about expressing anger, are there preliminary steps that one can start taking to learn more about their angry feelings?
74
PCR 106
A: Yes, there is and considering it a series of steps is the easiest way to look at it. The first step is to be aware if something is going on where you are finding yourself agitated, if you are snapping at friends, if youre not doing well in your work. You know something is wrong. Give yourself time, take a few moments, and locate the source. Locating the source is the second step. Is it something you have or havent done? Is it something inside that is going on? Or is it the result of an interaction with a friend, boyfriend, girlfriend or spouse? The third step would be to choose the right time and the right place to express that anger. If it is anger that is inside you directed at yourself, then find a friend, check it out. See if they have the time to listen to you. Get it off your chest. If it is the result of an interaction with a certain other person, then find the right time and the right place and let them know that this is something important to you to express. And finally, number four would be to tell them your anger in the most simple, direct way you can think of. And always remember that you have the responsibility to express your anger. The other person may not respond the way you want them to--they may not be willing to hear it-- but the important thing is that is their responsibility. You only have the responsibility to tell them and thats about it. If you have further questions about anger or how you deal with it, please contact the University of Florida Counseling Center at 301 Peabody Hall. Note: This document is based on an audio tape script developed by the University of Texas, Austin. With their permission, it was revised and edited into its current form by the staff of the University of Florida Counseling Center.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We can then see from the above discussions the nature of anger and why it should be studied in order to understand the proper management of conflict. A proper understanding of the strategies to keep anger at bay will assist in effect resolution of conflict.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit treated anger management, what anger is, strategies to keep anger at bay and coping and dealing with anger.
6.0
1. 2.
What is anger? What are the ways we can cope with anger?
75
PCR 106
3.
What is anger management?
7.0
Wise, H.F. and J.B. Williams, Eds. Main Street Ohio: Opportunities for Bringing People back to Downtow. State of Ohio, Department of Development.
76
PCR 106
MODULE 3
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Technique of Mind Control The Government and Mind Control Conflict Mapping Group Conflict Formation Approaches to Decision Making
UNIT 1 CONTENT
1.0 2.0 3.0
TECHNIQUE OF MIND CONTROL
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Technique of mind control 3.2 Conceptions/misconceptions of mind control 3.3 Classification of the term 3.3.1 Disruption and Harassment are not Mind Control 3.4 Recruiters, Kidnappings and inquisition 3.4.1 Kidnappers and Inquisitors 3.5 Fiction and mind control Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
We find out from this unit that mind control also plays an important part in our everyday life and when a conflict situation arises. There are however misconceptions about the technique; what it is or is not! Its use or uses explains the way it works and its applicability.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. 2. Explain the concept of mind control; and Identify the place of mind control in conflict resolution.
77
PCR 106
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Technique of mind control (brainwashing)
Mind control is the successful control of the thoughts and actions of another without his or her consent. Generally, the term implies that the victim has given up some basic political, social, or religious beliefs and attitudes, and has been made to accept contrasting ideas. Brainwashing is often used loosely to refer to being persuaded by propaganda.
3.2
Conceptions and Misconceptions of mind control
There are many misconceptions about mind control. Some people consider mind control to include the efforts of parents to raise their children according to social, cultural, moral and personal standards. Some think it is mind control to use behaviour modification techniques to change ones own behaviour, whether by self-discipline and autosuggestion or through workshops and clinics. Others think that advertising and sexual seduction are examples of mind control. Still others consider it mind control to give debilitating drugs to a woman in order to take advantage of her while she is drugged. Some of the tactics of some recruiters for religious, spiritual, or New Age human potential groups are called mind control tactics. Many believe that terrorist kidnap victims who convert to or become sympathetic to their kidnappers ideology are victims of mind control (the so-called Stockholm syndrome). Similarly, women who stay with abusive men are often seen as victims of mind control. Many consider subliminal messaging in Muszak, advertising, or on self-help tapes to be a form of mind control. Many also believe that it is mind control to use laser weapons, isotropic radiators, infrasound, non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse generators, or high-power microwave emitters to confuse or debilitate people. Many consider the brainwashing tactics (torture, sensory deprivation, etc.) of the Chinese during the Korean War and the alleged creation of zombies in Voodoo as attempts at mind control. Finally, no one would doubt that it would be a clear case of mind control to be able to hypnotize or electronically program a person so that he or she would carry out your commands without being aware that you are controlling his or her behaviour.
78
PCR 106
3.3
Clarification of the term
A term with such slack in its denotation is nearly useless. In narrowing down the denotation the first thing to do is eliminate as examples of mind control those activities where a person freely chooses to engage in the behaviour. Controlling ones thoughts and actions, whether by selfdiscipline or with the help of others, is an interesting and important topic, but it is not the same as brainwashing or programming people without their consent. Using fear or force to manipulate or coerce people into doing what you want them to do should not be considered to be mind control. Inquisitions do not succeed in capturing the minds of their victims. As soon as the threat of punishment is lifted, the extorted beliefs vanish. You do not control the mind of someone who will escape from you the moment you turn your back. To render a woman helpless by drugs so you can rape her is not mind control. Suing a frequency generator to give people headaches or to disorient them is not the same as controlling them. You do not have control over a persons thoughts or actions just because you can do what you want to them or render them incapable of doing as they will. An essential component of mind control is that it involves controlling another person, not just putting them out of control or doing things to them over which they have no control.
3.3.1 Disruption and harassment are not mind control

The above considerations should make it clear that what many people consider mind control would best be described by some other term, such as behavior modification, thought disruption, brain disabling, behavior manipulation, mind-coercion or electronic harassment. People are not now being turned into robots by hypnosis or brain implants. Furthermore, it should be obvious that given the state of knowledge in the neurosciences, the techniques for effective mind control are likely to be crude, and their mechanisms imperfectly understood. Thus, if we restrict the term 'mind control' to those cases where a person successfully controls another person's thoughts or actions without their consent, our initial list of examples of what people consider to be mind control will be pared down to just five items: the tactics of religious, spiritual, and other New Age recruiters; the tactics of husbands who control their wives; the Stockholm syndrome; the so-called brainwashing tactics of the Chinese inquisitors of American prisoners during the Korean War; and the alleged creation of zombies in Voodoo.
79
PCR 106
The last, however, can be dismissed as based either on fraud or on the use of drugs to render people helpless. Wives who are terrorized by their husbands or boyfriends are not victims of mind control, but of fear and violence. Still, there seem to be many cases where a battered woman genuinely loves her man and genuinely believes he loves her. She stays, beating after beating, not because she fears what he will do to her if she leaves, but because she really doesn't want to leave. Perhaps. But perhaps she doesn't leave because she is completely dependent on her lover/batterer. She doesnt stay just because she has nowhere to go. She needs him and stays because she is completely dependent on him. If a man can reduce a woman to a state of total dependency, he can control her. But is it true to say that he has controlled her mind? To what extent, if any, can a batterer take away the free will of his victim? He can reduce her choices so that staying with him is the only option she knows. What is the likelihood of this happening? It seems more likely that she will reduce her own choices by rationalizing his behavior and convincing herself that things will get better or that they really aren't that bad. If a man is not using brute force or the fear of violence to keep a woman around, then if she stays, it may be because of choices she has made in the past. Each time she was abused, she chose to stay. He may have used sweet and seductive talk to persuade her not to leave, but at some time in the relationship she was free to reject him. Otherwise, the relationship is based on fear and violence and mind control does not enter the picture. A woman who appears to be under the spell of a batterer is not a victim of mind control. She is a victim of her own bad choices. This is not to say that we should not sympathize with her plight or extend aid to her should she ask. She is where she is through bad luck and a series of bad choices, not because of mind control, assuming, of course, that the woman is not mentally ill. In that case, it is Nature, not her man, that has reduced her capacity for free choice. The abuser takes advantage of the situation, but he does not create it.
3.4
Recruiters, kidnappings and inquisitions
That leaves recruiters for spiritual, religious, or personal growth groups; kidnappers; and inquisitors. First, the tactics of the recruiters differ substantially from those of kidnappers or inquisitors. Recruiters generally do not kidnap or capture their recruits, and they are not known to use torture as a typical conversion method. This raises the question of whether their victims are controlled without their consent. Some recruits are not truly victims of mind control and are willing members of their communities. Similarly, many recruits into mainstream religions should not be considered victims of mind control. To change a person's basic
80
PCR 106
personality and character, to get them to behave in contradictory ways to lifelong patterns of behavior, to get them to alter their basic beliefs and values, would not necessarily count as mind control. It depends on how actively individuals participate in their own transformation. You and I might think that a person is out of his mind for joining Scientology, Jehova's Witnesses, or Jim Roberts' The Brethren, but their "beliefs and behaviors" are no wilder than the ones that millions of mainstream religious believers have chosen to accept and engage in. Some recruits into non-mainstream religions seem to be brainwashed and controlled to the point that they will do great evil to themselves or others at the behest of their leader, including murder and suicide. Some of these recruits are in a state of extreme vulnerability when they are recruited and their recruiter takes advantage of that vulnerability. Such recruits may be confused or rootless due to ordinary transition difficulties (such as new college students), difficult life circumstances (such as failing in college or at a new job), or even tragic personal events (such as death to close friends or loved ones) or world events (such as war or terrorism). Some may be mentally ill or emotionally disturbed, greatly depressed, traumatized by self-abuse with drugs or abuse at the hands of others, etc. But it would not be to the advantage of the cult to actively recruit the emotionally disturbed. As one cult recruiter told me Cults have complicated ideologies and practices that mentally or emotionally upset people have difficulty grasping. These structures are what allow the cult to control the person. Cults do not want people who are difficult to control. Thus, while some recruits might be very vulnerable to those who would like to control their thoughts and actions, recruiters look for people they can make vulnerable. The recruiter quoted above also said Cults seek out strong, intelligent, idealistic people. They also seek out the rich, no matter what their mental status is. The goal is make the recruits vulnerable, to get them to give up whatever control over their thoughts and actions they might have. The goal is to make the cult members feel like passengers on a rudderless ship on a stormy sea. The recruiter or cult leader has a rudder and only he can guide the ship to safety. The techniques available to manipulate the vulnerable are legion. One technique is to give them the love they feel they do not get elsewhere. Convince them that through you and your community they can find what they're looking for, even if they haven't got a clue that they're
81
PCR 106
looking for anything. Convince them that they need faith in you and that you have faith in them. Convince them that their friends and family outside the group are hindrances to their salvation. Isolate them. Only you can give them what they need. You love them. You alone love them. You would die for them. So why wouldn't they die for you? But, love alone can only get you so far in winning them over. Fear is a great motivator. Fear that if they leave they'll be destroyed. Fear that if they don't cooperate they'll be condemned. Fear that they can't make it in this miserable world alone. The manipulator must make the recruit paranoid. Love and fear may not be enough, however; so guilt must be used, too. Fill them with so much guilt that they will want to police their own thoughts. Remind them that they are nothing alone, but with you and God (or some Power or Technique) they are everything. Fill them with contempt for themselves, so that they will want to be egoless, selfless, One with You and Yours. You not only strip them of any sense of self, you convince them that the ideal is be without a self. Keep up the pressure. Be relentless. Humiliate them from time to time. Soon they will consider it their duty to humiliate themselves. Control what they read, hear, and see. Repeat the messages for eyes and ears. Gradually get them to make commitments, small ones at first, then work your way up until you own their property, their bodies, their souls. And don't forget to give them drugs, starve them, or have them meditate or dance or chant for hours at a time until they think they've had some sort of mystical experience. Make them think, "It was you, Lord, who made me feel so good." They won't want to give it up. They have never felt so good. Though they look as if they are in Hell to those of us on the outside, from the inside it looks like Heaven. What religion doesn't use guilt and fear to get people to police their own thoughts? Even some therapists use similar methods to control their patients. They prey on the vulnerable. They demand total loyalty and trust as a price for hope and healing. They often isolate their prey from loved ones and friends. They try to own and control their clients. The methods of recruiters are not much different. Are the recruits, the converts to the faith, and the patients willing victims? How would we tell the difference between a willing victim and an unwilling victim? If we cannot do that, then we can't distinguish any true cases of mind control. Recruiters and other manipulators are not using mind control unless they are depriving their victims of their free will. A person can be said to be deprived of his/her free will by another only if that other has introduced a causal agent who is irresistible. How could we ever demonstrate that a person's behavior is the result of irresistible commands given by a religious, spiritual, or personal growth leader? It is not enough to say that irrational behavior proves a person's free will has been taken from
82
PCR 106
them. It may be irrational to give away all one's property, or to devote all one's time and powers to satisfying the desires of one's divine leader, or to commit suicide or plant poison bombs in subways because ordered to do so, but how can we justify claiming such irrational acts are the acts of mindless robots? For all we know, the most bizarre, inhumane, and irrational acts done by the recruits are done freely, knowingly and joyfully. Perhaps brain damaged or insane people do these acts. In either case, such people would not be victims of mind control.
3.4.1 Kidnappers and Inquisitors

That leaves for consideration the acts of kidnappers and inquisitors: the acts of systematic isolation, control of sensory input, and torture. Do these methods allow us to wipe the cortical slate clean and write our own messages to it? That is, can we delete the old and implant new patterns of thought and behavior in our victims? First, it should be noted that not everybody who has been kidnapped comes to feel love or affection for their kidnappers. It may be that their tormentors reduce their captives to a state of total dependency. They are put in a position similar to that of infancy and begin to bond with their tormentors much as an infant does with the one who feeds and comforts it. There is also the strange fascination most of us have with bullies. We fear them, even hate them, but often want to join their gang and be protected by them. It does not seem likely that people who fall in love with their kidnappers, or who turn against their country under torture, are victims of mind control. There is certainly some explanation for why some people act as Patricia Hearst did and why others under similar circumstances would not have become "Tanya". It is doubtful that mind control should play much of a role in the explanation. Some women are attracted to gangsters, but have few opportunities to interact with them. We do not need to revert to mind control to explain why Hearst became intimate with one of her terrorist captors. She may have thought she had to in order to survive. She may have been genuinely attracted to him. Who knows? Mind control is a better defense than "changed my mind about a life of crime" when facing bank robbery and murder charges. Finally, it is widely believed that the Chinese were successful in brainwashing American prisoners of war during the Korean War. The evidence that their tactics of torture, isolation, sensory deprivation, etc., were successfully used to control the minds of their captives is nonexistent. Very few (22 of 4,500 or 0.5%) of those captured by the Chinese went over to the other side (Sutherland 1979, 114). The myth of success by the Chinese is primarily due to the work of Edward Hunter, whose Brainwashing in Red China: the Calculated Destruction of Men's Minds (New York: Vanguard Press, 1951) is still referred to by those who see mind control tactics as a major menace today. The CIA
83
PCR 106
provided most of Hunters fodder in their effort to inspire hatred of the North Koreans and communism, to explain why some American soldiers didnt hate the enemy, and to aggrandize their own role by arguing that they themselves must investigate brainwashing techniques in order to keep up with the enemy (Sutherland 1979, 114). It seems then, that if we define mind control as the successful control of the thoughts and actions of another without his or her consent, mind control exists only in fantasy. Unfortunately, that does not mean that it will always be thus.
3.5
Fiction and mind-control
Some of the more popular misconceptions of mind control originated in fiction, such as The Manchurian Candidate. In that film, an assassin is programmed so that he will respond to a post-hypnotic trigger, commit a murder, and not remember it later. Other books and films portray hypnosis as a powerful tool, allowing the hypnotist to have his sexual way with beautiful women or to program her to become a robotic courier, assassin, etc. One such book even claims to be based on a true story: The Control of Candy Jones (Playboy Press, 1976) by Donald Bain. To be able to sue hypnosis in this powerful way is little more than wishful thinking. Other fictional fantasies have been created that show drugs or electronic devices, including brain implants being used to control the behavior of people. It has, of course, been established that brain damage, hypnosis, drugs or electric stimulation to the brain or neural network can have a causal effect on thoughts, bodily movement, and behaviour. However, the state of human knowledge on the effects of various chemical or electrical stimulation to the brain is so impoverished that it would be impossible using todays knowledge and technology to do anything approaching the kind of mind control accomplished in fantasy. We can do things that are predictable, such as cause loss of a specific memory or arousal of a specific desire, but we cannot do this in a way which is nonintrusive or which would have the significance of being able to control a large array of thoughts, movements, or actions. It is certainly conceivable that some day we may be able to build a device which, if implanted in the brain, would allow us to control thoughts and actions by controlling specific chemical or electrical stimuli. Such a device does not now exist nor could it exist given todays state of knowledge in the neurosciences. (However, two Emory University neuroscientists, Dr. Roy Bakay and Dr. Philip Kennedy, have developed an electronic brain implant that can be activated by thoughts and in turn can move a computer cursor).
84
PCR 106
4.0
CONCLUSION
The technique of mind control as discussed above shows how mind control can be used when there is conflict. Even the evidence shows that the technique can be meaningfully applied in the resolution of conflict. It is therefore very important for us to look out for the positive ways in which mind control could be used in the resolution of conflict. We must however be aware of the need to clear the concept of its misconceptions.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit we treated the technique of mind control, conceptions/misconceptions of mind control, classification of the term, recruiters, kidnappings and inquisition, as well as fiction and mind control.
6.0
1. 2. 3.
What is mind control? What are the techniques of mind control? Discuss your understanding of mind control and fiction.
7.0
Churchland, P. S. (1986) Neurophilosophy: Towards a United Science of Mind-Brain Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
85
PCR 106
UNIT 2
THE GOVERNMENT AND MIND CONTROL
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 The Government and mind control 3.2 Subliminal Advertising and mind control 3.3 The mind control story 3.4 Applying mind control in your own life Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces the student to the part the government can play in mind control, how it is used as a tool or propaganda, etc. There is also the issue of subliminal advertising and the mind control story. The mind control story, especially demonstrates mind control at work; how it was applied in a 13 year old who later became a super salesman.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to 1. Explain how the government can use mind control in its activities; and 2. Demonstrate the applicability of mind control
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY The Government and Mind Control
There also seems to be a growing belief that the U.S. government, through its military branches or agencies such as the CIA, is using a number of horrible devices aimed at disrupting the brain. Laser weapons, isotropic radiators, infrasound, non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse generators, and high-power microwave emitters have been mentioned. It is known that government agencies have experimented on humans in mind control studies with and without the knowledge of their subjects (Scheflin 1978). The claims of those who believe they have been unwilling victims of mind control experiments should not be dismissed as impossible or even as improbable. Given past practice and the amoral nature of our military and intelligence agencies, such
86
PCR 106
experiments are not implausible. However, these experimental weapons, which are aimed at disrupting brain processes, should not be considered mind control weapons. To confuse, disorient or otherwise debilitate a person through chemicals or electronically, is not to control that person. To make a person lose control of himself/herself is not the same as clear that many people in many governments lust after such power. In any case, some of the claims made by those who believe they are being controlled by these electronic weapons do not seem plausible. For example, the belief that radio waves or microwaves can be used to cause a person to hear voices transmitted to him seems unlikely. We know that radio waves and waves of all kinds of frequencies are constantly going through our bodies. The reason we have to turn on the radio or TV to hear the sounds or see the pictures being transmitted through the air is because those devices have receivers which translate the waves into forms we can hear and see. What we know about hearing and vision makes it very unlikely that simply sending a signal to the brain that can be translated into sounds or pictures would cause a person to hear or see anything. Someday it may be possible to stimulate electronically or chemically a specific network of neurons to cause specific sounds or sights of the experimenters choosing to emerge in a persons consciousness. But this is not possible today. Even if it were possible, it would not necessarily follow that a person would obey a command to assassinate the president just because he heard a voice telling him to do so. Hearing voices is one thing. Feeling compelled to obey them is quite another. Not everyone has the faith of Abraham. There seem to be a number of parallels between those who think they have been abducted by aliens and those who believe their minds are being controlled by CIA implants. So far, however, the mindcontrolled group has not been able to find their John Mack, the Harvard psychiatrist who claims that the best explanation for alien abduction claims is that they are based on alien abduction experiences, not fantasies or delusions. A common complaint from the mind-controlled is that they cant get therapists to take them seriously. That is, they say they can only find therapists who want to treat them for their delusions, not help them prove theyre being controlled by their government. Thus, it is not likely that the mind-controlled CIA zombies will be accused of having delusions planted in them by therapists, as alien abductees have, since they claim they cannot get therapists to take their delusions seriously. In fact, many of them are convinced that their treatment as deluded persons is part of a conspiracy to cover- up the mind control experiments done on them. Some even believe that False Memory Syndrome is part of the conspiracy. They claim that the idea of false memories is a plot to keep people from taking seriously the claims
87
PCR 106
of those who are now remembering that they were victims of mind control experiments at some time in the past. It is hard to believe that they cannot find a wide array of incompetent New Age therapists willing to take their claims seriously, if not willing to claim they have been victims of such experiments themselves.
3.2
Subliminal Advertising and Mind-Control
On a lighter note, one of the lesser myths about mind control is the notion that subliminal messages are effective controllers of behaviour. Despite widespread belief in the power of subliminal advertising and messaging, interested parties base the evidence of its significant effectiveness on anecdotes and unscientific studies. You will search in vain for the scientific studies that demonstrate that playing inaudible messages such as do not steal or put that back in music significantly reduces employee or customer theft, or that subliminal messages increase sales of snacks at movie theatres.
3.3
Mind Control Story
The following is a mind control story of a 13 year - old super salesman: This is a mind control story of Shawn who wanted to earn some extra money and had his father drop him off in a nearby neighborhood with a basket of stencils, paint, and brushes. Shawn was going to paint numbers on the curbs in front of houses. The numbers would make it easier to identify the address. Shawn would sell his service for one dollar. Roger, a salesman, was easing his son into the profession. Even if Shawn did not take to sales, at least he would have a better idea of what his father did, and that was Rogerss primary interest. He felt that this was an easy sell and that his son might even make a few dollars at it. Shawn, who had never tried anything like it before, was excited and could hardly wait to begin. Roger dropped Shawn off in a residential neighborhood and promised to return within two hours. An hour and a half later Roger pulled up to a curb where Shawn sat, his chin resting on his fist, with a dejected look on his face that brightened when he realized his ordeal was over. Dropping his basket on the floor of the car with a bang, he sat heavily on the back seat and sighed. Dad, I dont know how you do it. That was the worst experience Ive ever had in my whole life. I dont ever want to do it again.
88
PCR 106
Needless to say, his father was disappointed. He asked, What happened, Shawn? Didnt anybody buy the service? Oh, yeah, replied his son, a few people paid me a dollar to paint numbers on the curb. It was the ones who slammed the door in my face that bothered me. And shaking his head he asked again, How do you do it, Dad? How can you take that? Take what? What are you talking about, son? Roger asked. You know what I mean. People are so nasty. They cursed me, and threw me out of their houses. Some of them yelled at me. I didnt realize that people were so mean. On questioning, it turned out that none of these things were really happening, although Shawn thought that they were. For the first time in his life he had faced the bane of the sales profession, rejection. At age thirteen, he had never gotten so much of it in so short a period of time. Everyone, it seemed, rejected him which to him meant that they didnt like him. It was too much; he couldnt handle it and would never expose himself to that experience again. Well, did you sell any? his father asked. Shawn reached into his pocket and pulled out a crinkled dollar bill, and then a few more until he had accumulated a small pile. His fathers eyes opened a bit wider as he asked, How much is there? Shawn counted and said, Six dollars. Six dollars! his father exclaimed. But Shawn, thats terrific. You were only out for an hour and a half and you made six dollars. I think thats pretty good. No, its not was the reply. Im not going out there again, I hate it. Id rather do anything than knock on doors again. How many people did you call on, Shawn? his father asked. About a thousand. His father shook his head seriously and said, Shawn, you must be mistaken. You werent out long enough to call on a thousand people. Well then, maybe fifty or sixty, he said after thinking about it for a moment. You know, Shawn, his father began, if you called on sixty people and made six dollars that means you sold ten percent of them. Thats a pretty good average. Shawns features took on the look of total misery at that statement, and his father chuckled and quickly added, Its okay, son, Im not going to make you go out anymore. He shrugged and continued, At least you know what its all about now. Roger reported that here was a good test case for the changing of a viewpoint for him to use. Shawn had a negative attitude toward selling
89
PCR 106
that Roger was going to turn around so that his son would have a positive attitude and taste success. Shawn was a recent graduate of the childrens class, and he had seen some spectacular events take place at the seminar for youngsters. He had been a participant in many of them, so what Roger said did not seem at all strange to him. Shawn, his father asked, how would you like me to put a spell on you so that every time you knock on a door, the person answering will pay you a dollar to paint the house number on the curb? Every one of them? Shawn asked. Every one, Roger answered. Sure. For it wasnt the selling he feared; it was the rejection. If it could be guaranteed that he would make a sale in every house, then he would not have to fear rejection. The most timid salesperson in the world would have the courage of a tiger if every call were guaranteed to result in a sale. Thirteen-year-old Shawn G. stood outside the car while Roger put the spell on him. Pointing his index finger at Shawns chest Roger quickly moved his arm to describe a five-pointed star in the air, finishing with a dot in the center of the star as a nice flourish, while Shawn stood with his chest out as though catching the symbol. Thats it, Roger said. Now let me get this straight, Shawn said. Every person will buy? Yes, Roger said. Shawn grabbed his basket of paint and started off. Wait a minute, his father cried. Back Shawn came to hear what more he had to say. You know, Shawn, Roger said, on second thought it wouldnt be fair if you were to sell every one. Have you ever heard me speak about paying your dues? He had, and Shawn understood that if it was too easy it might hurt his growth and that he had to take a few knocks just so he could experience what people with less resource had to experience. Well, Roger said, this is the way the spell is going to work. You call on fifty people. The first forty-five will all say no. The next five will all buy. Can you handle that? Sure, Shawn said, but Im going to get past them as quickly as I can. Thats all right, Roger replied, so long as you knock on fifty doors. But, Shawn, he continued, I really dont have complete control over this spell. Some of the five might slip into the forty-five, so here. Handing him a piece of paper and a pencil he said, Every time you speak to a person, make a mark here so that you can keep score, and if one of the five slips in and you accidentally sell them, circle the mark.
90
PCR 106
When you get to number forty-five, if two people have bought, then only the next three will buy. Off he went, skeptical but game. Roger left to have a cup of coffee and returned about an hour later. Shawn was walking briskly down the street, paint all over his shirt and pants. When he noticed his father he waved and Roger pulled over. Wow! he exclaimed. That spell really works, Im selling like crazy. Dad, how about leaving me here? Ill take a bus back. I dont want to quit just yet, theres plenty of paint left in the can and I have the rest of the next block to work. Roger told the story just as it happened. It worked; his sons viewpoint changed. The first time he knocked on doors, every door was a potential rejection. Shawn hated that. He hated the feeling that his finger on the doorbell or his knuckles knocking on the door would bring a person who rejected him. He couldnt deal with that for very long. But after the socalled spell, which you might liken to the placebo effect because Shawn believed that the spell was going to influence the people he called on, everything changed. Forty-five people were going to say no. Thats not rejection. Thats just a job to do, to get past those forty-five as quickly as possible so he could get to the five who were going to buy. As long as he believed that, he could be a tiger. He not only didnt care any longer if they slammed the door in his face, he welcomed it, and the quicker they did it the better. He would scratch off one more on his way to number forty-five. Of course what was happening was that his enthusiasm and courage showed through and the percentage of his sales increased dramatically. More and more of the magic five slipped through. By the time he reached the forty-fifth person he was so involved with the spell that counting was no longer necessary and when he was greeted with a resounding no he responded with an Oh boy, another one out of the way. His viewpoint had changed. Instead of seeing the door from a negative viewpoint (hate), he began to see it from a positive viewpoint (love), and that helped him to achieve his goal. Incidentally, there is a postscript to the story. Roger had inadvertently created a monster. Shawns introduction to sales took place during summer vacation, and it wasnt long before he was making $200 a week and had two of his friends working for him. It took all of his fathers power of persuasion to get him back into school at vacations end.
91
PCR 106
3.4
Applying Mind Control in Your Own Life.
I think, therefor I am. Develop self mind control and live a life free of self limiting beliefs. With the Power of Self Mind Control you can make the rest of your life the best of your life. Make your life a mind control story in which 'miracles' abound.
4.0
CONCLUSION
The whole idea of mind control is psychology based. We see the possibility of its uses in resolving conflicts and the efficacy .It does look abstract but its application shows its efficacy as demonstrated in the mind control story. We should therefore not only read about them but also apply them in order both to improve ourselves and assist in the resolution of conflicts.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit treated government and mind control, the mind control story, and the application of mind control in your own life.
6.0
1. 2.
Attempt a summary of the mind control story. How can the police use mind control to its advantage
7.0
Delgado, Jose, M.R.MD (196) Physical Control of the mind:Toward a Psycho-civilized Society; NY: Harper and Row.
92
PCR 106
UNIT 3
CONFLICT MAPPING
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Conflict mapping 3.1.1 Conflict Mapping 3.2 Conflict Content 3.2.1 Parties 3.2.2 Causes and Consequences 3.2.3 Contrasting Beliefs 3.2.4 Goals and Interest 3.2.5 Dynamics 3.2.6 Functions 3.2.7 Regulation Potential 3.5 Using the Conflict Map 3.5.1 Links to Examples of Conflict Mapping 3.5.2 Estrada-Hollenbeck Understanding Forgiveness 3.5.3 Chester Crocker Lessons on Intervention 3.5.4 Harold Saunders Pre-negotiation and Circumnegotiation: Arenas of the Peace Process 3.4 Strategic option identification and costing 3.4.1 Analysis of Similar Conflicts 3.4.2 Identifying and involving all Potential Disputants 3.4.3 Understanding Historical Context 3.4.4 Recognizing Related Disputes 3.4.5 Assisted Scoping Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment Reference
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Conflict mapping introduces the student to the intricacies involved in the process of conflict resolution. We do not just go into any conflict resolution case without understanding the situation properly. This is why conflict mapping is important because it determines the scope of the conflict, identifies the parties, issues, and the larger context of the dispute among others.
93
PCR 106
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. 2. Describe the concept of conflict outlay; and Highlight the characteristics of conflict situations before the resolution.
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Conflict Mapping
Conflict mapping is a technique hich helps parties systematically determine the scope of a conflict. It identifies parties, issues, and the larger context of a dispute. It also identifies conflict processes and options for conflict management or resolution. Overall, conflict mapping provides basic information which is essential to planning a constructive response to a conflict.
3.1.1 Conflict Mapping

