Unit 2 Craft Hand Tools

Module No.
16 : Basic hand tools
Unit No. 2- Craft hand tools
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UNITS IN THIS COURSE

UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3 UNIT 4 UNIT 5 WORKSHOP SAFETY CRAFT HAND TOOLS MEASUREMENT MARKING OUT TASK #1 - WORKSHOP PRACTICAL
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Module No. 16 : Basic hand tools
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Para 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 OBJECTIVES INTRODUCTION CARE OF HAND TOOLS GENERAL WORKSHOP BENCH HOLDING & RESTRAINING TOOLS CUTTING TOOLS STRIKING TOOLS FASTENING AND REMOVING TOOLS POWER TOOLS Page 3 4 4 7 8 14 40 42 51
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2.0
OBJECTIVES The trainee will be able to: Identify various hand tools. State the function of various hand tools. List the general rules for tool care.
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2.1
INTRODUCTION Although modern industry is now very advanced there is always a need for hand tools. Even the most complex machine has to be serviced regularly. Hand tools are necessary to service machinery. Some one-off jobs, such as tool making, are done by using hand or hand powered tools. Sheetmetal working is also carried out using hand tools, especially if there is only one or two to be made. When choosing hand tools it is important to choose the correct tool for the job. This does not just mean the correct type of tool, but also the correct size of tool. This unit covers both hand tools and power hand tools
2.2
CARE OF HAND TOOLS A trainee must learn to see the danger that exists with badly maintained and incorrectly used tools. Often older and more experienced men are a bad influence. Misusing common hand tools is often due to laziness. You must take the time and effort to get the correct tool from the stores, and service any worn or damaged tools. This time will be much less than that for healing an injury, and less painful. Caring for tools and equipment will require little, if any, extra time. The time spent taking care of your tools will be repaid by having clean, well maintained tools you can trust when in service. To give maximum service they must be properly maintained. There are many hazards caused by the incorrect use of hand tools. (See Figure 2.1 )
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Figure 2-1 The quality of a technician's work depends on his job knowledge, his skills, and his tools. Technicians normally take pride in their tools. Taking care of your tools and equipment not only helps you do better work, it also makes your work safer. Care given to a specific tool depends on the type of tool. The following is a list of general guide lines for the care of tools and equipment of all type.
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Store Tools in the Proper Place
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A tool is useless if you cannot find it when it is needed. Each tool should have its own special place to be stored when it is not being used. When the job is finished, return the tool to its proper storage place. Do not wait until later, you may forget and the tool could be lost. If you put them away immediately, they will not get lost. Putting tools away also helps prevent accidents (i.e. good housekeeping). Care of Delicate Tools Delicate (easily broken) tools require special storage to prevent damage because they can be easily damaged. Measuring tools are a good example. They are soon damaged if they are thrown down or dropped. Take a little time to make sure that these tools are in a safe place when they are not being used. Regular Inspection of Tools and Equipment Even with the best care, tools can become damaged and equipment worn. Some equipment has inspection and maintenance procedures provided by the manufacturer. These inspection procedures should be followed carefully. Small hand tools should be checked and repaired, or replaced if they are defective (not working properly). A broken tool can be dangerous. Electrical power tools can be particularly dangerous if the cable is damaged, they become a fire hazard. Correct Use of Hand Tools and Equipment If you use a tool for the job that it was designed for there will be no problem. However, if you use a wrench or some other tool to do the job of a hammer, (hit something), you will damage that tool. You must use the correct tool for the job. If tools are not held in the correct way, they will not work so well and can be dangerous. Some electric tools have safety guards on them. If the guard is removed they will also be dangerous. So, if a tool is designed to be used in a certain way, use it that way! Using the Correct Size Tool Many tools come in different sizes. The size of the tool must be right for the job it is to do. The wrong size tool is almost as dangerous using the wrong tool. Using a small screwdriver to turn a large screw will damage the screwdriver. It can also slip and cause injury.
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Selecting the Correct Tool
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There is a tool designed for almost every task, but some people use the wrong tool for the job. Often they do this because they are too lazy to get the right tool. Using the wrong tool can cause injury to the worker, damage the equipment, or even destroy the tool. Keep Tools and Equipment Clean Very little time is needed to clean your tools when you have finished the job. No one likes dirty tools or equipment. Keeping your tools , clean shows you have pride in your work. Dirt and grease can destroy many tools. 2.3 GENERAL WORKSHOP BENCH The workshop bench is a large heavy bench or table. It must be large enough to allow space for the material to be worked on. It must be heavy enough to prevent movement of the work. The top of the bench is usually made from hardwood or metal. It has drawers for the storage of tools. It is used for filing, grinding, and fabrication work. Often material and tools are left on the bench top. They can be a danger and a hazard. Therefore, always keep your workbench clean and tidy. Only the tools and materials you are using should be on the bench.
