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Warm-up and flexibility

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 CHAPTER

9
Warm-up and Flexibility
DUANE V. KNUDSON

Introduction
Athletes looking to improve sport performance or lengthen their athletic careers
by modifying the risk of injury—as well as the exercising public—often focus
on warm-up and flexibility routines in their training. Considerable research has
been conducted on both of these issues and a surprising picture is emerging. The
bulk of the current research is supportive of training and injury-prevention beliefs
related to warm-up. Common beliefs about flexibility and stretching, however,
are changing. This chapter summarizes what is known about the performance
and injury-prevention benefits of warm-up and flexibility, since the two have
complex relationships to performance and the risk of musculoskeletal injury.
The chapter concludes with general recommendations for prescribing stretching
exercises and programs.

166
 CHAPTER 9 ■ Warm-up and Flexibility 167

WARM-UP ful, but it is not possible to design studies that put

subjects at risk of injury.
It is important to realize that warm-up and stretch- Warm-up activities are necessary to prepare the
ing are two different activities. Warm-up is designed body for vigorous physical activity because they
to elevate core body temperature and stretching increase performance and decrease the risk of
is primarily performed to increase the range of muscular injury.
motion (ROM) at a joint or group of joints. It is well Athletes and other exercisers should therefore
accepted that generalized warm-up movements are warm up prior to competition, practice, and phys-
important to maximizing sport performance and ical conditioning. Recommendations for effective
reducing injury risk in physical activity. Warm-up warm-up routines vary depending on the nature
consists of active or passive warming of body tissues and duration of the exercise to be performed (10).
in preparation for physical activity. Active warm- In general, warm-up routines should use general,
up consists of low-intensity movements that are whole-body movements up to 40% to 60% of
effective in elevating body temperature, warming aerobic capacity for 5 to 10 minutes followed by
tissue, and producing a variety of improvements in 5 minutes of recovery (10). The American College
physiological function. Passive warm-up includes of Sports Medicine recommends 5 to 10 minutes
external heat sources like heating pads, whirlpools, of calisthenic-type exercises and 5 to 10 minutes of
or ultrasound. Prior to vigorous exertion, athletes progressive aerobic activity in warm-up (5). For
should perform several minutes of general body example, tennis players may perform 5 minutes of
movements (general warm-up) of progressively light jogging, followed by the traditional 5-minute
increasing intensity. These movements should warm-up of ground strokes and serves prior to
emulate the actual movements of the sport or exer- a match. Movement and muscular contractions
cise to follow. Low-intensity movement specific to commonly used in active warm-up also create
the sport or activity of interest is called specific decreases in passive tension (76,94) and increases
warm-up. in ROM as large as or larger than those due to
Warm-up benefits performance through ther- passive stretching (40,77).
mal, neuromuscular, and psychological effects Most warm-up sessions should begin with gen-
(9,10,22,46,87,89). In some people, warm-up may eral body movements of gradually increasing inten-
also decrease the occurrence of dangerous car- sity, focusing on the muscles and joints to be
diac responses from sudden strenuous exercise used in training or competition. Static stretching
(5). Active warm-up activities mobilize metabolic currently is not recommended during warm-up
resources and increase tissue temperature. Much of routines (51). The reasons for this change from
the benefit of warm-up comes from the increased traditional practice are explored in the following
body temperature (22). Moderate-intensity active sections on flexibility and stretching.
warm-up (general movements) and passive warm-
up (e.g., diathermy, heating pads, whirlpool) can
increase muscular performance between 3 and 9%
(9,10). Large-muscle-group motor tasks benefit FLEXIBILITY
from warm-up more than fine motor tasks (22).
Another reason for warm-up is to prepare the Flexibility is an important component of fitness
tissues for the greater stresses of vigorous physi- and physical performance. Inconsistent use of ter-
cal activity and thus to lower the risk of muscle- minology related to the term flexibility by a variety
tendon injury. Biomechanical evidence supports of health and exercise science professionals has led
this “injury-protective” hypothesis, since warmed- to confusion. There is a distinct difference between
up muscle in animal models has been found to flexibility and joint laxity. Flexibility is “the intrin-
elongate more before failure (28,80,86,91). This, sic property of body tissues which determines the
combined with prospective studies of warm-up range of motion achievable without injury at a joint
(19), suggests that general warm-up prior to vig- or series of joints” (37). The ability to move a joint
orous activity may decrease the risk of musculo- without causing injury usually refers to the major
tendinous injury compared to no warm-up. More anatomical rotations at joints rather than the joint
direct evidence of this relationship would be help- laxity or accessory motion tests that orthopedists,
168 PART 2 ■ Organization and Administration

