Eur J Appl Physiol (1997) 76: 400 ± 408 Ó Springer-Verlag 1997

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

M. Handel á T. Horstmann á H.-H. Dickhuth

R.W. GuÈlch

Effects of contract-relax stretching training

on muscle performance in athletes

Accepted: 1 March 1997

Abstract The e€ects of an 8-week unilateral contract-

relax (CR) stretching training program (passive stretch
Introduction
after isometric contraction) on muscular performance
In recent years, muscle stretching exercises have begun
were investigated in a group of 16 athletes. The ¯exi-
to play an important role in rehabilitation, public sports,
bility, maximum torque and angular position as well as
and especially in high-performance sports. In rehabili-
contraction work in movements of the knee joint were
tation gymnastics, stretching exercises are frequently
determined before training and after 4 and 8 weeks of
applied to alleviate chronic muscle shortening (Spring
training. The torque measurements were performed
1985). In sports, stretching exercises ± chie¯y recom-
under isokinetic conditions, eccentrically at angular
mended during warm-up (Anderson and Burke 1991;
velocities of 60° á s)1 and 120° á s)1, isometrically at ®ve
Williford et al. 1986) ± exhibit the following e€ects:
di€erent joint positions, and concentrically at angular
improved ¯exibility in the sense of an enlarged range of
velocities of 60, 120, 180 and 240° á s)1 using an iso-
motion (ROM) in the trained joint (Anderson and Burke
kinetic dynamometer. A surface electromyogram
1991; Lucas and Koslow 1984; Sady et al. 1982); pre-
(EMG) of the thigh muscles (quadriceps and ham-
vention of strain injuries (Bixler and Jones 1992; Stanish
strings) was recorded simultaneously. As compared to
and Hubley-Kozey 1984); and shortening of the mus-
untrained control limbs, signi®cant improvements in
cular contraction and relaxation time as a basis for the
active and passive ¯exibility (up to 6.3° in range of
facilitation of faster movements (HortobaÂgyi et al.
motion), maximum torque (up to 21.6%) and work (up
1985). In addition, the sti€ness of muscle series elasticity
to 12.9%) were observed, and these were especially
has been observed to be reduced, with the consequence
pronounced under eccentric load conditions. A com-
that the storage of elastic energy is more ecient in
parison between integrated EMG recordings during ec-
certain ``stretch-shorten cycle'' movements (Wilson et al.
centric and concentric loads, as well as the interpretation
1992). Stretching as a protection against ``delayed onset
of the training-induced changes in the EMG, suggest
muscle soreness'' (DOMS; High et al. 1989) is still a
that muscular activity under eccentric loads may be
controversial theme.
impaired by mental processes.
The e€ects of stretching on ¯exibility, i.e. on ROM,
have been investigated by numerous authors. Here, a
Key words Skeletal muscle á Contract-relax stretching
distinction has been made between alterations due to
training á Flexibility á Isokinetic dynamometry á
stretching that is performed repeatedly over longer pe-
Force-velocity relationship
riods of time (investigated by, among others, Holt et al.
1970; Lucas and Koslow 1984; Sady et al. 1982; Wie-
mann 1991) and short-term e€ects as measured imme-
diately after stretching exercises (Cornelius et al. 1992;
Etnyre and Abraham 1986a; Moore and Hutton 1980).
M. Handel á R.W. GuÈlch (&) In these investigations, ¯exibility was not measured in a
Institute of Physiology II, uniform way. Cornelius et al. (1992) and Starring et al.
University of TuÈbingen, Gmelinstrasse 5,
D-72076 TuÈbingen, Germany (1988) determined ROM under passive load conditions;
the subjects were asked to voluntarily relax their muscles
T. Horstmann á H.-H. Dickhuth
Medical Clinic V, Department of Sports Medicine,
while the joint was moved for measurement by the ex-
University of TuÈbingen, HoÈlderlinstrasse 11, perimentalist. In contrast, other authors performed the
D-72074 TuÈbingen, Germany measurement of ¯exibility actively, that is the subjects
 401