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2.4
HOLDING & RESTRAINING TOOLS
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To restrain means to hold. For example, the seat belts in your car restrain' you from moving if you have a crash. Holding and restraining tools are tools that hold or position parts so that work can be done on them. This is the first of five groups in this hand tools unit. Some tools, however, can fall into more than one group. The Pipe Wrench is a good example, It can be used as a restraining, or as a fastening tool. When we are carrying out work on a component we must make sure that it does not move. If it does, an accident could happen. The restraints put on the work will be either positive or frictional. (See Figure 2.2)
Figure 2-2
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The Engineers Bench Vice
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Bench vices are bolted to the top of the workbench to hold and locate the material. The vice should be positioned between 38 to 46 inches, (1 m to 1.2m), from the ground, depending on the workman's elbow height. (See Figure 2.3
Figure 2-3 Usually bench vices have a swivel base so that the work can be positioned to any angle, and then locked in place with a lock nut. The material is held between the jaws by tightening the screw handle. The jaws are usually serrated (having small teeth) to grip the work. Sometimes we must avoid scratching the work. Therefore, soft jaws should be used to protect the work. Soft jaws are made from a soft material such as rubber or aluminium. (See Figure 2.4).
Figure 2-4
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Pipe Bench Vice
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The pipe vice is another common bench vice which has to be bolted to a workbench. (See Figure 2.5).
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Figure 2-5 Pipe can be inserted into the vice by unlatching the hook on the side, which allows the frame to open. The pipe is placed on the bottom jaw, then the latch is brought back over and locked in place. Pipe vices are made in various sizes and styles. The size of the vice depends on the size of material it is to hold. The vice should be large enough to hold the material. If the vice is too large it is very easy to crush the work due to overtightening. The pipe vice is used instead of the bench vice for clamping circular work. The v-shaped jaws allow more contact with the work, therefore, giving better restraint and grip.
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G Clamp
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G Clamps do the same job as a vice, they are used to hold the material secure while you are working on it. Although they are portable they still clamp work to the bench. They are more commonly used on rough material where scratches are not a problem. G-Clamps have four main component parts: the frame, the screw, the handle, and the swivel pad. (See Figure 2.6).
Figure 2-6 Pliers Pliers are useful for gripping and holding small parts during assembly work. They come in many shapes and sizes, and are named according to their shape, function, or construction. They are made of cast steel with hardened and tempered jaws. They are grouped according to their overall length. They should not be used for cutting hard materials, holding excessively hot materials, hitting other objects, or for removing nuts and bolts. (See Figure 2.7).
Figure 2-7
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Combination, or slip-joint pliers, are one of the most common types of pliers, used Page 25/53
mainly for holding work. They should not be used for tightening or loosening nuts. They are very useful for bending or twisting thin material. ( See Figure 2-8).
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Figure 2-8 Side-cutting pliers are used for cutting thin wire. (See Figure 2.9)
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Figure 2-9 Long, or needle-nose pliers, can have either straight or bent jaws. They are used for handling small objects and for reaching into confined spaces. They cannot give a very strong grip because the jaws are very long and thin. (See Figure 2.10)
Figure 2-10
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Mole Grips
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Mole, or vice-grips, provide high gripping power because of their lever action. The screw adjustment in the handle allows them to grip material of different thickness'. Like pliers they come in many shapes and sizes. The advantage they have over pliers is that they can grip the work, and still leave you with both hands free to do something else. (See Figure 2.11).
Figure 2-11
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2.5
CUTTING TOOLS Cutting tools are tools that remove metal. To cut metal, the material that the tool is made of, must be harder than the metal work piece. All cutting tools have cutting edges. These cutting edges must have cutting angles which are usually set when the tool is made. The cutting angle can sometimes be replaced by the operator. Grinding wheels are also a cutting tool, but we are not able to check the cutting angles of the grit that cuts the metal. Hacksaws Hacksaw is the term given to a saw used to cut metal. It is used for cutting off, or cutting out, larger pieces of metal, before finishing work with a file. Hand saw is the name usually given to a saw that cuts wood. The hacksaw consists of an adjustable frame, a blade, a handle, and a blade tensioning screw. (See Figure 2.12).
Figure 2-12 The blade fits into the frame with the teeth pointing away from the handle. The frame is adjusted to the blade length. A hacksaw blade is wider at the teeth than at the back of the blade. This is done by staggering the teeth, one to the left and one to the right. This is known as the "set" of the blade. The "set" is to prevent the blade binding (sticking) in the slot it is cutting. (See Figure 2.13).