physical therapists, and athletic trainers often eval- information must be known about testing condi-
uate to test joint and/or ligament integrity. Flexibil- tions to interpret data on static flexibility.
ity can be measured a variety of ways, and several In a research setting, we now have the ability
variables of interest have emerged. to measure mechanical properties of the body in
One variable is the common clinical measure of addition to the clinical measurements of ROM.
the limits of rotation through a ROM referred to Research laboratory measurements of flexibility
as static flexibility. This is estimated by linear or using computerized dynamometers have allowed
angular measurements of the limits of motion in the measurement of new biomechanical variables
a joint or joint complex. For example, it might be of related to the mechanical properties of muscle and
clinical interest to know the static flexibility of areas tendon. Two of these variables that may be related
of the body that tend to lose ROM with inactiv- to performance and injury risk are stiffness and hys-
ity, like the lower (lumbar region) back or ham- teresis. These terms are used in physics to describe
string muscle group. Many professionals employ properties of materials. Since the human body is
a sit-and-reach test (Fig. 9.1), using a linear mea- composed of materials that react to external forces
surement that provides a good field measure of in exactly the same as other materials, the terms are
hamstring static flexibility (34). These tests are lim- also applicable to the human body.
ited by the rise in passive tension as the muscle and The term stiffness, sometimes also known as
connective tissue are stretched. dynamic flexibility, refers to how quickly tissue
Tests of static flexibility, although easy to admin- resistance rises during a movement that requires
ister, have several limitations. A major weakness the muscle-tendon unit to stretch. With passive
of these tests is that the measures obtained are sub- stretching, the stiffness of the muscle-tendon unit
jective and largely related to the subject’s stretch measures how quickly the passive tension rises right
tolerance (28,32,68,70), as well as the way in which before damage occurs. Studies show that dynamic
the endpoint of the ROM is determined. Accurate flexibility accounts for only about 44% to 66% of
measurements also depend on testing method- the variance of static flexibility (70,74). Therefore,
ology. Variations in instruments, body positioning, these variables are related but probably represent
instructions, or the protocol used all heavily influ- different functional properties of the musculature.
ence results. Another problem is the variety of con- Figure 9.2 illustrates a schematic of a torque-
ditions in which the measurements are made. For angle curve of the elongation phase of repeated
example, physical therapy uses both active ROM
(unassisted) and passive ROM (therapist-assisted)
tests (81). The ROM achievable with the assistance
of the tester (passive) is usually greater than that
obtained with unassisted ROM. A great deal of E
Torque

Angle

FIGURE 9.2 Schematic of a torque-joint angle plot during repeated

passive stretches of a muscle group. Stress relaxation makes the pas-
FIGURE 9.1 Since its development in the 1950s, the sit-and- sive torque at a given joint angle in subsequent stretches (blue line)
reach test and several variations have become popular field tests less than in the first stretch (purple line). The stiffness (E) of the
of hamstring static flexibility. muscle group in these stretches, however, is not different.
 CHAPTER 9 ■ Warm-up and Flexibility 169

passive stretches of a muscle group. These angular elongation can cause rupture or complete failure
variables approximate well the load-deformation of the tissue. Materials scientists call the maxi-
(linear) curve of the muscle (67) and provide an in mum force or energy absorbed before complete
vivo (in the living animal) functional estimate of failure the mechanical strength of the material.
the passive stiffness of muscle groups (25,70,74). When a muscle is stretched, but not beyond its
Scientists normally use linear measurements of load elastic limit, it will return to resting length and
and deformation to define the mechanical proper- recover some of the energy stored in it as it was
ties of materials. Note that in the graph, the torque stretched. Some of the energy, however, is lost as
(and also tension) in the muscle rises in a complex heat. The energy lost in the return to normal length
fashion, slowly and then rapidly as the muscle gets from a deformed material is termed hysteresis.
longer. This represents the energy lost and can be visualized
Biological tissues have other complex behaviors as the area (loop) between the loading (elongation)
that influence their function. The muscle-tendon and unloading (restitution) phases in Figure 9.3.
unit is considered to be viscoelastic. This means This figure illustrates a schematic of a torque-angle
that the muscle-tendon unit can extend immedi- curve of the elongation phase (purple line) and the
ately when a tensile stress is applied and that it also restitution phase (blue line) of a static stretch.
continues to elongate with continued application From Figure 9.3, note that in static stretching,
of the stress. A faster stretch would have a similar 40% to 50% of the energy stored in the stretch is
shape but a higher stiffness because of this visco- lost as the muscle returns to normal length (64).
elastic behavior. The tension developed during a Much of this energy loss is in the contractile and
stretch depends on the degree of elongation and the connective tissue components within the muscle.
rate of the stretch. Also note in Figure 9.2 that the To the contrary, studies of long tendons in normal
stiffness (E) of the muscle group does not change activity show that they recover most (80% to 90%)
with repeated static stretching. Preliminary evi- of the energy stored in them in cyclic stretch-
dence suggests that although stretching does not shortening actions (2,55).
affect muscle stiffness, passive motion does create Measuring energy may be better for examining
significant reductions in muscle stiffness (76). the effect of stretching on muscle, as opposed to
One problem in discussing the stiffness of mus- stiffness, because muscle tissue does not reach the
cles is the difference in the scientific and lay mean- elastic region of the stress/strain curve in typical
ing of stiffness and elasticity. In biomechanics, stiffness
and elasticity are synonymous, so a muscle with
a quick rise in tension during stretch will tend
to recover rapidly when the stretch is released.
This conflicts with the colloquial meaning of the
term elasticity, which refers to low resistance to
elongation.
Although the application of materials science to
the human body may seem complex, it is important
Torque