were asked to move the joint of interest to its end position The e€ects of regular stretching training on muscle
by supreme e€ort using the muscle antagonistic to the performance have not yet been systematically investi-
one being stretched (Etnyre and Abraham 1986a; Holt et gated on a wider scale. Thus, the aim of the present
al. 1970; Lucas and Koslow 1984; Sady et al. 1982). study was to determine the changes in various relevant
Generally, stretching is classi®ed according to ®ve parameters of muscle performance due to CR stretching
di€erent techniques (SoÈlveborn 1983; Wydra 1993): dy- training lasting several weeks. In particular, the follow-
namic stretching (DS), static stretching (SS), stretching ing questions were broached:
immediately after a short and almost maximal isometric
1. Can certain contractile properties of muscles be af-
contraction of the muscle (CR), stretching by antagonist
fected by stretching training in such a way that the
contraction (AC), and stretching by antagonist con-
force-velocity relationship is changed?
traction after agonist contraction (CR-AC) as a combi-
2. Does stretching change the force development or the
nation of CR and AC. In evaluating the individual
torque pro®le in the respective joint movement?
techniques, increases in ¯exibility were measured in most
3. Can possible alterations in muscle properties be ex-
cases. In this respect, di€erent authors reported con-
plained by a process of morphological reorganiza-
troversial results: whereas some authors stated a higher
tion, or can they be considered to be functional
e€ectiveness of techniques including contraction of ag-
changes in muscle electrical activity, in the sense of a
onist or antagonist (Cornelius et al. 1992; Etnyre and
neurophysiological adaptation process?
Abraham 1986a; Holt et al. 1970; Moore and Hutton
1980; Osternig et al. 1990; Sady et al. 1982), others
found no di€erences between the individual stretching Methods
techniques (de Vries 1962, Lucas and Koslow 1984). In
contrast to this, Schober et al. (1990) found positive Subjects
e€ects of DS, but negative e€ects of SS. Wydra et al.
(1991) found a highly signi®cant superiority of DS after Sixteen male athletes (eight league swimmers, six amateur foot-
ballers, two long-distance runners) collaborated in this study [age:
2 weeks. Starring et al. (1988) preferred cyclic passive 23.6 (3.9) years; body mass: 82.0 (10.3) kg; height: 182.7 (8.6) cm;
stretching rather than a single sustained stretch. mean (SD)]. The swimmers belonged to a ®rst-division swimming
As a reason for the higher e€ectiveness of the CR and club and trained at least three times a week; the amateur footballers
CR-AC stretching exercises, Etnyre and Abraham were members of a district league club, training twice a week with
(1986b) as well as Guissard et al. (1988) described an matches each weekend. The long-distance runners trained ap-
proximately three times a week. The volunteers were fully informed
attenuation of the H-re¯ex that occurred immediately about the training and experimental procedures and gave their
after muscle contraction, which should improve consent to participate.
distensibility of the muscle. This e€ect was demonstrated
by Etnyre and Abraham (1986b) only during the ®rst Stretching training
seconds after the beginning of the stretch. Guissard et al.
(1988) found a 20% attenuation of the H-re¯ex lasting A 10-min CR stretching training program (contract-relax stretch-
at least 30 s that was independent of the duration of the ing), according to Anderson and Burke (1991) and SoÈlveborn
(1983), was performed regularly three days per week over a period
preceding muscle contraction (between 1 and 30 s). of eight weeks. In part, the exercises had been modi®ed so as to
The possible e€ects of regular stretching training on prevent training of the contralateral side and to adapt the protocol
various muscle parameters have rarely been subject to to the subjects' sports-speci®c training conditions. The stretching
systematic investigations. Wiemann (1991) obtained exercises were performed after a short warm-up period of at least
2 min of, for example, running and jumping prior to the athletes'
partly contradictory results: whereas the isometric speci®c training program. The stretching exercises were restricted
maximum force increased signi®cantly in female volun- to the extensors and ¯exors of the knee joint and the adjacent
teers, a non-signi®cant decrease in ``explosive force'' was muscles of one side of the body; the contralateral muscle groups
observed in male subjects. Worrell et al. (1994) found a served as controls. Within the stretching program, each muscle
signi®cant increase in torque of the ¯exors in the knee group was subjected to eight CR stretching cycles comprising a 10-s
strong contraction (the athletes were told to contract their muscles
joint under eccentric load conditions at velocities of 60 with at least 70% of their maximum force), 1±2 s of relaxation and
and 120° á s)1 and under concentric load conditions at 10±15 s of passive stretching. After two cycles of CR stretching, the
120° á s)1, but not under concentric load conditions at muscles were brie¯y limbered up by shaking. The extensors and
60° á s)1. Wiktorsson-MoÈller et al. (1983) described a ¯exors were stretched alternately with two di€erent exercises each
and one complete repetition of the program.
non-signi®cant decrease in maximum torque during
¯exion and extension of the knee joint under isometric
and concentric load conditions at velocities of 30 and Measurement of ¯exibility
180° á s)1 immediately after CR stretching. Flexibility was measured by reading the extreme knee joint angles
The question as to whether the observed positive (using an elongated orthopaedic goniometer above the bone points:
changes in muscle parameters are to be considered as trochanter major, epicondylus lateralis and malleolus lateralis)
consequences of structural alterations of the muscle, in during active as well as passive movement. Flexibility in ¯exion was
determined at a hip joint angle of 0° (standing position, leaning
the sense of length increases or hypertrophy, rather than against a wall); ¯exibility in extension was determined at a 90° hip
as consequences of changes in re¯ex activity or other joint angle (with the subject in a sitting position, ®xed to a mea-
electrophysiological adaptations, is also controversial. suring chair).
402

