African Tribal Art Presentation

Specifically from Zambia, DRC, and Angola

By Stefan Celeketic

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Index
Tribal Descriptions Chokwe Tribe Artifacts Luba Tribe Artifacts Luchazi Tribe Artifacts Luvale Tribe Artifacts Mbunda Tribe Artifacts Tabwa Tribe Artifacts Bibliography pg 2 8 pg 9 21 pg 22 26 pg 27 28 pg 29 36 pg 37 43 pg 44 48 pg 49

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Chokwe Tribal Information

The history of this tribe is closely related to the tale of Chibinda Ilunga, a Luba prince, famous hunter and explorer. The Chokwe were a part of the Lunda aristocracy that migrated to present day Angola, along the banks of the Zambezi River following Chibinda and their princess Lueji. The Chokwe used a system of governance based on successive kingdoms, each one of which was headed by a god-king. During 1860s, after a major famine, they migrated south, again along the banks of the Zambezi River. They generally populated a large area, consisting of the present day parts of DRC, Angola and Zambia. Today, the Chokwe are governed by a king called Mwana Ngana, who distributes hunting and cultivation areas. The male society Mugonge, and female society Ukule, regulate their social life. They are excellent hunters and good agriculturists and their dynamic spirit is also reflected in their art. Chokwe art is very diverse and there are many examples of it. It is perhaps the tribe which created the largest number of artifacts. The Chokwe make masks, statues, fetishes, baskets, combs, head rests, objects of power, chairs, tobacco boxes, musical instruments (drums, whistles, and thumb pianos) and almost any other type of craft in association with wood. The Chokwe are closely related to several other tribes of its area that were also formed after the aristocratic migration from the Lunda Empire caused by the marriage of Chibinda Ilunga and Princess Lueji. These tribes are; the Luchazi, Mbunda, and Luvale.

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Luba Tribal Information

In 1585, King Kongolo formed the Luba Empire. His successor and nephew, Kalala Ilunga (father of famous Chibinda Ilunga) expanded the empire to contain the upper left bank of the Lualaba River. At its peak, more then one million people were paying tribute to the Luba king. That was how Luba government operated. With the assistance of a court of nobles, the king ruled over clan kings who in turn ruled over the people. A secret society called Bambudye kept the memory of the Luba Empire alive and well fused into the peoples minds. This bonded the diverse people together, disbanding all thoughts of infighting. Luba economy was based on a tribute system combined with the redistribution of such resources from agriculture, fishing, hunting and mining. The production of salt and iron was under the kings control as well, as these were valuable commodities of the time. The Luba Empire fell apart at the end of the 19th century due to a combination of factors such as advancing armies, raids and finally the Belgian colonial occupation of the Congo. The Luba culture is thus a diverse mix of influences, and this can be seen in their art. The Luba make masks, ancestral pieces, memory boards, and pots, objects of power, fetishes, maternity figures, musical instruments and statues. Luba pieces of art are meant to convey Luba ideology and religious beliefs. Additionally Luba art displays the power of the Luba Empire and embodies the power of the king. Unlike the Lunda, the Luba were not only traders. They would conquer enemies, and then make them pay tribute expanding their Empire and gaining more riches.

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Luchazi Tribal Information

The Luchazi are closely related to the Chokwe, Lunda and Luba tribes. Their history is interconnected especially with the Lunda and Chokwe tribes. Between 1600 to about 1850, the Luchazi were dominated by the Lunda and located in central Angola. In the second half of the 19th century, trade from the Chokwe homelands to the Angolan coast enriched the Luchazi thus allowing them to expand and free them of Lunda rule. The Luchazi grow manioc, cassava, yams, peanuts, tobacco, hemp and maize. They also engage in domesticated livestock such as sheep, goats, pigs and chickens. Meat is obtained through hunting. Farming is reserved nearly exclusively for women. Slash and burn and crop rotation techniques are employed to conserve the land. The Luchazi do not have one ruler. Instead, they offer their allegiance to several chiefs. The chiefs inherited power following the matrilineal line and before making any decision they consult with a committee of elders and ritual specialists. There are only two categories in Luchazi society; those who descend from the founding matrilineal lines, and those of descent from conquered peoples. The most popular type of Luchazi art is masks, which are used during initiation ceremonies. The Luchazi also practice singing, dancing (thus including drumming and other such instruments) as well as basket making. The Luchazi believe in god creation as well as a spirit world. This includes evil spirits that may be activated by sorcerers to cause illness, unhappiness and even death. Diviners must be consulted in order to stop the effects of evil spirits. They would utilize a divination basket to find the source of the problem and consult the patient on what to do. All these factors of Luchazi society are proof of the diversity of their culture.