to realize that the human body is a material that

responds to stress in a predictable manner. Materi-
als science defines stiffness as the slope of the stress-
strain curve in the elastic (linear) region, which is
how quickly the tension rises late in elongation
before the elastic limit. The elastic limit is the point
on the graph depicting the lengthening of the
muscle-tendon unit just before the material begins
to fail or the beginning of permanent damage. Angle
Beyond the elastic limit is the plastic region, so
called because this is where the deformation is
not immediately recoverable. Fortunately, small FIGURE 9.3 Schematic of a torque-joint angle plot of the elon-
gation (purple) and restitution (blue) phases of a passive stretch
stretches beyond the elastic limit may be repaired by of a muscle group. The energy lost (hysteresis) is the area of the
the body if it is given enough rest, but a very severe loop between the loading and unloading phases.
170 PART 2 ■ Organization and Administration

hamstring stretches (67). Stretching has a greater flexibility. It is unclear however, whether an “opti-
effect on hysteresis than on the stiffness of mus- mal” level of static flexibility for muscle groups or
cle. This is important because it gives direction to areas of the body exists. If this is the case, it is
where we should be performing research in the likely that different sports would require different
future if that research is going to be practical and optimal levels of static flexibility. Future research
meaningful in terms of improving performance. studies should be designed to focus on determining
“normative” static ranges of motion at joints in ath-
The ability to move the joints of the body freely letes participating in specific sports, as well as doc-
without injury is known as flexibility, and umenting anomalies in athletes and active people
several mechanical properties can be used to who are outside of this normative range. It is too
document aspects of flexibility. early to make a definitive statement, but it is pos-
sible that an athlete or active person whose mus-
Normal Static Flexibility cles are too tight is more prone to muscle injuries
and that one whose muscles are too loose is more
The wealth of research on static flexibility measure- prone to joint injuries as well as decreased perfor-
ments provides a general picture of what is normal mance in strength and power activities.
static flexibility for most joints and populations. Common deviations from normal static flexibil-
Normal static flexibility is the typical joint move- ity are present in many joint(s). Some people lose
ment allowed between two extremes (Fig. 9.4): ROM from physical inactivity. People may also
ankylosis and hypermobility (85,93). Ankylosis is lose static flexibility from workplace or sport-
pathological loss of ROM, while hypermobility is specific positions and/or repetitive movements.
excessive ROM. Static flexibility is not a whole- For example, the repetitive motion in several sports
body characteristic but, like fitness, is specific to with overhead throwing patterns (baseball, tennis,
joints and directions of movement (33,39). People etc.) without specific stretching intervention (47)
may tend to have low static flexibility in one part of can result in glenohumeral internal rotation deficit
the body and normal or high flexibility in another. (GIRD). Persistent wearing of high heels can
It is also clear that females have greater static flexi- decrease ankle dorsiflexion ROM (Fig. 9.5).
bility than males (33), and some of these differences
Several resources provide normative data on the
are related to anthropometric differences (13).
typical static flexibility of most major joints of the
Fitness professionals can access data on normal
body, but current research does not identify an
ranges of static flexibility for most joints from sev-
optimal level of static flexibility.
eral professional sources (4–6,27). Several recent
reviews of flexibility have been published (1,23,42,
51,64,59) and provide more information on static Flexibility and Injury Risk
What appears to be desirable, based on data on the
incidence of injury, is to avoid the extremes in static