Experimental set-up dition, the work performed in the eccentric and concentric tests
during the movement between joint angles of 30° and 90° was
The e€ects of stretching training on the performance of the muscles calculated using the LIDO software.
acting on the knee joint were investigated using an isokinetic dy-
namometer (LIDO-Active 2.1 dynamometer, Loredan, USA).
Muscle performance was assessed on the basis of eccentric, iso- EMG recording
metric and concentric torque measurements under preset isokinetic
velocities to obtain torque-angular velocity relationships. Torque For monitoring the EMG activity, in each case a surface EMG was
curves and joint angles were recorded during de®ned isokinetic measured between two recording points (bipolar) at the extensors
movements, thereby allowing the work done during such move- and the ¯exors of the knee joint using the Myosystem 2000 (No-
ments and the angular position of maximum torque to be moni- raxon, Finland). The recording points were located proximally and
tored. In addition, the electromyographic (EMG) activity was distally, adjacent to a line half-way between the epicondylus lat-
taken into account by recording the surface EMG of the thigh eralis and trochanter major in the middle of the muscle belly at the
muscles. The evaluation of the stretching training was based on the front and back of the thigh (rectus femoris of the quadriceps fe-
¯exibility as determined by the active and passive ROM. moris, or caput longum of the biceps femoris, respectively). We
In recording the force-velocity relationship, it was necessary to used circular adhesive electrodes (``blue sensor P-00-S''; Medico-
analyse a wide range of velocities. Therefore, in preliminary ex- test, Denmark) that had an active diameter of 1 cm. The electrodes
periments the technical limits of the dynamometry were investi- were attached at a distance of 3 cm between their centres and an
gated, especially for high velocities (Handel et al. 1996). In order to indi€erent electrode was axed to the left olecranon. All of the
record torques under the highest possible velocities with acceptable recording points on the skin were shaved, degreased with alcohol
accuracy, a muscle group that was able to produce high torques and permanently marked. The EMG was sampled at a rate of
had to be used. In addition, the muscles under consideration had to 1000 Hz per channel. Simultaneous recording of joint angle and
be accessible to stretching training. For our investigations, we torque using the dynamometer permitted assignment to the corre-
chose the extensors and ¯exors of the knee joint, since they meet sponding phase of movement. The EMG data were integrated over
both of the above requirements. time using the Myosoft 2000 software (Noraxon) and averaged
Since we wanted to investigate the e€ects of long-term over the isokinetic phase of the movement between joint angles of
stretching training, the in¯uence of the regular training speci®c to 30° and 90° .
the athletes' primary sport as well as possible ¯uctuations in their
physical conditions had to be kept under control. For this reason,
the stretching training was applied to one extremity only (as, for Experimental protocol
example, by Grady and Saxena 1991). The contralateral side served
as the individual's control. In this way it was possible to ®lter out The three test series were taken immediately in the pre-training
in¯uences that uniformly a€ect the state of both legs (e.g. the period, and after 4 and 8 weeks of training. To make sure that the
general improvement in ®tness in the course of the training season; results represented training-induced long-term rather than short-
``adaptation'' to the measuring procedure) by examining the dif- term e€ects, no stretching exercises were performed for at least 24 h
ferences in muscle performance between the stretch-trained and the before the tests. Prior to each series, the subjects passed a 5-min