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Luvale Tribal Information

The Luvale originate from the north of Lake Tanganyika, from which they migrated to the Mwata Yamwa kingdom in Congo. They then moved into Zambia, occupying the North Western Province, specifically the district known as Yambeji, place of plenty water. They are also found in Angola. The current chief of the Luvale is senior chief Ndungu. An interesting fact about the Luvale is that their kinship is matrilineal. Traditional crops of the Luvale include cassava, yams, ground nuts, tobacco, hemp, and maize. The Luvale also engage in domesticating livestock and hunting. The traditional capital of the Luvale is Senior Chief Ndungus palace at Mize. The Luvale have a very rich culture, part of which is shared with other tribes of their area, mostly the Luchazi, Mbunda and Chokwe people. The main ceremonies of the Luvale are those associated with the initiation of adolescent boys and girls. These are Likumbi lya Mize for the boys and Wali for the girls. The main crafts of the Luvale are different wood-carvings, basketry, iron smelting and Makishi related items. Makishi masks and suits, along with the Likumbi lya Mize ceremony (choreography of dances, music and theatrical acts) are what the Luvale are famous for. In the Likumbi lya Mize, you may experience the variety of Luvale culture, such as their numerous types of drums and other such instruments accompanied by an abundance of varied dances.

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Mbunda Tribal Information

After migrating from Angola, the Mbunda settled in western Zambia. They most likely originated from the Luba Empire that settled in the Congo. The Mbunda have put themselves under the governing of the Lozi king. The Mbunda are the second largest population governed by the king (second only to the Lozi people). Therefore Mbunda chiefs reside over various areas, for example Kaoma. These chiefs answer to the Lozi king. Mbunda economy relies on farming, as the Mbunda are generally subsistence farmers who grow maize, millet and cassava. Traditionally the Mbunda live in village societies presided over by a headman. The Mbunda engage in polygamy as well as complicated initiation rituals for men and women, Mukunda and Wali. The Mbunda as with other tribes associated with them believe in spirits. These are usually the spirits of deceased ancestors and are believed to affect all aspects of daily life. Furthermore, evil spirits are believed to be the cause of illness, famine or death. For this reason, Mbunda believe in the practices of divination for finding the cause of these spirits displeasures and disbanding them Mbunda also use magic, such as fetishes to keep away such spirits. Also witch finders are employed in order to seek people who purposefully use the spirits to harm others. Mbunda masks are generally characterized by slanted eyes with multiple lids as well as a rectangular mouth which reveals the teeth. The Mbunda as well as making masks also produce ancestral pieces, statues, mythical figures, fetishes, musical instruments, headrests, and divination figures.

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Tabwa Tribal Information

Originally, the Tabwa lived under Luba domination. They specifically lived in small autonomous villages scattered in the DRC, Zambia and along Lake Tanganyika. The word Tabwa actually mean to be tied up and refers to the period were the Tabwa people were taken as slaves. Luckily, the ivory trade brought wealth to these regions during the 19th century. The Tabwa were then able to gain independence of the Luba (the empire collapsed anyways). In the present, the Tabwa people number somewhere within the range of 200,000 and are led by chief-sorcerers who rule over village chiefs and family chiefs. The power is counterbalanced by male and female societies, systems based on East African models. Traditionally, Tabwa economy relied on hunting and blacksmithing; nowadays it rests upon farming and fishing. The Tabwa are a very diverse culture, as visible from their art. After so many decades under Luba domination, they have picked up quite a few of their traits. The Tabwa make dolls, instruments (such as drums), ceremonial sculptures, fetishes and other religious objects.