Ankylosis Normal Hypermobile

FIGURE 9.4 Schematic of a continuum of static flexibility. There

is considerable research documenting the normal limits of static
flexibility but little prospective research that links specific levels of FIGURE 9.5 Repetitive work or body positions (like wearing high
static flexibility to increased risk of injury at either extreme. heels) can create tight muscles and decrease ankle static flexibility.
 CHAPTER 9 ■ Warm-up and Flexibility 171

flexibility. Athletes and exercisers at both extremes injury risk is provided by low back fitness testing.
of static flexibility may be at a higher risk for Although it seems logical that less flexible back or
musculoskeletal injuries (45,48). The literature hamstring muscles would be related to the inci-
on clinical and basic science provides a very dif- dence of low back pain, little evidence supports this
ferent view of the role of flexibility in injury risk association. A review of the literature found limited
and performance than what is commonly believed support (mixed results) for an association between
and practiced. This section focuses on the associa- lumbar/hamstring flexibility and the occurrence of
tion between flexibility and injury risk: the sections low back pain (82). More recently, a large prospec-
on stretching, further on, discuss the association tive study found no relationship between static flex-
between stretching and changes in muscular per- ibility and subsequent low back pain in adults (43).
formance and injury risk. Therefore, the field tests of hamstring static flexibil-
Low levels of hamstring flexibility have been ity commonly used in fitness test batteries may not
related to a higher risk of muscular injury in soccer be useful in predicting future low back injury.
(103). The common belief that greater static flex- People also commonly believe that less “stiff”
ibility will always decrease the risk of muscular muscles result in greater flexibility and a lower risk
injury, however, appears not to be valid. This may of injury. Unfortunately, little research is available
be explained by the stability-mobility paradox. The on the association between dynamic flexibility and
mechanical stability and ROM at a joint or joints injury risk. Less stiff muscles may be less susceptible
are inversely related (14,59,93). It is possible that as to muscle strain injury (102), but only one study
static flexibility increases beyond the normal range, has been conducted in this area (73). It appears
the potential benefits of greater motion and less that muscle with greater stiffness is more suscepti-
tissue resistance are offset by the greater instabil- ble to eccentrically induced muscle damage. Cur-
ity of the joint. More research is needed to begin to rently, the evidence is insufficient to conclude that
define the ranges of motion for various joints, so decreased dynamic flexibility will provide an injury-
that the best compromise of stability and mobility protective benefit. Combined with the unclear
may be provided, along with a lower risk of injury. nature of the exact levels of static flexibility that
A good example of the lack of an association decrease injury risk, this means that strength and
between high levels of static flexibility and lower conditioning professionals must educate athletes
on the complexity of flexibility and injury risk.

REAL-WORLD APPLICATION A complex relationship exists between static

flexibility and risk of muscular injury. Higher
The Stability-Mobility Paradox
injury rates appear to be related to very flexible
Static flexibility is like exercise in that more is not always bet- or very inflexible muscles.
ter. Joint motion (mobility) is inversely proportional to the
stability of the joint (93). Decreasing muscle passive ten- Assessing Flexibility
sion around a joint increases the joint’s ROM but also
makes it easier for the joint to be pulled out of normal posi- Exercise prescriptions to modify flexibility should
tion. This presents the fitness professional with a paradox. be based on valid measurements using standardized
What is the right amount of static flexibility? How much testing procedures. Static flexibility tests are based
motion is necessary for normal and safe movement without on both linear and angular measurements of the
adversely affecting the joint or ligaments? It is not possi- motion of a joint or group of joints. These tests can
ble to give easy answers to these questions. The amount of focus on single joints or compound movements of
motion depends on the joint, the requirements of the many body segments and joints.
sport/activity a person engages in, and other factors. Given Single-joint static flexibility tests are commonly
that the lowest injury rates seem to correspond to normal
used clinically in the medical professions (4,6,24,
flexibility and higher injury rates with the extremes in flexi-
bility (inflexible and hypermobile), maintenance of normal
27,81); they often involve angular measurements
or moderate amounts of static flexibility should be the goal (with goniometers or inclinometers) rather than
for most people. Unless a person participates in an activity linear measurements. Single-joint tests are consid-
requiring extreme flexibility (dance, gymnastics, diving), ered better measurements of static flexibility than
most exercise prescriptions should focus on maintaining compound tests because they better isolate specific
normal levels of static flexibility. muscles and are less affected by anthropometric dif-
ferences (15,58). The straight-leg-raise (30) and
172 PART 2 ■ Organization and Administration