Figure 2-13
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Hacksaw blades are classified by the number of teeth per unit of length, e.g. 14 Page 35/53
teeth per inch (14 t.p.i.), or 14 teeth per 25 mm. A hacksaw blade may also be classified by the length of the blade or by the material the blade is made of. A coarse blade has between 14-18 teeth per unit, and a fine blade has between 20-30 teeth per unit. The blade of the hacksaw is hardened only at the cutting edge. (See Figure 2.14).
Figure -14 A hacksaw blade is chosen to match the material it is going to cut. Normally a fine tooth blade is for a hard metal,- and a coarse blade is for a soft metal. However, the blade must have more than two teeth in contact with the work at one time. (See Figure 2.15).
Figure 2-15 The blade should be strained slightly in the frame. After a few strokes the blade will get warm and expand. Then the tension should be adjusted accordingly. The angle of the blade to the cut should be about 30'. The sawing rate should be 40 -50 strokes per minute. The cutting pressure should only be applied on the forward stroke.
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Files A file is a hand cutting tool which is made from good quality tool steel. The blade is hardened, but the tang (the point that goes into the handle) remains soft to take the bending stresses. Files have a large number of cutting edges that work over a large work area. They only remove a small amount of metal on every stroke. Files do not remove metal by rubbing or abrasion. They have a true cutting action. Each tooth is a tiny cutting tool. Files are classified by the following: a) a) a) Length. Grade of cut. Shape.
The length of the file is measured from the shoulder to the end, but does not include the tang. (See Figure 2.16).
Figure 2-16
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Files come in a range of shapes. The shape of the file depends on the job it has to Page 39/53
do. If the finished shape is to be a curved, then a round or half -round file would be used. A smooth flat surface would need a smooth flat file etc. (See Figure 2.17).
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Figure 2-17 The coarseness of the file's teeth w ill depend on the amount of material it has to remove. A large amount of material would need a course file. A smooth file would only remove a small amount of rnaterial
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Files can be single cut, with the teeth cut at 45' across the file, in one direction only; or double cut, with another row 30'in the other direction. (See Figure 2.18).
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Figure 2-18 Files are also graded according to the size teeth, as follows: a) a) a) a) a) Rough. Bastard. Second cut. Smooth. Dead smooth.
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Correct Use of Files Before filing, place the work piece firmly in the vice. If the vice jaws are knurled they can damage the work. To protect it, use soft jaws or jaw covers. If the vice has been set to the correct height it will allow the craftsman to swing from the shoulder without stooping. Precision filing can only be done by holding the body correctly. The feet should be spread like a boxer's stance, allowing the arms to swing in line with the cut. The correct body position reduces tiring, uncontrolled file strokes, and poor vision. (See Figure 2.1 g).
Figure 2-19 During filing, hold the handle in one hand, and the end of the file with the other. You can 'feel' the cutting action, if you apply just enough pressure to keep the file cutting. (See Figure 2.20)
Figure 2-20
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The file must cut only on the forward stroke, then be lifted slightly on the return stroke. Do not drag the file back over the work. This will damage the teeth of the file Always hold the file with both hands. This allows you to apply the correct pressure to the cut. Too much pressure causes the teeth to dig into the work. Not enough pressure causes the teeth to slide over the work. For finish or precision filing, the file is held lightly between the fingers, so that you can feel where and how the cut is being taken. (See Figure 2.21).
Figure 2-21 Filing should be a rhythmical motion of the hands, arms, and the body, at a rate of 30 to 50 strokes a minute. Start the stroke with the body bent slightly forward. Swing the arms from the shoulders and push the file across the work. Press down from the elbows, with the wrist balancing the pressure. Press harder at first, at the point of the file, gradually reducing the pressure to nothing as the stroke progresses. On the return stroke, lift the file slightly from the work as you draw your arms back to the starting position. Shift your body weight for the start of the next push forward.
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When a surface has been filed almost to size , draw filing can give you a fairly accurate smooth surface. If filings have get stuck in the file teeth during draw-filing (pinned), they will prevent you from getting a smooth surface. The file must be pushed back and forth parallel to the surface, with the file resting on the work at all times. (See Figure 2.22).
Figure 2-22 When you are filing a flat surface practice the cross filing method. After filing in one direction, file again with strokes at 90' to the original once. By using this method, you can see from the marks on the work, where you are actually cutting. The marks caused by the file give you more control, and, therefore, you can be more accurate. (See Figure 2.23).