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Object 1; Chokwe Divination Basket (Ngombo Ya Chizuka)

Baskets such as this one, which are used for divination purposes, are different from other baskets not only by their function but in their form as well. It comes from a village near Kaoma (Zambia - Western Province). In general, divination baskets (called Ngombo) are wide and shallow, while normal ones are narrow and deep. It assists and extends the human body (its container function) as well as being a powerful entity personified with human-like qualities. In order to be used, the basket has to be made and transformed with a ritual ceremony into an animate object (has to be animated). A women past menopause must make the basket. The price of it is determined by her and the diviner. The diviner must then come on the determined day before sunrise (5:00) and steal the basket. He must also leave his payment. When the woman wakes up, she will see that her basket is missing, get up and start following the footprints of the diviner. She will get tired and start cursing the diviner, Hope you die! I hope your children die! I hope you break your head! She will take a stick while saying this, and smack it on the ground in-between phrases. This will animate the basket, making it useful to the diviner. As is visible, in the basket there is an assortment of objects inside the basket. These are divination figures. Once a diviner is hired by a person, he performs the ritual of divination. A diviner will shake his basket containing the figures and spill them on flat sand bed surface. He will then proceed to read the figures depending on where they are situated and how they are placed. He will then consult the patient telling them what is bothering them and what must be done. The figures vary and consist of people, animals, objects as well as vegetable and mineral subjects. Quite distinguishable items visible here are: comb, circumcision knife, rattle, antelope (duiker) horn, chicken leg, statue of thinker, statue of pregnant woman, insect cocoon, animal bones, etc.

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Object 2; Chokwe Divination Cup

Women always hold and support divination cups, as in this case. The four women (all shown in different posture) are visible on the outside of the cup. They represent the importance of women in the spiritual and current world. Divination cups are said to have healing powers. If a substance is put inside them, and then administered to the patient, it should heal. In some cases, it is consecrated and filled with milk, pemba (chalk powder), animal blood, eggs and left like that in order to protect the owner, the home or his whole family. The effect of these substances is visible on the inside of the cup which has clearly deteriorated in spite of it being made from very hard wood. In addition, the bowl figures have oracular powers (in this case, the women). They speak for the spirits and can explore, finding evidence on suspected criminals for the diviner owning the cup. This cup comes from the border areas between Zambia (North Western Province), the D.R.C (Katanga Province) and Angola.

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Object 3; Chokwe Maternity

This maternity statue shows the importance of women. It shows a new mother. She is caring for her child, metaphorically sustaining and further developing the community. She also represents the process of being and becoming a true woman, as she has just experienced. It also shows the joys of life, as the women is very happy with her child, as is visible through her caring expression and careful handling of her child. It can be determined that the woman is young because she has no bodily scarifications and has a young form. Lastly, a factor discerning the woman as of Chokwe craft is not only the hairstyle but also coffee shaped eyes, beads used and body posture. It comes from Zambia (Western Province).

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Object 4; Chokwe Ceremonial Fly Whisk

This is an example of a ceremonial fly whisk owned by the chief. It comes from border areas between Zambia (Western Province) and Angola. It belongs to a category of royal art present in courts where skilled artisans and craftsman were employed to produce advanced objects (like this one) characterized by high level of details and refinement. They also produced royal thrones (seats), combs, tobacco boxes, etc. On the top of the whisk, there is a woman. This is most likely celebrating the importance of women in society. As you can see, the woman is pregnant. This is showing the chief duties of a woman, to continue the race and raise many good children who will do the same. The scarificatations on the body (and characteristic Maltese Cross on the forehead) indicate that the woman has been through many initiation ceremonies and is thus experienced. The women may also be representing someone of importance, such as the chiefs wife. The woman may also be a representation of a spirit because of the strange facial features and fantastical hair.

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Object 5; Chokwe Fetish Peg (Kampwonya)

The Kampwonya is a type of fetish peg used for the protection of property, a certain area, or a specific house against evil spirits, bad luck or diseases. You can see that the end has been affected by humidity in the ground which caused deterioration and breaking of the end of the peg. Originally, the end of the peg is sharpened so that it could be easily driven into the ground. The kampwonya is a type of a good luck charm. Several are usually placed on the borders of the village, and it is thus protected from evil spirits, people, or animals. Additionally it could be used as protection for buildings and other objects. This actual Kampwonya is a woman. The elaborate and beautiful hairstyle is very characteristic of such figures but also striking is the use of white pigments for facial decoration (around eyes) as well as the belt which was probably used to hold some sort of a skirt which is missing. It comes from border areas between Zambia (Western Province) and Angola.

