CHE 2161

Fluid Mechanics

Lab Report Flow Measurements

1.0 Abstract In the given experiment, the Bernoulli equation was tested along with the mass continuity principle. In order to successfully show how well the two principles hold within the limits of this experiment, the volumetric flow rate had to be calculated; and the ratio of actual flow rate to ideal flow rate, otherwise known as the discharge coefficient, had to be verified. Upon comparison however, it was observed that Bernoullis equation cannot be used to determine the flow rate accurately, as the processed data for the Reynolds number and discharge coefficient did not fall within the specified literature value data range. This deviation could be due to errors that accumulated during the experiment. Some of the common errors may have included human error when timing and parallax error when taking readings, causing the fluctuations in the results; also energy losses and frictional losses within the system, and changes in fluid properties.

2.0 Introduction There are various methods of measuring volumetric the flow rate flow rate. In this experiment, four instrumental methods are carried out Didacta Italia Rig. The four methods are orifice plate, turbine flow meter, venture tube and rotameter. The theories behind the flow meters are conservation of mass and the Bernoulli equation. From conservation of mass, we understand that the reduction of cross sectional area will cause an increase of velocity. From the Bernoulli equation, we know this will lead to an increase in pressure. The Bernoulli 1 equation is V 2 P gz constant . 2 2.1 Description of flow measurement techniques: 1. Orifice plate In this method, there is a sudden decrease in the cross sectional area of the pipe. This causes increase in the velocity of the fluid, thereafter causing decrease in pressure, as described in the theories above. The orifice plate is accurate and the cost of the instrument is low when compared to other instruments. However, this method can only work with homogenous liquids and under axial velocity vector flow. 2. Turbine Flow Meter The turbine flow meter uses a bladed rotor suspended in the pipe. As the fluid flows through the pipe, the rotor spins at a rate proportional to the fluids velocity. One limitation of turbine flow meters is the fact that can only operate with clean, low-viscosity, non- corrosive fluids. The upside is that turbine meters can operate in a wide range of temperatures and pressures. 3. Venturi Tube The venture tube has a gradual contraction, followed by a gradual expansion. The principle used is the same as an orifice plate. One drawback of using a venture meter to measure flow rate is that they are heavy and maintenance is not easy. However, they do allow larger pressure drops.

4. Rotameter The rotameter consists of a tube and a float. The float response to flow rate is linear. An advantage of the rotameter is it does not require any external power or fuel. This is because it uses the properties of fluid along with gravity to measure flow rate. A disadvantage of using a rotameter is that since it uses gravity, it must always be vertical and the right way up. 2.2 Practical applications 1. Airplanes have a pitot tube attached to them to measure the speed of the aircraft 2. Race cars such as Formula 1 cars use the theory of Bernoullis equation to allow the car to be on the ground at very high speeds. 3. Carburetors found in cars and other motorized machines have a venturi meter to maintain low pressure so as to let fuel in. 4. Venturi meters are used in plumbing as well. They are used in wastewater collection systems and treatment plants because their design allow solids to pass through.

3.0 Experimental Procedure

Mercury manometer

Water manometer

Water collection tank Orifice plate Rotary vane meter Venturi tube Figure 3.1 Didacta Italia rig

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Set up apparatus as shown in the figure Adjust flow rate until suitable to carry out the experiment (scale from 1-10) Allow water to flow slightly before turning on the pump Turn the tap to maximum until water fills the pipes, orifice plate and venturi tube Stop water flowing out and measure the time taken for water to fill a predetermined volume of the tank using a stopwatch 6. Record the heights (h1 and h2) of the fluid in the water manometer for the orifice plate and the fluid in the mercury manometer for the venturi tube 7. Repeat steps 2-6 at least 7 times for varying flow rates

4.0 Results

Using continuity: m 1 = m 2 1 A1 v1 = 2 A2 v2 Assumption: Incompressible fluid flow (1 = 2 ) 2 D v1 = 4 d2 v2 4 = ................................................................... (1) Using Bernoulli equation: Assumption: Steady, incompressible fluid flow, inviscid flow (no viscosity), with no work done by or on the fluid.
2 2 P1 + 2 v1 + gh1 = P2 + 2 v2 + gh2 2 2 P1 + 2 v1 = P2 + 2 v2 1 1 1 1

(h1 h2 )

[ ]

................................................................. (2)

Substitute [1] in [2]

( )
(( ) )

Therefore,

= =

( )
(( ) )

................................................................. (3)

Calculations for Orifice plate (P1 P2 ) = (water air )x g x |h| air = 1.23 kg/m3 water = 998kg/m3 D = 50mm , d = 20mm v1,orifice = QIdeal /A1 Re = (v1,orifice water D)/water

Calculation for Venturi tube (P1 P2 ) = (mercury water )x g x |h| mercury = 13000kg/m3 water = 998kg/m3 v1,venturi = QIdeal /A1 D = 20mm , d = 10mm Re = (v1,venturi water D)/water

To determine the QActual 6L of water was collected in a time period. = Discharge coefficient, =