control leg. warm-up exercise on a bicycle ergometer at 80 W and 90 rpm. In
addition to the morphometric data (body mass and height), thigh
circumference was measured half-way between the trochanter major
Torque measurement and the epicondylus lateralis at hip joint and knee joint angles of 90°
using a measuring tape. The EMG recording points were marked at
The torque curves of the knee joint during muscle contraction were the same positions. After attachment of the adhesive electrodes, the
recorded using a LIDO-Active 2.1 dynamometer. In preliminary subjects were ®xed to the dynamometer chair with two belts at the
experiments it was frequently found that in the concentric mode shoulder and one at the hip. The thigh was ®xed at a joint angle of
high velocities (adjustable up to 400° á s)1) could not be attained 90° with a padded clamp to avoid any movement of the hip.
since the torque produced by the subjects could not overcome the Each measurement started with ®ve extensions and ¯exions of
relatively large resistance of the dynamometer during the acceler- the trained leg under concentric conditions at angular velocities of
ation phase. Therefore, in a ®rst series of measurements the reli- 240, 180, 120 and 60° á s)1. The subjects were encouraged to exert
ability of the isokinetic diagnostics in general and of the maximum force against the lever arm over the whole range of
dynamometer in particular were investigated (Handel et al. 1996). movement. After each measurement at a particular velocity a 1 min
From these ®ndings, a restriction to velocities up to 240° á s)1 had pause was enforced to minimize any fatigue e€ect. The complete
to be observed with respect to the expected strength of the subjects, concentric procedure was repeated in the contralateral extremity.
thus guaranteeing isokinetic conditions over the angular range of Thereafter, measurements were performed under isometric load
movement under consideration. conditions. Starting with a joint angle of 108° (¯exion), the subjects
were asked to push against the lever arm of the dynamometer with
maximum force at ®ve di€erent joint positions, ®rst in the direction
Torque measurement in the subjects of extension for 4 s and then, after a break of 2 s, in the direction of
¯exion. Each isometric test was followed by a break of 10 s.
The isokinetic measurements were performed by encouraging the The eccentric investigations were performed subsequently with
subjects while in a sitting position, to develop maximum force ®ve movements of the knee joint at a velocity of 120° á s)1.
covering the whole angular range of movement between knee joint Thereby, the subjects were encouraged to decelerate the lever arm
angles of 8° (extension) and 108° (¯exion) (all angles cited ac- of the dynamometer with maximum force. After a 1-min pause the
cording to the neutral zero method commonly used in or- measurement was repeated at the slower velocity of 60° á s)1 and,
thopaedics). The tests were performed under eccentric conditions thereafter, on the contralateral leg.
( passive mode) at angular velocities of 60 and 120° á s)1, concen-
trically at 60, 120, 180 and 240° á s)1, and isometrically at ®ve
di€erent joint positions (108°, 83°, 58°, 33°, 8°). Torque maxima, as Statistical methods
well as their angular positions, were read from the individual curves
using the cursor function of the LIDO software. The values repre- Averages and standard deviations were calculated from individual
sentative for the eccentric and concentric tests are means of the measurements for di€erent groups of measurements. To judge the
three highest values out of a series of ®ve experiments at each signi®cance of changes occurring between the time before and after
angular velocity. In the isometric measurements we used the 4 and 8 weeks of training, the di€erences in the measured values
maximum torque reached during a 4-s muscle contraction. In ad- were tested for signi®cance (P < 0.05) using a ``one-dimensional
 403