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Object 6; Chokwe Chibinda Ilunga

Chibinda Ilunga is a role model for his tribal group. He is the hero of the people, and that is why he is often idolized in carvings. In this carving, several aspects are idolized but more than anything else is his hair. This is how Chibinda Ilunga is often discernable from more ordinary statues of chiefs. Chibinda Ilungas hair is almost always fantastical, meaning that it isnt possible to be created in the real world. As you can see here, it is like a frill, with multiple layers sticking out in the back. Additionally, it is visible through his facial features that he is Chibinda Ilunga, as his smile is almost saying I am proud of my people. Furthermore, Chibinda Ilunga has only several distinct positions that he can take, such as standing with a rifle or spear, holding his hands like he were clapping, and sitting straight backed like in this instance. Influence of western culture is present in this foldable chair which is not characteristic for their culture. Lastly, Chibinda Ilunga sometimes has a Maltese cross on his head (classic Chokwe trademark seen on many of their carvings), but not in this case. Here we see it decorated with beautiful tack nails (wide headed nails) made of brass. This statue comes from border areas between Zambia, D.R.C and Angola.

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Object 7; Chokwe Chibinda Ilunga

This is another statue of Chibinda Ilunga, yet in a different form. It comes from border areas between Zambia (Western Province) and Angola. Here, the hairstyle is very complex. It is created in such (functional) way that it can be used as a handle, as the three strands join in the middle. Like the previous statue, this hairstyle also has a frill. Again, we know that it is Chibinda Ilunga by observing his detailed hair structure which has specific Chokwe cross-hatch pattern and the specific position he is in. This statue has a Maltese cross, signifying that it is of Chokwe make. His body is very strong, stout and muscular as real warrior and hunter should be. Furthermore, this statue is distinguishable by use of real human hair for face decoration (beard), accentuating the importance of it through such detail. He is also wearing bangles around his wrists like any high ranked member of their society. Disproportion in size of his feet and the rest of the body is coming as a result of the need for structural stability of the whole composition.

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Object 8; Chokwe Pwevo mask

The Pwevo (or Mwana Pwo-the meaning being young woman) mask symbolizes the perfect mother. Though being young she is also experienced. She has characteristic coffee bean slit eyes and the numerous complex scarification symbols on her face that signify that she has been through several initiation ceremonies, thus being fit to be a mother. Her hairstyle and crown is elaborately done with vegetal fibers and natural fiber rope indicating not only that the mask is of Chokwe origin but also that it is of royal origin and background. The mask spreads fertility. She is the ideal of womanhood with her good manners and looks. It is to be kept in mind that Chokwe society is matrilineal and follows maternal line, emphasizing female importance in their world and following Princess Lweji as ultimate mother of their society. It comes from border areas between Zambia (Western Province) and Angola.

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Object 9; Chokwe Tobacco Container-Snuff Mortar

This tobacco container-snuff mortar represents a trader riding an ox. The great attention paid to detail throughout the figure, especially in the face, is a result of the traders dignified status. This may have been a high officials or a chiefs containermortar, due to the intricate detail and elaborate decorative use of nails. The object also shows the importance of traders, alluding that they are an important part of society and needed for the continued existence of any tribe. It belongs to so called royal art objects, produced by highly-skilled craftsman hired by the court to produce such refined objects as: flywhisks, thrones, combs, masks, etc. It comes from border areas between Zambia (North Western Province), Angola and DRC.

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Object 10; Chokwe Pwevo Makishi Statue

The statue of a Makishi ceremony dancer wearing characteristic Pwevo mask (or Mwana Pwo-young woman) illustrates realistically how a typical dancer would look like. The dancer is wearing a vegetal fiber netted suit and uses feathers for additional decoration. Pwevo mask used in Makishi initiation ceremony (the most important one in Chokwe culture where initiates are becoming the part of the world of adults) is depicting the perfection of motherhood, so that young girls may know what they are expected to become. It also depicts the culture of the people and celebrates spiritual as well as the real world of Makishi. The look on the masks face is one of stern pride, pride in the customs and traditions that have been kept for millennia. The mask has a Maltese cross. This indicates that it was created by the Chokwe. It comes from border areas between Zambia and Angola.