active-knee-extension (26) tests are the common recommended for most people because of their
hamstring flexibility tests used in physical therapy. often limited physical activity and also because reg-
The many variations of the sit-and-reach test (31, ular participation in some activities is associated
36,38) are compound tests and are often validated with sport-specific flexibility imbalances. In gen-
with the straight leg raise or active knee extension. eral, stretching recommendations should be limited
Sit-and-reach scores are associated with ham- to the maintenance of normal levels of static flexi-
string flexibility but not with low back flexibility bility because of the complex nature of flexibility
(72). Although the sit-and-reach test has been and the lack of data linking specific levels of flex-
shown to be a moderately valid measure of ham- ibility to lower injury risk. This section concludes
string flexibility which is only slightly affected by with recent evidence on the effect of stretching on
anthropometric variations (41,72), the prescriptive muscular performance, which has implications for
value of these measurements is limited. One study the placement of stretching in the training cycle.
showed that 6% of children falsely passed and 12% Stretching exercises are usually classified into
falsely failed the sit-and-reach test relative to the four types: passive, static, ballistic (dynamic), and
straight-leg-raise test (15). If these data are consis- proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation,
tent across all ages, people failing the sit-and-reach or PNF (8). Passive stretching uses an external
test should be retested with the straight-leg-raise force, usually another person, to stretch muscle
or active-knee-extension test to make sure that groups (Fig. 9.6). Static stretching involves a
they have limited hamstring static flexibility. slow increase in muscle group length and holding
Current health-related norms for sit-and-reach the stretched position at that length for a short
or other static flexibility tests should be used only time (usually 15 to 30 seconds). Ballistic stretch-
to identify individuals at the extremes who may ing traditionally has meant fast, momentum-
be at higher risk for muscle injuries. Not enough assisted, and bouncing stretching movements.
data are available to provide specific static flexi- These stretches are generally avoided because of
bility goals beyond the maintenance of normal the viscoelastic nature of muscle. For a given elon-
flexibility. Fitness professionals must also remem- gation, a fast stretch results in a higher force in the
ber that in measuring flexibility, exacting atten- tissue and a greater risk of injury (61,88,95). Some
tion to testing details is necessary. Static flexibility refer to the active warm-up movements mentioned
scores are subjective and highly dependent on the earlier as dynamic stretching. These stretches
subject’s tolerance of the high muscle tension (dis- may be acceptable if they are performed in a rel-
comfort) during testing. The clinical measurement atively slow manner to create muscle elongation
of dynamic flexibility is not ordinarily practicable; without imposing high levels of force on the tis-
it is limited to research settings because of prob- sue. This is probably how regular physical activity
lems related to expensive equipment, insufficient can maintain static flexibility.
standardization, and the lack of normative data. The last group of stretching exercises focuses on
PNF. PNF stretch routines use a specific series of

DEVELOPMENT OF
FLEXIBILITY
Normal levels of flexibility can be maintained by
regular physical activity and through specific pro-
grams of stretching and strengthening exercises.
Kinesiology professionals should assess a client’s
flexibility, and based on these data and the client’s
history, develop a program to improve flexibility.
Although poor flexibility can be treated with a
combination of stretching and strengthening
exercises (1), this section focuses on general rec-
ommendations for stretching in mass exercise pre- FIGURE 9.6 Passive stretching often uses external force from
scription. Regular stretching exercises are usually another person to produce a greater stretch of a muscle group.
 CHAPTER 9 ■ Warm-up and Flexibility 173