Paul Wehr states that as conflict emerges, it produces considerable confusion. Interactions between the conflicting parties change, sometimes radically and abruptly. Levels of unpredictability, uncertainty and emotion rise. Unwise and costly decisions are made from a lack of understanding of what is occurring. Since how a conflict emerges largely determines how costly it will subsequently be, those involved must have the clearest possible understanding of what is going on. Even the simplest interpersonal conflict has many elements. Conflicts involving multiple parties, large numbers of people, and complex organizations such as governments get to be enormously complicated. Some conflict theorists (Boulding 1988) present general principles for analysis. Others (Deutsch 1973) take a very detailed, microanalytical approach to understanding conflict. Still others (Blalock 1989) do both. Every conflict has certain basic elements permitting us to produce a roadmap by which a conflict opponent, a third party intervenor, or simply a student of conflict can find their way through a particular conflict (Wehr 1979). The primary items in this roadmap include the following:
3.2
Conflict Context
The mapper first gathers information about the history of the conflict and its physical and organizational settings. Conflict does not emerge in a vacuum. Sometimes one conflict is nested within another. The
94
PCR 106
university departmental conflict referred to below, for example, was greatly influenced by a concurrent higher-level conflict between the University president and the faculty.
3.2.1 Parties
Parties in a conflict differ in the directness of their involvement and the importance of its outcome for them. Primary parties are those who oppose one another, are using fighting behavior, and have a direct stake in the outcome of the conflict. Secondary parties have an indirect stake in the outcome. They are often allies or sympathizers with primary parties but are not direct adversaries. Third parties are actors such as mediators and peacekeeping forces which might intervene to facilitate resolution.
3.2.2 Causes and Consequences

It is not always possible to distinguish a cause of a conflict from a consequence. In fact, as a conflict emerges, cause and consequence tend to blend. Hostility might be a consequence of one phase of a conflict and a cause of the next. Perceived goals and interests incompatibility is perhaps the most basic cause of social conflict. Identity defense is also common, particularly in the contemporary world where group awareness and rights have assumed high visibility. Cultural differences and particularly language are sources of separateness and difference. They create a sense of self and self-defense which is probably the primary motive for conflict.
3.2.3 Contrasting Beliefs

And values are operating vigorously in much social conflict. This range from the negative image one has of one's opponent to one's opinion about a Supreme Being. Disagreement over facts characterizes much conflict and is probably the most readily resolved. Then there is conflict which occurs out of the need for one or both parties have simply to fight, no matter about what. The conflict is a goal in itself. It releases tension perhaps. Finally, the explanation for the conflict may be a low capacity for cooperative conflict resolution within the context.
3.2.4 Goals and Interests

There is an important distinction between these two concepts. Goals are the more or less acknowledged objectives of parties in a conflict. They usually can put them into words. Sometimes goals are referred to as positions; specific demands being made by one party or the other. "If you wish to end the conflict, you must do this or that." Interests, on the
95
PCR 106
other hand, are what really motivate the parties, what they really need to achieve: security, recognition, respect, justice and so on (Burton 1990). An important purpose of mapping is to help opposing parties to distinguish their goals/positions from their true interests/needs and bring those goals and interests as close to unity as possible.
3.2.5 Dynamics
A conflict is constantly moving and changing. Even if parties are at stalemate, aspects of the conflict context will be changing. Runaway responses (Coleman 1956) of parties to one another are made more visible through conflict mapping. Dynamics such as unrestrained escalation and polarization carry participants away from cooperative resolution toward greater hostility. Perception changes occur within the opposing sides which reinforce the runaway responses: stereotyping opponents, seeing them as the negative mirror-image of oneself, imputing to them increasingly malign motives.
3.2.6 Functions
The functions of a conflict are its purposes, the positive consequences it may be having for the opposing parties. These may be simply tension release or aggressive impulses directed at a more vulnerable party. But a conflict always has some purposes for those involved. In a particularly intense university departmental conflict over tenure, minority faculty both inside and outside the department gained new visibility, solidarity, and alliances with other low-power groups in the university. The department also became a bit more unified as it defended itself against what it felt was a unfair accusation. Knowing the consequences of such functions may reveal ways other than the conflict to produce them and thus move the conflict toward cooperative resolution.
3.2.7 Regulation Potential

Every conflict context contains its own conflict-limiting elements. There may be third parties who could intervene. Internal limiting factors such as the simple wish of the parties to maintain their relationship can be used. External limiting factors such as law and higher authority might be introduced.
3.3
Using the Conflict Map
A conflict mapper can use this mapping guide in numerous ways. It can be used by each party on its own, in an effort to clarify the conflict from their own perspective. Or it can be used jointly, in an effort to understand both sides' view of the conflict. A third party (such as a
96
PCR 106
mediator) could interview the conflict parties with the guide, draft a map, ask the parties to modify it from their perspectives, redraft it, and present it as a first joint step toward cooperative resolution. Alternatively, this could be done by parties on one side who would solicit cooperation from their opponents in creating an accurate conflict map.
3.3.1 Links to Examples of Conflict Mapping:

Gennady I. Chufrin and Harold H. Saunders -- A Public Peace Process This is a description of the process used in the Dartmouth Conferences-a series of track-two problem solving workshops held between citizens of the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. in an effort to improve the international relationship between those two nations. Part of the process described was "mapping the relationship together," during which the parties worked together to create, essentially, a conflict map of their relationship.
3.3.2 Estrada-Hollenbeck -- Understanding Forgiveness

This anecdote describes the importance of narratives to help a third party understand a conflict history and how that history affects current relationships. Such an understanding can assist in conflict analysis as well as in choosing a strategy for intervention.
3.3.3 Chester Crocker -- Lessons on Intervention

In this article, Crocker examines factors that determine whether or not international intervention in escalated disputes is effective. One factor is whether or not adequate information is collected--in other words, whether the parties intervening in the conflict create a usable conflict map.
3.3.4 Harold Saunders Pre-negotiation negotiation: Arenas of the Peace Process
and
Circum-
This is another description of peacemaking processes which emphasizes the importance of mapping relationships and issues, and places this process in the context of the entire peacemaking enterprise.
3.4
Strategic Option Identification and Costing
Part of conflict mapping is the identification of options for confronting and/or settling the conflict and assessing the costs and benefits of each.
97
PCR 106
3.4.1 Analysis of Similar Conflicts

Often a great deal can be learned about an ongoing dispute by analyzing the history of a similar dispute. This can yield ideas about problems that are likely to develop as well as possible approaches for conflict management or resolution.
3.4.2 Identifying and Involving All Potential disputants

A careful effort to identify all current and potential parties is necessary for effective conflict resolution. While some parties to a conflict are obvious, others remain hidden. Efforts should be made to figure out who might be affected by the outcome to a particular conflict, as well as who is currently concerned about the situation but has not yet become vocal.
3.4.3 Understanding Historical Context

Disputes are often part of a long-running conflict. In order to handle a dispute effectively, it is important to recognize the history of the underlying conflict. This often explains why people feel the way they do, and can give hints about possible effective remedies for the current situation.
3.4.4 Recognizing Related Disputes

Disputes also get linked to other disputes that are going on at the same time. In order to be able to effectively deal with one dispute, it is important to recognize other disputes that are linked to it and that may effect the outcome of the initial dispute.
3.4.5 Assisted Scoping

Just as it is sometimes useful to have an outside party work with the disputant(s) to help frame the conflict more objectively, the same is true to help them understand the scope of the conflict. This can be done by one side seeking an outside consultant to help them analyze the conflict; it can also be done with the other parties present in the context of mediation or consensus building.
4.0
CONCLUSION:
As further demonstration of the fact that conflict resolution is both complex and intricate, it also requires that these intricacies be understood properly in order to bring about effective handling of conflict situations. This is therefore the central focus of this unit.
98
PCR 106
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit treated conflict mapping, conflict content, using conflict map and strategic option identification and costing.
6.0
1. 2. 3.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
What is conflict mapping? What is strategic option identification and costing in conflict mapping? How can you make use of conflict map?
7.0
Boulding, E.K. (1962) Conflict and Defence: A General Theory, NY: Harper and Row
99
PCR 106
UNIT 4
GROUP CONFLICT FORMATION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Conflict Group Formation 3.2 What is a Group? 3.3 Why a Group? 3.4 Group Development 3.5 Group Skills 3.6 Accelerating Development 3.6.1 Focus 3.6.2 Clarification 3.6.3 The Mouse 3.6.4 The Loud-Mouth 3.6.5 The Written Record 3.6.6 Feedback (Negative) 3.6.7 Feedback (Positive) 3.6.8 Handling Failure 3.6.9 Handling Deadlock 3.6.10 Sign Posting 3.6.11 Avoid Single Solutions 3.6.12 Active Communication Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The emphasis in this unit is the group and how the underlying processes is managed. The attention is that the group is one of the fundamental units of the society, yet less attention is paid to it and the dynamics of the underlying processes.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to 1. Highlight the importance of the group in conflict resolution processes; and 2. Describe the dynamics of the group and the importance to conflict resolution.
100
PCR 106
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Conflict Group Formation
According to Gerald M. Blair of the University of Edinburg, groups form a basic unit of work activity throughout engineering and yet the underlying process is poorly managed. His article looks at the basics of group work and suggests ways to accelerate development. He argues that in the beginning God made an individual - and then he made a pair. The pair formed a group, together they begat others and thus the group grew. Unfortunately, working in a group led to friction, the group disintegrated in conflict and Cain settled in the land of Nod there has been trouble with groups ever since. When people work in groups, there are two quite separate issues involved. The first is the task and the problems involved in getting the job done. Frequently this is the only issue which the group considers. The second is the process of the group work itself: the mechanisms by which the group acts as a unit and not as a loose rabble. However, without due attention to this process the value of the group can be diminished or even destroyed; yet with a little explicit management of the process, it can enhance the worth of the group to be many times the sum of the worth of its individuals. It is this synergy which makes group work attractive in corporate organization despite the possible problems (and time spent) in group formation. This article examines the group process and how it can best be utilized. The key is that the group should be viewed as an important resource whose maintenance must be managed just like any other resource and that this management should be undertaken by the group itself so that it forms a normal part of the group's activities.
3.2
What is a Group?
A group of people working in the same room, or even on a common project, does not necessarily invoke the group process. If the group is managed in a totally autocratic manner, there may be little opportunity for interaction relating to the work; if there is fractioning within the group, the process may never evolve. On the other hand, the group process may be utilized by normally distant individuals working on different projects; for instance, at IEE colloquia. In simple terms, the group process leads to a spirit of cooperation, coordination and commonly understood procedures and mores. If this is present within a group of people, then their performance will be
101
PCR 106
enhanced by their mutual support (both practical and moral). If you think this is a nebulous concept when applied to the world of industry, consider the opposite effect that a self-opinionated, cantankerous loudmouth would have on your performance and then contrast that to working with a friendly, open, helpful associate.
3.3
Why a Group?
Groups are particularly good at combining talents and providing innovative solutions to possible unfamiliar problems; in cases where there is no well established approach/procedure, the wider skill and knowledge set of the group has a distinct advantage over that of the individual. In general, however, there is an overriding advantage in a group-based work force which makes it attractive to Management: that it engenders a fuller utilization of the work force. A group can be seen as a self- managing unit. The range of skills provided by its members and the self- monitoring which each group performs makes it a reasonably safe recipient for delegated responsibility. Even if a problem could be decided by a single person, there are two main benefits in involving the people who will carry out the decision. Firstly, the motivational aspect of participating in the decision will clearly enhance its implementation. Secondly, there may well be factors which the implementer understands better than the single person who could supposedly have decided alone. More indirectly, if the lowest echelons of the workforce each become trained, through participation in group decision making, in an understanding of the companys objectives and work practices, then each will be better able to solve work-related problems in general. Further, they will also individually become a safe recipient for delegated authority which is exemplified in the celebrated right of Japanese car workers to halt the production line. From the individual's point of view, there is the added incentive that through belonging to a group, each can participate in achievements well beyond his/her own individual potential. Less idealistically, the group provides an environment where the individual's self-perceived level of responsibility and authority is enhanced, in an environment where accountability is shared: thus providing a perfect motivator through enhanced self-esteem coupled with low stress. Finally, a word about the much vaunted "recognition of the worth of the individual" which is often given as the reason for delegating
102
PCR 106
responsibility to groups of subordinates. While I agree with the sentiment, I am dubious that this is a prime motivator - the bottom line is that the individual's talents are better utilized in a group, not that they are wonderful human beings.
3.4
Group Development
It is common to view the development of a group as having four stages: Forming Storming Norming Performing Forming is the stage when the group first comes together. Everybody is very polite and very dull. Conflict is seldom voiced directly, mainly personal and definitely destructive. Since the grouping is new, the individuals will be guarded in their own opinions and generally reserved. This is particularly so in terms of the more nervous and/or subordinate members who may never recover. The group tends to defer to a large extent to those who emerge as leaders (poor fools!). Storming is the next stage, when all Hell breaks loose and the leaders are lynched. Factions form, personalities clash, no- one concedes a single point without first fighting tooth and nail. Most importantly, very little communication occurs since no one is listening and some are still unwilling to talk openly. True, this battle ground may seem a little extreme for the groups to which you belong - but if you look beneath the veil of civility at the seething sarcasm, invective and innuendo, perhaps the picture come more into focus. Then comes the Norming. At this stage the sub-groups begin to recognize the merits of working together and the infighting subsides. Since a new spirit of co-operation is evident, every member begins to feel secure in expressing their own viewpoints and these are discussed openly with the whole group. The most significant improvement is that people start to listen to each other. Work methods become established and recognized by the group as a whole. And finally: Performing. This is the culmination, when the group has settled on a system which allows free and frank exchange of views and a high degree of support by the group for each other and its own decisions. In terms of performance, the group starts at a level slightly below the sum of the individuals' levels and then drops abruptly to its nadir until it climbs during Norming to a new level of Performing which is
103
PCR 106
(hopefully) well above the start. It is this elevated level of performance which is the main justification for using the group process rather than a simple group of staff.
3.5
Group Skills
The group process is a series of changes which occur as a group of individuals form into a cohesive and effective operating unit. If the process is understood, it can be accelerated. There are two main sets of skills which a group must acquire: Managerial Skills Interpersonal Skills And the acceleration of the group process is simply the accelerated acquisition of these. As a self-managing unit, a group has to undertake most of the functions of a Group Leader - collectively. For instance, meetings must be organized, budgets decided, strategic planning undertaken, goals set, performance monitored, reviews scheduled, etc. It is increasingly recognized that it is a fallacy to expect an individual to suddenly assume managerial responsibility without assistance; in the group it is even more so. Even if there are practiced managers in the group, they must first agree on a method, and then convince and train the remainder of the group. As a collection of people, a group needs to relearn some basic manners and people-management skills. Again, think of that self-opinionated, cantankerous loud-mouth; he/she should learn good manners, and the group must learn to enforce these manners without destructive confrontation.
3.6
Accelerating Development
It is common practice in accelerating group development to appoint, and if necessary train, a "group facilitator". The role of this person is to continually draw the groups' attention to the group process and to suggest structures and practices to support and enhance the group skills. This must be only a short-term training strategy, however, since the existence of a single facilitator may prevent the group from assuming collective responsibility for the group process. The aim of any group should be that every member performs facilitation equally and constantly. If this responsibility is recognised and undertaken from the beginning by all, then the Storming phase may be avoided and the group development passed straight into Norming.
104
PCR 106
The following are a set of suggestions which may help in group formation. They are offered as suggestions, no more; a group will work towards its own practices and norms.
3.6.1 Focus
The two basic foci should be the group and the task. If something is to be decided, it is the group that decides it. If there is a problem, the group solves it. If a member is performing badly, it is the group who asks for change. If individual conflicts arise, review them in terms of the task. If there is initially a lack of structure and purpose in the deliberations, impose both in terms of the task. If there are disputes between alternative courses of action, negotiate in terms of the task.
3.6.2 Clarification
In any project management, the clarity of the specification is of paramount importance - in group work it is exponentially so. Suppose that there is a 0.8 chance of an individual understanding the task correctly (which is very high). If there are 8 members in the group then the chance of the group all working towards that same task is 0.17. And the same reasoning hold for every decision and action taken throughout the life of the group. It is the first responsibility of the group to clarify its own task, and to record this understanding so that it can be constantly seen. This mission statement may be revised or replaced, but it should always act as a focus for the groups deliberations and actions.
3.6.3 The Mouse

In any group, there is always the quiet one in the corner who doesn't say much. That individual is the most under utilized resource in the whole group, and so represents the best return for minimal effort by the group as a whole. It is the responsibility of that individual to speak out and to contribute. It is the responsibility of the group to encourage and develop that person, to include him/her in the discussion and actions, and to provide positive reinforcement each time that happens.
3.6.4 The Loud-Mouth

In any group, there is always a dominant member whose opinions form a disproportionate share of the discussion. It is the responsibility of each individual to consider whether they are that person. It is the
105
PCR 106
responsibility of the group to ask whether the loud-mouth might like to summarize briefly, and then ask for other views.
3.6.5 The Written Record

Often a decision which is not recorded will become clouded and have to be re- discused. This can be avoided simply by recording on a large display (where the group can clearly see) each decision as it is made. This has the further advantage that each decision must be expressed in a clear and concise form which ensures that it is clarified.
3.6.6 Feedback (Negative)

All criticism must be neutral: focused on the task and not the personality. So rather than calling Johnie an innumerate moron, point out the error and offer him a calculator. It is wise to adopt the policy of giving feedback frequently, especially for small things - this can be couched as mutual coaching, and it reduces the destructive impact of criticism when things go badly wrong. Every criticism must be accompanied by a positive suggestion for improvement.
3.6.7 Feedback (Positive)

If anyone does something well, praise it. Not only does this re-enforce commendable actions, but it also mollifies the negative feedback which may come later. Progress in the task should be emphasised.
3.6.8 Handling Failure

The long term success of a group depends upon how it deals with failure. It is a very British tendency to brush off failure and to get on with the next stage with no more than a mention - it is a very foolish tendency. Any failure should be explored by the group. This is not to attribute blame (for that is shared by the whole group as an individual only acts with delegated responsibility), but rather to examine the causes and to devise a mechanism which either monitors against or prevents repetition. A mistake should only happen once if it is treated correctly. One practice which is particularly useful,l is to delegate the agreed solution to the individual or sub-group who made the original error. This allows the group to demonstrate its continuing trust and the penitent to make amends.
106
PCR 106
3.6.9 Handling Deadlock

If two opposing points of view are held in the group then some action must be taken. Several possibly strategies exist. Each sub-group could debate from the other sub-group's view-point in order to better understand it. Common ground could be emphasised, and the differences viewed for a possible middle or alternative strategy. Each could be debated in the light of the original task. But firstly the group should decide how much time the debate actually merits and then guillotine it after that time - then, if the issue is not critical, toss a coin.
3.6.10 Sign Posting

As each small point is discussed, the larger picture can be obscured. Thus it is useful frequently to remind the group: this is where we came from, this is where we got to, and this is where we should be going.
3.6.11 Avoid Single Solutions

First ideas are not always best. For any given problem, the group should generate alternatives, evaluate these in terms of the task, pick one and implement it. But most importantly, they must also monitor the outcome, schedule a review and be prepared to change the plan.
3.6.12 Active Communication

Communication is the responsibility of both the speaker and the listener. The speaker must actively seek to express the ideas in a clear and concise manner - the listener must actively seek to understand what has been said and to ask for clarification if unsure. Finally, both parties must be sure that the ideas have been correctly communicated perhaps by the listener summarizing what was said in a different way. As the conflict becomes defined, allies and adversaries become clearer and ones goals usually become clearer as well. This helps define the nature of the conflict more clearly.
4.0
CONCLUSION
We can hence see that there could be group potentials which can be exploited in the management of conflict through the proper management of group processes. Not much attention has been paid to this area, but with adequate attention and understanding of the issues (as discussed above) involved this could be achievable.
107
PCR 106
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit discussed conflict group formation, the meaning of group, group development, as well as group development skills and accelerating development.
6.0
1. 2. 3.
What is a group? What are the stages of group development? Suggest ways that can assist in the development of group formation?
7.0
Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequences in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384-399.
Tuckman, B. W., & Jensen, M. A. C. (1977). Stages of small group development revisited. Group and Organizational Studies, 2, 419427.
108
PCR 106
UNIT 5
APPROACHES TO DECISION MAKING
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Three Approaches to decision making 3.1.1 Cognitive Approach 3.1.2 Affective Approach 3.1.3 Evaluation Approach 3.1.4 Mixed Models 3.2 High light: Decision making Approaches 3.2.1 Value 3.2.2 Description 3.2.3 Consensus 3.2.4 Majority Vote 3.2.5 Minority (Subcommittee) 3.2.6 Expert 3.2.7 Authority with Discussion 3.2.8 Authority without Discussion 3.2.9 Process 3.2.10 Implementation 3.3 Make Decisions (A Career Approach) 3.4 Factors Influencing Decisions 3.4.1 Information Factors 3.4.2 Decision-Making Experience 3.4.3 Personal Factors 3.5 Decision making styles 3.5.1 Reality Check 3.5.2 Take Action: Decision-Making Models 3.5.3 Analytical Decision-Making Worksheet 3.5.4 Imaginative, Visualization Exercise Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
In taking decisions it is important to note the appropriate steps to take. This is because in a conflict resolution process, we have to be careful, so that the right decisions we take would assist in ameliorating conflict. These approaches will therefore assist us to know how to take the right steps to decision making.
109
PCR 106
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to 1. Explain decision making approaches and their importance in conflict resolution; 2. Enumerate the factors that may influence decision making.
3.0
3.1
MAIN BODY
Three Approaches to Decision Making
How do attitudes influence on our behavior and decision? Four ways of thinking about the choice process can be described. We will use the example of the selection of a job candidate among three potential candidates. These three pure approaches and one mixed approach are descriptive of pure types and it is not argued that any of these models presents a preferred approach. 3.1.1 A. Cognitive Approach The purely cognitive decision maker would rank order the three candidates on the basis of chosen criteria and assess each candidates attributes (e.g., education, experience, skill set) against the criteria set. A utility function representing the weighted product of attributes and criteria would be used to develop the final ranking and thus choice. This model represents the process used by individuals with a strong Thinking Cognitive Style. See also Decision Making Models. Affective Approach Ordering of the three job candidates would be accomplished on the basis of how each candidate makes the decision maker feel. The candidate that evokes the greatest positive (pleasurable) affective response would thus be ranked first. The affective response may be derived through association (i.e. category attributes) or directly attributed to the interaction between the candidate and the decision maker. It is believed that the manner in which the candidate affirms or disaffirms the self-concept of the decision maker has a strong impact to the decision makers affect response to the candidate. This model represents the process used by individuals with a strong Feeling Cognitive Style. See also Self Concept Models. Evaluation Approach Attitude are often stored in the form of evaluations without the cognitive and affective information that acted to form the evaluation. Using this
3.1.2 B.
3.1.3 C.
110
PCR 106
approach, candidates would be rank ordered on the basis of evaluation, that is, the overall evaluation of goodness or favorability. 3.1.4 D. Mixed Models The cognitive (thinking) and the affective (feeling) represent pure types rarely experienced and act to anchor ends of a theoretical continuum. The Cognitive/Affective and affective/Conflict sections of the continuum represent conflict between cognitively based rankings and affectively based ranking. Individuals represented by these types experience both types of rankings, but find them to conflict. The C/A type tends to resolve this conflict by using the cognitive ranking, while the A/C type would tend to rely the affective ranking. Cognitive/Affective A
Cognitive Thinking
Life-Role Development Group, 2001
3.2
Highlight: Decision-Making Approaches
Summary Teams, team leaders, supervisors and managers often experience strife because of confusion regarding decision-making. A variety of decisionmaking approaches can be used in different situations. More importantly, teams need transparency in the decision-making process.
3.2.1 Value
Clarifying and communicating decision-making processes helps a team or its leader: Make effective decisions Commit to decisions made Focus their energies on the action Required by the decision rather than On the decision-making process Maintain team morale
3.2.2 Description
The main decision-making approaches are described below.
111
PCR 106
3.2.3 Consensus
Consensus decisions are those in which all involved are willing to support the decision. Consensus does not mean that everyone fully agrees with the decision; it means that everyone, even if they disagree, will put their disagreement aside and wholly support the decision. Consensus decisions should be used in all decisions that are very important to all and when time is available.
3.2.4 Majority Vote