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Object 11; Chokwe Maternity

This maternity statue might actually not have been designed as a piece by itself. It is most likely broken off from a bigger piece, like a royal throne or elaborate stool, and was fashioned into a single piece. Such small compositions are usually decorating spaces in between legs of elaborate and complexly decorated chairs. It celebrates women and promotes their importance in society. It also shows their duty in continuing the population. Lastly, hairstyles and concentric cross-hatch shapes indicate Chokwe craftsmanship. The piece also shows respect for women (probably chief herself or chiefs wife), as the woman is being carried by men on a special stretcher or cradle. It comes from Zambia (North Western Province, Mwinilunga area).

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Object 12; Chokwe Princess Lueji (or Lweji)

This is a statue of Princess Lueji. It comes from border areas between Zambia and Angola. We can easily conclude that this is her representation (similar as with Chibinda Ilunga) as she has a nearly impossible coiffure. Princess Lueji has great significance in Chokwe history as she was the founding mother of the whole tribe. It is assumed that somewhere in 17th century, Chibinda Illunga (son of Kalala Illunga, the great king of Luba tribe who ruled over the large territory consisting of present day Katanga-DRC and North-Western as well as Luapula province of Zambia), the great hunter and explorer, on one of his trips to the South of Luba kingdom came across Lunda people (also known as the Luena people). He was taken to their king and seeing his beautiful daughter, Princess Lueji, fell in love with her immediately. The love was both sided and two of them soon got married. However, under the pressure from Lunda aristocracy (who did not want a foreigner to become their ruler) they decided to move away towards Zambezi with their entourage consisting of partly Luba and Lunda people. They settled along Zambezi and this beautiful love story (like Romeo and Juliet) was the beginning of Chokwe tribe. On this specific statue, the filed teeth, a sign of beauty, show Princess Luejis status. Her, coffee bean shaped, slit eyes are a common example of Chokwe artisanship, proving that the statue is of Chokwe craftsmanship. The size of the statue may also be an accentuation of the figures status.

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Object 13; Chokwe Ceremonial Mask

This Cihongo mask is a male mask of great importance and is balanced with famous Mwana Pwo female mask. It was probably used on occasions like initiation and inauguration. Though it does not have a typical square shaped beard under the chin, it is still very characteristic by the expression and various scarifications which indicate that it has been through several initiation ceremonies. Additionally, through the complex coiffure it is apparent that the person or spirit depicted by the mask is one of great importance. The filed teeth and feathers also convey this message. Lastly, the mask is visibly a Chokwe piece, as the triangles on the forehead, the concentric figures on the head, and the slit eyes are all trade marks of the Chokwe. It comes from border areas between Zambia, Angola and D.R Congo.

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Object 14; Luba Ancestral statue

This ancestral composition, atypical for Luba craftsman (it shows characteristic coffee-bean shaped eyes and hairstyles), presents a group of elders and a drummer. It is presumably representing a wedding ceremony. The elders are participating in the festivities of a wedding ceremony such as dancing and the drummer is providing the entertainment. Such ancestral pieces were created in order to record an event similar to our modern culture tendency to record our important events on camera. There may have been additional parts to the piece, such as other younger people dancing, yet it looks like this part may have been broken off. The piece is quite aged, as you can see from the discoloration of the wood and the broken piece. It comes from border areas between Zambia and D.R Congo.

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Object 15; Luba Maternity

This maternity statue shows the importance of women in Luba socimty. It comes from border areas between Zambia and D.R Congo. It shows an older woman, taking care of her two children-babies. She is caring for them, nurturing (breast-feeding) them, and sustaining the community. This statues purpose may be to show the duties of women promote them and glorify how they must be fulfilled. Additionally this piece is also praising the accomplishments of this woman, and other women too. Generally, this ancestral statue shows the importance of women. This piece may be identified as Luba through the specific elaborate hairstyle, face expression canonized by Luba artists and use of beads for neck decoration.