repeated measurement analysis of variance'', the Kolmogoro€-

Smirnov test for normal distribution having yielded no signi®cant
deviations. For the assessment of the di€erence between two de-
pendent groups of measurements, Student's ``paired t-test'' was
applied. Di€erences were termed signi®cant if the corresponding
tests yielded an error probability of P < 0.05, and highly signi®-
cant if P < 0.01. In order to compensate for ®tness ¯uctuations
and improvements induced by basic club training during the test
period, measurements on the stretched leg were additionally nor-
malized with respect to the contralateral extremity. The normalized
alterations were related to the results of the pre-training test series.

Results

The increase in ¯exibility due to the stretching training

proved signi®cant or highly signi®cant (see Table 1) if
evaluated by the index ROM whereby the passive ROM
increased without exception more markedly than that
under the active condition.
In the athletes, a slight but signi®cant increase in
thigh circumference was observed, amounting to an
average of 0.8 cm (1.1) after 8 weeks [0.3 cm (0.9) after
4 weeks, non-signi®cant]. Changes in body weight
[)0.3 kg (1.8) after 4 weeks, +0.5 kg (1.8) after 8 weeks],
however, were not signi®cant.
The di€erences detected in the mean torque-angular
velocity curve of the stretched extremities before and
after 4 and 8 weeks of training (Fig. 1a) and their sta-
tistical evaluation are given in Table 2. The torque in-
crements under eccentric load conditions were
signi®cant in both the extensor (up to +56 Nm, or
23.0% as related to the initial value) and the ¯exor (up
to +29 Nm, or 18.2%). The increase in maximum iso-
metric torque was signi®cant in the ¯exor only
(+19 Nm, or +11.3% after 8 weeks). Under concentric
load conditions, a signi®cant increase in torque was
found in the ¯exor at velocities of 60, 180 and 240° á s)1 Fig. 1 Torque-velocity relation of the stretch trained leg (a) and
(up to +13 Nm, or +9.4%). In the control leg, in all averaged integrated electromyograms (iEMG) obtained during the
torque measurements (b). (Open symbols ¯exor, solid symbols
cases no signi®cant di€erences could be found between extensor, triangles measurements prior to training, squares after 4
the pre-training period and after 8 weeks of training. weeks of training, circles after 8 weeks of training. (ecc Eccentric load,
As can be seen from the integrated EMG (iEMG) iso isometric load, con concentric load)
shown in Fig. 1b, much smaller values were measured in
the extensor under eccentric load as compared to con-
centric load conditions at the same velocity. These dif- leg did not change signi®cantly (data not shown). The
ferences were highly signi®cant and the values became changes in iEMG under isometric and concentric loads
smaller after several weeks of stretching training, re- were also non-signi®cant. In addition, the absolute
sulting in a signi®cant increase in the iEMG values at changes in the ¯exor iEMG were non-signi®cant.
eccentric loads. The corresponding values for the control Moreover, in the latter case no signi®cant di€erences
could be found between the eccentric and concentric
load conditions.
Table 1 Increase in the range of active and passive motion in the Figure 2 shows the changes related to the control leg.
knee joint [mean degrees (SD)] By evaluating the training e€ects with regard to di€er-
ences between the two legs, errors should be eliminated
Type of motion after 4 weeks after 8 weeks
due to in¯uences equally a€ecting both legs, irrespective
Active extension +0.4 (4.0) +1.1 (2.9) of the CR training of only one leg. However, in the
Passive extension +3.1* (5.2) +5.6** (6.6) eccentric measurements no substantial qualitative devi-
Active ¯exion +3.5** (4.6) +2.6* (4.9) ations from the examination of the trained extremity
Passive ¯exion +4.6** (6.3) +6.3** (7.5)
alone ± mentioned above in the context of the force-
* Signi®cant change velocity relationship ± were found. With both the ex-
** highly signi®cant change tensor and the ¯exor, the increase in torque under the
404

Table 2 Changes in torque under di€erent loading conditions in the second measurement related to the torque of the ®rst one. (ecc
the stretched leg [mean value (SD); the percentile value is given Eccentric torque, isom max isometric maximum torque, conc con-
below in brackets] as related to the ®rst measurement in the con- centric torque)
sidered time period, e.g. D21 represents the di€erence in torque of

Type of loading Changes in torque [Nm] under extensor loading Changes in torque [Nm] under ¯exor loading

D21 D32 D31 D21 D32 D31

)1
ecc 120° á s +22.4** (21.1) +33.5* (45.7) +55.9** (43.7) +11.5 (22.9) +14.3 (24.2) +25.8** (22.7)
(+9.5%) (+12.4%) (+23.0%) (+7.6%) (+8.2%) (+16.5%)
ecc 60° á s)1 +24.2 (35.2) +25.5* (30.9) +49.7** (44.8) +20.4** (15.0) +9.0 (18.7) +29.4** (26.7)
(+9.0%) (+9.0%) (+18.9%) (+12.6%) (+5.0%) (+18.2%)
isom max +26.9 (50.7) )4.8 (44.1) +22.1 (40.9) +16.6* (4.2) +2.6 (15.8) +19.1** (19.7)
(+10.4%) ()1.4%) (+8.8%) (+10.1%) (+1.0%) (+11.3%)
)1
conc 60° á s +4.1 (8.2) +11.4 (22.0) +15.5 (3.0) +5.1 (12.1) +8.4* (10.6) +13.5** (10.0)
(+1.8%) (+5.0%) (+6.9%) (+3.6%) (+5.6%) (+9.4%)
conc 120° á s)1 )0.5 (10.3) +1.4 (16.2) +0.9 (17.6) +4.4 (6.5) +1.0 (20.4) +5.4 (18.1)
(0%) (+0.5%) (+0.5%) (+3.2%) (+0.7%) (4.0%)
conc 180° á s)1 +2.9 (4.9) +3.1 (12.4) +6.0 (9.6) +6.3** (5.8) +2.7 (11.2) +9.0* (6)
(+1.8%) (+1.8%) (+3.7%) (+5.3%) (+2.5%) (+8.0%)
conc 240° á s)1 +2.1 (11.5) +0.5 (13.9) +2.6 (12.9) +11.6** (7.6) )1.3 (9.7) +10.3** (10.6)
(+1.4%) (0%) (+1.4%) (+11.4%) ()0.9%) (+10.4%)