Majority of decisions are made through voting, then counting which side of the issue obtained more than 50% of the votes. This can be a useful approach when pressed for time or for very minor concerns, but it rarely results in full commitment to the decision or feelings of involvement by the team.
3.2.5 Minority (Subcommittee)

Minority decisions are those made by a sub-group of the team, given authority by the team to make the decision. This method works when it is difficult to get everyone together, or when the subject matter for the decision is either very complex (only some team members have expertise) or simple (the decision is too routine to require the full team). However, these decisions may weaken commitment to the decision because not all are involved.
3.2.6 Expert
Expert decisions are made by a designated internal or external subject matter expert who has been given the authority to make the decision. Expert decisions are useful in highly technical or complex decisionmaking processes. The problems with this approach are coming to agreement on the expert and potentially leaving team members feeling excluded. Life-Role Development Group, 2001
3.2.7 Authority with Discussion

Decisions that are made by an individual in authority (the team leader, manager) after discussion by the team are used when the authority is primarily accountable for the decision, when the authority is privy to information not available to the rest of the team, or when a decision needs to be made very quickly. Problems arise with this approach when the authority is not decisive. Also, team members may feel their ideas are being solicited just to make them feel involved.
112
PCR 106
3.2.8 Authority without Discussion

These are decisions in which the team leader makes decisions without consulting the team. This is a useful method when decisions are simple, when the authority has specialized expertise or when a decision needs to be made very quickly. Because the team was not involved, there is risk of low commitment to the decision.
3.2.9 Process
The key to successful decision-making as a team is transparency. Individuals are encouraged to ensure that their teams choose a decisionmaking process before entering a discussion about a decision. Team members can accept all decision making approaches if they know going into the decision that a particular approach will be used. Team members cannot typically accept the illusion of one approach (e.g., consensus) followed by the reality of another approach (e.g., decision by authority).
3.2.10 Implementation
Individuals are encouraged to work with their teams to: Identify the types of decisions the team typically needs to make. Choose a decision-making approach for each decision type. Use the selected decision-making approaches on a routine basis for each decision type. Agree to a decision-making approach before a decision is necessary on non-routine decisions.
3.3
Make Decisions (A Career Approach)
So far you have made decisions related to various facets of life. You have decided which university to attend, what classes to take, and where to live. Similarly, selecting a major or career involves obtaining appropriate information and being aware of the numerous factors that may influence your decision. The information below is designed to help you examine how you currently make decisions and offers several approaches to making future decisions.
3.4
Factors Influencing Decisions
3.4.1 Information Factors
To make sound decisions it is important to gather enough information to evaluate your options. You can Research Your
113
PCR 106
Options with objective sources, and also make connections and Get Experience to collect more direct information.
3.4.2 Decision-Making Experience

Confidence in decision-making abilities comes from having made successful decisions in the past. Think about the positive decisions you have made already. How did you make those decisions? What resources helped guide you through your decision-making process?
3.4.3 Personal Factors

Support and influence from family and friends can have a big effect on your decisions, especially for significant decisions that may impact the important people in your life. Consider how your options are compatible with your values, interests and abilities. An example could be: "My previous experience as a student teacher has confirmed my interests in becoming a teacher. Plus, having the summers off will allow me to spend more time with my family." You may need to Evaluate Yourself to clarify your interests, values, skills and personality style. The number of desirable options is often a factor. People with many interests and abilities find decision-making difficult because they believe they will have to sacrifice appealing options. Those with undefined interests find decision-making difficult as well because none of the options appear attractive.
3.5
Decision-Making Styles
There isn't necessarily one model or style that is always the right way to make decisions. And remember, different people are successful and satisfied using different styles. So what works well for your friend may not be the style that works best for you. The method you use to make decisions will depend on your personal decision-making style and the weight of the decision. Each decisionmaking style has advantages and disadvantages; what is most important is that you use a style that is comfortable and effective for you. You can always use a different style depending on your situation. It is often best to use a planned decision-making style when making important or complicated decisions. In other words, gather information and apply a systematic and deliberate approach that is a balance between
114
PCR 106
logical reasoning and intuition. A planned approach takes time and energy but is worthwhile when you have to make important decisions. You will also be more confident with your decision if you know you have done your homework and it feels right intuitively. Other decision-making styles can be used when you face time constraints, or when the decisions are not of great consequence. Sometimes it is easier or more comfortable to make a decision based on your emotions, to let other people influence you, or to leave the decision up to fate.
3.5.1 Reality check

Remember that you are not alone in the decision-making process. If you want help working through one or more of these decision-making models, or if the outcome of using one of the models is confounding or surprising, make an appointment with a Career Center counselor.
3.5.2 Take Action: Decision-Making Models

3.5.2.1 1. 2. 3. 4. Pros & Cons Model On a piece of paper, write down the decision you are considering making. Write it as if you had already made the decision (for example, "Accept the XYZ Company job offer in Los Angeles.") Divide the piece of paper into two columns, with "Pros" at the top of one column. Write down the outcomes of the decision that you believe are positive. In the "Cons" column, write down the outcomes of the decision that are negative or less desirable. In the course of writing down your pros and cons, you will probably notice that there are some outcomes that are uncertain or are too hard to predict. Write these outcomes down on a separate piece of paper. Conduct Research about the outcomes that you are unsure about, then add those to the Pro or Con column. For the outcomes that are simply too hard to predict, you might want to talk with other people to get their input or opinions. If possible, evaluate if the outcome is a pro or con and add that to your table. As you begin to complete the table, it may become clearer if the decision you are considering is advisable. Note: Some outcomes carry more weight than others, so the number of pros and cons in each column is not necessarily
5. 6.
7.
115
PCR 106
indicative of whether or not you should move forward with the decision.
3.5.3 Analytical Decision-Making Worksheet

Use the Career Center's Decision-Making Worksheet (PDF) to help you evaluate which of your options may be the best for you based on your values. The worksheet takes you through an analytical approach to comparing up to three options. This is a PDF file that you can print out and use for any type of decision.
3.5.6 Imaginative, Visualization Exercise

If you are more of an intuitive decision-maker, you may prefer this imaginative exercise. Open or print a copy of the Visualization Exercise. You may want to have a friend or a Career Center counselor lead you through the visualization, or you may just want to read through the exercise and imagine on your own.
4.0
CONCLUSION
The importance of decision making in conflict resolution cannot be overemphasized. It is however important for us to understand the right place of decision making in conflict resolution. This is why the three approaches discussed above could be of assistance. The decision making styles and the factors affecting them are also to be taken note of.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit treated the three approaches to decision making, the highlight, a career approach to decision making, the factors affecting decision making and decision making styles.
6.0
1. 2. 3. 4.
Demonstrate your understanding of the decision making approach. What are the decision making models that you have studied? What is the importance of decision making in conflict resolution? What factors influence decision-making?
7.0
116
PCR 106
Walton R.E. and Dutton, J.M. The Management of Interdepartment Conflict: A model and Review Administrative Science Quarterly
117
PCR 106
MODULE 4
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Attitude Change and Persuasion Mental and Emotional Preparedness Building Trust Building and Transforming Peace from Below Conflict, Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation: An Overview
UNIT 1
ATTITUDE CHANGE AND PERSUASION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Attitude change and Persuasion 3.2 Presentation Purpose 3.3 Audience Analysis 3.3.1 Decision Process 3.3.2 Audience Attitudes 3.3.3 Understand the Audiences Sources of Motivation 3.3.4 Audience Cognitive Style 3.3.5 Audience State of Change 3.4 Speaker Analysis 3.5 Persuasive Strategies 3.6 Categories and the cognitive process of categorization 3.6.1 Exemplar Models 3.6.2 Prototype 3.6.3 Classical/Rule Models 3.6.4 Mixed Models Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The importance of developing skills, both in writing and speaking to influence decision making and the behaviour of others is emphasized here. This is important also in conflict resolution, because the negotiator/mediator in a conflict needs both understanding of the situation and a certain level of comportment and mannerism to be able to carry the day.
118
PCR 106
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to 1. Explain the role of attitude change and persuasion in conflict resolution; and 2. Highlight the need for comportment on the part of the mediator.
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Attitude Change and Persuasion
Our programs communication goals involve developing skills in writing and speaking to influence the decision making and behavior of others. The encyclopaedia defines attitude as a psychological tendency that expresses like or dislike for an entity. Attitude develops on the basis of evaluative regarding. Attitudes develop on the ABC model (affect, behavioral change and cognition). For an attitude to form, an individual goes through the steps of responding to an entity on an affective behavioural change of cognitive level. The affective response is a psychological response that expresses an individuals preference for an entity. The behavioral intention is a verbal indication of the intention of the individual. The cognitive response is a cognitive evaluation of the entity to form an attitude. Most attitudes in individual are a result of social learning from the environment. The link between attitude of behaviour exists, but depends on attitude specificity, attitude relevance, personality factors, social constraints and timing of measurement. Several factors play a role for an attitude to cause a behaviour. For example, a person may have a positive attitude towards blood donation but may not necessarily go to a blood bank to donate his blood. Attitudes can be changed through persuasion. Persuasion is the process of source attempting to change the attitude of a target. There are several factors that affect this processes: Source characteristics: The major source of characteristics are expertise, trusthwordiness and attractiveness Message characteristics: The nature of the message plays a role in the persuasion process sometime presenting both side of a story it useful to help change attitude. Target characteristics: People with higher self esteem and less easily persuaded than people with lower self esteem. The mind frame and mode of the target also play a role in this process.
119
PCR 106
Cognitive characteristics: A message can appeal to an individuals cognitive evaluation to help change an attituide. In the central route to persuasion the individual is presented with the data and motivated to evaluate the data and arrive at an attitude changing conclusion. In the peripheral route to attitude change, the individual is encouraged to not look at the message contents but are the source characteristics. A. If we now return to our assumptions regarding decisionmaking, we can deduce that to influence decision making (and behavior if we view behavior as a rational choice process, e.g., expectancy Theory of motivation), we must influence one of the three components of decision-making: Criteria, alternatives, cause/effect beliefs (Cognitions). Individuals attempt to maintain consistency among components of attitude and between attitudes and behavior. When inconsistency exists, a condition termed cognitive dissonance, develops. Individuals are motivated to make some change to reduce this cognitive dissonance. In changing cognitions what you are attempting to do is create cognitive dissonance between the cognition you are presenting and the one that the target presently holds. When this dissonance is created, the target can either discredit the presenter or change his / her cognition to eliminate the dissonance (a simplification, but one that helps us develop a working model). Whether the target changes his/her cognition or discredits the communicator is largely a function of the communicators credibility. 1. Targets perception of the communicators Expertise. This is enhanced when the target has knowledge of the communicators credentials, education, experience, accomplishments, etc. The establishment to a communicators expertise is one the important roles of someone introducing the communicator. While a speaker can establish her/his own expertise, he/she runs the risk of overdoing this part of a presentation and turning off the audience. Targets perception of communicators Trustworthiness. Trustworthiness is established through deed and targets experience with communicator, by information obtained form trusted sources and by attribution of self interests. For example: a. Speakers attempting to convince an audience to do something that is clearly in the speakers self interest tend to elicit low trust.
B.
2.
120
PCR 106
b. c. 3.
When the audience perceives to have no direct stake or interest in the topic, there is most often moderate initial trust. When the speaker appears to be speaking against her/his self-interests, there is most often high initial levels of trust.
Persuasive communication influences decision making (i.e., persuades the target to choose a particular alternative or course of action) mainly through attitude change or changing the targets cause/effect beliefs. Therefore, when developing a presentation plan (written or oral) some of the guidelines taken from the perspective of attitude change theory are:
3.2
Presentation Purpose
a. b. Be clear as to what you are attempting to influence. Have specific objectives for your presentation
3.3
Audience Analysis
3.3.1 Decision Process

Understand the targets (audiences) decision making process: 1. 2. 3. 4. What criteria are they using? What alternatives are they considering? What is their definition of the problem What meaning does the audience attributes to the issues you are presenting? If you are likely to encounter resistance, is this resistance based on disagreement with your goals, criteria, or interests, or is the resistance based on disagreement with your assumptions, theories, or beliefs? That is, are you likely to be confronted with value conflict I understand and agree with you that we could save money using your approach, but is not important to me that we save money) or theory conflict (I would love to save money, but I do not see how your plan will save us money
3.3.2 Audience Attitudes

1. 2. 3. 4. What are their present attitudes (cause/effect beliefs) Are present attitudes rooted in cognition or affect? Will the audience have a strong position on your issue? If so, what are the interests behind this position?
121
PCR 106
3.3.3 Understand the audiences sources of motivation

Is your audience predominantly driven by: 1. Instrumental concerns 2. Interpersonal concerns (self concept external) 3. Personal standards and goals (self concept internal) 4. Group or organizational goals (goal internalization)
3.3.4 Audience Cognitive Style

What assumptions are you making with respect to the cognitive style of the audience? 1. Is the audience primarily extraverted or Introverted? This will impact the type of interaction both during and after the presentation. 2. Is the audience predominately Intuitive or sensing? Hits will affect whether you use an inductive or deductive persuasive strategy. Whether you speak in literal or figurative terms. 3. Is the audience Thinking or Feeling? This will determine the effectiveness of a cognitive or affective approach. 4. Is the audience Judging or Perceiving? This will affect its openness to new approaches and ideas.
3.3.5 Audience State of Change

What stage of change do you expect to find your audience? 1. Pre-contemplation (2) contemplation 3. Preparation (4) Action 5 Maintenance
3.4
a. b. c. d.
Speaker Analysis
What is your credibility with the audience? How will you develop credibility (expertise and trustworthiness) with the audience? What is the affective or evaluative orientation of the audience to you? What techniques will you use to build audience identification with you?
3.5
a. b.
Persuasive Strategies
How are you going to support your ideas? What data and the forms of evidence are you going to use to support your theory?
122
PCR 106
c. d.
Make sure the target knows what you want her/him to do. Are you going to use a cognitive, affective or mixed approach?
3.6
1.
Categories and the Cognitive Process of Categorization

Categories are mental representations of the entities one perceives in the environment. Categories can be very broad, such as the category, public university, or very narrow such as public universities in the northeast with enrollments of less than 7000. Mental structures are complex networks of categories and sub categories. Categorization occurs through all sensory modalities and is performed effortlessly and unconsciously. Four models have been proposed to explain the processes used by individuals to categorize sensory stimuli. These are:
2.
3.6.1 Exemplar Models

In exemplar models, a category is represented with memories of specific exemplars that is specific people or objects we have encountered. For example, Commander Data (Star trek) or Chet Hickox are my exemplars of Thinking Types. In this approach categorization of unknown entities is achieved when the cognitive system (using parallel search, performed automatically and unconsciously) finds an exemplar that is most similar to the entity.
3.6.2 Prototype Models

Prototype models represent categories with prototypes, or single centralized categories representations. The cognitive system abstracts properties that are representative of a categorys exemplars and integrate them into a single average or modal representation.
3.6.3 Classical/Rule Models

In the classical view, categorization is achieved through the application of rules which specify properties that are individually necessary and jointly sufficient for category membership.
3.6.4 Mixed Models

Based on a large body of research evidence has been found to support all three types of processes. Most theorists agree that categories have multiple representations and that individuals use all three cognitive mechanism in categorization.
123
PCR 106
3.
Attitudes are attached to categories. Objects (people, things, etc.) placed in a category are assigned the attitudes associated with that category. A change agent can either attempt to change the attitudes associated with a category, thus changing the target attitude regarding an individual element in that category (hard job) or use the strategy of differentiation whereby the agent attempt to remove the attitude object from a category and place it into a category with a more desirable attitude or create a subcategory with a different attitude structure that allows the target to hold dissimilar beliefs of the target than the main category (easier job).
4.0
CONCLUSION
We are advised in this unit of the importance decision(s) and how the influence the resolution of conflicts. Our attitude and the decision we take when, for instance we encounter resistance in our dealings is important. And if we have to able to achieve success we should be able to take the above discussions into consideration.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has treated attitude change and persuasion, presentation purposes, audience analysis, persuasive strategies, categories, and the cognitive process of categorization.
6.0
1. 2. 3.
What is attitude? Distinguish between attitude and attitude change? What are the four categories proposed in explaining the processes used by individuals to categorize sensory stimuli?
7.0
Batten, T.R., (1965) The Human Factor in Community Work, London: Oxford University Press
124
PCR 106
UNIT 2
MENTAL AND EMOTIONAL PREPAREDNESS
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Mental and Emotional Preparedness 3.1.1 Normal Reactions 3.1.2 Healthy Coping 3.2 School Crisis Response Team 3.2.1 School Crisis Response Plan 3.2.2 School-based Crisis Intervention Team 3.2.3 District-level Crisis Intervention Team 3.2.4 Regional Resource Group 3.3 Roles and Responsibilities of School-based and district level crisis intervention teams 3.4 Tim Birmingham and steps to Emotional Preparedness 3.4.1 Experiencing 3.4.2 Understanding 3.4.3 Mental Skills Conditioning 3.4.4 Physical Conditioning Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Our emotional reactions when disaster occurs are normal. This unit teaches the kind of frame of mind to adopt and how to get prepared, and the general management of crisis situations.
2.0
1. 2.
OBJECTIVES
To engage the student no practical situations in conflict management To create the awareness of the need for crisis management teams
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Mental and Emotional Preparedness
Emotional reactions to natural disasters and or traumatic world events are normal. It is not uncommon or abnormal to experience distress following an event, even when you are not directly affected. Most
125
PCR 106
people are resilient and manage feelings with reliable information, time and the support of family, friends and others in their communities. Others may feel overwhelmed and unable to cope and need additional help and support. Disasters can also cause us to re-experience feelings and memories related to previous disasters, such as the events of 9/11. In addition, past grief and traumatic experiences may resurface. The emotional impact that a disaster has varies from person to person. Five important things that you need to know: What are normal reactions to a disaster? What can I do to cope better? How can I help my children? How do I know when to ask for help? Where can I get help if I need it?
3.1.1 Normal Reactions

There is no right or wrong way to react to a traumatic event, whether it is natural or man made. The following are natural reactions to traumatic events and usually are normal short-term responses to what may be overwhelmingly stressful event. Feeling helpless Feeling frustrated, or having angry outbursts Feeling anxious and afraid Having trouble concentrating Feeling overwhelmed
If you feel that your reactions are lasting too long, getting worse instead of better, or interfering with your ability to function, you may want to talk with your primary care physician or a mental health professional.
Healthy Coping
Talk about your feelings and thoughts with family, friends and others in your community when you are ready to do so. This may reduce the intensity of the feelings and help you feel less uncomfortable. You may also discover that others are experiencing similar feelings and that you are not alone. Support and comfort one another in ways you find helpful. Pay close attention to your physical health get enough rest and exercise, eat nutritious meals, practice deep breathing, engage in fun and enjoyable activities, be gentle with yourself and take time to
126
PCR 106
appreciate the joy and beauty in your life, and keep medical appointments as you would usually do. A Model for School-based Crisis Preparedness and Response Schools are well-organized systems that function with great efficiency under normal conditions. During a crisis, however, schools face unusual demands. While maintaining day-to-day operations, they must adapt to unexpected and unpredictable influences. Both school staff members and students will be personally affected by the crisis. Therefore, at the time of a crisis it is very difficult for a school to organize an effective crisis intervention response and still maintain the required long-range perspective. Schools may underestimate the full impact of the crisis or feel overwhelmed by the extent and magnitude of it. For schools to effectively address the many issues that typically arise during a crisis, a preplanned, systematic organizational model to direct decisions is essential. To be effective, a school's crisis response model must anticipate the results of a crisis and identify the ways it will affect individuals and the community. This includes identifying and preparing for the typical reactions of young people of all ages. In addition, the model must identify and plan how to use the broad range of skills and knowledge represented by those on the school crisis response team, including those of collaborating professions, such as mental health and juvenile justice. Finally, the crisis response model must anticipate the future needs of the school population and develop plans to meet those needs.
3.2
School Crisis Response Team
School crisis response teams need to determine which crisis events are likely to require or benefit from a team response. In general, the following four crisis categories are included:

Death of a student, a staff member, or a community member whose death affects a significant portion of the school population. Major environmental crisis, such as a flood or fire. Situation that involves a threat to the physical safety of students, such as a school bus accident, even in the absence of injuries. Situation that involves a perceived threat to the emotional wellbeing of students, such as may be precipitated by hate-crime graffiti or repetitive bomb threats.
Situations that involve only a few students, especially when trying to maintain privacy or confidentiality, are better addressed through means other than a school crisis response team, perhaps by a student assistance team or guidance counselor.
127
PCR 106
3.2.1 School Crisis Response Plan

A school crisis response plan should include guidelines for membership on the school crisis response team and the roles of its members; protocols for delivering crisis intervention services; and protocols for notifying team members, school staff, students, parents, and the community of information about a crisis. To respond to unique situations such as large-scale natural disasters or criminal activities, specific guidelines must be established. The plan must address three general areas: safety and security; dissemination of accurate information to school crisis response team members, school staff, students, parents, and, when appropriate, the general public; and the emotional and psychological needs of all parties. Experience shows that all three areas must be addressed concurrently. If they are not, none will be addressed effectively. No ideal school crisis response plan exists that suits all the needs of all schools and school districts. The organizational model presented within this document intends to guide schools and school districts as they develop their own school crisis response plan. Individual schools and school districts will need to adapt the general model to their own unique needs and strengths. The school crisis response plan proposed in this bulletin recommends that each community create three organizations to operate the three components needed to fully implement a crisis response plana schoolbased crisis intervention team, a district-level crisis intervention team, and a regional resource group.
3.2.2 School-based Crisis Intervention Team

Usually, the school-based crisis intervention team provides staff and students with the majority of direct services needed during most crisis events. However, the roles and functions of the three teams will vary according to the needs of each community. School systems can adjust the specific functions of these teams and the relationships among them to fit the district's and region's needs. For example, smaller school districts may have the district-level crisis intervention team provide students with more direct services than the school-based crisis intervention team provides.
3.2.3 District-level Crisis Intervention Team

The district-level crisis intervention team comprises members of the district office, representatives of school-based teams, and district-level
128
PCR 106
collaborators and consultants such as personnel from the local mental health clinic, local police station, and/or fire department. The districtlevel crisis intervention team establishes district-wide policies that are relevant to crisis preparedness and response; oversees their implementation at the school level; requires and arranges training of school-based crisis intervention teams; establishes and maintains district-level connections with agencies and consultants; provides school-level teams with support and backup at the time of a crisis; coordinates the sharing of resources among school-level teams, such as assigning counseling staff from other schools to a school responding to a crisis; and oversees the implementation of the school crisis response plan across schools within the district.
3.2.4 Regional Resource Group

The regional resource group comprises representatives of the districtlevel team as well as relevant professionals from the community, including the mental health and juvenile justice sectors. This group provides a forum for sharing experiences among the participating school systems and collaborating experts; participates as indicated in districtlevel and school-level trainings; oversees the resource needs for the region; advocates for expansion of services, such as emergent mental health services, as necessary; establishes interdistrict agreements for sharing resources across district lines; and facilitates interdistrict sharing when a major school crisis puts an individual school system in need of resources. The National Center for Children Exposed to Violence formed a regional resource group for this program in 1991 with the initial participating school districts of East Haven, New Haven, North Haven, and West Haven, Connecticut. Subsequently, additional school districts joined in the development of the organizational model and establishment of district-level policies. From this process, initial training for school staff, successful advocacy for the expansion of regional urgent mental health services for children in crisis, and creation of the current initiative described in this bulletin were implemented. The regional resource group that was developed for this program continues to meet quarterly.
3.3
Roles and Responsibilities of School-based and Districtlevel Crisis Intervention Teams
The organizational model outlines specific positions and responsibilities for members of the school-
129
PCR 106
3.4
Tim Birmingham and Steps to Emotional Preparedness
Tim Birmingham has stated, I am among those that believe that one cannot duplicate reality stress. Having said that I do believe one can develop a better understanding of what is happening inside the mind and body during extreme stress. Understanding what is happening is the first step in gaining a degree of control, or at least taking the edge off of the powerful internal response. As with all things developing a degree of emotional preparedness is an individual journey. Genetics, past experience and perception all play a part in ones emotional response. The powerful emotions that manifest itself during combat are based on the minds biochemical response. The mind is a powerful tool and once chaos and stress presents itself certain chemical reactions take place inside the mind affecting the body. Below I offer a six- step plan to emotional preparedness that some may find useful. Steps to Emotional Preparedness. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Knowledge Experiencing Understanding Mental Skills Conditioning Physical Training and Conditioning Knowledge
Knowledge in anything is the first step in developing power if one is not clear on what is happening then one cannot even begin to develop a plan to correct, direct or control. First we will examine some of the more dominant chemical responses to high levels of stress. Endorphins are chemicals produced by the brain in response to varying stimuli and are said by some to be natures cure for high stress levels. They are among the brains chemical which function in the transmission of signal within the nervous system. Many type of endorphins exist and stress and pain are leading factors that stimulate the release of this chemical. Endorphins interact with the opiate receptors in the brain to reduce our perception of pain, having a similar action to drugs such as morphine and codeine. Endorphins are very power, as much as 100 times more powerful that the drug morphine and is a natural high. This stimulant contributes or is the leading cause of one feeling no or little pain during extreme physical exertion and is directly related to ones pain threshold.
130
PCR 106
Adrenaline- Several hormones important to ones stress originates in the adrenal glands. These glands are located adjacent to the kidneys. The cortex or outer portion of the adrenal gland secretes steroidal hormones including cortisol, In the presence of stressors; the body almost immediately attempts to increase cortisol levels. Cortisol is an essential fight-or-flight hormone, secreted under stress, to prepare the body for action. The stimulant normally secretes chemical and then returns to normal, some researcher believe that pro-long stimulation to cortisol leads to PTSD Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome and can lead to a wide range of health problems. The medulla or inner portion of the adrenal gland, secreted epinephrine and norepinephrine or other hormones important to the fight or flight response. Secretion of these hormones on various bodily systems include increased metabolism, increased blood pressure, increased mental activity, increased blood flow to the muscles, and increased heart rate. These reactions prepare the individual to deal with perceived threats or stress by enhancing capabilities to fight or to flee. Fight or flight reaction- the reaction that occurs in the body when faced by a sudden, unexpected threat or source of stress. The name of this reaction comes from the fact that an animal experiencing this reaction almost immediately decides to fight or to run. In this reaction there is a sudden release of the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine, which increase blood flow to the muscles, increase arterial blood pressure, improve muscle strength and mental ability, as well as increase blood glucose concentration. Through these actions the body prepares for a confrontation or a fast escape. Also Known As: alarm reaction, sympathetic alarm reaction, stress reaction, sympathetic stress reaction.
3.4.1 Experiencing
Once one has a basic knowledge to the brain chemicals and their affects on oneself is in a better position to understand what is happening internally when stress presents itself. I believe the next step in emotional preparedness is for one to experience a degree of this chemical stimulation. This can be achieved by a variety of scenario based training methods. Ideally one wants to present ones mind and body with things that stimulates secretion of these chemicals that he might develop an insight of ones personal chemical response. This type of experience is the beginning steps in what I like to call battle proofing.
131
PCR 106
3.4.2 Understanding
After one has experienced the range of chemical response then one can begin to develop a plan to correct, control or direct himself during extreme stress. One should contemplate the power of the stress response and develop a degree of understanding about what is happening and understand that this response is normal and will be a part of reality preparedness. One should can relax themselves and relive and or observe themselves during this time of high stress and identify what is happening. In short one should begin applying knowledge. This can be done by inward study and replaying times of high stress in the mind utilizing as many sense(s) as possible (hear it, see if, feel it, smell it and taste it). Getting to know oneself and one internal response is essential in developing a balance. This is a crucial step in desensitize that effects of stress.
3.4.3 Mental Skills Conditioning