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Object 16; Luba Memory Board (Lukasa)

Luba memory boards (Lukasa) are mnemonic instruments in their society, used to record history. On a board, a bead can represent a hero and a line of beads may be his journey or represent migration of a whole tribal clan. These boards are used to stimulate, not to symbolize coded text. A reader will be reminded of ancient stories through the iconography of a memory board. These stories would have been imbedded in his memory, and the board may just uncover them. For example, this specific one may tell the story of a heros birth, or the story of the brave sacrifices of a mother. The exact meanings (relative to the significance and background of each bead) were known to the chief and were transferred from father to son. Lots of such knowledge was lost in the period of slavery and colonization (where even epidemics of unknown diseases like measles and others) were causing high mortality and links (father to son) were broken. This Lukasa is specific as it is horizontal in shape and form (making it possible to have beautiful three-dimensional female figure as decoration on top) unlike most of the others which are vertical. It comes from border areas between Zambia and D.R Congo.

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Object 17; Luba Memory Board (Lukasa)

This Luba tribe Lukasa memory board has the same purpose as the previous one. It comes from border areas between Zambia and D.R Congo. It is to remind a reader of something he already knows. This one is more extensive then the previous one, meaning that it covers longer period of history, telling a more complex tail. Having a vertical shape, it is also more extensively decorated with the head, arms and geometric symbols on shoulders and on the bottom of the figure, most likely meaning that it belonged to a more important figure then the previous one. The central part of Lukasa is covered with pemba (chalk powder mixed with water and/or milk) as it was consecrated every time when beads (records) were added on to the board. The beads were fixed to the board using wooden nails rather than metal ones showing that it is really old. The face on the top of the board and decorations may also be a representation of something from the tale told by the board. The exact meanings (relative to the significance and background of each bead) were known only to the chief and were transferred from father to son. Lots of such knowledge was lost in the period of slavery and colonization (where even epidemics of unknown diseases like measles and others) were causing high mortality and links (father to son) were broken. Again, it can be easily determined that this is a Luba piece of work, visible through the coffee shaped eyes, hairstyle and specific geometric patterns.

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Object 18; Luba Staff of Power

Items such as this staff are used to represent and appraise the power of the holder. They are often called staffs of power instead of ceremonial staffs. They also show authority (for example the chiefs authority). This specific staff may represent ancestors or spirits, and how both men and women are needed in a society. It comes from border areas between Zambia and D.R Congo. That is why both of them are represented on the top of the staff, both having beautiful, Luba-style coiffeurs. The top part of the staff is made of hard wood and decorated with typical Luba cross-hatch pattern carvings while the bottom part is made of steel (for durability). It probably did belong to a chief and was certainly extensively used judging by the wasted (shiny) areas in the middle of it where it was held by hands.

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Object 19; Luchazi Fetish

Fetish items have great significance in African culture. They usually have abdominal cavities with materials inserted inside of them or some other kind of mysterious or strange attribute (such as many nails, animal hide or body parts, seeds, glass, mirrors, etc.). Also many fetishes have mirror or glass embedded in them, as it is supposed to ward off evil (by reflecting it away). Typically fetishes may be kept in a house, to protect against intruders, spirits or other evils. Fetishes are reminiscent of Kampwonya, but generally smaller and not used as pegs or outside. These are coming from Zambia (Western or North-Western Province). This fetish couple is primarily used for protection and is supposed to ward of evils (such as spirits or bad people). It is most likely supposed to chase away spirits which may be ruining a marriage or love. The addition of the necklaces to the fetish is just a modernization of tribal art, making the object more attractive and less scary.

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Object 20; Luchazi Ancestral figure

Ancestral figures of this type are supposed to keep memory of the specific person and even become home for the spirits of the deceased ones. It comes from Zambia (Western or North-Western Province). This figure is specific as it does not show much or any of the individualized characteristics of the person; you can hardly even tell if it is male or female. It is very old which is visible from the body features being extensively worn in spite of the fact that they are carved out of a very hard wood. Also, the feet have been destroyed, most likely from a fall or accidental fracture. This ancestor was most likely an ordinary person, as it has no special additions to its body, such as necklaces, armlets or a special coiffure. Its hairstyle though is specific to the Luchazi, and so makes this artifact easily identifiable.