Figure 2-23 Once a surface of the job has been finished, it is often essential to protect it while working on the other faces. Some time or other you may have to work on a job where it is necessary to grip a screw thread. A soft material must be used to protect the thread from damage from the vice jaws. It is very common for inexperienced people to damage screw threads. Threads are not very strong at the /j crest" (tip). (See Figure 2.24).
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Figure 2-24 Care of Files When the file teeth become clogged up with filings, tap the file on the workbench, this will remove most of them. Never tap the file on the vice, you will damage the file. When a file is used on soft material it will tend to "pin", or become clogged up more quickly. A file card can be used to remove the rest of the filings The file card is a wire brush with short hard bristles. (See Figure 2.25).
Figure 2-25
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Some metal filings, however, will not come off the file with a file card. Therefore, a Page 55/53
thin strip of soft metal can be used to remove them. (See Figure 2.26).
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Figure 2-26 Files must be fitted with a handle in good condition at all times A split handle is dangerous and should be replaced. The tang of the file is very sharp and can cause a serious accident. Modern file handles have a coarse internal thread, which grips the tang when it is screwed into the handle. This will hold the handle secure. Always make sure that the handle is the correct size before you try to fit it. (See Figure 2.27).
Figure 2-27 Never use a file as a lever. The hardening process makes the blade hard and brittle so it will break if used as a lever. The tang remains soft and will therefore bend in the same situation. (See Figure 2.28).
Figure 2-28
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Chisels
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A chisel is made of high carbon steel with a 0.85% carbon content. The cutting edge is hardened but the shank remains soft. Chisels are used for quickly breaking down a surface. It is the quickest way to remove metal by hand, although the accuracy is low and the finish is poor. The quickest method of removing metal with a chisel is with small cuts and light blows. Always make sure you have selected the right chisel for the job. Since the chips produced by a chisel fly off at a high speed the following rules should be followed: a) a) a) Always wear safety goggles. Do not chip towards another person. Place a chipping screen in front of your vice.
Chisels are identified by their length and type of cutting edge. Lengths are usually from 100 mm upwards. The most common types of chisel are the flat chisel, the cross cut, the half round, and the diamond point. (See Figure 2.29).
Figure 2-29 The flat chisel is a general purpose cutting tool, and is the most commonly used. It is used to cut sheet metal, slots, chipping excess metal from large surfaces. It can also be used for removing rivet heads, rusted nuts and bolts during repair work. Large amounts of material are usually removed on a shaping machine, but often there is not one available. A flat chisel would then be used to chip the material away. (See Figure 2.30).
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Figure 2-30 The position of the thumb, shown in figure 2.31, is guarded by the chisel head and provides an aiming point for the hammer. It also allows the eyes to watch and control the chisel edge. A cold chisel is very rugged and is used for cutting metal. To cut, the blade is placed against the metal and the other end of the chisel is hit with a heavy hammer. Removing a rusty bolt is a good example of its use. (See Figure 2.31).
Figure 2-31
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The cross cut chisel is often used to cut parallel grooves, or to break up a large Page 63/53
area into sections. The sections can then be chipped away by a flat chisel. The cutting edge is slightly wider than the rest of the body, which prevents the body from binding in the groove. (See Figure 2.32)
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Figure 2-32
The round nose chisel is used to cut grooves and oil channels in bearings and bushes. (See Figure 2.33).
Figure 2-33
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The diamond point chisel is used to cut "V" grooves, chip through plate, clean out Page 67/53
internal angles, or to square up corners and slots. (See Figure 2.34).
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Figure 2-34 Care of Chisels Because of the way a chisel is used, both ends need occasional repair. Sharpening the blade of a chisel is called "dressing". The chisel is sharpened or dressed on a bench grinder. When you dress a chisel blade, remove only a small amount of material, then cool the chisel by placing it in water. If the chisel becomes too hot during grinding the cutting edge will become soft. (See Figure 2.35).
Figure 2-35
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After the chisel has been used for awhile, the head will spread. This is called Page 71/53
"mushrooming". Mushrooming is very rough and can injure the inside of the hand if the chisel slips. Pieces of the mushroomed end can also break away and become a hazard. For safety, the chisel head should be dressed. The head can also 'work harden' (gets harder from being continually hit) and will then need softening. (See Figure 2.36)
Figure 2-36 Shears Shears, or tinsnips, are used to cut sheet metal. The sheet metal is cut between the two blades. There are several types of shears, made for cutting different thickness of metal. (See Figure 2.37).
Figure 2-37 The size of the shears depends on the thickness and size of material. Using Shears Correctly Before they are used, the blades should be oiled and adjusted. o start a cut, place the top blade slightly to the outside of the cutting line. Keep the blades at 90' to the material, and press on the handles. Do not close the blades completely by cutting to the full length of the blades. If the points of the blades are allowed to rneet at the end of cut, the sheet will have a tendency to tear as the cut is completed. Stop the cut about 1/4" (6 mm) before the tip of the blades, and then take a fresh bite.