Once one has a clear understanding of his individual stress response then a plan of action can be implemented. Mental skills conditioning does for the mind what physical exercise does for the body. One should become skilled in proper breathing, relaxation, and mental imagery techniques to begin preparing the mind for the next time high stress presents itself. Once one is skilled it these areas, one should begin applying it in training, preparing oneself for real life.
3.4.4 Physical Conditioning

The more time one trains the body the more self-confidence in ability is achieved. Self belief is an essential part of success in any walk of life, including reality preparedness. Continuing to advance one physically will only add to ones ability to survive danger.
4.0
CONCLUSION
The unit is more of practical demonstration of the principles. This is important because it assists us to understand the principles at work and how we can apply them.
5.0SUMMARY
This unit treated mental and emotional preparedness, school crises response team, roles and responsibilities of school-based and district level intervention teams, and Tim Birmingham and steps to emotional preparedness.
132
PCR 106
6.0
1. When is a reaction said to be normal? 2. Design a model for school-based crisis preparedness and response.
7.0
Darren Laur has written excellent studies on Combative Based Action Imagery/Anatomy of Fear that will further help one searching for a degree of understanding and preparedness.
133
PCR 106
UNIT 3
BUILDING TRUST
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Building Trust 3.2 What is Trust? 3.3 Why do people have trouble developing trust in others? 3.4 What are some beliefs of people who have problems trusting? 3.5 What behavioural traits do people need in order to develop trust 3.5.1 Hope in the Goodness of Mankind 3.5.2 Faith in the Fairness of Life 3.5.3 Belief in a Power Greater than Yourself 3.5.4 A Healing Environment 3.5.5 Reduction of a Sense of Competition 3.5.6 Self-Disclosure of Negative Self-Script 3.5.7 Taking a Risk to be Open to Others 3.5.8 Becoming Vulnerable 3.5.9 Letting Go of Fear 3.5.10 Self Acceptance 3.6 What steps can be taken to improve trust building? 3.6.1 Letter Writing 3.6.2 Trust Walk 3.7 Assessing the trust level Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Trust is very important in resolving conflict. Without it a system hardly works. This unit establishes the fact that a lot of trust is needed and has to be cultivated in the process of conflict resolution.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to 1. Highlight the importance of trust in conflict resolution. 2. State the reason(s) why some people mistrust others.
134
PCR 106
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Building Trust
Content: What is trust? Why do people have trouble developing trust in others? What are some beliefs of people who have problems trusting? What behavioral traits do people need in order to develop trust? What steps can be taken to improve trust building?
3.2
What Is Trust?
Trust is: Letting others know your feelings, emotions and reactions, and having the confidence in them to respect you and to not take advantage of you.
Sharing your inner feelings and thoughts with others with the belief that they will not spread them indiscriminately. Placing confidence in others so that they will be supportive and reinforcing of you, even if you let down your "strong'' mask and show your weaknesses.
Assuming that others will not intentionally hurt or abuse you if you should make an error or a mistake.
The inner sense of acceptance you have of others with whom you are able to share secrets, knowing they are safe.
The sense that things are fine; that nothing can disrupt the bond between you and the other.
The ability to let others into your life so that you and they can create a relationship built on an understanding of mutual respect, caring, and concern to assist one another in growing and maturing independently.
The glue or cement of relationships that allows you to need others to fulfill yourself.
Opening yourself up to let others in on your background, problems, concerns, and mistakes with the assurance that they will not ostracize you because of these things. The act of placing yourself in the vulnerable position of relying on others to treat you in a fair, open, and honest way.
135
PCR 106
Trust can also be defined a shared belief that you have on each other to achieve a common purpose. More comprehensively trust defines willingness of a party (trustor) to believe the actions of another party (trustee) with the expectation that the trustee will reciprocate the trust important to the trustor, regardless of ability to monitor or control the trustee. People sense how you feel about the ability to change their attitudes toward you or negative attitudes you have toward the relationships requires the building of trust the expectancy of people that they can believe your word. It is built through integrity and relationships.
3.3 Why Do People Have Trouble Developing Trust In Others?

People have trouble developing trust if they have: Experienced a great deal of emotional and/or physical abuse and/or neglect. Been chronically put down for the way they feel or for what they believe. Been emotionally hurt in the past and are not willing to risk getting hurt in the future. Had problem relationships in the past where they were belittled, misunderstood, or ignored. Experienced the loss of a loved one through death. They can get so caught up in unresolved grief that they are unable to open themselves up to others, fearing they will be left alone again due to death, or, abandonment. Experienced a hostile or bitter divorce, separation, or end of a relationship. They may be unable to believe anyone who opens up to them in a new, committed relationship. Been reared in or have lived in an environment emotionally and/or physically unpredictable and volatile. Experienced a great deal of pain at the hands of another. Even if the other finally recognizes and accepts the responsibility to change such behavior, the person fears that if they let their guard down, the pain and hurt will begin again.
136
PCR 106
Low self-esteem and cannot believe that they are deserving of the attention, care, and concern of anyone. They have problems even trusting the positive, healthy, and reinforcing behavior of another who is sincere. Experienced a great deal of non-provoked victimization in their lives. They are unwilling to trust people, situations, or institutions for fear of being victimized again.
3.4 What Are Some Beliefs Of People Who Have Problems Trusting?
I have been hurt too much in the past, and I refuse to be hurt again now or in the future!
People are out to get all they can from you, so avoid them to survive! As soon as you let your guard down, you will be stepped on again! No one is to be trusted! You always get hurt by the ones you love! I get no respect from anyone! All men (or women) are dishonest and are never to be trusted! Everyone is out to get me! I am never successful in picking partners, so why try again! As soon as you care and open up to someone, they will always leave you! Marriage is the pits! There is no such thing as a healthy relationship! You can never let your guard down because all hell will break loose! All reformations are short-lived! If I give in and believe you have truly changed, relaxing my defenses, I am most certainly going to be hurt again once you backslide! There is no such thing as change in behavior. It is only manipulation by others to get their way with you! Everyone is out to get as much as they can out of you! There is no such thing as a fair employer, generous company, or supportive work place! It is better to live alone for the rest of my life than to risk being hurt as I was! I will never let you know my true feelings again since, if I do open up, I'm afraid you will use them against me to hurt me!
3.5 What Behavioral People Need In Order To Trust?
Traits Do Develop
137
PCR 106
People need to develop the following behavior traits, attitudes, and beliefs in order to develop trust:
3.5.1
Hope in the Goodness of Mankind
Without such hope people can become emotionally stuck, reclusive, and isolated. Hope in goodness is a change based on the willingness to take a risk that all people are not evil, bad, or ill-willed.
3.5.2
Faith in the Fairness of Life
This faith in fairness is similar to the ``boomerang belief,'' that what you throw out to others will come back to you eventually in life. So if people are fair, honest, or nurturing they will eventually receive similar behavior aimed back at them. Having faith in fairness is an attitude that helps people be open to others and risk being vulnerable. They believe that the person who treats them negatively will eventually ``get it in the end!'' and be punished in someway later in this life or in the next.
3.5.3 Belief in a Power Greater Than Yourself

This is the acceptance of a spiritual power with greater strength, wisdom, and knowledge than you; one with a divine plan to include your experience, whatever you will encounter in life. Rather than believing that you are 100% in control of your destiny, belief in this spiritual power enables you to let go of over responsibility, guilt, and anger. This lets you accept God's will in your life and enables you to let go of your distrust and isolation from others. If God is in control of the universe, you can lighten your load and let God do some of the leading in your life. `"Let go and let God,'' can be your motto.
3.5.4
A Healing Environment
This is the creating of a trust bond with the significant others in your personal life where blaming, accusing, and acrimony do not exist. In the healing mode the participants actively use forgiveness, understanding, and healthy communication to resolve problems and issues. The participants are then willing to forget, to let go, and to release themselves of the past hurts, wounds, and pain, opening themselves to trust one another.
3.5.5
Reduction of a Sense of Competition
This reducing of competition, jealousy, and defensiveness with significant others in your life is a way to reduce the barriers between you and them. The lowering of these psychological barriers is essential to the movement toward development of mutual trust.
138
PCR 106
3.5.6
Self-Disclosure of Negative Self-Scripts
Your disclosing of your inability to feel good about yourself and your perceived lack of healthy self-esteem are essential in reducing miscommunication or misunderstanding between you and the significant others in your life. This self-disclosure reveals to the others your perspective on obstacles you believe you bring to relationships. This sheds the mask of self-defensiveness and allows the other to know you as you know yourself. It is easier to trust that which is real than that which is unreal or hidden.
3.5.7
Taking A Risk To Be Open To Others
This enables you to become a real person to others. It is an essential behavior in trust-building between two people because it is the establishing of the parameters of strengths and weaknesses on which you have to draw as the relationship develops.
3.5.8
Becoming Vulnerable
This enables you to be hurt by others who know your weaknesses and strengths. This is an essential step in trust-building between people. It lays the cards on the table in a gamble that in such total self-revelation the others will accept you for who you really are rather than for who they want you to be. In order to get to full self-disclosure you must take the risk to be vulnerable to others. This is an important building block in trust development.
3.5.9
Letting Go Of Fear
Fear restricts your actions with others. Letting go frees you of behavioral constraints that can immobilize your emotional development. Fear of rejection, fear of failure, fear of caring, fear of success, fear of being hurt, fear of the unknown, and fear of intimacy are blocks to the development of trust relationships and can impede relationship growth if not given appropriate attention and remedial action.
3.5.10 Self-Acceptance
Accepting who you are and what your potential is an important step in letting down your guard enough to develop a trusting relationship with others. If you are so insecure in your identity that you are unable to accept yourself first, how can you achieve the self-revelation necessary
139
PCR 106
to develop trust? Self-acceptance through an active program of selfaffirmation and self-love is a key to the development of trust.
3.6 3.6.1
What Steps can be taken to Improve Trust Building Letter writing:
To a person you have problems trusting, write a letter listing your reasons for the lack of trust, list the feelings and beliefs that block your trust, and ask the person to understand and assist you in this problem. Tell the person what you are willing to do and to commit to in order to change this situation. Also, tell the person what you are unwilling to do because of your personal integrity. Once you have written the letter you have three choices: (1) send it, (2) save it, or (3) rip it up and throw it away. No matter what your choice is, you have spent the time to think out this problem and have identified your feelings, beliefs, and the behavior involved. You have cleared your own ``air waves,'' even if you never send the letter.
3.6.2
Trust walk
Ask the individual you have been having problems trusting to share at least ninety minutes together. During this time you and the person will each take thirty minute turns being "blinded'' with a cloth and led by the "sighted'' person on a walk in a park, mall, neighborhood, or building. The sighted person must give clear, precise verbal instructions and must not hold on to or grab the "blinded'' person. The ``blinded'' person is allowed only to hold on to the left upper or lower arm or elbow of the "sighted'' person. The "blinded'' person can ask as many questions as needed. The "blinded'' person does not determine the route of the walk. The "sighted'' guide determines the route and destination of this walk. At the end of the first thirty minute walk, the two people exchange roles and blindfold and proceed with the second part of the walk for another thirty minutes.
3.7
Assessing the Trust Level
To assess the trust level you have you can use this simple tool: look at a terms of an emotional bank account credit (or debit) of goodwill existed. Trust versus Credibility Credibility is intellectual Trust is visceral Building Trust: Behavioral Attributes
140
PCR 106
Sharing important information, especially about oneself Willingness to be influenced Avoiding the abuse of team-members vulnerability (because of their inadequate access to information or lack of positional power, and so on). being fair fulfilling promises Building Trust by Acting Consistently Exhibiting consistency in behavior is an incredibly potent force, because it conditions your prospect to trust you We only trust strangers when theyve established a consistent pattern of behavior Make a decision and stick with it, because projecting that youre consistent in your behavior is the most powerful persuasion factor you have going for you. Trust as a source of sustainable Competitive advantage 1. 2. 3. 4. Valuable because it allows your firm to better serve your customers and to improve its performance as a result. Rare because few rivals have the relationship between managers and employees that trust denotes. Costly to imitate because trust is causally ambiguous and socially complex. As such, it is difficult for your competitors to understand what trust is and how to establish it in their firms. Non-substitutable because trust is a capability that is difficult for your competitors to observe, and capabilities that cannot be observed at least somewhat easily are hard to imitate.
Managers Tasks: Placing trust in People Demonstrate trust in your staff, and prove yourself worthy of trust: Never make promises that you are not able or are not intending to keep. Never ask others to do anything that you would not do yourself Ensure your people know that they can count on your respect and your loyalty, unless and until they prove undeserving Trustees Ability, Benevolence, and Integrity Trust between a manager and an employee is based on the trustors perception of the trustee ability, benevolence, and integrity.
141
PCR 106
Ability is the composite of skills and attributes through which a party is able to influence outcomes in a specific situation. Benevolence is the extent to which the trustee perceives that the trustor intends to perform in ways that serve the trustors good in a particular situation. Integrity deals with the trustors belief that the trustee will follow a set of principles that are not only acceptable, but also desirable, given the trustors value set. A reputation for honesty and fairness influences the trustees perception of the trustors integrity. Eight Conditions For Trust Between Organizations 1. Priority Mutual Need (2) Personal Relationships 3. Joint Leaders (4) Shared Objectives 5. Safeguards (6) Commitment 7. Adaptable Organizations (8) Continuity
4.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we could see that trust is the oil that lubricates the machine in conflict resolution. This unit has therefore taken steps to assess the importance and other issues involved. If we have to make any meaning impact in conflict resolution then the issues discussed above have to be taken seriously.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit treated building trust, the trouble in we encounter in developing trust in others, the behavioral traits that people need, steps to be taken in building trust, and assessing trust level.
6.0
1. 2. 3.
What is trust? Why do people mistrust others? How can trust be developed and what steps can be taken to do this?
7.0
142
PCR 106
UNIT 4
BUILDING AND TRANSFORMING PEACE FROM BELOW
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Building and Transforming Trust from below 3.1.1 Introduction 3.2 Theoretical considerations 3.3 Historical Background Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Peace building does not always have to be initiated from above or from the high and mighty. Every system is expected to have alternative peace building measure, outside the official system. This is the lesson this unit tries to impart to be amenable to traditional methods of conflict resolution.
2.0
1. 2.
OBJECTIVES
To make a case for alternative conflict Resolution measures. To emphasize the need of tradition in resolving conflict.
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Building and Transforming Peace From Below
Before we discuss the differences between the African and Western approaches to conflict resolution it is important to look into some theoretical approaches and other fundamental issues raised by scholars and researchers in support of indigenous approaches to conflict resolution in Africa. One of the scholars who has made a considerable impact in this area is Josiah Osamba of the History department at Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya, in his research on Peace Building and Transformation from below: Indigenous Approaches to Conflict Resolution among the Pastoral Societies in the Borderlands of Eastern Africa
143
PCR 106
3.1.1 Introduction
Violence and warfare, especially in the form of raids and skirmishes among pastoral peoples, have existed from time immemorial. However, the borderlands of Eastern Africa have witnessed unparalleled violence, anarchy, and insecurity in the last two decades. These acts often degenerate into war. Yet, the often wanton destruction of life and property and the rise of terror in all its manifestations tend to undermine the sense of value and dignity of human life. The governments of the Eastern African states are finding it extremely difficult to maintain law and order in the borderlands through the use of security forces and other extra-judicial methods. Such measures seem to have failed to contain conflict and violence probably because they address merely the symptoms rather than the root causes of the conflict. The principal concern of the study is to locate traditional customs and values that may be of significance in promoting security, peaceful coexistence and respect for human rights. The study posits that the devastating effects of the current conflicts among the pastoral communities in the borderlands could be minimised through the adoption of norms and values based on those of the indigenous cultures. The term "pastoralism" is applied in the study to denote communities whose main mode of production is the herding of livestock on extensive bases or in combination with some form of agricultural activities. Such communities include the Turkana, the Pokot, the Samburu, the Somali, and the Boran of Kenya. Among others are the Toposa and the Merille of Ethiopia and Sudan, and the Karamojong of Uganda. The terms "rustling" or "raid" are used interchangeably in the study to refer to armed attacks by one group on another for the purpose of stealing livestock and not necessarily for territorial expansion (Markakis 1993:124). On the other hand, the term "conflict" is used to denote "a dispute into which the threat of physical coercion (violence) has been introduced" (Amoo 1992: 3). The phrase "conflict resolution" refers to the termination of a conflict or dispute through the elimination of the underlying bases or causes of the conflict (Burton & Dukes 1990:217).
3.2
Theoretical Considerations
Basically, this study is conceptualised as a critique of the western legal framework of conflict resolution. It points out that the marginalisation of the African indigenous practices of conflict principles and norms is to
144
PCR 106
some extent a major contributory factor to the current incessant violence in Eastern Africa. The upsurge of ethnic conflicts all over the world, and especially in Africa, has elicited a wide variety of theoretical explanations from scholars with divergent ideological standpoints. To some scholars, violent and non-violent conflicts between different ethnic groups within a nation-state are a normal phenomenon. This is attributed to the natural urge by human beings for self-realisation, identity and supremacy. Another school of thought that emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s posits that ethnic conflicts in the developing countries are a manifestation of a people's quest for self-identity, which they have been denied by the powers that be. Such conflicts tend to become more protracted and volatile, especially when they hinge on such people's cultural values. Culture is an important component in conflict resolution (Burton & Dukes 1990; Kozan 1997; Bryne & Irvin 2000). Burton affirms that culture is vital because it is a "satisfier". Moreover, cultural values are important to most members of the community. He points out that indigenous societies were more inclined towards rituals that led to cooperative problem solving than to the type of confrontation and power bargaining which has become the vogue in the western world. Lederach and Coner (1990) also advocate the necessity of cultural and indigenous approaches to conflict resolution. In the African context, this would involve incorporating various traditional theories and practices into the contemporary general mechanisms of conflict resolution. Augsburger (1992) argues that in traditional cultures, there exist pathways in the ethnic wisdom for managing conflicts. This, he points out, may be lost due to the influence of westernisation. Indigenous cultures viewed conflict as a communal concern. Thus, the society was seen as having ownership of both the conflict and its context. However, the westernised conflict resolution approach puts more premiums on personal and individual ownership. Most of the time it is a win-lose situation. On the other hand, a grassroots peacemaking approach hinges on the premise that since most of the active players in any conflict situation are grassroots people, it becomes inevitable to involve this large segment of the society in the process of peace making and conflict resolution. This approach also presupposes that peace can be built from below. Traditional approaches of conflict resolution are an important component of the cultural heritage of African societies.
145
PCR 106
There are many assumptions that surround a people's perception and approach to culture in the field of conflict resolution. These assumptions rarely make explicit the fundamental concerns about the relevance, dominance and ideology underlying the meaning and purpose of conflict resolution. The study, therefore, analyses the accumulated understanding of conflicts, and the traditional modus operandi of conflict resolution and reconciliation among the pastoral communities. For example, practices in which symbols and rituals figure prominently are very vital in the process of peace building among many African societies.
3.3
Historical Background
Pastoral systems are, to a large extent, products of climatic and environmental factors. The system of pastoralism in Eastern Africa is currently under intolerable stress. This is evident in an upsurge in cases of conflict and violence in the region. According to Markakis, ethnicity is to some extent a factor in conflicts in the borderlands. This is due to the struggle by each group to enlarge its share of resources. The pastoralists clash among themselves and also with the agriculturalists. Occasionally such clashes culminate into serious violence. From antiquity, conflict and warfare have existed in human history though confrontations had limits. As Salih points out "armed conflicts generally followed predictable patterns and were soon followed by pressures for truce or reconciliation. Killing was relatively limited partly because of the weapons used and partly because payment of compensation to aggrieved relatives could be expensive in terms of livestock" (East African Social Science Research Review 1993:24). According to Fukui and Turton (1979), there are certain elements of social organisation that serve the "midwifery" role to heighten or lessen the intensity of conflicts. Thus "warfare among pastoralists has more in common with raiding than with large scale, set piece or pitched battles of European history" (Turton 1996:190). This distinction between raiding and war helps to differentiate two levels of armed conflict. Socially accredited values and beliefs determine the latter, while the former is an individual or small group act with limited or without societal approval (Turton 1996:191). Mazrui on the other hand, plays down the dichotomy between raid and war. He posits that "the warrior tradition underlines all those issues linking precolonial combat to modern warfare, mediating between
146
PCR 106
culture and politics, affirming the individuals' obligation to society and constantly drawing the boundaries between war and peace in human experience" (cited in Fukui & Turton 1979:191). Traditionally, raiding among pastoral societies had three main objectives: Firstly, it had a social and economic base. An individual without livestock could not actively participate in the socio-political affairs of the society. Secondly, there was competition for grazing land and water. Due to scarcity or dwindling of resources as a result of overpopulation or adverse climatic changes, some groups are forced to move their livestock to territories that belong to other ethnic groups or clans and this causes conflicts. Thirdly, there are survival strategies. Loss of cattle could lead to raids, which was one of the options of replenishing depleted herds. Or, raids could be undertaken as means of increasing one's stock as an insurance against unforeseen calamities. In other words, cattle wars constituted a communal response to natural calamities (Ocan 1995). The adoption of transhumance by some pastoral societies entailed the development of serious hostilities about grazing land among the various groups,. According to Dyson-Hudson "aggressive confrontation" is an essential component of pastoralists' strategy (Markakis 1993:1). In pre-colonial times, pastoral societies tended to use migrations as a panacea to manage conflict and/or natural calamities. The pastoralists enjoyed friendly relations with most of their neighbours in spite of sporadic raids and conflicts, which to a very large extent were regulated by elders through the political system of gerontocracy (Odegi-Awuondo 1990:46). This peaceful intercourse included intermarriage between the pastoral neighbours. But the imposition of fixed ethnic and national borders by the colonialists, with little regard to the seasonal variations and the needs of the people for pasture, had serious repercussions (Galaty 1990:145). The borders did not only limit free access to grazing land and water but also seem to have increased social conflicts among the pastoralists. As access to land diminished and populations of people and livestock increased against available resources, there emerged acute competition for water and pasture. These, in turn, tend to intensify both intra and cross border raids and conflicts.
147
PCR 106
Today, conflicts among pastoral communities have taken new exaggerated dimensions. They create misery, poverty, and insecurity among the populace.
4.0
CONCLUSION
In conclusion we could safely say that it is normal for people to have different opinions in regard to the place of culture in conflict resolution. But the fact remains that we have to advocate for the usage whenever it is applicable. We must necessarily explore all avenues necessary for the achievement of peace and orderly behavior in order to always bring conflict to a very minimal level. If the traditional approach can assist in doing this, why not?
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit treated building and transforming trust from below, the theoretical considerations and the historical background.
6.0
1.
Attempt a critique of the Western legal framework of conflict resolution
7.0
148
PCR 106
UNIT 5
CONFLICT RESOLUTION: AN INDIGENOUS APPROACH
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Explanations of Indigenous Conflicts 3.1.1 The Pastoralists and Conflict Resolution 3.1.2 Todays Standing 3.2 Indigenous methods: Lessons Conclusions Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
This unit takes an overview of indigenous methods of conflict resolution. The test cases are focused in some indigenous communities in East Africa as observed by a perceptive scholar, Josiah Osamba. It tries to emphasize the need to bring about justice in situations of conflict resolution, in order to avoid recurrence of the conflict.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to 1. Explain conflict, especially as it affects indigenous methods. 2. Describe how justice could be established through the indigenous method(s) of conflict resolution.
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Explanations of Indigenous Conflicts
The anthropological study of war focuses on attempts to explain armed conflicts as a universal feature of the human condition manifesting itself in culturally specific terms (Njeru 1998:4). The institution of war may take different forms. In a single society, various categories of armed conflict are recognised. These range from duels between two groups by appointment, wherein the participants seek to inflict non-mortal injury, to "mother-of-all-wars" battles, which are rare and result in many deaths (Fortes & Evans-Pritchard 1940:xx). Feuds or collective actions using force or the threat of force are not synonymous with wars since the actions are limited to obtaining satisfaction for a particular injury and
149
PCR 106
are controlled by the norms of a given society. Raiding for cattle is only one aspect of conflict. To a large extent, the economic system, the lineage structure and ritual ideology facilitated local cohesion as a factor of common solidarity. Among the pastoral societies, two neighbouring clans could occasionally arrange a feud, agreeing to put two similar age-sets against each other. Sometimes these engagements turned bloody. A third group normally intervened as arbiter in such a case. The social structure of the pastoral groups is largely based on generational lines and age-sets. Elders form the senior generation set. In their role as political and spiritual leaders of the society, the elders laid down rules and procedures to initiate warriors, settle disputes, sanction raiding expeditions and determine grazing areas in their transhumant pattern. The society therefore relied on their wise guidance, prayers and blessings. Their advanced age and experience was seen as indicating their close relationship with the spiritual world. Thus, their decisions on any issue were sacrosanct. The warriors constitute the junior generation set. Their role in society was to execute decisions agreed upon by the elders. The elders, therefore, played an important part in defusing tensions and conflicts, which usually centred on the control of grazing land or water. They had well laid down procedures for settling disagreements in which all the parties to the conflict got a chance to put across their views. The elders were recognised as having authority to act as arbiters and give judgement on the rights or wrongs of a dispute submitted to them and suggest a settlement though they may have had no power of physical coercion by which to enforce them (Fortes & Evans-Pritchard 1940:xviii). The negotiation or reconciliation process in the traditional setting was seen as a re-establishment of relationships between people and also with their God and spirits who were regarded as witnesses and active participants. As Kiplagat (1998:7) points out: "There is a holistic approach to the process, working with the community as a whole, invoking spiritual forces to be present and accompany the community towards peace". The responsibility of the elders was to guide the negotiation towards an agreement, which would reflect as much as possible the consensus of all the parties involved.
3.1.1 The Pastoralists and Conflict Resolution