movements and contractions to use neuromuscular Stretching programs should include up to four
reflexes to relax the muscles being stretched. PNF or five stretches for each major muscle group, with
stretches can be performed with or without assis- each stretch held for 15 to 30 seconds. The intensity
tance. A simple PNF procedure is a “contract-relax” (force) of each stretch should be minimized, slowly
stretch where a person performs an isometric con- elongating and holding the stretched position just
traction of a muscle to be stretched, which is imme- before the point of discomfort. The American Col-
diately followed by a static stretch of that muscle. lege of Sports Medicine recommends holding static
This strategy takes advantage of the inhibitory stretches “to a position of mild discomfort” (5).
effects of Golgi tendon organs as the muscle is Slow elongation of muscles creates less reflex con-
slowly stretched. Assisted stretching procedures traction through the action of muscle spindles.
like PNF should be performed with care by trained These sense muscle length and are responsible for
subjects or sports medicine personnel. The practice the contraction of a stretched muscle (myotatic
of having athletes passively stretch partners should reflex). This reflex contraction is most sensitive to
be used with caution until the athletes have been fast stretches, so slow muscle elongation in stretch-
carefully trained in correct procedures and under- ing exercises helps maintain relaxation in the mus-
stand the risks of incorrect or high-force stretches. cle groups being stretched.
The recommendations for stretching procedures Static stretching will create a short-term increase
are based on reviews of the basic science studies in ROM and a decrease in passive tension in the
of the viscoelastic response of muscle to stretching muscle at a particular joint angle due to stress
(49,50). These recommendations (Table 9.1) are relaxation, which is the gradual decrease in stress
designed for group exercise prescription with nor- (force per unit area) in a material stretched and
mal subjects. Static or PNF stretching should be held at a constant length. Most people can feel the
performed at least three times per week, preferably decrease in passive tension in a muscle group held
daily and after moderate or vigorous physical activ- in a stretched position. This stress relaxation fol-
ity (in the cool-down phase of training). Exacting lowing stretching provides an immediate 10% to
technique in stretching is recommended to safely 30% decrease in passive tension (65,71,76), but the
focus tension on a muscle group or groups with- effect will have dissipated after about an hour (69).
out systematic stress on other joint stability struc- Holding stretches for 20 seconds is a good guideline,
tures (ligaments, joint capsules, cartilage). Some because most of the stress relaxation in passive
stretches occurs in the first 20 seconds (64,75,95).
experts have hypothesized, based on functional
anatomy, that some stretching exercises are contra- Stretching to increase static flexibility in a
indicated because of potentially dangerous ligament muscle group should normally use four to
and tissue loading (60,62,63). five static stretches held for 15 to 30 seconds.

TABLE 9.1 STRETCHING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

GROUP EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION
FITNESS VARIABLE RECOMMENDATION
Frequency At least three times per week, preferable daily and after
moderate or vigorous physical activity
Intensity Slowly elongate muscle and hold with low level of force
Time Up to four to five stretches held from 15 to 30 seconds.
Stretch normally during the cool-down phase. Be sure to
stretch only muscles that have been thoroughly warmed up
from physical activity. Warning: Stretching in the warm-up
prior to physical activity may weaken muscles and decrease
performance
Type Static or PNF stretches for all major muscle groups
Source: Reproduced with permission from Knudson D, Magnusson P, McHugh M. Current issues in flexibility fitness.
PCPFS Res Digest 2000;3(10):1–8 (51).
174 PART 2 ■ Organization and Administration

Q & A from the Field

QOur high school track-and-field athletes routinely stretch before, during, and after their events. I know
that flexibility is an important component of performance, but I have heard rumblings in the running
community for years that stretching before a sprint is a bad idea. Is it true that stretching prior to
high-intensity track-and-field events is a bad idea?
—high school track coach

A
Athletes stretch in the warm-up for track events because they
believe that it decreases their risk of injury and improves their
performance. Unfortunately, research has shown that this
practice is probably not justified for most athletes. Unless an
athlete has a major deficit in ROM, stretching prior to vig-
orous exertion actually decreases most forms of maximal
on the risk of muscular injury. The most important thing
a coach can do is teach athletes that proper warm-up is
essential for maximum performance and decreasing the
risk of injury. Focus their precompetition routine around a
progressive and specific warm-up. Most athletes with nor-
mal flexibility should perform their stretching routines after
muscular performance for about an hour. Stretching prior practice or competition.
to vigorous activity has also been shown to have no effect