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Object 21; Luvale Ancestral figures

These typical Luvale figures coming from the same clan or tribal group are very old. They are coming from Zambia (Western or North-Western Province). This is evident from their discoloration and worn out features, similar to the previous ancestral statue. Though it is assumed that they (most likely) represent ordinary ancestors, one of them is obviously consecrated and covered with some sort of crusty patina (they probably used milk, eggs, pemba powder, etc), the same or similar pieces were also used by the village kids for playing (similar to the modern day dolls). This would explain the wear of the figures. These figures show the relationships in the society, because as you can see, they are not only just different people, but showing different posture, mood, attitude and even profession. It is assumed that the person holding one hand with the other is handing over something (or paying), the one having hands together in front is praying or showing humility and the last one with hands behind is possibly a slave or convict (caught in wrong doing and tied up).

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Object 22; Luvale Ancestral figures

This couple of ancestral figures belongs to the same category as the previous ones, and accordingly, the same background is present. It comes from Zambia (Western or North-Western Province). The figures are old (the actual wood is old, not the figures represented) and the artist used pigments in treating the wood surface in order to get more realistic effect-one even looks like wearing the jacket. They seem to be ordinary ancestors and they show a relationship in society. This specific relationship may be related to height or to wealth, as one of the figures has a hairstyle, while the other is bald.

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Object 23; Luvale Fetish

This fetish figure is very interesting both in its form and substance or intended purpose of use. It comes from Zambia (Western Province). This fetish is specifically designed for men. When a man lusts after a woman that is married he must use this fetish. If he places it in the womans house, everyone except her and the one who placed the fetish will fall asleep. Then the man may have a night alone with the woman that he yearns for. In the morning, he must take the fetish. All of the household members will not remember anything, specifically the woman, and the man who yearns for her must then continue his life, keep quiet about it and find another woman. This fetish would have been made by the village mulozi (witchdoctor) and given to men that needed it accordingly. The woman on the fetish represents the women that this staff might be used on. It is decorated with feathers and the foot ankle is reinforced by stitches; the ankle is movable like a real body joint. The decoration on the top of the head contains larvae of forest insect.

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Object 24; Luvale Ancestral figure

According to the size and careful attention paid to the details on this statue, it most likely represents someone of importance. It comes from Zambia (Western or NorthWestern Province). Again, it is visible that the statue is old not only because of areas used for holding are wasted and also has damaged feet (can not stand on its own) but also by the type of art and craftsmanship which disappeared long time ago. There is a colonial influence present in this piece as well, as the man is wearing pants, perhaps signifying that he is not of African descent. The surface of the statue (small flat areas recognizable on the wood surface) indicates that it was done using adze (small axe) like most of the items coming from that period (not less than 50 years ago).

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Object 25; Luvale Sachihongo Mask

One of the most famous Makishi ceremonial masks is Chihongo mask, which again is similar to Sachihongo. This is because they are brothers. It comes from Zambia (Western Province). They both have basically the same face, but Sachihongo has wrinkles above his eyes and sometimes feathers. They are both hunter spirits. Sachihongo is also spirit of wealth, power, as well as being a chief, diviner and accomplished hunter. Both masks are used in Makishi initiation ceremony during Mukanda. The mask has the traditional black and red surface color obtained from natural ingredients (iron oxide for red and sooth for black color) and is adorned (decorated) with well preserved feathers forming a crown at the back. The mask is worn together with the suit made from vegetal fiber net. The Makishi initiation ceremony which is held once a year is one of the most important events not only for Luvale but also other tribes populating banks of Zambezi river like: Mbunda, Luchazi, Chokwe, etc. By that time, boys and girls (following the period of seclusion and training) are initiated and adopted into the world of adults through a series of ceremonies, dances and celebrations.

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Object 26; Luvale Kateya Mask

Kateya mask is known as the arrogant, proud one, participating in Makishi ceremony. It comes from Zambia (Western Province). He has special strength and supernatural powers. He is also said to represent an important royal ancestor. Kateya does not dance and keeps at distance with the other Makishi. He is also inaccessible to people, as he is special. As visible Kateya has strange decoration around his mouth on his face. These shapes accentuate his importance and difference from the other Makishi. The patterns on Kateyas head identify him as Luvale. Though not present in this case, Kateya like all the other masks in their iconography, is wearing net-suit made from natural fibers.

