U

N
E
S
C
O

E
O
L
S
S
S
A
M
P
L
E

C
H
A
P
T
E
R
S
THERMAL POWER PLANTS Vol. I - Power Plant Materials - D. H. Lister
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)
POWER PLANT MATERIALS

D. H. Lister
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Canada

Keywords: Materials, Metals, Alloys, Nuclear Reactors, Material Properties

Contents

1. Introduction
2. Metals and their Properties
2.1. Steels
2.2. Nickel Alloys
2.3. Zirconium Alloys
2.4. Magnesium Alloys
2.5. Copper Alloys
2.6. Titanium Alloys
3. Conclusion
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch

Summary

The most common materials found in critical power plant applications are the metals,
the properties of which are determined by the size, composition and distribution of the
crystal grains making up the microstructure. For plain carbon steel, the microstructure
is fashioned by adjusting the carbon content, heat treating and mechanical working.

Enhanced physical properties and corrosion resistance are obtained in the low-alloy
steels by alloying with elements such as manganese and chromium to less than 5 weight
percent; the stainless steels require above 12 weight percent chromium - often with
nickel and lesser amounts of other additives such as molybdenum or niobium.

For some high temperature applications, nickel alloys may be required. Their oxidation
resistance is provided by chromium, while molybdenum can be added for extra
protection in very aggressive environments. A major application of nickel alloys in the
power industry is the tubing of steam generators in nuclear reactors such as the PWRs
and CANDUs.

Zirconium alloys, such as the Zircaloys (having about 1.5 weight percent tin as the main
additive) or Zr-2 Nb have their greatest use in the power industry for in-core
components in nuclear reactors, where their neutron transparency and corrosion
resistance make them suitable for fuel sheaths or pressure tubing in water-cooled
systems. In the carbon-dioxide-cooled Magnox reactors, the fuel sheathing is of
magnesium having improved mechanical properties imparted by alloying, mainly with
about 0.8 weight percent aluminum.
U
N
E
S
C
O

E
O
L
S
S
S
A
M
P
L
E

C
H
A
P
T
E
R
S
THERMAL POWER PLANTS Vol. I - Power Plant Materials - D. H. Lister
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)
Copper has an important role in electrical equipment because of its high electrical
conductivity; the accompanying high thermal conductivity also makes its alloys
important for heat exchanger tubing. The brasses, resulting from alloying with zinc, are
used extensively in cooling water systems and for condensers. For more corrosion-
resistant material, the cupronickels resulting from alloying with nickel may be
employed. For best corrosion resistance in condensers - especially those in sea-water
service - or for cooling water heat exchangers when copper must be avoided, titanium is
recommended.

Finally, the non-metals such as ceramics and polymers find not only traditional uses as
insulators and construction materials (e.g., cable insulation, concrete for buildings and
fiber-reinforced plastic for piping and storage tanks) but also growing applications as
specialized materials in components such as corrosion-resistant heat exchanger tubes
and machine parts.

1. Introduction

The performance of power-producing systems has always been limited by the properties
of engineering materials. Since the early days of industrial steam generation in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, for example, the ever-increasing need for power
for new factories created a steady demand for larger boilers and more severe steam
conditions. Materials development could not keep pace and catastrophic failures of
equipment occurred frequently.

As late as the end of the nineteenth century, hundreds of steam plant explosions
accompanied by large numbers of casualties were being recorded every year in Europe
and North America. The causes were generally linked to the failure of riveted joints or
poorly worked steel plate in fire-tube boilers. The innovation of the water-tube boiler
and the understanding of localized corrosion of steels in high-temperature water were
major factors that led to much safer equipment - even as operating conditions continued
to become more severe.

Today, the risk of catastrophic failure of a power-producing system is low. This can be
attributed to the strict safety standards that are imposed on component designers and
manufacturers as well as on plant operators. The setting of these standards clearly
involves a thorough knowledge of the properties of the materials of construction and an
understanding of their behavior in the local environment. That environment may itself
be adjusted for overall optimum performance by specifying its chemistry. The prime
example of such chemistry control is the specification of a minimum alkalinity level in
the feedwater systems of steam raising plants, which is necessary to minimize corrosion
of piping and components and to keep systems clean.