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It is good practice to leave about 0.75 mm beyond the layout line for final dressing and finishing. As the material is cut, move the blades along the cutting line. One side of the material will curl up allowing the shears to move forward. When you are cutting a large sheet of metal, it is advisable to cut to the left-hand side of the sheet. This will allow the waste to curl up and out of the way, while the rest of the sheet will remain flat. When sheet metal is cut the edges are sharp, so wear gloves to prevent the metal from cutting your hands. Sheet metal shears with straight blades are used for straight cuts. Sheet metal shears with curved, or twisted blades, are mostly used to make curved cuts. Right cut shears will make straight cuts, as well as cuts to the right. (See Figure 2.38).
Figure 2-38 Left cut shears will make straight cuts, as well as cuts to the left. (See Figure 2.39).
Figure 2-39
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Off-set snips allow your hands to remain above the cut, thus permitting cuts directly Page 75/53
through the centre of a large sheet. (See Figure 2.40).
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Figure 2-40 Pipe and Tubing Cutters Metal pipe can be cut using a hand pipe cutter. The pipe cutter resembles a G-clamp with a long T handle. (See Figure 2.41).
Figure 2-41 The T-handle screws through the frame of the cutter and into the adjustable jaw. To cut pipe correctly the cutter should be "tracked". We can track the pipe cutter by lightly engaging the cutter wheels and turning the cutter around the pipe. This will give the cutter a "track to run on. If the cutter makes a straight track round the pipe, then we will get a straight cut. We put pressure on the cutter by turning the T-handle. Always make one complete turn with the cutter before putting on more pressure. Continue this procedure until the pipe is cut completely through. If you apply too much pressure to the pipe cutter on the initial cut, without tracking the cutter, it may result in a spiralling effect. This quite often happens when cutting is done under power. The best type of cutter to use under power, is one with wide rollers. The wide rollers assist the cutter to stay on a straight "track".
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A tubing cutter can be used for cutting tubing made of copper, aluminium, or steel. Page 79/53
When the tool is turned, a sharp wheel cuts into the tubing. Pressure is gradually increased until the tubing is cut. The tubing cutter is often sold in a kit that includes a cutter, a tube flaring tool, and a tube bending tool. Hollow Punches Hollow, or wad punches, are used for cutting holes in a variety of nonmetallic materials. They are most useful for cutting gasket material for flanges. Cutting Threads Threaded fasteners are found on almost all mechanical equipment. Two parts are required to make a threaded fastener, one has an external thread, such as a screw, bolt, or a threaded rod; the other has an internal thread, such as a nut, or a threaded hole. It is important that both threaded parts match each other. (See Figure 2.42).
Figure 2-42 A craftsman must know and understand important screw thread terminology (describing words) and dimensions. (See Figure 2,43).
Figure 2-43
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Internal Thread Cutting
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Often some object must be fastened to a metal plate with bolts or screws, but there is no threaded hole for the bolt. In that case, a hole must be drilled then an internal thread cut with a tap. A tap is a cutting toot used to cut internal threads. Taps are made from high quality tool steel, hardened and ground. (See Figure 2.44)
Figure 2-44 The main parts of a tap are shown in figure 2.44. The shank is the body of the tap, which is from the top of the thread cutters to the end of the tap. The lands are the thread cutters. The chamfer is the bevel at the leading end of the tap. The tap is bevelled or chamfered to make it easier to start in a drilled hole. The flutes are the grooves between the lands. The flutes allow the metal chips to fall away from the lands. The square on the end of the shank is used to attach a tap wrench. Tap wrenches are used to turn the tap. They come in a range of sizes and shapes. (See Figure 2.45)
Figure 2-45
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The taps described above are called hand taps. In one set of hand taps there are Page 83/53
three basic types. They are the plug, the second , and the taper taps. The major difference between them is the length of the chamfer. (See Figure 2.46).
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Figure 2-46 A taper tap has a chamfer length of about 10 threads. It is used to start a tapping operation and for tapping through holes. A through hole is one which is drilled completely through the material. A second tap has a chamfer length of about 5 threads. It is used after the taper tap has been used in a blind hole. A blind hole is one that is not drilled completely through the material. A plug tap has a chamfer length of about one or two threads. It is used to complete the tapping of a blind hole. It is always important that the hole is drilled to the correct size. The size of the hole is determined by the bolt that will be placed- in it. The tap and the bolt must be the same diameter and pitch. To calculate the hole, or drill size required, we subtract the pitch from the major diameter. e.g. a M5 x 0.8 bolt (or tap) requires: 5 mm-0. 8 mm = 4.2 mm tapping drill. A hole must be drilled using the correct 'tapping drill' for the thread required (as above). A 'tapping drill' is a normal drill which is large enough to start the taper tap, but smaller than the minor diameter. Then secure the work piece in the bench vice. Start the cut using the taper tap, making sure the tap is 90' to the planes of the work. (See Figure 2.47).