* Signi®cant change;
** highly signi®cant change

eccentric load was particularly striking (up to 21.6%). et al. (1985), who found increases of 5±10° in the same
The increase under isometric load conditions at di€erent joint after 30 days of CR stretching training. In addition,
joint positions was more pronounced in the ¯exor than in the sense of a side-e€ect, the stretching training
in the extensor. In the concentric tests slight changes caused an improvement in muscle performance as
were observed, of which only a few were signi®cant. characterized by the torque-angular velocity data of the
Figure 3 shows the relative changes in work per- concentric, isometric or eccentric mode. When com-
formed under di€erent loads (as related to the control pared to the increases in torque recently reported by
leg). Under eccentric load conditions, greater increases Worrell et al. (1994), the e€ects observed in our in-
were found when compared to the concentric load (up to vestigations were twice as large in the eccentric range,
12.9%). The relative increase in concentric work, in most and were similar in the concentric case. The di€erences
cases not signi®cant, was slightly higher than that in between our ®ndings and those of Worrell et al. may be
concentric maximum torque (see Fig. 2a and b). due to the type of stretching training applied, as well as
Analysis of the joint angle at the peak torque of the to the individually loaded and pre-trained muscle groups
movement yielded signi®cant changes only for an eccen- of the subjects. This would also account for the di€erent
tric load at 120° á s)1 (see Table 3). Under eccentric load e€ects of training on the extensors and ¯exors.
conditions the torque maximum was shifted towards joint The control leg showed no signi®cant changes in the
angles corresponding to increased muscle length. torque-velocity relationship between the ®rst and the
Table 4 shows the angular position prior to the third measurement. A contralateral transfer, as observed
training period where the torque maximum was attained by Smith (1970) for example, after ``myotatic strength
under the di€erent loads. It is striking that the torque training'' (a type of re¯ex training induced by abrupt
maximum under ¯exor loading occurred at a relatively muscular stretch), and by Kannus et al. (1992) after
straight position of the knee joint. At higher velocities, combined isokinetic and isometric training, appears
the ¯exor torque maximum was shifted towards joint rather improbable in our case. If such a transfer had
angles that are reached later in the course of the move- occurred in our training, it would have been very small
ment (towards greater joint angles under concentric so as to remain lower than the limit of detection. The
loads, and towards smaller angles under eccentric loads). insigni®cant alterations in the control leg argued against
any cross-over e€ects. Therefore, it is justi®able to relate
the changes that occurred during the stretching training
Discussion to the control muscles in order to eliminate any change
a€ecting equally both legs. For the same reason any
On the basis of the signi®cant (P < 0.05) and, in some alteration in isokinetic muscle performance a€ecting
cases, highly signi®cant (P < 0.01) improvement in both legs in a similar way when repeating the test series
¯exibility by the CR stretching training performed in our after a certain time can also be eliminated.
experiments this form of training can be considered to be According to the classical physiological force-velocity
an e€ective method for improving ¯exibility in man. The concept of Hill, the eccentric torque should de®nitively,
increase in ROM was similar to that observed by Wallin exceed the isometric level (Edman et al. 1978). This is
 405

not valid for the torque-velocity relationships seen in ences'' in man have already been postulated by GuÈlch
Fig. 1a, however, particularly in the pre-training state. (1994) as a possible cause for the reduction in torque at
These ®ndings can be explained by the fact that the high eccentric velocities. Since these in¯uences have been
iEMG values, at least for the extensor, under eccentric found to be weakened by stretching training, this may be
load are highly signi®cantly lower than those under the considered to be an indication that the neuromuscular
corresponding concentric load at the same angular ve- activity is positively in¯uenced by stretching. It is con-
locity (Fig. 1b). This may be interpreted as mental in- ceivable that after stretching training the often painful
hibition, since many subjects only developed extending of the muscle during eccentric tests can be
submaximal forces, probably because of the rather dis- better tolerated, resulting in improved eccentric perfor-
agreeable or even painful eccentric intervention they mance as shown in Fig. 1 and Table 2.
described after the tests. Such ``inhibitory neural in¯u- Komi et al. (1978) found a 38% increase in iEMG
after 12 weeks of isometric strength training, with an
increase in the isometric maximum force of 20%. It
should be noted that, strictly speaking, CR stretching
Fig. 2a±d Relative changes in maximum torque and corresponding also involves a kind of isometric strength training during
iEMG values as compared to the control leg. a Torque during the active phase, and that the changes in the torque,
extensor load, b torque during ¯exor load, c averaged iEMG during muscle size and iEMG observed in our investigations
extensor load, d averaged iEMG during ¯exor load. The bars indicate may thus likewise be due to a kind of isometric training.
standard deviation. The open/solid columns symbolize the state after 4/
8 weeks of training, (e Eccentric load, i isometric load, c concentric Findings supporting a more ecient muscle activation
load). * Signi®cant change P < 0.05 have been reported by Moritani and de Vries (1980).
406