Among the pastoralists, ties of kinship, marriage and friendship as well as cattle loans often bind neighbours. For example, the Luo people of
150
PCR 106
Kenya have a proverb stating "kinship is strengthened through friendship". Many individuals, therefore, often have divided loyalties and interests in any conflict situation. Hence they would apply pressure for a quick settlement of any dispute. As Gordon and Gordon (1996:235) point out, "when people of different descent groups must marry, live among, and cooperate with one another, their cross cutting ties together with the pervasive fear of feud constitute an important mechanism for the maintenance of social order". The ethical code of war ensured the respect and protection of women, children and the elderly. Respect for women was imperative since they represent the origin (source) of life. The child represents innocence, while the elderly were considered to be closer to the spirit of the ancestors (Njoya 1988:7). Generally, before the outbreak of conflict or hostilities, the parties To the conflict tried to settle the dispute peacefully. Only when all efforts to achieve reconciliation had failed did the parties resort to war. After any conflict, the question of reconciliation was put on top of the agenda. It was usual for the two protagonists to meet in the presence of an arbitrator from a neutral community. In many cases, treaties or agreements were entered into solemnly and were usually regarded as binding and sacred. The beliefs behind oaths were that God or some supernatural power would punish any individual who breaks the requirements of the oath (Mbiti 1970:212). Among the Turkana, when there was any serious conflict, the elders would call a traditional peace conference. The whole community would gather with one common objective, i.e. to restore the broken relationship and invigorate the process of healing. Such a meeting would be openended so that all the participants had time and opportunity to air their views. The meeting would be held in a "carnival" atmosphere, punctuated with stories, songs, dance, proverbs, etc. The name of God and the spirits would be invoked during the meeting. A bull would be slaughtered and its blood collected and sprinkled into the air as a way of binding the community to the peace covenant. As a gesture of reconciliation the whole group would eat the meat together. Thereafter, feasting, singing, dancing and celebration would continue for several days. The whole society would thus be part of the agreement and anybody who violated it could suffer some calamity. For example, following a bloody conflict between the Luo and the Maasai of Kenya, negotiation and reconciliation would be arranged by the elders with rituals to solemnise the occasion. The elders and the "whole community" women, children and the youth would assemble at one point along their common border. A makeshift obstacle consisting of tree branches would be created along the border and the warriors would place their spears over it. A dog would then be slain and cut in
151
PCR 106
half and its blood sprinkled along the border. Then, mothers would exchange babies with the "enemy" group and suckle them. The warriors would also exchange spears. The elders would then offer prayers and a profound curse pronounced on any one who attempted to cross the border and create havoc to either side. After such an agreement it would be almost impossible for the two sides to fight again (Augsberger 1992:276). This was a form of creating blood brotherhood. Thus, in the traditional set up, reconciliation was formally and informally characterised by the implicit involvement of the whole society. The peace message would then be conveyed and become incorporated in the people's oral tradition. The community therefore serves as the repository within which conflict resolution was performed. As William Ury (1999:28) notes: Emotional wounds and injured relationships are healed within the context of the emotional unity of the community. Opposed interests are resolved within the context of community interest in peace. Quarrels over rights are sorted out within the context of overall community norms. Power struggles are contained within the context of overall community power. The mediators (elders) represented the norms and values of the society, especially on moral issues. They thus advocated a settlement that would accord with commonly accepted principles of justice in terms of custom, virtue, and fairness, and reflect community judgement about appropriate behaviour. Thus, to flout such a settlement was regarded as defying the moral order of the society. Conflicts and their resolution, therefore, were viewed as events in the comprehensive continuation of social life. As Malan (1997:24) points out: "A typical immediate goal is to reach an agreement which includes more than merely solving the problem or rectifying the injustice. What is specifically aimed at in the search for durable peace, is genuine reconciliation and, where necessary, restitution and rehabilitation". According to Lederach (1975:53): ''Reconciliation is both a focus and a locus, a place where people and things come together creating the possibility and social space where both truth and forgiveness are validated and joined rather than a framework in which one must win over the other".
3.1.2 Todays Standing

Today, respect by the youth for the elders and the traditional hierarchy of authority has been seriously diluted through westernisation. This has undermined the traditional motives of raiding, the raiding process and
152
PCR 106
cordial relationships among some pastoral communities. Traditionally, the elders were actively involved in the planning process and the performing of traditional ceremonies before and after raids. The motives for raiding were geared to community survival and reproduction. At present, raids are mainly geared to individual accumulation. This aspect has led to a profound disregard for alliance among pastoral communities that were once allies. This in turn has created an atmosphere of animosity and vindictiveness. Thus, the pastoral societies are currently undergoing transformation. The authority of traditional elders has dwindled as warrior-youth acquire more prominence. The incorporation of the pastoral communities into the market economy, through the sale of livestock and livestock products, has had some adverse effects. It has contributed to the emergence of "cattle warlords" thereby exacerbating a state of conflict and insecurity as these "merchants" compete to acquire livestock for sale. There have emerged new trends, tendencies and dynamism leading to commercialisation and internationalisation of raids. It is no longer a cultural practice of testing a person's bravery and prowess, but a bloody warfare between various groups. All these pose serious challenges to societal structure, security, survival as well as traditional moral foundations. Consequently, the primordial causes of cattle raids have been compounded and exacerbated by the effects of the modern economy in tandem with the unfolding and changing nature of social relations. The current struggles are waged with new sophisticated firearms and verge on ethnocide, where neither women nor children are spared. Is this a symbol of the breakdown of social norms? Traditionally, women were excluded from political decision making among the pastoral communities. In most societies, this exclusion was ostensibly because of women's inability to keep secrets. Women, however, were allowed to attend general community meetings but were not legible to membership of the Council of elders. Most generally, therefore, parallel authority structure necessitated men and women to exercise authority over their own gender and its activities. Women thus had their own courts, market authorities and age grade institutions. These organisations reflected the sexual division of labour and the different roles for men and women. Thus, for women, power across the gender line could only be exercised indirectly or informally behindthe-scene. Nevertheless, women had some traditionally acknowledged rights to land, animals, etc.
153
PCR 106
Today there is a need to give women a more prominent role in conflict resolution. In Africa there is a tendency of ignoring women as important agents of socio-economic transformation. Yet women have, in many respects, been the most conspicuous victims of ethnic conflicts. Thus, there is need to involve them more in the process of generating solutions to conflict by positively influencing men from engaging in such activities.
3.2
Lessons from the Indigenous Methods
The indigenous methods of conflict resolution stressed the need of fostering a spirit of peace and mutual respect for both individuals and groups, in times of peace and in times of conflict. This was effectively ensured through the institution of the council of elders and age-set organisations. The elders played an important role in defusing conflicts within and between societies. They were able to manage and counterbalance the aggressiveness and military orientation of the youth. Conflict was viewed as a communal concern. Conflict resolution followed conflict patterns as embedded in the norms and customs of a society. Resolution processes, therefore, were culturally prescribed. Emphasis was placed on reconciling the protagonists with each other, rather than on establishing right and wrong, winner or loser. Thus punishment was not aimed at retaliation, but at restoring equilibrium, usually through the mechanisms of restitution, apology and reconciliation. There was emphasis on justice and fairness, forgiveness, tolerance and coexistence. Conflicts were, therefore, seen as events in the rhythm of social life. A holistic approach to resolution was emphasised. The spiritual dimension was quite evident. Since cultural values are important to the people, a traditional approach was inclined towards rituals to promote a conciliatory community. The approach thus emphasises healing of emotional wounds created by conflict and restoration of social relationships. This was often done through public acts of reconciliation, which were entered into by all parties, and were binding on all the involved parties. The rule for breaches was exclusion from society. All these helped to transform conflict to harmony and reminded the groups of their shared unity. Thus, in the African setting there is no "private dispute" of any seriousness, since a dispute affects everyone in one way or another. As one African philosopher, John Mbiti (1970), correctly says, the African philosophy is based on the "I am because we are because we are therefore I am" principle. To the Africans, therefore, there is recognition of the importance of relationship and harmony in the community.
154
PCR 106
The ethical code of war ensured respect and protection for women, children and the old in times of conflict. For durable peaceful coexistence, tolerance and understanding are important elements in indigenous conflict resolution. This encompasses the adoption of joint problem-solving techniques incorporating dialogue, reconciliation, mediation and accommodation, which lead to the working out of a consensus.
4.0
CONCLUSIONS
African societies are undergoing socio-political transformation, which involves a change in values, often reflected in loss of traditional reference points and adoption of western values. This tends to create psychological stress within individuals and societies. Conflict among the pastoral groups, and between the elders and the youth have become more pronounced. There is intense competition and struggle for survival among these societies. Conflicts, therefore, appear to have become endemic. These phenomena may destroy the basic norms of social and ethnic cohabitation. The precursors and nature of these conflicts thus need to be identified and addressed. The state of insecurity and conflict in the borderlands calls for concerted efforts from both the pastoral communities themselves and the governments if some semblance of law and order, as well as respect for human life, is to be restored in the region. There is a need for pastoral societies to reinforce their institutional capacities with specific reference to traditional norms, rules and regulations, especially in tackling the twin phenomena of violence and insecurity. For durable peaceful coexistence to be achieved, the pastoral communities must accept the reality that each is part and parcel of the wider geo-political and economic entity. Moreover, unless there is understanding of the history of a society and its people, and above all a process of reconciliation among the pastoral communities based on justice, the cycle of revenge can become normal and the violence unstoppable. The mayhem in Somalia is a classic example. The state, society and individuals need to adopt mechanisms and identify how the environmental or ecological threat to peace and security could be contained, lessened or eradicated. There is a need to revitalise customary law in conflict resolution. It should be noted that such law is not sporadic, but has great significance for its adherents as it has "passed the test of time". Such customs are the result of some systematic, carefully planned and designated patterns of behaviour and thus not irrational or erratic. It is reflexive and adapts to reflect the changes in the society.
155
PCR 106
The study concludes that the incorporation of indigenous methods and cultural values could greatly contribute to restoration of peace, security, and stability and cordial relations among the pastoral communities in the borderlands of Eastern Africa.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit treated explanations of indigenous conflict, the pastoralist and conflict resolution, todays standing and the lessons from indigenous methods.
6.0
1. What are the theoretical issues raised by Josiah Osamba in support of the indigenous approach to conflict resolution? 2. State the historical background of conflict resolution in Eastern Africa. 3. What are Josiah Osambas findings.
7.0
Amoo, S.G. 1992. Institute for Conflict Analysis Working Paper, George Mason University. Augsburger, D.W. 1992. Conflict Mediation Across Cultures: Pathways and Patterns. Westminster: John Knox Press. Banks, M. (ed.) 1984. Conflict in World Society: A new perspective in International relations. Sussex: Wheat Sheaf Books. Byrne, S. & Irvin, L.C (eds.) 2000. Reconcilable Differences: turning points to ethnopolitical conflict. West Hartford: Kamarin Press. Fukui, K. & Markakis, J. (eds.) 1994. Ethnicity and conflicts in the Horn of Africa. London: James Currey. Fukui, K. & Turton, D. (eds.) 1979. Warfare among East African Herders. Osaka: National Museum. Gordon, A. A. & Gordon, L.D. 1996. Understanding Contemporary Africa. London: Lynne Rienner Books. Kiplagat, B. 1998. Is mediation alien to Africa? Track Two Vol. 7 No. 1. Cape Town: Centre for Conflict Resolution.
156
PCR 106
Malan, J. 1997. Conflict Resolution Wisdom from Africa. Durban: ACCORD. Markakis, J. (ed.) 1993. Conflict and the decline of pastoralism in the Horn of Africa. London: Macmillan Press. Mbiti, J. 1970. African Traditional Religion and Philosophy. London: Longman
157
PCR 106
MODULE 5
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Differences between Western and African Approaches Recommendations on African Traditional Methods Facilitative Mediation Process The Mediators Job
UNIT 1
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WESTERN AND AFRICAN APPROACHES.
4.0
158
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Differences between Western and African Approaches 3.1.1 Conflict and Conflict Resolution: Assessing the Applicability of Western Approaches 3.2 African Traditional Methods in Conflict Resolution 3.2.1 African Traditional Methods in Kenya: A Case Study of the Pokot and Maasai Peace Building Cultures 3.2.1:1 Peace Concepts and Symbols 3.2.3 African Traditional Methods in Uganda: A Case Study of the Acholi and Karamojong Tribes in Peace-Building 3.2.3:1 The Acholi 3.2.3:2 The Karamojong 3.2.3:3 African Traditional Methods in Rwanda: A Case Study of the Agacaca Method of Conflict Resolution Amongst the Banyarwanda 3.2.3:4 African Traditional Methods in Tanzania: A Case Study of the Wamakua, Wamwera, Wamakonde and Wayao 3.3 Discussion and reactions 3.4 Key issues that were identified by the discussion group on African Traditional Methods 3.5 Significant players in this field of African Traditional methods Conclusion
PCR 106
5.0 6.0 7.0
Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Some people often downplay the various traditional methods for resolving conflict in Africa. Here, the differences between the Western and African methods are ex-rayed. Selected case studies of different ethnic nationalities in Africa and their methods are studied.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. 2. Explain African methods of conflict Resolution; Demonstrate the need to make use of African methods even in government circles.
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Differences between Western and African Approaches
3.1.1 Conflict and Conflict Resolution: Assessing the Applicability of Western Approaches
Western Assumptions and Techniques: Although conflict is a human universal, the nature of conflicts and the methods of resolving conflict differ from one socio-cultural context to another. For instance, in contemporary North American and Northern European contexts, conflict is commonly perceived to inhere between two or more individuals acting as individuals i.e., as free agents pursuing their own interests in various domains of life. Conflict is accepted as a natural concomitant of self-interest and competition which when subject to an optimal amount of regulation by carefully designed institutions, keeps societies dynamic, energetic, and strong. While prevailing views of conflict between groups promulgated by such disciplines as international relations are less sanguine, the Western view of conflict as natural and, in principle, solvable had led many proponents of conflict resolution to identify random as well as organized violence as symptoms of a need for social and structural change. While conflict can lead to separation, hostility, civil strife, terrorism and war, it can also stimulate dialogue, leading to fairer and more socially just solutions. Conflict can lead to stronger relationships and peace.
159
PCR 106
The basic assumption made by Western conflict resolution theorists is that conflict can and should be fully resolved. This philosophy, whereby virtually every conflict can be managed or resolved clashes with other cultural approaches to conflict. Many cultures, including African and Arab-Islamic culture, take the less optimistic view that many conflicts may be intractable. They can evolve through phases of escalation and confrontation as well as phases of calm and a rerun to the status quo ante. Far from implying mere passivity in the face of conflict, such views are often associated with efforts to deal with incipient conflict quietly and indirectly, to mobilize social networks to control and reduce violence, and even to strive for comprehensive reconciliation when circumstances appear propitious. According to US-based scholars of conflict resolution, conflict erupts either because of different interpretations regarding data, issues, values, interests and relationships or because of unsatisfied human needs. These scholars view conflict as having a positive as well as a negative dimension. It acts as a catharsis for social tensions, helps redefine relationships between individuals, groups, and nations, and make it easier to find adequate settlements or possible resolutions. During the last ten years, however, more and more voices within the field of conflict resolution have been calling attention to the centrality of deep psychological dynamics that sustain and reproduce conflict. In response, they have affirmed the importance of acknowledgment and forgiveness in achieving lasting reconciliation among conflicting parties. According to this argument, many of the worlds most intractable conflicts involve age-old cycles of oppression, victimization and revenge. These conflicts, which can have dangerous and long-lasting political repercussions, are rooted in a psychological dynamic of victimization. Racism and ethnic cleansing are only the most dramatic manifestations of such cycles of victimization and vengeance.
3.2
African Traditional Methods in Conflict Resolution
Different research findings on African Traditional Methods from selected areas of the region explored various traditional approaches to conflict resolution. The data focused on particular tribes in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania and also analysed the traditional court system of the Banyarwanda of Rwanda. The findings put into consideration the unique African Culture that emphasizes the resolving of conflicts amicably through elders, traditional leaders healing and reconciliation rituals.
160
PCR 106
3.2.1 African Traditional Methods In Kenya: A Case Study Of The Pokot And Maasai Peace Building Cultures
(As Presented by Dr. Somjee Sultan from Peace Museums Kenya). The Maasai and Pokot are two ethnic groups that have been involved in ethnic clashes for over a decade. Both groups come from a Nilotic background, with territories that stretch over the political boundaries of East Africa. Reconciliation among the two ethnic groups is not usually a one time event, like the signing of a peace accord after battle, it occurs in series, building on and affirming peace symbols with rituals related to the communitys experiences and memories handed over from past generations.
3.2.1:2
Peace Concepts and Symbols
Peace concepts and symbols are used in this process of reconciliation. Osotua - The Maasai word for Peace Osotua and it means a gift out of relationship. The Maasai refer to the umbilical cord as Osotua for it symbolizes the first relationship, which is between the mother and her child. At birth the umbilical cord is cut reluctantly by taking the knife three times in a mock cutting motion and then stopped because all relationships are sacred and they may not be severed. Then finally grass is tied on either side of umbilical cord so that the mother and child may separate and continue to have a good relationship and hence separate in peace. Today grass is a symbol of peace among the Maasai and several other groups, and is carried to demonstrate peace during war and times of ethnic tensions. Grass mediates a relationship when individuals or groups live separately but in respect of each others separateness as everyone else does after separating from the womb. This is a symbol of humanity that all people share irrespective of their ethnic loyalty. Grass - This is another symbol used by the Maasai and other groups like the Kalenjin to demonstrate peace in war times and ethnic tensions. Whenever there is a fight and a Maasai picks up grass, the fighting stops because they believe they all come from one womb, one mother and the one relationship. To the Kalenjin grass is pasture and pasture is milk for cows. So grass is a life-sustaining element. Leketio - Among the Pokot is a pregnancy belt called Leketio, which supports pregnancy hence life. This belt is studded with cowrie shells. When the Pokot are fighting and a mother removes her pregnancy belt and puts it between the men, the fighting must be stopped. She does not have to be the biological mother for in this community, a mother is a mother of the community. It is the same among the 18 Kalenjin groups. The Maasai word for Osotua, is also the word for beauty. They believe that where there is no beauty
161
PCR 106
there is no peace. For the Pokot the word is Pichio which also means beauty. Beauty follows peace. Where there is peace, there is beauty. Ol Donyio Mount Kenya is a mountain of peace because it is a mountain of Keri - beauty. Amongst the Maasai it is referred to as Ol Donyio Keri because the white glaciers contrast with the dark valleys, forming one sacred mountain. This contrast reflects the contrast in human society. The Maasai accept and follow the philosophy of Osotua, which is not only harmony, but also harmony brought by living with contrast or differences. Thus they say, In disorder, there is order. This appears again in the discipline of making ornaments. They make 150 different types of ornaments following six aesthetic systems that are based on the understanding of the philosophy of peace. These then relate to other environmental symbols like trees. Trees are still living symbols of peace-making in this part of Africa. Oloip - When the Maasai are making peace they sit under a shade of a particular tree. This shade is referred to as oloip. But before they sit, each one of them has to drop all the weapons that he is carrying and then proceed under the tree to begin the negotiations. When there has been a murder in the clan or within a group, the Maasai meet under a dead tree where there is no oloip because they are discussing something very grave. These are some of the different examples of a culture of peace that still exists today in resolving conflict. Very often ethnic groups that neighbour each other use similar symbols. Peace is a holistic issue, a heritage within different groups in society.
3.2.3
African Traditional Methods In Uganda: A Case Study of The Acholi and Karamojong Tribes in Peace- Building.
(As Presented by Freda Nkuttu, Millennium Consultants)
3.2.3:1
The Acholi
The Acholi tribe was chosen because they occupy the Northern region in Uganda, in both Gulu and Kitgum districts, where war has been raging for quite a long time. The Karamosjong were chosen because they are pastoralists, known for cattle rustling in the neighbouring tribes in Uganda, Kenya and Sudan. According to the research findings, the Acholi people, contrary to the view that they like fighting, are one of the greatest peace lovers in the country. Their culture respects a lot of
162
PCR 106
traditional methods of conflict resolution. They have well detailed rituals of resolving conflicts. Mato-Oput - means reconciliation among the Acholi. It is a detailed ceremony meant to reconcile conflicting parties. Persons in conflict appear before the council of elders who patiently listen to each party and cross-examine them in order to establish the root causes of the conflict and the guilty party. After a time consuming scrutiny and the guilty party is found, the prescribed therapy must lead to harmony and peace. An animal is sacrificed and the blood sprinkled on the shrine of the God of truth and the reconciler. This is done by an officiating priestly order. These two parties are then required to share their meat and millet bread and eat from the same dish and drink some beer, a symbol of total reconciliation. Mato-Oput is performed in an isolated place or at the bank of the river to chase away hatred and revenge.
3.2.3:2
The Karamojong
The Karamojong on the other hand are known for cattle rustling. This is their way of life. Cattle raids are done when: A father has lost all or part of his livestock through sickness and needs to replace it. When livestock is needed for marriage. When a young man has not finished paying the agreed number of cattle to the father of the young woman. To deal with this phenomenon, one needs to understand the culture of the Karamojong. Usually many lives are lost during the raids. However, on returning home after the raid, some ceremonies are performed to amend the loss of lives taken. This shows that they are not pleased with the killings that they have committed, but their way of life demands it. Despite their being known to be warriors, the Karamojong have various ways of resolving conflicts. Their ceremonies involve elders to sit down and listen. The accused speak one at a time, and decisions are made on the basis of the arguments contributed by each person. The government should try to understand these processes and try to talk to the Karamojong elders in bringing about peace.
163
PCR 106
3.2.3:3
African Traditional Methods in Rwanda: A Case Study Of The Agacaca
Method Of Conflict Resolution Amongst The Banyarwanda.

(As Presented by Dr. Ephraim Kamuhangire, Commissioner of Antiques and the Uganda Museum). Agacaca - Is a traditional mechanism of conflict resolution amongst the Banyarwanda. This method is used to resolve conflict at the grassroot level through dialogue. It is an intricate system of custom, tradition, norm and usage. Urucaca - The word Agacaca comes from another word Urucaca which is a type of grass that is commonly found in various parts of Rwanda, Burundi, Western Uganda and Northern Tanzania. In Western Uganda this grass is referred to as Orucwamba. Many African homes are clusters of clan and family enclosures and when such a cluster is well established, an evergreen grass, which is the Urucaca, grows around the home, especially in front of the home. When there is a problem within the clan family or the neighbourhood, the elders gather at the site in front of the home and each party is then asked to present its case. The problem has to be solved amicably to the satisfaction of the parties involved and the culprit buys a pot of local brew for the elders. This culprit is later fined or reprimanded by the elders. The significance of such a dialogue of conflict resolution is that: It is safe and better for conflicting parties to resolve their differences as soon as the problem arises without going out of the inter-family or inter-clan confines which would otherwise require the intervention of external forces. For external forces sometimes misconstrue the reasons of the conflict and at times politicise or aggravate it to higher proportions than the real reasons for that conflict. Today, the government of Rwanda has adopted agacaca to deal with some of the 1994 genocide cases rather than resorting to the international or Arusha tribunals.
3.2.3:4
African Traditional Methods In Tanzania: A Case Study Of The Wamakua, Wamwera Wamakonde And Wayao.
(As Presented by A.M Hokororo, Senior lecturer at the Center for Foreign Relations in Dar es Salaam). In Tanzania, the research findings centered on four tribes; the Wamakua, Wamwera, the Wamakande and Wayao. Historically the four tribes belong to the same blood community and they all crossed River Ruvuma from South Africa into Tanzania in the
164
PCR 106
latter part of the 19th century after the incursions of Shaka Zulu. The four tribes believe in the existence and effectiveness of the spirits of the dead, that is Mahoka a name given to people when they die. They believe that these Mahokas are supernatural beings that can intercede for human beings to God and can also punish human beings for their wrongdoing. These tribes believe that God comes first and the Mahoka comes second. The Almighty God himself and the Mahoka keep the countries from plagues and diseases and from being invaded by the enemy. But, if the country is hit by plagues, famines, wars and floods or attacked by marauders, the elders of the Wamwera, Wamakua, Wayao and Wamakonde will meet to assess the situation and devise ways of solving this apparent problem. First they have to accept the fact that perhaps they have offended the Almighty God and the Mahoka. Then the elders decide on steps to be taken like fasting by all adults in the clan. They also organize a ritual ceremony for resolving the conflict with God and the Mahoka. In case of conflict over a farm boundary or over a child, the council of elders must establish the facts of the case and provide a solution. This may take several days to decide and later the two parties are reconciled. A meeting for reconciliation is convened and the parties involved are summoned together with the witnesses. Each of the two parties takes a calabash of water and sits on haunches in front of the crowd and then sips from it, and promises to abide by the decision made by the council of elders. Taboos are also customary ways of telling people what to do and what not to do. Any breach of a taboo is punishable in one way or another. The problem that is confronting us, is how to tell the public that it is feasible to use African Traditional Methods in Conflict resolution. There must be a way of sensitising the people that there is another way in solving conflicts without necessary going to the courts or the police.
3.3
Discussion and Reactions
After the presentations were made participants were given time to react to the data collected. Below are some of the questions that were raised.
165
PCR 106
To what extent is traditional Media like song, drama and dance used in Solving conflict? It has been noted that African traditional methods are active within the common settings of the society, but how can they be accepted and used in government circles so that they may not be overlooked? To what extent have traditional methods amongst the Pokot and Karamojong been used to curb conflicts amongst those tribes? In the Western world man is believed to be by nature evil, what is the notion of African philosophy towards human nature? Are there studies done on African counselling? Is all conflict destructive or is there conflict that is constructive? Food and brew have been pointed out as elements that complete the process of reconciliation. What role do they play? What is the role of women in this Conflict Resolution mechanism, because in Africa women are seen to be marginalized? How do we relate African traditional methods with the society today? For today we have states and national legislation. How does one relate these methods to the current legal situation? How do we compromise traditional conflict resolution with the Christian beliefs of understanding conflict resolution?
3.4
1.
Key Issues that were identified by The Discussion Group on African Traditional Methods
Participants discovered the importance of African traditional methods and noticed that one cannot dispense with these traditional approaches any more because they embody a lot of African cultures that show that Africans also used to counsel and resolve conflict peacefully. Participants noted that the return to African Traditional Methods needed more information and dissemination of the needs of alternatives because African Traditional Methods brought about total reconciliation and healing. The workshop agreed that African Traditional Methods promoted image and self esteem of the people involved. Participants noted the lack of respect for elders due to lack of information amongst the youth on the role played by the elders in
2.
3. 4.
166
PCR 106
5. 6.
7.
society. They advocated for the re-installation of these traditional approaches and the sensitisation of the youth on the role and significance of elders. The workshop noted some factors like poverty that relegate elders into the background. Participants agreed that African Traditional Methods were not primitive at all. In fact they acknowledged the importance of African Traditional Methods in solving problems in society and encouraged the public to believe in the positive traditional approaches to peace building. Participants also noted that African Traditional Methods worked differently in different cultural settings but with this urbanization era, participants recommended the adoption of African Traditional Methods in a multicultural society. More work needs to be done in this area, especially as modern conflict cuts across tribal and indeed national boundaries.
3.5
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Significant Players Identified in This Field of African Traditional Methods