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Figure 2-47 Never use too much force. Always use cutting fluid, or you will break the tap. Clear the tap by backing it off as often as is necessary to prevent the flutes clogging up and breaking the tap.
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External Thread Cutting.
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To thread a piece of round bar, decide which die is needed. The die should match the internal threads where the threaded bar it to be used. Round bar should be selected which has the same diameter as the major diameter of the die. The bar should be chamfered on the end to be threaded, either by grinding or filing. If we are using an adjustable round die, the die should be adjusted to the size required. Tightening the adjusting screw spreads the die stock slightly. (See Figure 2.48).
Figure 2-48
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Spreading the die causes it to cut less deeply into the bar. A deep cut will give a Page 91/53
loose fit. When the die is placed into the die stock, the shallow hole on the die should line up with the adjusting handle or set screw. This will hold the die in place when it is tightened. The unchamfered side of the thread cutters should go against the shoulder of the die stock. To start cutting, place the chamfered end of the die onto the end of the chamfered end of the bar. (See Figure 2.49).
Figure 2-49 Lubricate the bar with cutting oil before you start the cut. Make sure the bar is secured in a vice grip, or v-clamp, to prevent the bar from turning as the threads are cut. Press down to start the die on the bar. Make sure the thread is true to the axis of the bar. (See Figure 2.50).
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Figure 2-50 The bar must be securely supported, and vertical in the vice. When the die has started to cut, turn it one-half turn forward and one quarter turn back. Repeat this until the bar is threaded to the correct length. Back the die off the threads, then clean the threads with a thread file. Always make sure the die is backed off regularly to release the cuttings. Cutting threads on pipe work can be done with a ratchet head pipe threader. A longer handle is needed for pipe work to give more torque to cut the metal. The ratchet allows the handle to turn in a limited arc, which allows the technician to position the handle where he can apply the most force. More cutting oil is needed when cutting larger pipe. The die has a chamfered side which is placed onto the pipe. The maximum size pipe dies used with a ratchet head pipe threader is 50 mm. Twist Drill Twist drills (drill bits) are an end cutting tool used to produce holes in most types of material. They are made from high-speed steel. A twist drill is held in a machine drill chuck. The drill chuck is turned either by hand or by electrical power. Standard drills have two helical grooves, or flutes, cut lengthways around the body of the drill. They provide cutting edges, allow cutting fluid to enter, and space for the cuttings to escape during drilling. A technician should know the main parts of a twist drill, how to sharpen it, and the correct speeds and feeds to use. (See Figure 2.51 ).
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Figure 2-51 Generally, drills up to 12 mm (112") in diameter have straight shanks, and those over this diameter have tapered shanks. Straight shank drills are held in a drill chuck. Taper shank drills are held in the internal taper of a drilling machine spindle. A tang is provided on the end of a tapered-shank drill to prevent the drill from slipping while it is cutting. It also allows the drill to be removed from the spindle easily and without damage. Incorrect grinding of drill cutting angles is a common fault, causing drill failure and inaccurate drilling. If the point angle, or the cutting edges are of unequal length, the drill will either drift or drill an oversize hole. (See Figure 2.52).
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Figure 2-52 The point angle of a drill used for general-purpose drilling is 118'. This angle can be increased or decreased depending on the material it has to cut. (See Figure 2.53)
Figure 2-53
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2.6
STRIKING TOOLS
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Striking tools are some of the most common hand tools and probably some of the most mis used. They come in a variety of shapes and sizes, but all have specific uses. They should be used only for the job they were designed for. Misuse can cause serious injuries. Hammers There is a right way and a wrong way to use a hammer, regardless of the type. Always grip the hammer close to the end of the handle, this increases the leverage and power. Whenever possible, strike the object squarely with the full face of the head to prevent damage to the hammer face, or the object. (See Figure 2.54).
Figure 2-54 The most common type of hammer is the ball-pein hammer. The main parts of ball-pein hammer are: the face (the striking surface), the pein (the round face), wedge (used to hold the hammer head to the shaft), the eye (the hole where shaft is located), and the shaft or handle (the wood part held during use). The face is for hammering, and the pein is for rounding off rivets or similar jobs. the the the flat
The hammer head is held tightly on the shaft by the wedge. The eye is wider at the ends so the shaft can spread and hold it more securely. If the wedge becomes loose it must be driven back in. In this hot dry country handles tend to dry out and shrink. They then become loose. Never use a hammer with a loose head, or no wedge.