Orifice Plate
0.66 0.64 0.62 0.6 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.5 0.48

Discharged Coefficient ,Cd

Figure 4.1: Graph of the Discharge Coefficient vs The Reynolds Number for the Orifice Plate
0 5000 10000 15000

Reynolds Number ,Re

Venturi Tube
0.86 0.84 0.82 0.8 0.78 Figure 4.2: Graph of the Discharge Coefficient 0.76 vs The Reynolds Number for the Venturi Tube 0.74 0.72 0.7 0.68 0 5000 10000 15000 20000

Discharged Coefficient ,Cd

25000

30000

Reynolds Number ,Re

Rotameter reading vs Actual flowrate

Rotameter Reading (10-3 m3/s)

0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2

0.15
0.1 0.05 0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45

Actual flow ((10-3 m3/s)

Figure 4.3: Graph of the Rotameter versus the actual flow 5.0 Discussion 5.0.1 Comparison of Processed Data to Literature Values During the experiment it was noted that the ratio of the diameter of the throat to that of the upstream was 0.4. Also as per table A3, given in the appendices of this report, the results for the orifice plate can be summarized as data ranges of 2366 to 10412 for the Reynolds number, and 0.49 to 0.64 for the discharge coefficient. We noted down the literature value from a graph taken from Munsons Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics plotting the Discharge Coefficient vs. Reynolds Number for an Orifice Plate, and we noted that for a ratio of the throat diameter to the upstream of 0.4, the Reynolds number ranged from 104 to 105 and the discharge coefficient ranged from 0.60 to 0.61. Upon comparison between the literature value and the results we noticed that the processed data range of 0.49<Re < 0.60 and 0.61<Re < 0.64 for the discharged coefficient, and the values for the Reynolds number do not corroborate the expected results and this can be attributed to experimental errors which will be discussed in detail in the latter part of this discussion.

Also, we can explain the vast difference in the range of values for the discharge coefficient by mechanical theory. The discharge coefficient for the orifice plate is dependent upon the ratio of the diameter of the throat to the diameter of the upstream as well as its shape and size. During the experiment the water was pumped through the tube and was forced through the orifice plate. Before the restoring region there existed a vortex form; a spiral of water entering the restoring region. This vortex leads to energy losses when the water is travelling through the tube. To offset the energy losses an orifice plate of greater diameter was used which resulted in a smaller vortex being formed, and hence there was a smaller magnitude of energy loss as compared to the orifice plate with a smaller diameter. However due to this increased diameter the volumetric flow rate / velocity of the water will be significantly higher, resulting in the discharge volume per unit time to be greater. Therefore it can be inferred from the aforementioned statement that the discharge coefficient is expected to increase and will be higher than the literature value. The processed data results for the Venturi meter as given in table A4 in the appendices of this report can be summarized as data ranges of 0.70 to 0.84 for the discharge coefficient and 5915 to 26030 for the Reynolds number. We noted down the literature value from a graph taken from Munsons Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics plotting the Discharge Coefficient vs. Reynolds Number for a Venturi Meter, and we noted that the Reynolds number ranged from 104 to 105 and the discharge coefficient ranged from 0.94 to 0.98. Upon comparison between the literature value and the results, we notice that the processed data for the Reynolds number and discharge coefficient does not fall within the specified literature value data range. This discrepancy may be attributed to the fact that the discharge coefficient depends on the geometry of the Venturi meter, and that there may have been energy losses to the systems surroundings. More specifically, the steeper the slope of the wall of the Venturi tube the more energy is required to force the water to travel across it. Hence more energy is lost for a Venturi tube with a steeper slope. Also, the steeper slope will result in a decrease in the discharge coefficient due to a decrease in the volume of water being discharged. However a bigger throat diameter counteracts the effects of the steeper slope and hence there is an overall increase in the discharge coefficient as seen in the results. 5.0.2 Errors In the duration of this experiment many errors were encountered which include random and systematic errors. A random error that occurred was parallax error due to the observers incorrect measurement when using the instruments provided. This error can be offset by conducting more trials or more pertinently, in this case, taking more readings. Another random error that was encountered was when the observer was recording the time; the human reaction time delays when starting and stopping the stop watch. In order to overcome this error we used the actual recorded time to calculate V, and factored in the human reaction time of 0.2 seconds into our calculations. Some systematic errors that took place when obtaining the raw data, was when taking measurements for the Venturi meter and Orifice plate. The reading of the manometer was not precise as the fluids were fluctuating. This led to difficulties in reading for the mercury and the water manometer in order to calculate delta h. To increase the accuracy and precision of this exercise / observer measurement, a camera capturing the fluctuations should have been installed to capture the readings.