Religious leaders were identified to play an important role in African traditional methods. The Police and the armed forces Policy makers, the government and those involved in making modern law. The youth, especially those involved in cattle rustling and The rest of the community
4.0
CONCLUSION
This unit re-emphasized the need for attention to be paid to African traditional methods in conflict resolution. This is also demonstrated by practical examples from the discussion group. It is also important to recognize the need cooperation among the contending forces and the significant players in the field.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit discussed the differences between the western and African approaches, African traditional methods in conflict resolution, discussions and reactions, key issues discussed by the discussion group, African traditional methods and the significant players in the field of African traditional methods.
167
PCR 106
6.0
1.
Make an assessment of traditional methods of conflict resolution among the various ethnic groups in Rwanda.
7.0
Coser, L. (1956) The Function of Social Conflict, Philadelphia: The Free Press. Cook, J.B. (1975) Compromise, Conflict and perspective, Dept., of Regional and Community Affairs, College of Public and Community services, University of Missouri.
168
PCR 106
UNIT 2
RECOMMENDATIONS ON AFRICAN TRADITIONAL METHODS
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Recommendations on African Traditional Methods 3.2 A Feminist Approaches 3.3 African Approaches 3.4 Towards synergy 3.5 Some examples of methodology Challenges and Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Aside from the recommendations in the African traditional methods, this unit also lays emphasis on the views of women on how to bring about a peaceful society and the necessary methodology to be adopted.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. 2. Describe the need for alternative view on peace; and Explain the new methodologies.
3.0 3.1
1.
MAIN BODY Recommendations on African Traditional Methods

The workshop further recognized the need to incorporate traditional approaches in the African legal system as a positive step in re-instating peoples confidence in African Traditional Methods. Participants felt the need to strengthen, research and disseminate information from elders before it dies out when they pass away. The workshop recognized the re-orientation towards authentic African arts and the need to look at our African culture through music, dance, songs and folklore for piece building.
2. 3.
169
PCR 106
4. 5. 6.
The workshop advocated for the integration of positive African traditional approaches in the school curriculum and the restoration of ethics and values in institutions of learning. Participants recommended everyone to lobby for African traditional methods because these methods are simple, flexible and easy to understand and apply. They are also not expensive. The workshop also recognized the need to sensitise and educate the youth on African Traditional Methods, and the importance of elders in our society. African and Feminist Approaches to Peace Education : Meeting on the Margins by Alison Lazarus, University of Natal, Durban, South Africa.
The Conflict Prevention Newsletter and Conflict Trends, the magazine of the African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes, have agreed upon a regular exchange of articles. ACCORD will thus provide a special focus on Africa to this Newsletter. For this occasion, Alison Lazarus, reflects on meeting points of African and feminist epistemology and considers what it has to offer for training in conflict resolution and peace education. Being on the margin has had its advantages, she argues. It is here, outside of the maelstrom/malestream of Western epistemology, that women and indigenous people have sought to nurture alternative approaches to what constitutes knowledge and how this knowledge may be known. The indigenous and feminist approach to epistemology seeks to discuss, theorise and suggest ways of acquiring knowledge that enables living in a more intellectually, spiritually alert and sensitive way by adding other processes of validating knowledge to those of reason and logic. Feminist and African perspectives on ways of knowing is a serious attempt to gain personal insight, analyse and understand the world and encourage innovative thinking about ways to solve the world's challenges. These twin perspectives of African and feminist epistemology offer a serious and sustained challenge to reality as defined by realpolitik ideology. Realpolitik proffers a world of states, people and systems in constant competition making for a world that is basically anarchic. It is only through the threat of, or use of, force and the amassing of arms that political aims can be achieved. This amassing of arms is made in an attempt to balance power. Realpolitik is currently being de-centred and the epistemological centre is being remoulded in the 21st Century by alternative ideologies of the way the world works. The defining feature of the alternative knowledge of the world is that the world is essentially interconnected and interdependent rather than competitive and anarchic. This alternative understanding of the world, offers additional and relevant methodologies.
170
PCR 106
3.2
A Feminist Approach
Feminists and peace activists challenge realpolitik in their method of Intentionally Imaging Peace. Betty Reardon describes how it works: 'When women's vision for global peace takes the form of intentional imaging, actual steps, events and policies are articulated that could bring the vision into being. Such histories of the future are sometimes called transition scenarios. This is a systematic and strategic planning for change that starts in the freeing of the mind through consciousnessraising. Consciousness-raising leads to identifying how violence is utilised, by whom, to what effect and with what consequences. More importantly consciousness-raising leads to the rejection of violence. For feminists, intentionally imaging peace usually starts with the rejection of the brutal impact of violence on women and moves into radical social action against armament and war. Realism and positivism will go only so far as to identify, describe and analyse how violence works but not make a value judgement on it. Positivism merely describes and predicts. Feminist epistemology is honestly and distinctly value-laden. It is reflexive, clearly stating where it positions itself and asks that that position be analysed as part of the issue. It makes no false claims to objectivity operating without a subject. Rather it takes subjectivity as its starting point. Thus feminist approaches to research and development of the body of knowledge brings to epistemology a strong focus on subjectivity, recognising the researcher as subject and integral to the subject of study. In doing so it asks questions about who is doing the research, who is absent in the study and who is present and what consequences this has for validity of interpretation. The rejection of war is possible through the intentional imaging of the other not as enemy but as another human being, a mother, a son. Intentionally Imaging is a powerful liberating tool that enables one to understand that while war is a choice of action, peace is a better choice. Feminists like Carol Gilligan (1984) argue that given the general experience of women as created by patriarchy and exclusion, women have come to learn in a specific way that can be called a female mode of reasoning, a women's way, a female way. This way is characterised by an ethics of caring, a web of networks rather than hierarchical understandings of what is right and wrong based on abstract principles. Betty Reardon characterises the feminine mode of knowing as follows: 'The feminine mode of thinking, which emphasises such linkages as those among disarmament and peace, demonstrates a preference for problem solving comprised of open communication, free access to information, and honest discussion of differences and dialogue among all concerned. Women, whose experience of conflict has been long and varied, particularly as peacemakers in the family, see the best ways to resolve conflict as those that help to meet at least some of the concerns of all conflicting parties, what has come to be called 'win-win
171
PCR 106
solutions'. This familial or kinship model of conflict resolution, in which maintaining constructive human relationships is a primary concern, seeks fairness and reconciliation rather than victory or retribution. Feminist epistemology validates that knowledge which is formed in dialogue with and inter-relationships between people. Eco-feminists also highlight the dialogue that must take place with nature. Learning from and through nature is more than the control and subjugation of nature through the manipulation of its laws. They suggest that it will take a faculty such as intuition additional to reason as well as an ethics of deep caring born of interdependence, if we are to dialogue with and achieve knowledge of nature. This centering of the inter-relationships between people and between people and nature is also the emphasis of African knowledge systems.
3.3
African Approaches
Ptika Ntuli, characterising African approaches to epistemology explains that an understanding of interconnectedness and simultaneous states of being characterises African philosophy of being in the world and the relationship between people: 'We need to end the dualism set up by Western thought. The process of actually building this? I am using the theory of quantum physics and quantum mechanics in order to explain this. You say for instance, when you talk about the wave-particle dualism. The wave-particle duality simply tells us that if you study the particles velocity, you loose its place and time. When you study it in terms of its place, you loose its velocity. One is actually interdependent on each other. The particle alone cannot constitute the flow. A flow without the particles cannot be a wave in itself. When you say a person is a person because of other people you are talking about seeing the interconnectedness not the wave-particle duality. Interdependence is captured in the concept of Ubuntu. African epistemology bases its challenge to realpolitik on the philosophy of ubuntu. This philosophy recognises that individual identity is possible only in community with others and nature. 'I am because you are'. Without relationship with the other and without reference to the other, the individual can not be. One can not have a sense of 'me' without a sense of 'we'. Ntuli explains: 'In Africa and India a human being 'exists because I belong and I belong therefore I exists'. It is a 'be-ing with somebody', so being with somebody else kind of structures us. In a more practical way, our cultures insist that when the child is born for instance, the umbilical cord is buried into the ground and a tree is planted. In other words, making a link between human being and plant life.' This philosophy creates a mindfulness of the other that is so necessary, relevant and significant to any conflict resolution process and joint generation of long term
172
PCR 106
solutions. It challenges us to find resolution that meets the needs of the other and nature.
3.4
Towards Synergy
Feminists and those writing and uncovering African knowledge systems within the African Renaissance Movement meet in the Ecofeminist Movement. In stressing the interconnection between humans and nature feminists teach of and act to defend the planet against ecological and environmental degradation. Feminists challenge the ideology of militarisation. They believe non-violent action for change is possible. We have seen such non-violent action by women in the peace movements across the world and in the eco-feminist actions of 'Third World women' in fighting nuclear waste dumping, ill advised dam building and deforestation by logging companies. The interconnection between human and nature in African cultural practice is described by Ntuli: 'Usually people don't call me Ntuli they call me 'Sompisi' which means father of the hyena. Hyena is our family totem. It is ugly, it has the strongest jaws, it is nasty but for eco-viability, it needs to exist therefore my family is entrusted with a task of making sure that it exists. These interrelationships then underpin our subconscious mind and they underpin the culture in which we live in. It is therefore not difficult to see that the maintenance of peace and conflict resolution has got a springboard in the African philosophy that stresses harmonious relationships.
3.5
Some Examples Of Methodology
Learning sessions designed and devised from a feminist and African perspective would include interactive small group work, role plays, simulations, reflection time, interfaith meditations, team building, art based methodologies such as art workshops, body sculpture, song, storytelling and journal writing. It will also draw on cultural practices such as drum circles, ritual, and encouraging accessing knowledge through music, dance and trance/altered states and healing processes. These methodologies enable the values identified by Belenky such as sharing, respect, affirmation, tolerance and connection to become not only the objectives of the learning sessions but the process by which learning takes place. Belenky et al characterise the methodology most in tune and effective with women thus: 'Educators can help women develop their minds and authentic voices if they emphasise connection over separation, understanding and acceptance over assessment, collaboration over competition and discussion over debate and if they accord respect to and time for the knowledge that emerges from first
173
PCR 106
hand experience. In the learning space, this may take the form of women engaging in rituals using stones which they bring to the circle, place in a basket, encircle in a dance, then retrieve when they tell a story of their life's experience. These stones become symbols of shared knowledge for building on and into a collective understanding. Stories are not debated nor interpretations argued. Participants listen without framing a counter response in their minds while stories are told. Rather, all stories are listened to for patterns and threads. There is no attempt to arrive at a correct answer, rather all stories are considered to carry a part of the solution or truth. Another method to understand the nature of conflict, its impact on people and ways to heal from conflict may take the form of writing down the conflict issues and its personal effects on a sheet of paper. This is then torn into pieces and used as papier mache to build a vessel. This vessel carrying ones pain is exchanged. These vessels remind one of another's pain and makes one mindful of ones actions towards others. What this does is create the threshold for generating options that take the other into account. One can articulate through words the need for win-win solutions but the physical experience of it goes a longer way towards attitude change. So the bowl of pain becomes the vessel that carries the positive demonstration of the ability to turn conflict into something creative. It is more difficult for retribution and revenge to become entrenched, thus allowing healing to take place and balance to be created. Accessing and honouring first hand experience and healing in conflict situations is an important feature of African ways of knowing. Ntuli explains the way in which African cultural practice enables an individual experiencing conflict to experience knowledge formation: 'If someone is disturbed and is not actually harmonised. What do you do? You go to the 'sangoma' and the sangoma plays drums. The act of playing these drums is to play a monotonous tune that becomes pure sound. It is through this level of a pure sound that the subconscious is now being engaged. And there will be shouting like mantras. This song goes on and on and the person starts dancing and actually moving. And when the person starts dancing and moving he starts shouting words. These words that are disjointed form the string of your wish. The sangoma collects all of these words and forms sentences with a positive sense and feeds them back while your mind can still receive them. By the time you stop, your subconscious mind has been re-armed. These examples are not the stuff of traditional Western cognitive approaches to training in conflict resolution but they are relevant to peace education in an African context and the context of women's learning. If peace education programmes have the objective of building a peace culture, then it must enculturate. It must bring into the learning space and methodologies the culture of ordinary women and ordinary Africans. Belenky et al explain: 'In the masculine myth, confirmation comes not at the beginning of education but at the end...having proved beyond reasonable doubt that he has learned to think in complex, contextual
174
PCR 106
ways, the young man is admitted into the fraternity of powerful knowers. Certified a thinker he becomes one of them. This scenario may capture the 'natural' course of men's development in traditional, hierarchical institutions, but it does not work for women. For women confirmation and community are prerequisites rather than consequences ofdevelopment.
4.0
Challenges and Conclusion
Given the traditional approach to learning, an African feminist peace educator is faced with the challenge of taking feminist methodology into traditional male domains of peace keeping and international negotiation. The challenge is to get men to learn in new ways. The terms learning of the 'heart and spirit' is the colloquial collective phrase for learning through intuition, visioning and faculties of understanding which are now under the scrutiny of western scientists working in the fields of quantum physics, meditation and alternative healing. These alternative methodologies are not a mish mash of yearnings of remnants of a Sixties peace movement. Nor is it the 'new age romanticism' of the barefooted sisterhood. It is not an anti-science counter-culture that romanticises the past or the future. It is more than the dabbling of disaffected Western youth in Eastern and indigenous philosophies. Realpolitik cynically upholds the view that force or the threat of force is the way to attain political ends. The alternative way challenges this ideology and upholds the view of a world capable of co-operation and at practice in alternative ways of thinking about the world. A win-lose option is no resolution. Victory of one over the other is not resolution, it is in essence subjugation until balance is achieved. In African philosophical thought it indicates the responsibility of the 'victor' to find resolution not exact the greatest spoils. It means calling up the resolve to reconcile and maintain balance and harmony with people and nature. Both feminist and African epistemology understand the fundamental interaction in the world to be one of interdependence, both emphasise co-operative relationship building as the cornerstone of peace making and both centre people as primary to peace making and states as secondary actors. All these of course run counter to realpolitik analysis.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit treats recommendations on Africa traditional methods, a feminist approach, African approaches, towards synergy, and some examples of methodology.
175
PCR 106
6.0
1. 2. 3. 4.
To what extent can Western approaches to conflict resolution be applied to Africa? What do you understand by African traditional methods to conflict resolution? State some of the methods you know in conflict resolution in Africa. What are the recommendations on the African traditional methods? What are the challenges of the African traditional methods to conflict resolution?
7.0
See writings of Hans Morgenthau, Hedley Bull and others. Betty Reardon: Women's Vision for Global Peace. In: Lorentzen and Turpin (ed.)1996: A Gendered New World Order. (212-229) Gilligan C. (1984): In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Belenky, M. B. Clinchy, N. Goldberger and J. Tarule: Implications for Human Development. In: Breakthrough, Summer,7(4): 24-24,1986
176
PCR 106
UNIT 3
FACILITATIVE MEDIATION PROCESS
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Facilitative Mediation Process 3.2 Styles of Mediation 3.2.1 Facilitative Mediation 3.2.2 Evaluative Mediation 3.2.3 Transformative Mediation 3.3 Pros and Cons 3.4 Strong feelings 3.4.1 Concerns 3.4.2 Styles vs. Continuum 3.4.3 Conclusions 3.4.4 Facilitative Mediation 3.5 Multi-Track or Two-Track Diplomacy 3.6 Jocelyn Wurzburg: The Mediator 3.6.1 What Kinds of Employment Disputes are Good for Mediation Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
As an informal way of settling disputes, mediation has come to stay. This unit takes an indepth look into this practice, and how mediators have used them, the steps taken, among others to bring about peaceful settlement of disputes.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to 1. Describe the experiences of the experts in the field; and 2. Explain the various dimensions of mediation.
3.1
Facilitative Mediation Process
Our attention here is focused on the following issues: Summary of Mediation What is Mediation?
177
PCR 106
3.2
Styles of mediation, Case studies by two experts in the field of mediation etc.
Mediation is an informal, voluntary and confidential process in which a trained professional dispute resolver (the mediator) facilitates understanding, communication and negotiation between disputing parties and assists those parties in reaching their own mutually acceptable resolution to their dispute. Where the dispute is already in litigation the parties are normally assisted in mediation by their legal counsel. Mediation differs from negotiation in that parties with apparently incompatible demands turn over the dispute resolution process, but not the dispute itself, to the mediator. Mediation differs from arbitration in that a mediator makes no decisions as to how the case should be resolved; rather the mediator guides the parties in making this determination. Mediation differs from case evaluation in that the mediator makes no finding as to the value of the claims and there is no penalty if the mediation is unsuccessful. Mediation differs from litigation in that it is quicker and less expensive and allows the parties to work-out their own solutions in private rather than having an unknown result imposed on them by a judge or jury in a lengthy, expensive and formal process. Mediation is built upon all of the following concepts:

Voluntariness Privacy Confidentiality Economy Promptness Informality Control of hearing dates Lack of risk Lack of fear of an appeal from a favorable result Opportunity for parties to tell their entire story without rules of evidence High likelihood agreement is not violated
If you have any questions about mediation, or whether it is right for you, please contact me without obligation.
178
PCR 106
In a mediation process the problem solving approach is defined as one in which negotiators learn about each others interests and BATNAs (Best alternative To A Negotiated Agreement), brainstorm options, and select and shape a solution that meets their interests, and, where appropriate, objective standards. Participants are not expected to sacrifice their clients interests in order to be collaborative.
Styles of Mediation: Transformative Mediation
Facilitative,
Evaluative
and
According Zena D. Zumeta, a lawyer who has a long time experience in mediation practices, mediators around the country (US), find themselves uncomfortable with what is being called mediation in their own and other areas. Accusations are made that one or another approach to mediation is not "real" mediation or are not what clients wanted. In addition, many clients and attorneys are confused about what mediation is and is not, and are not sure what they will get if they go to mediation.

Facilitative Mediation Evaluative Mediation Transformative Mediation Pros and Cons Strong Feelings Concerns Styles vs. Continuum Conclusions Bibliography
3.2.1 Facilitative Mediation

In the 1960's and 1970's, there was only one type of mediation being taught and practiced, which is now being called "Facilitative Mediation". In facilitative mediation, the mediator structures a process to assist the parties in reaching a mutually agreeable resolution. The mediator asks questions; validates and normalizes parties' points of view; searches for interests underneath the positions taken by parties; and assists the parties in finding and analyzing options for resolution. The facilitative mediator does not make recommendations to the parties, give his or her own advice or opinion as to the outcome of the case, or predict what a court would do in the case. The mediator is in charge of the process, while the parties are in charge of the outcome. Facilitative mediators want to ensure that parties come to agreements based on information and understanding. They predominantly hold joint sessions with all parties present so that the parties can hear each other's points of view, but hold caucuses regularly. They want the parties to
179
PCR 106
have the major influence on decisions made, rather than the parties attorneys. Facilitative mediation grew up in the era of volunteer dispute resolution centers, in which the volunteer mediators were not required to have substantive expertise concerning the area of the dispute, and in which most often there were no attorneys present. The volunteer mediators came from all backgrounds. These things are still true today, but in addition many professional mediators, with and without substantive expertise, also practice facilitative mediation.
3.2.2
Evaluative Mediation
Evaluative mediation is a process modeled on settlement conferences held by judges. An evaluative mediator assists the parties in reaching resolution by pointing out the weaknesses of their cases, and predicting what a judge or jury would be likely to do. An evaluative mediator might make formal or informal recommendations to the parties as to the outcome of the issues. Evaluative mediators are concerned with the legal rights of the parties rather than needs and interests, and evaluate based on legal concepts of fairness. Evaluative mediators meet most often in separate meetings with the parties and their attorneys, practicing "shuttle diplomacy". They help the parties and attorneys evaluate their legal position and the costs vs. the benefits of pursuing a legal resolution rather than settling in mediation. The evaluative mediator structures the process, and directly influences the outcome of mediation. Evaluative mediation emerged in court-mandated or court-referred mediation. Attorneys normally work with the court to choose the mediator, and are active participants in the mediation. The parties are most often present in the mediation, but the mediator may meet with the attorneys alone as well as with the parties and their attorneys. There is an assumption in evaluative mediation that the mediator has substantive expertise or legal expertise in the substantive area of the dispute. Because of the connection between evaluative mediation and the courts, and because of their comfort level with settlement conferences, most evaluative mediators are attorneys.
3.2.3 Transformative Mediation

Transformative mediation is the newest concept of the three, named by Folger and Bush in their book THE PROMISE OF MEDIATION in 1994. Transformative mediation is based on the values of "empowerment" of each of the parties as much as possible, and "recognition" by each of the parties of the other parties' needs, interests, values and points of view. The potential for transformative mediation is
180
PCR 106
that any or all parties or their relationships may be transformed during the mediation. Transformative mediators meet with parties together, since only they can give each other "recognition". In some ways, the values of transformative mediation mirror those of early facilitative mediation, in its interest in empowering parties and transformation. Early facilitative mediators fully expected to transform society with these pro-peace techniques. And they did. Modern transformative mediators want to continue that process by allowing and supporting the parties in mediation to determine the direction of their own process. In transformative mediation, the parties structure both the process and the outcome of mediation, and the mediator follows their lead.
3.3
Pros and Cons
Supporters say that facilitative and transformative mediation empower parties, and help the parties take responsibility for their own disputes and the resolution of the disputes. Detractors say that facilitative and transformative mediation takes too long, and too often ends without agreement. They worry that outcomes can be contrary to standards of fairness and that mediators in these approaches cannot protect the weaker party. Supporters of transformative mediation say that facilitative and evaluative mediators put too much pressure on clients to reach a resolution. They believe that the clients should decide whether they really want a resolution, not the mediator. Supporters of evaluative mediation say that clients want an answer if they cant reach agreement, and they want to know that their answer is fair. They point to ever-increasing numbers of clients for evaluative mediation to show that the market supports this type of mediation more than others. Detractors of evaluative mediation say that its popularity is due to the myopia of attorneys who choose evaluative mediation because they are familiar with the process. They believe that the clients would not choose evaluative mediation if given enough information to make a choice. They also worry that the evaluative mediator may not be correct in his or her evaluation of the case.
3.4
Strong Feelings
Mediators tend to feel strongly about these styles of mediation. Most mediation training still teaches the facilitative approach, although some attorney-mediators train in the evaluative model, and Folger and Bush have a complement of trainers teaching the transformative approach.
181
PCR 106
Many mediation standards (from national and state mediation organizations, and state legislative and judicial mediation programs) are silent on this issue; others prohibit evaluation, and a few require it. For example, the Mediation Council of Illinois Standard IV (C) Best Interests of Children states: "While the mediator has a duty to be impartial, the mediator also has a responsibility to promote the best interests of the children and other persons who are unable to give voluntary, informed consent...If the mediator believes that any proposed agreement does not protect the best interests of the children, the mediator has a duty to inform the couple of his or her belief and its basis." Another example of these strong feelings is that in 1997, Floridas professional standards for mediators were reviewed, and the committee got stuck on the issue of evaluation in mediation. The current rule says "a mediator should not offer information that a mediator is not qualified to provide" (Rule 10.090(a)) and "a mediator should not offer an opinion as to how the court in which the case has been filed will resolve the dispute" (Rule 10.090(d)). The committee came out with two options for a new standard on this issue: Option One would prohibit giving opinions except to point out possible outcomes of the case; Option Two states that the mediator could provide information and advice the mediator is qualified to provide, as long as the mediator does not violate mediator impartiality or the self-determination of the parties. After receiving comments on these two options, both were withdrawn and the committee is trying again. The comments were many and strong. Early in 2000, the new rule was written to reflect Option Two. In a new Michigan Court Rule effective August 1,2000, which authorizes judges to order cases to mediation, the Supreme Court of Michigan differentiated facilitative processes from evaluative processes. The rule states that courts may order parties to facilitative processes, but not to evaluative processes.
3.4.1 Concerns
There seem to be more concerns about evaluative and transformative mediation than facilitative mediation. Facilitative mediation seems acceptable to almost everyone, although some find it less useful or more time consuming. However, much criticism has been leveled against evaluative mediation as being coercive, top-down, heavy-handed and not impartial. Transformative mediation is criticized for being too idealistic, not focused enough, and not useful for business or court matters. Evaluative and transformative mediators, of course, would challenge these characterizations. Sam Imperati, for example, sees evaluative mediation as ranging from soft to hard: from raising options,
182
PCR 106
to playing devil's advocate, to raising legal issues or defenses, to offering opinions or advice on outcomes. He therefore believes that it is not appropriate to assume that evaluative mediation is necessarily heavy-handed. Folger and Bush, on the other side of the discussion, see transformative mediation as ultimately flexible and suited to all types of disputes. Another concern is that many attorneys and clients do not know what they may get when they end up in a mediators office. Some people feel that mediators ought to disclose prior to clients appearing in their offices, or at least prior to their committing to mediation, which style or styles they use. Other mediators want the flexibility to decide which approach to use once they understand the needs of the particular case.
3.4.2 Styles vs. Continuum

Samuel Imperati and Leonard Riskin believe these styles are more a continuum than distinct differences, from least interventionist to most interventionist. The Northwest Chapter SPIDR Survey and other less formal surveys have noted that most mediators use some facilitative and some evaluative techniques, based on individual skills and predilections and the needs of a particular case. Folger and Bush see more distinct differences in styles, particularly the difference of "top-down" vs. "bottom-up" mediation. That is, they believe that evaluative and facilitative mediation may take legal information too seriously, and that resolutions coming from the parties are much more deep, lasting, and valuable. However, in informal discussions, many practitioners who utilize the transformative model state that they mix facilitative and transformative techniques rather than using one or the other exclusively. It would seem that in general mediators are on a continuum from transformative to facilitative to evaluative mediation, but are not squarely within one camp or another.
3.4.3 Conclusions
There is room in mediation practice for many styles, including facilitative, evaluative and transformative mediation. Each has its usefulness and its place in the pantheon of dispute resolution processes. Imperati believes that most mediators use a combination of these styles, depending on the case and the parties in mediation, as well as their own main approach to mediation. Some sophisticated mediators advise clients and attorneys about the style they think would be most effective for their case. Some parties and attorneys are sophisticated enough to know the difference between types of mediation and to ask mediators for a specific type in a specific case. It appears that it would be helpful for mediators at the very least, to articulate to parties and attorneys the
183
PCR 106
style(s) they generally use, and the assumptions and values these styles are based on. This will allow clients to be better and more satisfied consumers, and the field of mediation to be clearer on what it is offering. It can only enhance the credibility and usefulness of mediation.
3.4.4 Facilitative Mediation

In facilitative mediation, the mediator structures a process to assist the parties in reaching a mutually agreeable resolution. The mediator asks questions; validates and normalizes parties points of view; searches for interests underneath the positions taken by parties; and assists the parties in finding and analyzing options for resolution. The facilitative mediator does not make recommendations to the parties, give his or her own advice or opinion as to the outcome of the case, or predict what a court would do in the case. The mediator is in charge of the process, while the parties are in charge of the outcome.
3.5
Multi-Track or Two-Track Diplomacy
The people of Portsmouth and the State of New Hampshire employed multi-track or two-track diplomacy during the thirty days negotiations of the Treaty of Portsmouth. In between the formal direct negotiations, the people of Portsmouth hosted informal meetings, recreational and social events throughout the local area to foster interpersonal relations between the Russian and Japanese delegates. This method of peace negotiation is becoming a new, broader approach to resolving international conflicts, especially when the parties want no form of government as an intermediary between the two. Portsmouth is a sterling example of this process before scholarship identified the track Diplomacy. The term Track Two Diplomacy was coined in 1981 by Joseph Montville, referring to the range of unofficial contact between negotiation and people to enhance and move forward the peace process. Montville. Then a U. S. diplomat, used the term in contrast to Track On which refers to diplomatic efforts to resolve conflicts only through governmental channels. By 1991 it became clear that conflict resolution was too complex in the modern world for two tracks to successfully negotiate a lasting peace. This evolution of diplomacy and negotiating theory led Dr. Louise Diamond and Amb. John McDonald to coin the term MultiDiplomacy. This term was an advance on two-track theory to incorporate a number of different ways that peace could be reached to the channels.
184
PCR 106
Multi-Track Diplomacy, broadly defined refers to nine different tracks that all contribute to international peace and conflict resolution. Track One: Governments Track Two: Business Track Three: Private citizens Track Four: Educators Track Five: Peace activists Track Six: Religion Track Seven: The funding community Track Eight: Media Track Nine; Coordination.
Each track in itself contributes to resolving the conflict however they are best used in coordination. The value of the multi-track approach to conflict resolution is that often the unofficial contacts can diffuse much of the conflict before negotiations begin. The unofficial contacts can build bridges and relationships to develop trust and foster mutual understanding. Though this could also reverse the dehumanization of conflict and put a human face on each enemy making it more easily developed personal understanding and trust. Often the de-escalation that results from such contacts is necessary, before official negotiations will be considered politically.
3.6
Jocelyn Dan Wurzburg: The Mediator
JOCELYN DAN WURZBURG as a Memphis, Tennessee Mediator has written on mediation of workplace issues. According to her employment relations seem to be getting more complex. Today we are not merely hired until our boss says youre fired. Some of us have contracts for employment. Some employees work under contracts established between the company and a recognized union. These contracts usually cover issues of hiring, termination, hours, wages, and working conditions. Some employees are protected from discrimination in the workplace protected from prejudicial actions against a person because of race, color, creed, religion, sex, age, disability, and national origin. A worker is protected from sexual harassment. In Tennessee, an employer can still let an employee go at will except in breach of a contract, private or union, or if the employer is practicing unlawful discrimination.
185
PCR 106
Many of these issues give rise to conflict and, when they do, work and the work place suffer. It seems the entire working environment is affected, so quick resolution is desirable. Mediation is a process that can help employers and employees, coworkers, Management and labor in dispute resolve their conflicts. Mediation, a form of assisted negotiation with the help of a trained impartial third party called a mediator, can help people in dispute negotiate a settlement of the conflict instead of litigating it. Employment litigation is extremely costly and lengthy. So why mediate an employment dispute? Because its quicker, cheaper, and, most importantly, it allows the parties to be in control of the outcome. It may be possible to resolve the dispute and save employment relationship. Resolve it pre-suit and maybe someone doesn't have to get fired! Going to mediation before a lawsuit is commenced spares you unwanted publicity. You may find your judge ordering you to try it. The process is confidential and if it doesnt work, the judge cannot know why it didn't or what had been negotiated. You have nothing to lose and a lot to save. You retain all of your legal rights.
3.6.1 What Kinds Of Employment Disputes Are Good For Mediation?