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The handle should not be used for prying (levering) or pounding (hitting). Any Page 102/53
handle that is damaged or split should be replaced immediately. Never try to repair a handle with string or wire. Never use a ball-pein hammer on a machined surface. Two hammer striking surfaces should not be banged together. This will cause the faces to crack and chip, with dangerous results. Soft-faced hammers, or mallets, are used instead of steel hammers to protect machined surfaces or fragile parts. They are used especially for assembling or dismantling parts so that the finished surfaces are not harmed. These hammers are commonly made of lead, rawhide, plastic, brass, or rubber. (See Figure 2.55).
Figure 2-55
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2.7
FASTENING AND REMOVING TOOLS Fasteners are either permanent or temporary. There are tools for both types of fastener. Rivets are the most common type of permanent fastener. Screwed fastenings are the most common type of temporary fastener. Screwed fasteners rely on frictional forces to hold them together. Screwdrivers After hammers, screwdrivers are probably the most mis used handtools. They are often misused for prying, chiselling, and scraping work. The most common misuse is, however, using the wrong size screwdriver. A screwdriver is used to drive screws. They come in a variety of shapes, types, and sizes. The two most common types are, the standard flat blade, and the Phillips screwdrivers. Both types come in either standard, stubby, and off -set shanks. (See Figure 2.56).
Figure 2-56
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The blade of a flat screwdriver should fit the screw head exactly, neither too small or Page 105/53
too big. (See Figure 2.57).
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Figure 2-57 Phillips screwdrivers are designed to fit only Phillips-type screws, They come in a range of four sizes #1, #2, #3, #4. Spanner Wrenches Spanner wrenches are used for fastening and removing nuts and bolts. There are three common types of spanner wrench. They are, open ended, ring or box-end, and combination. (See Figure 2.58)
Figure 2-58
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Correct Use of Spanner Wrenches
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Accidents with spanners are nearly all caused by spanners slipping from the nut. Always make sure that the spanner wrench fits the nut or bolt snugly. A spanner that is too large will slip and take off the corners of the nut, and possibly cause an injury to the operator. Never pack the gap between the spanner and the nut with washers etc. This is a common misuse and is often due to the operator being too lazy to get the correct spanner. (See Figure 2.59).
Figure 2-59 Before you apply force to a spanner make sure you are in a good steady position. Whenever possible, always pull towards the body; but do not make extra leverage by trying to extend the handles. (See Figure 2.60).
Figure 2-60
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Never use a hammer on a standard spanner, always use a heavy duty striking Page 111/53
wrench, designed for use with a hammer. (See Figure 2.61).
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Figure 2-61 Adjustable Spanner Wrenches Adjustable spanners are also used on nuts and bolts. They consist of three main parts: the handle and fixed jaw, the moving jaw, and the adjusting screw. They are a useful tool because they can fit a variety of nut sizes within a range, but particularly useful for odd-size nuts. However, this type of spanner can easily slip if it is not properly adjusted to the flats of the nut. They should not be used when the correct size spanner is available, nor to reduce the amount of spanners you need to carry. (See Figure 2.62).
Figure 2-62
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Socket Wrench Set
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Socket wrench sets are made in a wide range of sizes, but all of them have square drives. They are made in both standard and extended length. Extended length sockets are used in restricted places (places that are difficult to get to). A set of socket wrenches will include a range of attachments, such as: a reversible ratchet, sliding tee, extension bars, universal joints etc. They are a very useful tool because they place the load at 12 points around the nut, and they can get into places not accessible by a spanner. (See Figure 2.63).
Figure 2-63
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Allen Wrenches
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An alien wrench is a "L" shaped piece of hexagonal tool steel. They are designed for fastening or loosening alien set screws. A set of alien wrenches come in a range of metric and imperial sizes. The size is taken across the flats of the wrench. (See Figure 2.64).
Figure 2-64 Pipe Wrenches Pipe wrenches are heavy duty adjustable wrenches, usually made wit high tensile strength handles and forged jaws. They come in a range of sizes, all having the same three main parts: the fixed jaw and handle, the adjusting nut, and the movable jaw. (See Figure 2.65).
Figure 2-65
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Chain Wrench
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The chain wrench is very useful because it does everything that a conventional pipe wrench does. It holds any shape of pipe work firmly, with an even distribution of bite, without play, and without crushing the pipe. The ratchet-like action works either way from either side. It will allow you to tighten the pipe or back it off without taking the wrench from the pipe. (See Figure 2.66).