Fig. 3a, b Relative changes in contraction work compared to the control leg. a Extensor load, b ¯exor load. The bars indicate standard
deviation. The open/solid columns symbolize the state after 4/8 weeks of training. (e Eccentric load, c concentric load)

Table 3 Changes in the angular

position of the torque max- Type of loading Extensor Flexor
imum [in deg. (SD)] as related
to the value of the control leg after 4 weeks after 8 weeks after 4 weeks after 8 weeks
(positive values=shift towards
eccentric 120° á s)1 +7.2* (12.6) +5.7 (9.1) +1.4 (20.6) ) 2.7 (13.2)
greater joint angles, negative
eccentric 60° á s)1 +2.3 (7.5) +2.0 (9.1) ) 6.8 (26.6) ) 2.5 (26.2)
values=shift towards smaller
concentric 60° á s)1 ) 1.3 (6.5) ) 0.2 (3.6) +1.4 (8.1) +3.5 (8.4)
angles
concentric 120° á s)1 +0.9 (7.0) ) 0.1 (8.4) ) 1.4 (6.9) +0.2 (8.6)
concentric 180° á s)1 +0.9 (7.3) +0.6 (5.8) +0.1 (7.7) +2.3 (5.3)
concentric 240° á s)1 +1.9 (9.8) ) 2.6 (6.1) ) 2.3 (9.6) +0.3 (9.8)

* Signi®cant change

Table 4 Angular position at

torque maximum measured Type of loading Extensor Flexor
prior training period
control leg stretched leg control leg stretched leg
)1
eccentric 120° á s 65.5 (7.2) 63.6 (8.2) 38.0 (11.7) 35.1 (8.4)
eccentric 60° á s)1 68.1 (4.9) 67.1 (6.4) 42.8 (15.8) 40.1 (9.0)
concentric 60° á s)1 63.7 (4.3) 64.0 (7.0) 29.9 (6.7) 29.2 (4.1)
concentric 120° á s)1 59.0 (4.3) 58.2 (4.8) 34.3 (6.2) 37.1 (8.2)
concentric 180° á s)1 58.5 (4.7) 57.1 (5.9) 38.0 (5.6) 39.1 (6.7)
concentric 240° á s)1 61.8 (5.3) 59.9 (4.7) 46.5 (8.0) 50.6 (6.7)

After an 8-week isotonic strength training, these authors with the consequence that longer muscles are not so easily
observed a force increase of 30%, but an improvement overstretched. An increase in muscle length would also
in the iEMG of only 12%, corresponding to an actual concur well with the observed improvement in ¯exibility
improvement in the force-iEMG ratio. (see above), since its measurement was performed in such
Structural adaptations of the muscle, however, are a way that the muscle distensibility could be considered to
considered to be responsible for the improved resistance be the essentially limiting factor of the ROM.
to eccentric loads. This can explain the e€ects of stretch- In animal experiments, various authors (e.g. Williams
ing training on the reduction of muscle strain injuries et al. 1986) described muscle hypertrophy as a growth in
which, according to Glick (1980) and Zarins and Ciullo thickness, indicated by an increase in muscle circum-
(1983), should occur predominantly under eccentric load ference, as well as a lengthening of muscle after sus-
conditions. Such a reorganization may, for instance, oc- tained stretches that were sometimes combined with
cur in the form of an increase in the length of the muscle, electrical stimulation. The slight increase in thigh cir-
 407