6.0 Conclusion In the duration of this experiment, various instruments were used to collect raw data and process this data to calculate the volumetric flow rates. However, the data that which was collected from each instrument yielded different results as compared to the expected flow rate (Bernoullis Principle was employed to calculate the value of the ideal volumetric flow rate), which can be owed to uncertainties that arose due to experimental errors. 7.0 Refereces 1. Munson, Young, Okiishi 2007, Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition. pp. 513-516 2. http://www.kellyaerospace.com/articles/Accessory_AMT.pdf [Accessed: 13.09. 2013] 3. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/pitot-tubes-d_612. [Accessed: 13.09. 2013]
4. http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Chemistry-Vol-3-Physics-Vol-

1/Bernoulli-s-Principle-Real-life-applications.html#b [Accessed: 13.09. 2013]

Appendices Appendix I: Raw Data Table A1: Set of values measured during the experiment No Scale Measurement (Actual Flow Rate) Orifice Plate, Water Manometer D=50mm, d=20mm h1(cm) 29.5 29.1 26.3 21 15.4 10.7 6 1.8 h2(cm) 8.7 8.6 8.6 8 6.7 5 2.6 0 Venturi Tube, Mercury Manometer h1(cm) 7.4 7.4 8.5 10.2 11.5 12.7 13.6 14.3 h2(cm) 22.2 22.2 21 19.3 17.9 16.9 16 15.4 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.3 Rotameter (m3/h)

Volume (L) Time (s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 14.6 14.56 15.63 18.46 22.37 27.59 36.59 64.25

Appendix II: Calculated Values Table A2: Results of the volumetric flow rate for the Rotameter and the actual flow rate. Rotameter Qrotameter (m3/h) 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.3 (m3/s) (x10-3) 0.416666667 0.416666667 0.388888889 0.333333333 0.25 0.222222222 0.166666667 0.083333333

Qactual (m3/s) (x10-3) 0.402 0.379 0.344 0.318 0.297 0.281 0.252 0.219

Table A3: Values Calculated for the Orifice Plate h1 (m) 0.295 0.291 0.263 0.21 0.154 0.107 0.06 0.018 Orifice Plate, Water Manometer Vorifice Qideal P (Pa) (m/s) x10-3 (m3/s) 2033.889 0.2092996 0.0006425 2004.554 1730.762 1271.181 850.7133 557.3639 332.4627 176.0096 0.2098746 0.1955070 0.1655349 0.1366015 0.1107566 0.0835139 0.0475607 0.0006379 0.0005927 Reynolds Number, Re 10412.814 10441.42063 9726.620881 Discharge Coefficient, CD 0.639593047 0.646025933 0.647653395 0.639859886 0.645450062 0.646545553 0.631228195 0.494059066

h2 (m) 0.087 0.086 0.086 0.08 0.067 0.05 0.026 0

h (m) 0.208 0.205 0.177 0.13 0.087 0.057 0.034 0.018

0.00050797 8235.486694 0.00041555 6796.025229 0.00033636 5510.224153 0.00025978 4154.880688 0.00018901 2366.180302

Table A4: Values Calculated for the Venturi Meter Venturi Meter, Mercury Manometer h1 (m) 0.074 0.074 0.085 0.102 0.115 0.127 0.136 0.143 h2 (m) 0.222 0.222 0.21 0.193 0.179 0.169 0.16 0.154 h (m) 0.148 0.148 0.125 0.091 0.064 0.042 0.024 0.011 P (Pa) 18296.59 18296.59 15453.2 11249.93 7912.04 5192.276 2967.015 1359.882 Vorifice (m/s) 1.3081228 1.3117165 1.2219189 1.0345933 0.8537592 0.6922288 0.5219620 0.2972543 Qideal x10-3 (m3/s) 0.0004912 0.0004912 0.0004514 0.0003851 0.0003230 0.0002617 0.0001978 0.0001340 Reynolds Number, Re 26032.035 26103.552 24316.552 20588.717 16990.063 13775.560 10387.202 5915.4508 Discharge Coefficient, CD 0.8366798 0.83897836 0.85041127 0.84389924 0.83039939 0.83112557 0.82903899 0.69738647

Appendix III: Sample calculation for Orifice plate (D=50mm, d=20mm) Reading 1: H1=29.5mm H2=8.7mm Volume=6L Time=14.6s

Referring to the table (P1 P2 ) = (water air )x g x |h| (P1 P2 ) = (998 1.23)x 9.81 x |0.208m| = 2033.889 By using the equation 3 QIdeal = v1 A1 =
D2 4

2(P1 P2 )
D 4 w (( d ) 1)

QIdeal = v1 A1 =

0.052 4

3 998((0.05)4 1) = 0.0006425 m s
0.02

2(2033.889)

QActual =

Volume collected time

0.006m3 14.6

= 0.0004109 m3 s = 0.0006425 = 0.6396

Discharge coefficient, Cd = vOrifice = Re =

Q Actual Q Ideal

0.0006425 0.001964

= 0.2093m/s = 10412.6

v1,orifice water D water

0.20939980.05 0.001003

Appendix IV: Imported Graphs

Figure A5: Graph of the Discharge Coefficient vs Reynolds number for the venturi meter

Figure A6: Graph of the Discharge Coefficient vs Reynolds number for the Orifice