Some of disputes that can be mediated include management conflicts, departmental issues, labor/management, termination, hours, wages, working conditions, sexual harassment, and other claims of discrimination.
3.6.2 Sexual Harassment is especially well suited for mediation

since confidentiality is to be prized. In mediation, it may be possible to resolve the conflict without having to terminate everyone involved. Any time a continued employment relationship is desired or required after the resolution of the conflict, mediation, being a cooperative process, heightens the chance of a cooperative continuing relationship.
4.0
CONCLUSION:
The role of mediation in conflict resolution is very important, and from the benefit of hindsight of some practitioners in the field we can evaluate the place of mediation in conflict resolution.
186
PCR 106
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit we treated, facilitative mediation process, styles of mediation, the pros and cons, strong feelings, multi-track diplomacy, and Jocelyn Wurzburgs experience as a mediator.
6.0
1. 2. 3. 4.
What do you understand by mediation? What is multitrack diplomacy in mediation? How has Zena Zumeta analyzed the styles of mediation? What is Jocelyn D. Wurburgs view on mediation of workplace issues?
7.0
Leonard L. Riskin, Mediator Orientations, Strategies, and Techniques, ALTERNATIVES TO THE HIGH COST OF LITIGATION 111 (1994). Samuel J. Imperati, Mediator Practice Models: The Intersection of Ethics and Stylistic Practices in Mediation, WILLAMETTE LAW REVIEW 33:3, Summer 1997. 706
Robert A. Baruch Bush and Joseph P. Folger, THE PROMISE OF MEDIATION, Jossey-Bass, 1994. William L. Ury, Jeanne M. Brett and Stephen B. Goldberg, GETTING DISPUTES RESOLVED, Jossey-Bass, 1988.
187
PCR 106
UNIT 4
THE MEDIATORS JOB
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 The Mediators job 3.1.1 What is Mediation? 3.1.2 How Does Mediation Differ from Arbitration? 3.1.3 Does Mediation Apply only to Legal Disputes? 3.1.4 Why is Mediation Cheaper and Faster than Litigation? 3.1.5 Is Mediation Confidential? 3.1.6 Who is Present during Mediation? 3.2 Who determines the outcome of mediation? 3.2.1 What is the Mediators Job? 3.2.2 What happens if an Agreement is Not Reached? 3.2.3 When is the Best Time to Look into Mediation? 3.3 Seven Steps to Effective Mediation 3.3.1 Choose a Mediator Carefully 3.3.2 Prepare for Mediation, and Known the Clients Bottom Line 3.3.3 Negotiate at a Time and Place that is Advantageous 3.3.4 Share Information Strategically 3.3.5 Prepare the Mediator 3.3.6 Use the Mediator as a Messenger 3.3.7 Seal the Deal in Writing Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignments References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The unit explores in practical terms the job of the mediator. It is not enough to talk about mediation without actually knowing what the job of the mediator entails, and the steps the mediator often applies in his/her duties.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to 1. Identify who the mediator is 2. Explain the job of the mediator
188
PCR 106
3.1
The Mediators Job
3.1.1 What is Mediation?

Mediation is a method of conflict resolution, which uses a negotiation process between two or more parties to arrive at a mutually agreed-to, legally enforceable contract. The mediator does not impose the contract upon them.
3.1.2 How Does Mediation Differ From Arbitration?

Mediation derives from a win-win model of conflict resolution. The mediator's job is to help the parties resolve their conflict and facilitate a communication of ideas between them. The end result is a legally enforceable contract. In this sense mediation is more similar to settlement discussions than to arbitration or a court proceeding. In contrast, arbitration is much more akin to trial than it is to mediation. Just like at trial, the parties in arbitration "try" their case before one arbitrator or a panel of arbitrators. Rules of evidence and civil procedure apply in arbitration but not in mediation. The arbitrators have all decision-making power and, at the conclusion of the process, they find for one party and against the other party.
3.1.3 Does Mediation Apply Only to Legal Disputes?

No, mediation can be, and is, used to resolve conflicts between family members, business owners, and employers and employees. Often, these conflicts revolve around personal differences and miscommunications rather than legal issues. The negotiation model of mediation is ideal for resolving these and other non-legal disputes.
3.1.4 Why is Mediation Cheaper and Faster Than Litigation?

Mediation usually proves less costly and time-consuming than litigation because the mediation process focuses on solutions immediately. The parties need not engage in lengthy discovery or court proceedings. Objections based on rules of evidence, such as "hearsay", "irrelevant", and "lack of foundation" do not apply to mediated discussions. In fact, allowing these objections frequently precludes parties from having a discussion about the very matters that mean the most to them. There is no appeal process in mediation either. For all of these reasons, mediation is much more direct and to the point, and consequently, less time-consuming and costly than litigation.
189
PCR 106
In mediation, there also are no attendant costs, such as filing fees, expert witness fees, and extensive photocopying and exhibit preparation costs. Furthermore, parties normally share mediation fees, reducing the costs incurred by each side. Conflicts that may take years in court can be resolved in days, and at a fraction of the cost, through mediation.
3.1.5 Is Mediation Confidential?

Yes. Mediation provides two layers of confidentiality. First, the process, by its nature, is deemed confidential. Second, the parties have the ability during the mediation to meet with the mediator separately. In these separate sessions, the parties are able to share information with the mediator that they might otherwise not want to share with each other. The mediator is obligated to keep this information private, unless the party expressly grants the mediator permission to share that information with the other party.
3.1.6 Who is Present during the Mediation?

One of the most wonderful benefits of mediation is its flexibility. Parties are free to have consultants, accountants, attorneys, or whomever they desire present during the mediation. Of course, all individuals must abide by the terms of confidentiality that govern the mediation process.
3.2
Who Determines the Outcome of Mediation?
The parties determine their own solutions. Studies show that this is one of the reasons so many people find mediation more satisfying than any other method of conflict resolution. Through mediation, the parties are able to communicate directly with one another and to gain an understanding that they might not have obtained otherwise. They are empowered to arrive at their own solutions, rather than being subject to a decision imposed on them by the "Law", a judge, or a jury. After all, it is the parties who are the experts on the situation at hand, and it is they who are most qualified to decide what outcome is in their best interests.
3.2.1 What is the Mediator's Job?

The mediator's job is to be an expert facilitator, negotiator and listener. The mediator helps the parties overcome their communication impasse and uncover solutions that meet their underlying needs and concerns. In a sense, the mediator also acts as a translator, translating what each party says into terms that the other party hears without feeling attacked or judged. After all, we all know what it is like to speak to someone and have that person not "hear" what we mean. At the conclusion of the mediation, the mediator drafts the agreement for the parties.
190
PCR 106
3.2.2 What happens if an Agreement is not reached?

There is very little downside to mediation, even if an agreement is not reached. The process is voluntary, and if it is not progressing, that usually becomes clear early in the process. From that perspective, very little expense is incurred because the mediations that do not reach agreement generally terminate rather quickly. Sometimes parties worry that, if an agreement is not reached, they will have "played their hand." Keep in mind that one need not play his/her "hand" because parties in mediation always have the ability to call a private session. Also keep in mind that even in litigation parties are forced to "play their hand" under our rules of discovery and disclosure, which are more liberally construed today than ever.
3.2.1 When is the Best Time to Look into Mediation?

Mediation is appropriate at any stage of conflict! It is never too late! Some parties use mediation proactively. For instance, if parties anticipate a problem arising in the near future, they may use mediation to facilitate a dialogue and agree ahead of time as to how that problem will be handled. Other parties insert mediation clauses into their agreement, providing for the mediation of future conflicts. One other method of providing for mediation on an ongoing basis is to hire a mediator on retainer for disagreements that may arise over the course of a designated period of time. Most often, parties contact a mediator when they recognize a conflict has arisen and is not going to go away. When this happens, it is never too late to propose mediation. There is very little to lose in doing so, and so much to gain. Repeatedly, parties surprise one another and, even in the midst of litigation, engage in mediation to a successful agreement.
3.3
Seven Steps to Effective Mediation
(AS DEVELOPED BY DIANA SANTA MARIA AND MARC A. GREG OF THE LAW OFFICES OF DIANA SANTA MARIA, P.A., USA) According to Diana Santa Maria and Marc A. Greg settling a case before trial often involves mediation. In its most basic form, mediation is a process in which a neutral third party called a mediator acts to encourage and facilitate the resolution of a dispute between two or more parties. It is a non-adversarial process designed to help the disputing parties reach a mutually acceptable agreement.
191
PCR 106
In mediation, decision-making authority rests with the parties. The role of the mediator is to assist them in identifying issues, fostering joint problem solving, and exploring settlement options. Since each party wants to mold any settlement to its own benefit, the actual process can combine elements of show-and-tell and poker. Whether mediation before trial is court-ordered or voluntary, lawyers have a duty to their clients to maximize the potential for settling fairly and equitably. Of course, not all cases can be settled. Where it is clear there is absolutely no chance of settlement, you should ask the court to be excused from mediation to avoid wasted effort and any unnecessary expense. However, even when a case does not resolve in mediation, the experience may prove invaluable because the information that is gleaned during negotiations may compel the parties t take a new approach to the case. Mediation affords an attorney the unique opportunity to evaluate an opponent's style and the issues an opponent will be emphasizing at trial. It will also allow the attorney to assess how well an opponent responds to the weaknesses in a case. This is often the same kind of information lawyers seek through depositions and carefully planned discovery requests. The following tips can help produce a successful mediation.
3.3.1 Choose a Mediator Carefully.

Opinions differ on the importance of choosing a mediator. Some attorneys believe that the choice has little or no bearing on the outcome, so they give little thought to this part of the process. However, we believe that choosing an appropriate mediator is as important and deserves as much of a lawyer's attention as selecting jurors for trial. Unlike at trial, the parties at mediation settle the case among themselves rather than submitting to the decision of a judge or jury. However, whether in trial or mediation, lawyers are obligated to provide clients with the same level of care, be it in selecting jurors or in selecting a mediator. Lawyers who have a working knowledge of the mediators in the local circuit and who carefully consider mediators' personality styles, backgrounds, and suitability for a given case are paving the way for a successful mediation. Mediation is essentially a negotiation between the parties and is governed by the same principles that apply to any negotiation. The process varies depending on the personalities, goals, and strategies of the participants-- including the mediator.
192
PCR 106
To a great extent the personality styles of the participants determine the outcome. Since the mediator's job is to facilitate a resolution that the parties and their counsel working alone cannot accomplish, the mediator's style can be a great aid -- or a great impediment -- to the negotiation. Understanding personality characteristics and negotiating styles will give you an advantage at mediation. Negotiating styles may be identified and grouped according to four basic personality types: directors, influencers, steady types, and compliant types. Directors, as their name suggests, want immediate results. They accept challenges, and they make things happen. Directors seek power and authority, prestige and challenge. They need others to weigh the pros and cons of an action and calculate risks. If you know that certain parties or their counsel are directors, selecting a directing mediator is likely to bring the mediation to a quick, but perhaps premature, conclusion. Any settlement would tend to be accomplished quickly, but your client could get shortchanged in the process. Influencers are articulate "people person" types who make favorable impressions on others. They want to be popular, and social recognition is important to them, as is freedom of expression. Influencers need others to seek out the facts and focus on the task at hand. An influencing-type mediator may be able to keep a mediation socially lubricated, so that directing parties do not reach an impasse or walk out too soon. The chances for a settlement between two directing parties would tend to be increased with a well-respected, influencing-type mediator.
3.3.1:1
Steady types are patient people who focus on getting the job done.
They want security and prefer the status quo unless valid reasons indicate change is necessary. teady types need others who can react quickly to unexpected change and extend themselves in new ways to meet the challenges of an accepted task. A steady-type mediator could be particularly effective when the parties are influencers, providing a patient focus on the facts and the job at hand. Any settlement would be more likely to account for all the facts and needs of the parties.
193
PCR 106
Details that otherwise might be overlooked by influencing or directing types will more likely be covered.
3.3.1:2
Compliant Types Tend To Concentrate On Key Details.
They focus on key directives and standards. They want a sheltered environment with standard operating procedures and security. Compliant types need others to delegate important tasks and expand their own authority. A compliant type may be most useful in mediation between director and influencer parties, accepting delegation of various tasks and providing no challenge to the parties' desire for control and expression. In this situation, a settlement would likely take into consideration the concerns and fully articulated positions of the parties. The compliant-type mediator; under the circumstances, would act more as a messenger between the parties. The implications of this kind of analysis for the mediation process are readily apparent. The point is that the process and outcome of any mediation will depend, in large part, on who the participants are. So, it is important to select a mediator appropriate to the psychodynamics of a particular case, given the parties, issues, and counsel involved.
3.3.2 Prepare For Mediation, and Know The Client's Bottom Line.
Prepare and plan the mediation as if you were preparing for trial. Show confidence, commitment, and professionalism at every stage of the process. Remember; the opposing party is evaluating all aspects of the mediation. Be prepared and prepare your client, because the possibility always exists that the mediation will reach an impasse. Be sure the client is prepared to discontinue the process if it appears futile. Know the client's bottom line. Confirm it beforehand, and be clear about this. If you are ambivalent on this point, your ambivalence will be construed as less than a full commitment to the client's position. Be prepared to end the mediation if it be-comes clear that the client's bottom line will not be reached. An exception to this rule occurs when new information emerges that materially affects the client's position. You then need to be prepared to
194
PCR 106
work with the client to agree on a new bottom line so that the mediation can continue. Clients who are well informed about the process are more relaxed and make a better impression. Ensure that the client knows the purpose of mediation, the gamesmanship involved, and the likely goals and strategies of the other party. Clients need to know that they are an integral part of an effective presentation and that they should display an appropriate attitude during the mediation despite any negative feelings they have toward the other party. Clients should come to your office appropriately attired and ready to finalize strategies at least two to three hours before the mediation begins. Communicate clearly to the client what the odds of a successful outcome are if the case goes to trial. The client is relying on your guidance to make informed decisions. Analyze all offers from the other side with realistic expectations. Make counteroffers that consider the client's bottom line, the appropriateness of the last offer discussed, as well as the history of the mediation's give and take. However, do not consider how long the mediation has already taken. Mediation can reach a good result at any time, be it 1 hour or 23 hours into the process. Always try to approach each point in the negotiation with fresh energy to avoid mental traps that could adversely affect the client.
3.3.3 Negotiate At A Time And Place That Is Advantageous.

Avoid negotiations that take place too early or too late in the day or in too close proximity to another unrelated, important event, such as an important hearing on the same day. You need to be able to adjust your schedule to stay longer than planned for your client if the mediation is flowing and purposeful. Ensure that all the key participants are as focused and alert as possible. At minimum, the mediation should take place on neutral, comfortable ground that is convenient to counsel, client, and mediator. You and your client should arrive early to familiarize yourselves with the environment and the surrounding facilities. Avoid bringing along the entire case file, but do have all supporting documents, such as accident reports, medical records, applicable case law, and economic loss analysis. If necessary, also bring appropriate support staff to assist with document retrieval.
195
PCR 106
When possible, use this time to set up visual aids that will keep the mediation visually lively. Make sure all electronic equipment is operational and correctly positioned. In personal injury cases, use blowup exhibits of the client's injuries and other key pieces of evidence. Mount on poster board and visually enhance important documents and critical medical records, just as you would for trial. A little extra expense and attention to these details could make a tremendous difference in the way your case is evaluated by your opponent.
3.3.4 Share Information Strategically.

By the time a case reaches mediation, quite a bit of information has already been disclosed by each side, particularly if the case has been litigated for a while. Before putting the matter into suit, you may have presented the other party with a demand package that disclosed your theory of liability and outlined your client's damages. At the mediation, you should build the initial presentation on this previously disclosed information, emphasizing the elements that support a favorable settlement. It is possible that the other party and the other party's counsel have taken a relatively routine approach to the case until the mediation. Use mediation to hammer home your case, exposing the reasons why the plaintiff will win big at trial. Address your case's potential weaknesses, but also explain why the strengths of your position outweigh any weaknesses and why you will obtain a favorable verdict at trial. Let the other side see how the case will play to a jury. In some cases, it may be advantageous to show a short video highlighting the strengths of the case. The video should include excerpts of depositions of key experts and before-and-after witnesses, scenes of the client before and after the injury, newspaper articles noting the client's achievements, and accolades awarded to the client before the injury. These can take any form desired, as there are no evidentiary rules at mediation. Remember; there are no guarantees that the case will be settled. Even though each party should arrive at mediation prepared to resolve the case in good faith, part of the other side's motivation may be to prepare for trial -- not to actually resolve the case. Do not disclose any more elements of your position than you have to in order to achieve a satisfactory settlement that is fair to all the parties.
196
PCR 106
On a related note, reserve some information to use later in the mediation. A successful mediation may take hours to resolve. If you allow your opponent to understand your position too early, he or she will make an offer based on that understanding. Withholding some information allows you to reveal your position in stages, and a more satisfactory settlement for all parties is likely to result, based on a better understanding of your client's position.
3.3.5 Prepare The Mediator.

Several weeks before the mediation, prepare a written overview of the case -- for the mediator's eyes only -- that gives a quick, accurate reference to all pertinent information, and hand-deliver it to the mediator immediately before the mediation. Stamp it confidential, because this is your work product, which reflects your mental impressions of the case. For example, in a personal injury case, include the client's name, date of the collision, current age and age at the time of the collision, and employment information and earnings on the date of injury. Also provide the facts of the case, counsel's theory of liability and the other side's defenses, as well as why those defenses fail or don't materially affect a favorable outcome for your client. In addition, give a detailed description of the client's current damages, including all injuries, the impact on the client's life, the assessments of all treating physicians and other experts, related medical bills, and out of-pocket and earnings losses. Include a detailed description of the client's future prospects. Provide specific information about the client's future economic losses, including medical needs and earnings capacity losses prepared by an economist or vocational rehabilitation consultant. Also give a summary of the insurance limits or resources available from the other party and any coverage issues that may apply. A good mediator should be impartial, which implies a commitment to aid all parties, not any individual party, in moving toward an agreement. 3 This commitment is mandatory in Florida, which has adopted mediator qualification requirements and to our knowledge is the only state to implement a disciplinary process for mediators.4 Nothing in this obligation, however; precludes the mediator from making a professional determination that the case should be resolved on one party's terms. In fact, any agreement based on the mediator's impartial view of the merits of each side's case will be entirely appropriate from the perspective of the mediator's statutory or ethical obligations, as long as the mediator remains impartial.5
197
PCR 106
If you are comfortable with and respect the mediator; let him or her be your sounding board. When meeting privately with the mediator; be candid when discussing any offers the other side may have made. If uncertain, ask the mediator for strategic input as to what the next move in the process should be. Mediation statutes generally provide that, with certain very limited exceptions, nothing that is said to a mediator during private caucus may be disclosed to the other party or anyone else without the disclosing party's consent, and the confidentiality of all mediation proceedings, including any disclosure of records or materials, must be maintained.6 This confidentiality requirement encourages open and honest negotiation by the parties. A good mediator will recognize the strengths and the weaknesses of the plaintiff's case -- and the defendants -- and steer both disputing parties toward a fair and equitable result.
3.3.6 Use the mediator as a messenger.

Certain information cannot be conveyed to the other side without evoking adverse-- or even hostile --reactions. For example, a nonnegotiable aspect of your position can rarely be brought directly to the other party without causing that party to raise an equally non-negotiable position. This can be unfortunate, because these delicate facts may be the key to a successful negotiation. Expressing this information to the mediator in private, and encouraging the mediator to communicate it to the other side may defuse potentially explosive reactions. The mediator's job is to move the parties off their initial positions toward settlement. Provide the documents, facts, or theories that go to the heart of the other party's weaknesses to gain additional leverage for your client. Doing so helps bring the other side closer to a fair settlement Although being candid with a good mediator is important, let the mediator discover all the case facts over time. A mediator who understands the plaintiffs bottom line too soon will spend less time exploring available options and may miss an opportunity to effect a more equitable settlement. A mediator who arrives at a gradual understanding of the plaintiffs position will be more likely to engage in new methods of problem solving to settle an old and frustrating problem. Remember; mediation is a journey for all the participants, and shortcuts may shortchange the process, possibly to the client's detriment.
198
PCR 106
For example, there is often a chance -- however slight --that you could be underestimating the value of your case. In fact, the opponent may be willing to pay more than your client's bottom line. By allowing the mediation process to run its course, both sides may facilitate a creative solution in which the parties reach an unexpected -- but mutually agreeable --settlement.
3.3.7 Seal The Deal In Writing.

A clearly written agreement is the goal of mediation. Ensure that this document carefully describes the intent and agreement between the parties and is signed by all parties and their counsel. The time frame for all payments should be clear, as should any unacceptable release terms. This way, elements of the settlement not explicitly addressed in the written agreement will be unenforceable. One person should write the agreement, with input from each of the parties. This reduces the opportunity for error that can result when too many hands create a document The agreement can be comprehensive or merely memorialize the basic elements of the settlement, depending on how the parties wish to construct the binding aspects of the agreement At a minimum, the agreement should ensure that all the key elements of the settlement, including the respective obligations of the parties, are sufficiently detailed so as not to be subject to interpretation later. Ambiguity can kill the deal. Given the evolving trend toward mediation as a viable and sometimes mandatory exercise in dispute resolution, the future promises to test the traditional role of trial lawyers in ways that will challenge their imaginations and creativity. Trial lawyers need to be alert to maximizing the potential benefits that mediation may bring to their cases. Clients who are well informed about the mediation process are more relaxed and make a better impression.
4.0
CONCLUSION
The importance of mediation in conflict resolution is further reemphasized here. Hence, the need to state the mediators job, and how the out come of mediation can be determined, as well as the seven steps to having effective mediation.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit treated the mediators job, who determines the outcome of mediation, and seven steps to effective mediation.
199
PCR 106
6.0
1. What is the mediators job? 2. Who determines the outcome of mediation? 3. Is the decision of the mediator binding on the disputants? Explain. 4. Discuss the seven steps to effective mediation as developed by Diana Santa Maria law offices.
7.0
A number of books have been written on mediation from many perspectives. A varied sampling would include: Roger Fisher & William Ury, Getting To Yes (1991) John Patrick Dolan, (1991) Negotiate Like the Pros. (LawTalk) Alvin L. Goldman, (1991) Settling for More Herb Cohen, (1982)You Can Negotiate Anything Richard C. Reuben (1996) The Lawyer Turns Peacemaker, A.B.A. J, Aug.: 55.
200
PCR 106
MODULE 6
Unit 1
Unit 2
Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change

Practical Insights and Challenges to Conflict Resolution
UNIT 1
UNDERSTANDING CONFLICT AS A STRATEGY IN SOCIAL CHANGE
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Understanding conflict as a strategy in social change. 3.2 Managing Conflict 3.2.1 Recognise and Acknowledge that Conflict Exists 3.2.2 Analyse the Existing Situation 3.2.3 Facilitate Communication 3.2.4 Negotiate 3.2.5 Make Necessary Adjustments, Reinforce, Confirm 3.2.6 Live with Conflict, all Conflicts Cannot be Resolved Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Conflict is not to be perceived only as a negative thing or phenomenon. It can also be used as a strategy for changing society, expectedly for better, when things are not moving in the right direction. In this regard, it can be used as a healing effect on society. Some people can use this also for their selfish purpose(s). This unit creates that understanding.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to 1. Describe the role of conflict in bringing about change in society; 2. Explain your role.
201
PCR 106
3.0
MAIN BODY
3.1 Understanding Conflict as a Strategy in Social Change

Conflict, as a strategy, is an attempt to coerce power after understanding and reason fail. There are individuals and groups who use conflict as a strategy to achieve their goals and change existing conditions. They may instigate conflict to gain recognition and call attention to their message. They usually want people higher in the power structure to address their problem. In effectively approaching in such situations, it is necessary to understand how conflict can be used as a strategy in social change. One of the necessary "tools" in conflict management is an awareness and understanding of the strategies that agitators use in generating conflict (Robinson and Clifford 1974). Saul Alinsky was one of the major advocates of using conflict to achieve group goals. His basic strategy was to organize community and neighborhood groups to "establish a creative tension within the establishment" (Robinson and Clifford 1974). Whether the tension was creative or not, tension was frequently "created". Those who utilize the conflict approach may use disruptive tactics to call attention to their position. These tactics may range from non-violent protests - boycotts and sit-ins - to violence. Community development professionals appear to be divided on the use of conflict. Steuart (1974), speaking to professionals in the community development field, states: "Conflict itself...of some kind or degree is a major determinant of change and far from moving to avoid or immediately dissolve it, it may often be entirely appropriate even to stimulate it." Many reject conflict because they feel that decisions reached through community consensus and cooperation is the best method to achieve social change. Conflict, it is argued, may stimulate participation in the decision making process but provide only a temporary stimulus and prevent the development of a permanent foundation for participation. Many individuals who find conflict distasteful may be repelled (Schaller, in Cox, 1974). Schaller (in Cox, 1974) states that although benefits often accrue when conflict is properly used, there are risks involved in using conflict in community organizations. Nonviolent conflict may turn violent, and conflict may produce unexpected results. Conflict may also result in the identification of the wrong "enemy." As Robinson and Clifford (1974) notes, "Alinsky demonstrated that his approach would bring change. Sometimes his methods generated great unrest and created much stress
202
PCR 106
within communities. At other times, significant advances and social change occurred." While many community development workers may not promote the use of conflict to bring about change, it is necessary to understand how it may be used by groups in order to deal with conflict situations more effectively when they arise.
3.2
Managing Conflict
This final section will discuss approaches to conflict resolution in line with the aim of the discussion - to aid the reader in developing effective skills for coping with conflict. Robinson and Clifford (1974) advocates "managing conflict toward constructive action since a conflict can seldom be completely resolved." When conflict arises, we need to be able to manage it so that it becomes a positive force, rather than a negative force threatening to disrupt the group or community. As Parker (1974) notes: Conflict not managed will bring about delays, disinterest, lack of action and, in extreme cases, a complete breakdown of the group. Unmanaged conflict may result in withdrawal of individuals and an unwillingness on their part to participate in other groups or assist with various group action programs. Boulding (1962) discusses several methods of ending conflicts: (1) avoidance; (2) conquest; and (3) procedural resolution of some kind, including reconciliation and/or compromise and/or award. As stated previously, avoidance of conflict often leads to intensified hostility and may later cause greater problems for the group. Therefore, one of the first steps in conflict management is to recognize that a conflict situation exists. Don't ignore it and count on it disappearing by itself. As Boulding (1962) notes: "The biggest problem in developing the institutions of conflict control is that of catching conflicts young. Conflict situations are frequently allowed to develop to almost unmanageable proportions before anything is done about them, by which time it is often too late to resolve them by peaceable and procedural means." Avoidance in a particular situation might conceivably be the best answer, but this step should be made only after conflict is explicitly recognized and alternative ways to manage it are examined.
203
PCR 106
Conquest or the elimination of all other points of view is an approach seldom applicable to community development programs. It is mentioned here only as a recognized approach. Boulding's third method of ending conflict - procedural resolution by reconciliation and/or compromise - is generally the method most appropriate in community development programs. There are several means to reach a compromise. Various practitioners and academies theorize as to the best means available. In reality, the means for conflict resolution by reconciliation is dependent on the situation. No one type can apply to all situations. There are always risks involved when dealing with hostilities or conflict. Research indicates that accepting these risks will result, when the conflict is managed (even in varying degrees), in stronger, more cohesive groups. Ignoring or openly fighting the opposition can greatly weaken group structure and group action (Parker 1974). Compromise involves adjustments and modifications with regard to the territories, values, goals, and/or policies of the involved parties. For example, a possible strategy for reducing conflict over how to reach an agreed-upon goal might be to redefine the situation in terms of new means toward the acceptable goals - a new bond issue rather than depleting existing funds. Territories may also be redefined and made less exclusive in order to diminish conflict. An outline of suggestions for use in managing conflict within and among community groups is presented below:
3.2.1 Recognize and Acknowledge that Conflict Exists. 3.2.2 Analyze the Existing Situation.
Know exactly what the conflict is about. Does it involve values, goals, means to goals, territory, or a combination of these? Analyze behavior of involved parties: members of the groups(s)). Determine if the concerned party has used the conflict approach (as discussed in previous section). Find out how other, similar conflicts have been resolved.
3.2.3 Facilitate Communication.