Stretching should be performed during the cool- of several weeks (50). Less well known are the facts
down period because of three important factors: that stretching has minimal effect on the stiffness
of muscle (see Fig. 9.2), decreases muscular per-
1. Warmed-up tissues are less likely to be
formance, and modifies the energy recovery of
injured.
stretched muscle.
2. The placement of stretching within the
Passive stretching can create large tensile loads
workout does not affect gains in static
in the muscle, so it is possible to weaken and injure
flexibility (16).
muscle with vigorous stretching programs. Stretch-
3. There can be performance decrements fol-
ing exercise is like any other training stimulus
lowing stretching.
in that it results in temporary weakening before
Programming static stretching during the cool- the body recovers and supercompensates for that
down period is also logical because stretching tends activity. This decreased muscular performance fol-
to relax or inhibit muscle activation (7,96). For lowing stretching has been documented by the
example, static stretching is commonly used for the growing consensus of many studies. Decreased per-
acute relief from muscle cramps or delayed-onset formance of 4% to 30% has been observed in
muscle soreness (DOMS). The former is indicated, maximal strength tests (7,52,78,79) and jumping
but research on the latter indicates no effect of (12,17,35,104). Stretch-induced decrements in
stretching before (44,99) or after activity (11,99) muscular performance appear to be equally related
on the DOMS that occurs after unaccustomed exer- to neuromuscular inhibition and decreased con-
cise. Static stretching routines in the cool-down tractile force (16) and can last up to an hour (21).
period primarily serve to help maintain normal This is why most stretching should be performed in
levels of static flexibility. the cool-down phase of training and avoided in the
warm-up period for athletic competition. Only ath-
letes who require extreme static flexibility for per-
Biomechanical Effects formance (dancers, gymnasts, divers) might need
of Stretching to stretch at the end of the warm-up phase.
Stretching exercises are prescribed routinely to Stretching should normally be performed in
increase static flexibility. Research has shown that the cool-down phase of conditioning because
stretching can provide increases in static flexibility stretching prior to activity decreases muscular
of 5% to 20%, but short-term and over the course performance.
 CHAPTER 9 ■ Warm-up and Flexibility 175

We saw earlier that stretching does not create a greater static flexibility from stretching, the chance
short-term decrease in muscle stiffness, but several that stretching the muscle beyond this point might
studies have also shown that stretch training over lead to injury would be reduced. In the case of
time does not decrease muscle stiffness (51). This is flexibility, this logic has not been supported by sci-
difficult for people to understand because they can entific evidence. Muscle strains (pulls) usually occur
feel the lower passive tension in the muscle group in eccentric muscle actions rather than passive
at a certain joint angle. Some researchers have elongation (87).
also incorrectly defined stiffness as the change in The larger and better-designed prospective
tension over the change in angle from the begin- studies have shown little or no effect of stretching
ning of the stretch, not as the true mechanical stiff- on injury rate (3,83,84,98). The studies with larger
ness of the tissue (the slope in the linear region). samples and better controls (83,84) support the
Strength and conditioning professionals should conclusion that flexibility and stretching may be
instruct athletes and other exercisers that the pri- unrelated to injury risk. Currently the data are
mary benefits of stretching are maintenance of insufficient to support the common prescription of
ROM and a decrease in the passive tension in the stretching programs to modify flexibility based on
muscle. The stiffness or elasticity of muscle and the hypothesis of reducing the risk of muscle injury.
tendon is a complex mechanical variable that is Much more research on the effects of stretching and
not easily understood or experienced. the associations between various flexibility levels
Another performance-related mechanical vari- and injury rates are needed before specific guide-
able of interest following stretching is hysteresis. lines on stretching will be available.
Recall that hysteresis is the energy lost (see Fig. 9.3)
when a viscoelastic material returns to its nor- Research has not confirmed the belief that
mal shape following a stretch. Only recently have stretching decreases the risk of muscular injury,
studies begun to examine the effect of stretching on so general stretching prior to physical activity
the hysteresis of muscle groups. Although stretch- probably confers no protective effect.
ing has minimal effect on the passive stiffness of
muscle and tendon, it has a significant effect on hys-
teresis since the loss of recovery energy decreases
from 17% to 37% after stretching (53,54,66). This SUMMARY
appears to be a promising new area of research on
the effects of stretching. Unfortunately, it is not Both active and passive warm-up are common
clear whether short- or long-term stretching will preparatory activities before exercise and athletic
increase muscular performance through reductions competition. Several lines of research have sup-
in hysteresis. ported the beneficial effects of warm-up on improv-
The relationship between muscle mechanical ing performance and reducing injury risk. Typical
variables, like static and dynamic flexibility and warm-up should consist of general movements of
performance, is quite complex. For example, lower gradually increasing intensity. The intensity of
levels of static flexibility have been associated with warm-up should be moderate (up to 40% to 60%
better running economy (18,29), but less stiff mus- of aerobic capacity) and sustained (5 to 10 minutes)
culature is more effective in utilizing elastic energy to increase the tissue temperature. Flexibility is an
in stretch-shortening cycle movements (56,57,97, important property of the musculoskeletal system
100,101). It is likely that the effects of stretching that determines the ROM and resistance to motion
and flexibility on muscular performance are com- at a joint or group of joints. This property can be
plex and activity-specific (28). examined by measuring the limits of the achievable
motion (static flexibility) or the stiffness of passively
Prophylactic Effects stretched muscle group (dynamic flexibility). Nor-
mal ranges of static flexibility are well documented
of Stretching for most joints through a variety of tests. There is
The other traditional rationale for prescribing pre- some evidence that extremes in static flexibility
activity stretching is a hypothesized reduction in (top or bottom 20% of the distribution) may be
the risk of injury. The logic was that if there were associated with a higher incidence of muscle injury.
176 PART 2 ■ Organization and Administration