cumference we observed would therefore speak in favour torque maximum. An isolated increase in thickness with
of an increase in muscle thickness due to hypertrophy. an increase in the number of ®brils would lead to an
Even when underestimating the increase in muscle cross- improved torque maximum and a proportional increase
section on the basis of an increase in thigh circumference in work. A combined increase in both length and
(Young et al. 1983), this may not be sucient to explain thickness with parallel and serial addition of sarcomeres,
the enhanced torque observed, since the measured cir- however, e€ects the work more than the torque. This
cumferential changes were too small. The results ob- was observed in the extensor as well as in the ¯exor
tained by other authors also support the idea of a under concentric load conditions (see Figs. 2a, b and
functional rather than a structural induction of strength 3a, b). A signi®cant change in the angular position of the
improvement during strength training. torque maximum has not been found (except for ec-
Stretching training may comprise various stimuli that centric movement at 120° á s)1) (see Table 3), although
lead to muscle hypertrophy. The contraction phase of this would be dicult to detect due to the rather low
CR stretching may have the same e€ect as isometric reproducibility of this parameter and the comparably
muscle training. Furthermore, it is possible that during small di€erences due to changes in ¯exibility. A ten-
the second CR stretching cycle the isometric contraction dency in the shift of the torque maximum towards
of the pre-stretched muscle acts as a particularly strong muscle lengthening was observed under eccentric loads.
trigger in a similar way as in animal experiments where Altered biomechanical conditions in the joints due to
muscles were stimulated under stretched conditions stretching training must also be considered. If there was
(Williams et al. 1986). In the so-called AC stretching a lengthening of joint-stabilizing structures it would then
technique, the muscle is stretched by the antagonist. In be possible that, despite the same angle in the joint,
most of these stretching programs agonist and antago- di€erent lever conditions may occur not only due to a
nist are stretched alternately through the application of shift of the rotational axis, but also to di€erent angles of
active tension. This may also act as isometric muscle the tendon. Consequently, the torque curve may be
training. To single out those di€erent components of a changed during movement in such a way that the joint
stretching program responsible for the hypertrophic ef- angle and the magnitude of peak torque are a€ected
fects, comparative studies would be necessary on the without any change in muscle properties.
e€ects of a purely isometric training program without A change in the angular position of the peak torque
any stretching, and purely passive stretching without may also be caused by electromechanical alterations.
agonistic or antagonistic activation. Since under high shortening velocities of the ¯exor its
In our training protocol, a total contraction time torque maximum is shifted towards later phases of the
(TCT) of the extensor and ¯exor muscles of 1920 s each movement (see Table 4), the time to maximum activation
was attained (eight times 10 s on 24 days of training). of the muscle may be of importance, at least at higher
Comparing that with the protocol of Komi et al. (1978), velocities. Therefore, training e€ects in¯uencing this time
where a 48-day isometric training of the quadriceps with interval should also a€ect the angular or time course of
a TCT of 1200 s yielded a maximum voluntary con- the torque. Principally of course, it cannot be ruled out
traction increase of 20%, the torque increases under that the subjects were highly motivated and thus pro-
isometric load found in our investigations could be ex- duced higher torques after the stretching training.
plained suciently by the isometric component of the
CR stretching performed.
Structural alterations of the muscle may also provide Concluding remarks
an explanation for the changes in the torque pro®le
during motion. The basic evidence is derived from the Our results show that CR stretching training may fa-
fact that a muscle develops maximum force at an opti- vourably in¯uence the force-velocity relationship of the
mal degree of ®lament overlapping (Gordon et al. 1966). trained muscle as well as shape of the torque curve
If we assume, for simplicity, that the lever arm condi- during movements at a given velocity. This appears to be
tions of the investigated joint do not change during a positive side-e€ect of stretching which in the ®rst place
muscle shortening, then the angular position where the is considered to be and is applied as a method for im-
maximum torque is attained characterizes the optimum proving ¯exibility. The extent to which the observed
degree of actin-myosin overlapping. improvements in muscle performance can be applied
If a stretching training program were to lengthen the successfully to competitive sports or within the frame-
muscle tendons alone without a€ecting the muscle itself, work of rehabilitation programs, as well as establishing
then the torque maximum would be shifted towards which persons would bene®t most from it, could not be
greater lengths, with no e€ect on the shape of the torque clari®ed conclusively in this study. More distinct results
curve. On the other hand, an exclusive increase in muscle might be expected by increasing the number of volun-
length due to an increase in the number of linearly ar- teers from the same sport in additional studies. Further
ranged sarcomeres would have to lead to a widening of comparative investigations are necessary to determine
the torque curve (torque vs joint angle) during con- the proportion of the improvement in muscle perfor-
traction, and would therefore essentially e€ect an in- mance due either to the stretching stimulus or to the pure
crease in work without a€ecting the magnitude of the isometric contraction manoeuvre without stretching.
408

Osternig LR, Robertson RN, Troxel RK, Hansen P (1990) Dif-

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