While the current performance record of power plants is generally good, technology is
not standing still. The push for bigger returns on capital investment and the
accompanying trends towards higher plant efficiencies and longer component lifetimes
lead to even more severe operating conditions in power systems. Inevitably, the
demands on materials escalate. As described in Fossil Fuel Plant Materials and
Chemistry and Nuclear Reactor Materials and Chemistry, the predominant materials of
U
N
E
S
C
O

E
O
L
S
S
S
A
M
P
L
E

C
H
A
P
T
E
R
S
THERMAL POWER PLANTS Vol. I - Power Plant Materials - D. H. Lister
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)
construction in steam-raising equipment are the metals. Their interaction with the
operating environment very much dictates the chemistry control practised by plant
operators.

-
-
-


TO ACCESS ALL THE 14 PAGES OF THIS CHAPTER,
Visit: http://www.eolss.net/Eolss-sampleAllChapter.aspx


Bibliography

Stultz S.C. and Kitto J .B. (1992). Steam; Its Generation and Use. 40th Edition, Babcock and Wilcox
Co., 1992. [This 982-page volume is the 40th in a series that began in 1875. After a historical
introduction it deals with all the technical aspects of steam, including physical properties, heat transfer
characteristics, etc., and of equipment for raising steam, including fossil-fired boilers and nuclear
reactors. The materials commonly found in steam plants are dealt with in one chapter, involving
metallurgical considerations and mechanical properties, and the application aspects are covered to some
extent in chapters on structural analysis and design, manufacturing and construction. The treatment of
the subject matter is comprehensive and can be understood by anyone with a technical background.]
British Electricity International, London (1992). Modern Power Station Practice. 3rd Edition,
Incorporating Modern Power System Practice. Volume E, Chemistry and Metallurgy. Pergamon Press,
1992.[This edition comprises twelve volumes dealing with all aspects of the electricity generation and
transmission capability of the (former) Central Electricity Generating Board in the U.K. The volumes
cover subjects ranging from station planning and design to operation of the distribution system. Volume
E - Chemistry and Metallurgy - treats practices in fossil-fired boilers, from the points of view of system
monitoring and operation to inspection and cleaning, in 576 pages. The metallurgy of the important
metals (including non-ferrous metals and alloys) is outlined and the characteristics and uses of non-metals
(including ceramics and polymers) are presented. The treatment of the subject matter is extensive and
thorough and provides an excellent reference text. It should be of value to anyone with a technical
background.]

Biographical Sketch

Derek Lister, B.Sc. Tech., M.Sc. Tech., Ph.D., M.I.Chem.E., C.Eng., F.C.I.C., was born in Nelson
Lancashire, England in 1939. He was educated at the local secondary technical school, the University of
Manchester and the University of Leicester, obtaining his bachelors and masters degrees in chemical
engineering and his Ph.D. in physical chemistry. He spent three years with the Atomic Power Division of
English Electric Co., developing Magnox and AGR nuclear fuel, and four years as a Research Fellow at
Leicester University, studying crystal growth and electron spin resonance, before joining Atomic Energy
of Canada Ltd. at the Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories in 1969.
After a short period in CANDU nuclear fuel development he became involved in research into reactor
chemistry. This was concerned mainly with chemistry control and corrosion in CANDU reactors, though
contract research was done for the U.S. nuclear industry as well. He became Senior Scientist and, in
1992, when Manager of the System Chemistry and Corrosion Branch, he was awarded the NB
Power/AECL/NSERC Industrial Research Chair in Nuclear Engineering at the University of New
Brunswick and moved to Fredericton.
At UNB, he contributes to the Option in Nuclear and Power Plant Engineering in the Chemical
Engineering Department and to other undergraduate courses. He has designed and constructed a research
laboratory containing high-pressure, high-temperature equipment for studying reactor and power plant
U
N
E
S
C
O

E
O
L
S
S
S
A
M
P
L
E

C
H
A
P
T
E
R
S
THERMAL POWER PLANTS Vol. I - Power Plant Materials - D. H. Lister
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)
chemistry and corrosion and carries out research for the Canadian and overseas nuclear industries. He
has published extensively in the fields of reactor chemistry and corrosion and heat exchanger fouling. He
is now Chair of the Chemical Engineering Department as well as holder of the research chair and holds
technical advisory positions on several national and international bodies. He enjoys skiing, tennis,
drawing and painting and French and English literature.