Enhance communication. Open the lines for free discussion and involve all members.
204
PCR 106
Encourage accurate communication and feedback because negotiation (discussed below) depends on good communication. Listen and raise questions. Allow free expression. Constructive disagreement should not be suppressed. Supply information and facts. Maintain an objective level (not emotional). Stay on issues, not people. Provide the tact needed to "save face" for parties.
3.2.4 Negotiate.
"Techniques used in labor disputes offer potential in community problem-solving." (Schilit 1974) Some useful principles based on negotiations between labor and management, and in business affairs may be applied in conflict management in community groups. As Nierenberg (1968) states, "Whenever people exchange ideas with the intention of changing relationships, whenever they confer for agreement, they are negotiating." He adds, "The satisfaction of needs is the goal common to all negotiations," and that "the satisfaction of needs is the goal common to all negotiations.... Negotiation is a cooperative enterprise; common interests must be sought; negotiation is a behavioral process, not a game; in a good negotiation, everybody wins something." The importance of discovering common interests, or "points of common agreement," is stressed by Nierenberg (1968): Always be on the alert to convert divergent interests into channels of common desires. In exploring these channels, both parties to the negotiation may be stimulated by the idea of sharing common goals. These goals are reached by finding mutual interests and needs by emphasizing the matters that can be agreed upon, and by not dwelling on points of difference.
3.2.5 Make necessary Adjustments, Reinforce, Confirm. 3.2.6 Live with Conflict. All conflict cannot be resolved.
Sometimes, individuals or groups do not feel it is to their collective interest to resolve a conflict. The price is too high. Resolution involves compromise or capitulation. If a party is unwilling to compromise or to capitulate, then the conflict is likely to continue.
205
PCR 106
Many social analysts believe that the middle class in Western industrial nations has embraced an anti-conflict, anti-violence value orientation. This has resulted in rule by consensus and conflict avoidance. Some or most community leaders find conflict both embarrassing and distasteful. This attitude is especially useful to those who use a conflict strategy that is, they exploit peace at any price. But, it may not always be in communities' interest to compromise or capitulate on these terms. Learning to live with conflict may be a real community service. As close- knit groups have demonstrated for centuries, communities can live with conflict when they collectively determine it is necessary.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Conflict sometimes can act as a healer in society. This perspective to conflict is emphasized to counter the negative connotations that are often associated with conflict. This makes for a balanced view of conflict and assists in making for a broader view of the phenomenon of conflict.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit treated understanding conflict as a strategy in social change, and managing conflict.
6.0
1. What is conflict and competition? 2. What are the effects and dimensions of conflict? 3. What is your understanding of conflict as a strategy in social change?
7.0
Coser, L. (1956) The Function of Social Conflict, Philadelphia: The Free Press. Cook, J.B. (1975) Compromise, Conflict and perspective, Dept., of Regional and Community Affairs, College of Public and Community services., University of Missouri.
206
PCR 106
UNIT 2
PRACTICAL INSIGHTS AND CHALLENGES TO CONFLICT RESOLUTION
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Introduction Objectives Main Body 3.1 Practical insights and Challenges to conflict resolution 3.2 Three principles for constructive conflict 3.2.1 Having a Positive Conflict Mentality 3.2.2 Having Open Communication Practices 3.2.3 Providing Conflict Management Systems Conclusion Summary Tutor-marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
This final unit discusses the challenges to conflict resolution. It makes a case for the need to cultivate the culture of constructive conflict by having a positive conflict mentality, among others. With this frame of mind and understanding, the challenges posed by the conflict resolution processes, will be surmounted.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to 1. Demonstrate how to cultivate a positive attitude towards conflict 2. Explain how conflict challenges can surmounted with the right kind of attitude.
3.0 3.1
MAIN BODY Practical Insights and Challenges to Conflict Resolution
According to Hadyn Olsen (a workplace advisor and trainer, who also specializes in harassment and conflict in the workplace) when we consider conflict in the workplace we find that there is a variety of sources and forms that conflict takes. On one side we have conflict that is a result of opposing needs, goals and values and on the other side there is conflict that results from more
207
PCR 106
disturbing human dysfunctions. By this we mean such things as personal prejudice, misplaced aggression, inappropriate needs for power, and other forms of human disfunctionalism. At one end of the spectrum conflict is relatively easy to manage. It may involve simple communication and negotiation processes. It can leave people feeling intact, valued and included. On the other end of the spectrum however, the conflict becomes far more difficult and has a much greater potential to damage people and productivity. In one study it was found that 30-50% of work related stress resulted from harmful relationship problems in the workplace. These problems are usually not identified or addressed properly and will have a huge emotional impact upon people. One of the most common forms of more complex harmful behaviour has been called workplace bullying. Understanding bullying and the complexities of this dysfunctional behaviour is critical to constructively managing conflict in the workplace. This quote suggests a disturbing link between bullying and conflict. A disagreement or a conflict will often set the bullying cycle into motion. In most cases, however, that very event is virtually irrelevant. It does not matter what the cause of the conflict is, whether it is a disagreement over a work procedure, a lack of recognition, incivility, harassment, a new boss or co-worker, or a clash of personalities or values. The event becomes an excuse to set the bullying into action. (Davenport, Scwartz, Elliot Mobbing, Emotional Abuse in the American Workplace). This comment exposes the psycho-pathological condition that some people have. We could call it psycho-pathological because in many cases the bullying behaviour is of such a deeply ingrained pattern within a person that it cannot be changed without some specific and long-term treatment. If you have this kind of bully in your workplace you will understand this comment. They make conflict an art form and can quickly infect a workplace to such a degree that it becomes a highly toxic place to be. In the last ten years workplace bullying has been the subject of much international research and study. In New Zealand for instance, the concept of workplace bullying is still basically unheard of and is even considered something of a joke in many organisations.
208
PCR 106
People generally see bullying as something that happens in schools between children and do not recognize that adult bullying is just as common and even more complex and harmful. The latest research to come from Griffith University in Queensland suggest that one in four in the workplace experience adult bullying and that in some workplaces it can be as high as 80%. Opposing needs Opposing goals Opposing values Personal prejudice Misplaced aggression Power plays Disfunctionalism Workplace bullying is not just about mismanaged conflict or about the more obvious forms of intimidation, verbal abuse and threats of violence. It can be far more insidious and complex. Andrea Needham, an internationally experienced HR consultant based in Taranaki, is currently writing a book exposing bullying in the New Zealand workplace. She is looking carefully at forms of bullying that are found in management and senior management circles which can render an organization toxic and dysfunctional and cost a huge amount in legal and settlement costs and in lost productivity and staff turnover. Some of these behaviours are very complex and subtle. They can range from the setting of impossible deadlines and creating undue pressure on individuals to isolating people from communication and support, so that their work performance is affected - then using this against them through poor performance appraisals etc. Charlotte Raynor and Helge Hoel, in their dissertation, A Summary Review of Literature Relating to Workplace Bullying indicate five of the most common forms of workplace bullying within organisations. These are;
1.3.1 Threats to professional status (eg. Belittling opinions of coworkers, public or professional humiliation, accusations of lack of effort).
1.3.2 Threats to personal standing (eg. Name calling, insults, teasing). 1.3.3 Isolation (eg. Preventing access to opportunities such as training,
withholding information).
209
PCR 106
1.3.4 Overwork (eg. Undue pressures to produce results, impossible

deadlines, unnecessary deadliness). 1.3.5 Destabilisation (eg. Failure to credit where it is due, meaningless tasks, removal of responsibility, shifting the goals posts). (Raynor/Hoel, 1997) What may be concerning is the incredible impact this can have upon people at work, but what is most concerning is that when it is happening in senior management level, it sets the tone for the whole organisation. Culture is generally set by those at the top. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimates bullying at work to be four times more common than sexual harassment. In NZ the latest studies suggest that one in three women are sexually harassed at work and one in six men also suffer from it. If our rates are this high then what is the prevalence of workplace bullying the NZ workplace? The State Services Commission survey on Career Progression and Growth, published April 2002, concluded that workplace bullying was a significant and growing issue. It is also stated, that as workplace bullying is not covered in Human Rights legislation, the onus is on the employers to manage it. Now with the onset of the Health and Safety amendments there will be a growing necessity for employers to identify this hazard and take steps to eliminate it. So what is the impact of destructive conflict and of bullying behaviours? On one hand conflict can be a useful element to a healthy organisation. The typical Learning Organisation is one that values conflict and sees it as a means of continuous improvement. On the other hand organisations that do not welcome conflict or set boundaries around the management of conflict, are far more prone to create a culture where destructive forms of conflict breed through avoidance, defensiveness and aggression. Healthy and enjoyable conflict focuses on ideas and issues; unhealthy and destructive conflict focuses on personalities. Destructive conflict, which includes bullying and other dysfunctions thrive in conflict avoidant workplaces. A study by Griffith University in Queensland suggested that bullying costs the Australian economy between $13-36 billion a year. It based these figures on such resultants as; High rates of absenteeism High rates of staff turnover Sickness resulting from stress
210
PCR 106
Time wasted on complaints etc (in another study it was revealed that 30-50% of a typical managers time is spent dealing with conflict) Lower morale and performance Poor communication Employee sabotage to plant and processes Litigation costs (recent case of $250,000 was awarded to Whangamata policeman for stress resulting from bullying).
Even one bully in an organisation can have a tremendously negative impact. In one organisation it was found that one department; whose manager was a bully, had a staff turnover rate four times higher than anywhere else in the organisation. Staff turnover alone can cost anywhere between 50-150% of a persons salary. So what can be done to reduce this impact and provide a constructive conflict culture that is bully aware? We would like to suggest there are 3 principles that are important to this;
3.2
Three Principles for Constructive Conflict
3.2.1 Having a Positive Conflict Mentality

This needs to be accepted and supported from the top of an organisation. If your CEO is conflict avoidant or a bully then this will infect the whole organisation. A constructive conflict mentality is one that determines how conflict should be managed and defines what is acceptable and what is unacceptable in regard to dealing with issues. Constructive conflict cultures value diversity of opinion and welcome new ways of looking at things. They see conflict as an improvement tool and create room for conflict to be expressed and worked through with safeguards to keep it constructive.
3.2.2 Having Open Communication Practices

Real open door policies mean that managers are available for discussions, for hearing ideas and complaints. They welcome opposing views or new ideas and they value the wisdom of those who work at the coalface. They are not threatened by diversity of ideas, approaches and challenges. We believe one of the reasons why we have high levels of destructive conflict is because many of our managers lack good people skills. They are not emotionally equipped to deal with people issues and therefore they become conflict avoidant or aggressive. Managers can often fall into roles of simply following systems and reporting information rather
211
PCR 106
than embodying true leadership that include inspiring teams, modeling values, facilitating solutions and bringing people along.
3.2.3 Providing Conflict Management Systems

The third most important principle in creating a constructive conflict culture is to develop processes for dealing with conflict. Most organisations have effective customer complaints procedures but few have effective staff complaints procedures. Often staff will not use a complaints system to deal with issues because they perceive them as biased, unsafe (ultimately detrimental to the complainant) and too slow. Effective complaints systems must provide the following things; Personal safety, a fair process, confidentiality, equity, impartiality, speed. Some international companies like Levi-Strauss have led the way in creating conflict management Systems within their companies. They include such things as C onflict training for all employees S pecialised conflict training for managers (studies show managers are responsible for 80% of workplace bullying) Contact persons in the workplace In-house mediators (for simple disputes) Neutral third-party mediation The National Bank of Canada, another leading organisation in constructive conflict found that by developing these kinds of systems they Reduced the number of disputes by 50% Reduced legal costs by 85% Reduced the number of dispute calls by 55%. A 1998 survey conducted with 100 HR executives in US found that; 8 6% have created written policies for conflict 6 3% have implemented training programmes for managers and supervisors 57% have developed employee grievance procedures. On a practical note we would like to suggest some specific practical things organisations can do.
212
PCR 106
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6. 7.
Create company values that uphold personal dignity, diversity, constructive conflict and encourage openness in communication. Create a leadership model that promotes real leadership, people skills, facilitative skills and constructive conflict behaviour. Create room in your training budget for regular training in communication and conflict resolution skills for all employees. Create a harassment prevention programme that includes a full policy and complaints procedure. Make sure you safeguard complainants against victimisation. Establish contact people in your workplace and use them in your EAP (Employment Assistance Programme) so that victims and perpetrators can get access to external counselling, mentoring and rehabilitation. Get external mediation assistance when complaints become formal. This will show you mean business and that you are accountable to an independent and impartial person. Use your contact people for a range of people based issues. Give them training in mediation skills. If schools can use peer mediation why cant workplaces?
Alvin Toffler, author of Future Shock, The Third Wave and Powershift, makes this comment; The place we really need imaginative new ideas is in conflict theory. Thats true with respect to war and peace but it is also true domestically. The real weakness throughout the country is the lack of conflict resolution methods other than litigation and guns.
4.0
CONCLUSION
This last unit emphasizes the practical insights and challenges to conflict resolution. The examples that are discussed is a testimony to the need for this. We should therefore ever be aware of the practical challenges that we face in both the study and practice of conflict resolution.
5.0
SUMMARY
This unit treated practical insights and challenges to conflict resolution and three principles for constructive conflict.
6.0
1.
Analyze the most common forms of workplace bullying as stated by Charlotte Raynor and Helge Hoel.
213
PCR 106
2.
What is the effect of bullying in an organization? Discuss with examples from a workplace of your choice. 3. Suggest ways of providing constructive conflict culture in a workplace environment.
7.0
References/Further Readings
Coser, L. (1956) The Function of Social Conflict, Philanphia: The Free Press. Cook, J.B. (1975) Compromise, Conflict and perspective, Dept., of Regional and Community Affairs, College of Public and Community services., University of Missouri.
214
PCR 106
References and a Selected Bibliography on Conflict and Conflict Resolution

Minsky, Saul D., Reveille for Radicals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946. Ardrey, Robert, The Territorial Imperative. New York: Atheneum, 1970. Barker, Larry L., Kathy J. Wahlers, Kittie W. Watson, Robert J. Kibler, Groups in Process: An Introduction to Small Group Communication, Third Edition. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1987. Batten, T.R., The Human Factor in Community Work. London: Oxford University Press, 1965. Beal, George M., Ronald C. Powers and E. Walter Coward, Jr. (Eds.), Sociological Perspectives of Domestic Develop meet. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1971 Bennis, Benne and Chin, The Planning of Change (Second edition). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969. Biddle, William and Loureide Biddle, The Community Development Process: The Rediscovery of Local Initative. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965. Bienen, Henry, Violence and Social Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968. Black, Algernon D., The People and the Police. New York: McGrawHill Company, 1968. Blizek, William L. and Jerry Cederblom, "Community Development and Social Justice." Journal of the Community Develop ment Society, Vol. 4, No. 2, 4552, 1973. Boulding, Kenneth E., Conflict and Defense, A General Theory. New York: Harper Torchbooks, Harper and Row, Publishers, 1962. Chalmers, W. Ellison, . Ann Arbor: Institute of Labor and Industrial Relations, The University of Michigan - Wayne State University, 1974.
215
PCR 106
Clark, Terry N. (Ed.), Community Structure and Decision Making: Comparative Analyses. San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Company, 1968. Coleman, James S., Community Conflict. New York: The Free Press (monograph), 1957. Collier, Peter (Ed.), Crisis - A Contemporary Reader. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1969. Cook, James B., Compromise, Conflict and Perspective. Department of Regional and Community Affairs, College of Public and Community Services, University of Missouri, Columbia, 1975. Coser, Lewis A. and Bernard Rosenberg, Sociological Theory: A Book of Readings (Second Edition). New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964. Cox, Fred M., et. al. (Eds.), Strategies of Community Organization, A Book of Readings. Itasca, Illinois: F.E., Peacock Publishers, Inc., 1974. Dahrendori; Ralf, "Toward a Theory of Social Conflict." Ehrenreich, Barbara and John Ehrenreich, The American Health Empire. New York: Vintage Books, 1971. Etzioni, Amitai and Eva Etzioni, Social Change. New York: Basic Books, 1964. Finley, James R. and Anthony A. Hickey, A Study of Water Resource Public Decision Making. Technical Report 37, 1971. Fisher, B.A., Small Group Decision Making: Communication Group Process, Second Edition. NY: McGraw-Hill, 1980. Fisher, Ronald J. and James H. White, "A Prescriptive Model: Intergroup Conflicts Resolved By Outside Consultants." Journal of the Community Development Society, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1976. Foster, George M., Traditional Cultures: and the Impact of Technological Change. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1962. French, Robert Mills (Ed.), The Community - A Comparative Perspective. Itasca, Illinois: F.E. Peacock Publishers, Inc., 1969.
216
PCR 106
Gamson, William A., "Rancorous Conflict in Community Politics." The Search for Community Power, Hawley, Willis D. and Frederick M. Wirt (Eds.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1968. Gittell, Marilyn, Demonstration for Social Change - An Experiment in Local Control. New York: Institute for Community Studies, Queens College of the City University of New York,1971. Goodenough, Ward Hunt, Cooperation in Change. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1963. Gurr, Ted with Charles Ruttenberg, The Conditions of Civil Violence: First Tests of a Casual Model. Princeton University: Center of International Studies. Research, Monograph No. 28, 1967. Havens, A. Eugene, "Methodological Issues in the Study of Development." Paper presented to the Third World Congress of Rural Sociology, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 1972. Hawley, Willis D. and Frederick M. Wirt (Eds.), The Search for Community Power. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968. Hobbs, Daryl J., "Some Contemporary Sociological Perspectives Regarding Social Change." Huizer, Gerrit, "The Utilization of Conflict in Community Development and Peasant Organization: A Case from Chile," 1970. Knutson, T.J. and A.C. Kowitz, "Efforts of Informational Type and Level of Orientation on Consensus Achievement in Substantive and Affective Small Group Conflict." Central States Speech Journal, 1977; 28, 5463, 1977. Kramer, Ralph M. and Harry Specht, Readings in Community Organization Practice. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall, Inc., 1969. Lippet, Ronald, Jeanne Watson and Bruce Westley, The Dynamics of Planned Change. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1969. Loomis, Charles P. and Zona K. Loomis, Modern Social Theories. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1965.
217
PCR 106
Mack, Raymond W., "The Components of Social Conflict," Readings in Community Organization Practice, Ralph M. Kramer and Harry Specht (Eds.). New Jersey: PrenticeHall, Inc., 1969, pp 327-337. Nierenberg, Gerard I., The Art of Negotiating. New York: Hawthorn Books, Inc., 1968. Parker, John, "Some Ideas About Working With People Individually and in Groups." Ohio Cooperative Extension Service, 1974. Robinson, Jerry W., Jr., "The Management of Conflict." Journal of the Community Development Society, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 100-105, 1972. Robinson, Jerry W., Jr. and Roy A. Clifford, "Conflict Management in Community Groups." University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, North-Central Regional Extension Publication No. 36-5, 1974. Robinson, Jerry W., Jr., Roy A. Clifford and Jake DeWalle, "Stress in Community Groups." University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, North-Central Regional Extension Publication No. 36-9, 1975. Ross, Murray and Ben Lappin, Community Organization: Theory, Principles and Practice. New York: Harper and Row, 1967. Schilit, Henrietta, "Coping with Community Crisis: New Rules, New Roles for Conflict Resolution." Journal of the Community Development Society, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1974. Schmidt, Stuart M. and Thomas A. Kochan, "Conflict: Toward Conceptual Clarity." Administrative Science Ouarterly, 1972. Sherif, Muzafer et. al., Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation - The Robbers Cave Experiment. Norman, Oklahoma: Institute of Group Relations, The University of Oklahoma, 1961. Steuart, Guy W., "Conflict, Social Justice and Neutrality - A Critique and an Alternative." Journal of Community Development Society, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1974. Stinchcombe, Arthur L., Constructing Social Theories. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1968.
218
PCR 106
Thullen, Manfred, "Alternative Approaches to Development." Paper presented at the North Central Region Intensive Training Program for Non Metropolitan Development, 1975. Walton, Richard E. and John M. Dutton, "The Management of Interdepartmental Conflict: A Model and Review." Administrative Science Quarterly. Warren, Roland L., The Community in America (second edition). Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing Company, 1972. Weeks, D. The eight essential Steps to Conflict Resolution: Preserving Relationships at work at Home, and in the Community. Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher (1972) Whiting, Larry R. (Ed.), Communities Left Behind: Alternatives for Development. Ames: The Iowa State University Press, 1974. Wileden, Arthur F., Community Development. Totowa, New Jersey: Bedminister Press, 1970. Wilson, James Q., Varieties of Police Behavior. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969. Wise, H.F. and J.B. Williams, Editors, Main Street Ohio: Opportunities for Bringing People back to Downtown. State of Ohio: Department of Development (1981). Avruch, Kevin, 1998, Culture & Conflict resolution, United states Institute of Peace, Washington. Boulding, Elise, 1990, Building a Global Civic Culture Education for an Interdependent World, Syracuse University Press, New York Boulding E. Kenneth, 1962, Conflict and Defence A General Theory, Harper & Row, Publishers, New York. Coover, Virginia, Deacon, Ellen, Esser, Charles, Moore, Christopher, 1985, Resource Manual for a Living Revolution, New Society Publishers, Philadelphia. Coser, Lewis, 1956, The Functions of Social Conflict, The Free Press, Philadelphia. Dedring, Juergen, 1976, Recent Advances in Peace and Conflict research: A Critical Survey, Sage Publications, London.
219
PCR 106
Deutsch, M., 1973, The Resolution of Conflict, Yale University Press, New Haven. Druckman, David., Broome, Benjamine, J., Korper H. Susan, 1998, Value Differences and Conflict Resolution: Facilitation or Delinking?, Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.32, no.3, Sept. 1988, Sage Publications. Fink, C.F., 1968, Some Conceptual Difficulties in the Theory of Social Conflict, Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.12, pp.412 460. Galtung, Johan, 1992, The Way is the Goal: Gandhi Today, Gujarath Vidyapith, Ahmedabad. Gangrade, K.D., and Misra, R.P., 1989, Conflict resolution Through Non-Violence: role of Universities, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. Huntington. P. Samuel, 1997, The Clash of Civilization and the Remaking of world Order, Penguin Books, New Delhi. Klare T. Michael, ed., 1994, Peace and World Security Studies: A curriculum Guide, Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder. Churchland, Patricia Smith,1986 Neurophilosophy Toward a Unified Science of the Mind-Brain Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Delgado, Jose M.R. M.D. 1969, Physical Control of the Mind, Toward a Psychocivilized Society New York: Harper and Row. Kandel, Eric R. & James H. Schwartz, eds., 2000, Principles of Neural Science 4th ed. McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing.
220

Conflict Resolution 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Conflict Resolution 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Conflict Resolution 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PCR 106

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Processes II

INTRODUCTION TO CONFLICT RESOLUTION PROCESSES II

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Processes II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Processes II

PAGES 1 1-2 2 2-3 3 3-4 4-5 5 5 6 7 7 7-8 8 8-9 10 10

What you will learn in this course

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Working through this Course

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Assessment (end of unit)

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMAs)

Final Examination and Grading

Course Marketing Scheme

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

ASSESSMENT Assignment Final examination Total

How to get the most from this course

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Tutors and Tutorials

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4

References and Bibliography.215-220

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

UNIT 1 CONFLICT RESOLUTION AS A FIELD OR STUDY

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

MAIN BODY 3.1 The Evolution of Conflict Resolution

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Conceptual Breakthrough in Conflict Resolution

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Burton Vs Dollards Frustration/Aggression Theory

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

The Rosenberg Model

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Violent Conflict as a Problem

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

THE MEANING OF CONFLICT

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

MAIN BODY What Is Conflict?

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II

Introduction to Conflict Resolution Process II