Figure 2-66 The chain wrench consists of a length of chain similar to a bicycle chain. The free end of the chain is wrapped around the pipe and locked into the wrench frame to grip the pipe. The other end of the chain is permanently fixed to the frame. Force is then applied to the wrench in the same way as a pipe wrench. The chain wrench is very good for working a small space where a pipe wrench cannot reach. It is mostly used on large diameter pipe. Strap Wrench The strap wrench is like the chain wrench except a strong cloth strap instead of a chain is used to grip the pipe. This type of wrench provides gripping power for turning highly polished metal or plastic pipe, without marking the surface. The specially woven strap is treated to resist slipping. Also, a strap wrench does not have teeth like the chain or regular pipe wrench. Applying force tightens the strap around the pipe to provide turning power. (See Figure 2.67).
Figure 2-67
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Special Wrenches
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Spanner wrenches are used on large bolts or nuts which have notches which the spanner wrench fits into. The most common is the hooked spanner, and the end spanner wrenches. (See Figure 2.68).
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Figure 2-68 The hooked spanner hooks onto the side of the nut as shown in figure 2 -68. An end spanner hooks onto both notches on the end of the nut. Riveting Tools Riveting is a permanent method of fastening pieces of sheetmetal together. The process consists of drilling or punching the material, inserting the rivet, then closing the rivet by applying a compressive force. The primary types of rivets are: solid rivets, tubular rivets, split rivets, and pop rivets. (See Figure 2.69).
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Figure 2-69 Solid rivets can be made from steel, brass or aluminium, depending on their use. They may have round, flat or countersunk (W" shaped) heads. Tubular and split rivets are used for lightweight material such as leather, although steel tubular rivets may be used on sheet metal. During a pop riveting exercise the rivet is placed through the two pieces of sheet metal. The rivet is flattened against the sheet metal to hold the two pieces together. Then the rivet is closed by squeezing the operating handle until the mandrel (special pin through the rivet) snaps (breaks through the rivet). (See Figure 2.70).
Figure 2-70
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Pop riveting is very useful when you can only get to one side of the material, such Page 127/53
as sheet metal pipe work or ducting. The plier type riveting gun is useful for riveting in confined places It is, however, unsuitable for large dimension rivets, due to its reduced leverage capacity. (See Figure 2.71)
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Figure 2-71 2.8 POWER TOOLS Except for measuring and layout tools, most types of hand tool are available as power tools. Power tools are driven by a power supply, such as electricity or compressed gas. The most common gas is compressed air. Compressed nitrogen can be used, but it is more expensive. Standard power tools are those which run continuously when they are turned on. Impact power tools can turn on and off quickly. A good example of an impact power tool is an impact wrench. An impact wrench can deliver over 2500 blows per minute to a bolt that is being turned. This has the effect of applying more force to the bolt. Power Drilling Tools Power drilling tool can be either: A hand-held' machine (electrical or compressed air powered) (portable). A bench mounted machine (stationary). A floor mounted machine (stationary)..
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The tool which actually cuts the hole is the twist drill (drill bit). Drill bits are available Page 131/53
that can drill soft materials such as wood. Twist drills are made to drill holes in steel. The term 'drill' is usually used to describe the tool which turns the twist drill. The twist drill shank is placed in the chuck which is then tightened with a chuck key to hold it secure. A power drilling machine provides the twist drill with continuous high speed rotation, which allows a hole to be drilled faster and with less effort. Hard materials are drilled with a power drilling machine. Power drills can be portable or stationary. Stationary power drill stands are used for heavy duty applications. Portable power drills are light and easy to carry. (See Figure 2.72).
Figure 2-72 Portable power drills, which run on compressed air or electricity are pistol grip types and are usually held in the hand. The trigger switch, or speed control, is used to turn the drill on and off. The motor driving the drill is in the body of the drill. The drill bit is inserted in the chuck and tightened with the chuck key to prevent the bit from slipping
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Impact Wrench
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An air powered impact wrench uses an air motor and a special clutch. The clutch changes the rotation to a series of fast impulses (quick onoff blows). A socket wrench is attached to the square anvil at the end of the air wrench. The socket is then placed over a hexagon bolt or nut. The impulses from the air wrench deliver fast sharp blows to the bolt head. The motor of the impact wrench is reversible. Operating the motor in one direction will tighten the bolt. Operating the motor in the other direction will loosen the bolt. (See Figure 2.73).
Figure 2-73 The filter, regulator, and lubricator, should be checked to see if they are operating correctly. The oil supply to the lubricator should also be checked.
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16 : Basic hand tools

Unit No. 2- Craft hand tools

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