Sport science research and prospective studies of

MAXING OUT
flexibility and stretching suggest that stretching
should not be performed in warm-ups. Stretching
1. Dancer—A dancer/cheerleader requests your help
prior to physical activity decreases muscular perfor- in increasing hip flexion and abduction ROM to
mance and does not reduce the risk of musculo- facilitate the split position for a variety of stunts.
skeletal injury. Currently, little scientific evidence is What stretching program would you recommend?
available on which to base precise, individualized 2. Personal training client—A manager seeks relief
prescriptions of stretching development beyond the from neck and shoulder pain from long days on
maintenance of normal levels of static flexibility. an office computer. What stretching and strength-
Static or proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation ening exercises would you recommend?
(PNF) stretching should normally be performed 3. Athlete—An athlete who has undergone acute
rehab wants to return to play and increase
during the cool-down phase of physical activity.
plantarflexion ROM following an ankle sprain.
Stretches should slowly elongate and hold mus- What assessments would you use to document
cles with low levels of force for 15 to 30 seconds. progress and what stretching program would
Four to five stretches per muscle group or area of you employ?
the body are usually recommended.

CASE EXAMPLE
Postmatch Flexibility Routine in Tennis
BACKGROUND of a static stretching routine. This will be a typ-
You are a strength coach working with the uni- ical whole-body routine but will focus extra
versity medical staff and a 20-year-old male stretching on sport-specific imbalances com-
collegiate tennis player. The player has limited mon in tennis players: reduced shoulder inter-
internal shoulder rotation ROM in the domi- nal rotation and flexibility of the lower back
nant shoulder, which is common in repetitive and hamstrings.
overarm sports like tennis. IMPLEMENTATION
RECOMMENDATIONS/CONSIDERATIONS Three 20-second wrist flexor and extensor
Following matches, practice, and condition- stretches
ing sessions, the cool-down phase will consist

A B

Wrist flexor and extensor stretches.

 CHAPTER 9 ■ Warm-up and Flexibility 177

Four 20-second standing pectoralis major Four 20-second shoulder internal rotation
stretches stretches

Shoulder internal rotation stretch.

Standing pectoralis major stretch.

Four 20-second knees to chest low back Three 20-second trunk twists both directions
stretches Three 20-second butterfly hip internal rotator
stretches

Knees to chest low back stretch.

Butterfly hip internal rotators stretch.

(continued)
178 PART 2 ■ Organization and Administration

Four 20-second seated hamstring stretches RESULTS

Results before and after (a 10-week flexibility
program) indicate an improvement in ROM
over the period of the training program in spe-
cific movements. Tests included shoulder inter-
nal rotation ROM, hip flexion ROM, and sit and
reach.

Shoulder internal rotation ROM

Initial: dominant, 33 degrees; nondomi-
nant, 66 degrees
Posttraining: dominant, 48 degrees; non-
dominant, 70 degrees.
As is typical with overhead throwing athletes,
Seated hamstring stretch. shoulder internal rotation was decreased in the
dominant extremity. The prescribed program
Three 20-second seated calf stretches caused a change in the ROM of the dominant
arm in internal rotation in the direction of nor-
mal. Because of the demands of the sport, it
is unlikely that the dominant arm would ever
reach the same ROM as the nondominant arm.

Hip flexion ROM with knee extended

Initial: dominant, 40 degrees; nondomi-
nant, 39 degrees
Posttraining: dominant, 49 degrees; non-
dominant 49 degrees
In hip flexion, a dominant-to-nondominant
difference is not as pronounced as it is in the
upper extremity. Both extremities demonstrated
a small increase in ROM due to the prescribed
Seated calf stretch.
flexibility program.
Three 20-second seated dorsiflexor stretches Sit-and-reach flexibility
Initial: + 1 cm
Posttraining: + 3 cm
The flexibility program resulted in a slight
increase in ROM in trunk flexion.
Theoretically, these increases in ROM would
indicate a reduction in injury risk to the shoul-
der, hamstrings, and lower back. The effect on
performance (power, explosiveness) is undeter-
mined at this time.

Seated dorsiflexor stretch.

 CHAPTER 9 ■ Warm-up and Flexibility 179

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