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Object 27; Luvale Chikuza Mask

Chikuza mask is a likishi (single of Makishi) with a long conical likelevende (head). It comes from Zambia (Western Province). His main purpose is to teach the complex kuhunga dance to every initiate in Mukanda, as they all must perform it at the end of the ceremony in order to pass initiation. Chikuza is a strict and exact instructor. He is also the patron and protector of Mukanda boys. His mask symbolizes human fertility and success in hunting. The mask is in the traditional colors of Makishi (black, white and red), signifying that it has been used in ceremonies. The structure of the mask is created from figs tied up together (strong but still flexible) on top of which they spread tree bark impregnated with natural epoxy resin (which hardens and gives nice structure). It also has beard created from tree-bark pieces. Chikuza like all the other masks in their iconography, is wearing net-suit made from natural fibers.

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Object 28; Luvale Chizaluke

Chizaluke is a likishi closely associated with Mukanda, where he plays an important role instructing the young initiates. He thus assumes the role of tutoring ancestor, even though Chizaluke himself does not speak or sing. During Mukanda, each initiate must carve a mask in the likeliness of Chizaluke. The actual mask is carved from wood, while the incised tribal markings and beard are fashioned from fibers of bark. Another characteristic of Chizaluke are the three protuberances on its head, which clearly distinguish it from other similar Makishi. Additionally, the Chizaluke costume may have a phallic appendage, to represent male sexuality. The appendage is called fwi fwi. Chizaluke is liked by the people. Often, special rhythmic Chizaluke songs are sung in order to encourage him to perform, especially his flirting with the women. Although Chizaluke may display some sexually aggressive and explicit movements towards women, his actions are always controlled; that is why Chizaluke is liked, not feared.

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Object 29; Mbunda Mwendojangula Statue

Mwendajangula is one legged forest creature that resembles a man. It comes from Zambia (Western Province). It represents practically half a man and is in principle showing left side. The legend says that it can be seen after funerals and if someone sees him, then he will follow it and disappear for days. After coming back to the village, the person has total amnesia and does not remember anything, apart from the fact that he met Mwendojangula before he disappeared. He is sometimes shown with a snake, representing the forest and the mysteries of nature. He is also sometimes called Mwendojangwa (depending on the area).

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Object 30; Mbunda Mythical Creature

This statue portrays a mythical figure in tribal legends. It comes from Zambia (Western Province). The figure is half man half owl. It is evident through the facial expression that this creature is not friendly. It is shy of humans, and stays away from them. He is rumored to come out at night. He is also more bird then man, and so favors their company. That is why one must not hunt owls, as they are wise creatures, like the man. Statues such as this one are supposed to bring the good luck to the owner or the whole village.

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Object 31; Mbunda Ceremonial Mask

This ceremonial mask is either an ancestor or a spirit. It might have been used in initiation ceremonies. It is probably used in teaching some kind of lesson like the Makishi, or it may represent something of importance to the tribe, like an important past chief. The filed teeth and squinting eyes further portray the importance of this figure. Lastly the date scribed on the surface of the cheek (1920), presuming it relates to the year when it was created, confirms that this is a very old mask. It also may be a trade mark of the craftsmen or a latter addition from colonial times. It comes from Zambia (Western Province).

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Object 32; Mbunda Divination figure

Based on the very specific posture and holding cup in hand, we can presume that this figure was used for divination purposes. It comes from Zambia (Western Province). He may be a divination spirit, as he is holding a divination cup. It may represent how the spirit, the cup and the diviner are connected through the cup. If a diviner is skilled enough, he will be able to talk to the spirit within and learn certain information from it. This image may portray the spirit manifesting itself outside the cup, or a diviner using the cup. The face is 180 degrees opposite the normal position and is decorated with nice braids made of vegetal fiber. One hand was broken long time ago and fixed using a piece of metal sheet and nails. It is thus discernible that the statue is quite old.

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Object 33; Mbunda Fetish

This fetish may have been used as general protection from evils like spirits, people, and animals, or it may have been modeled to look like a person that the specific household did not want near them. It is interesting to note that abdominal cavity used for keeping bajimba (magic material made from natural substances and/or animal/insect parts and giving power to the fetish) is in most cases covered with glass but not on this one. Glass or other strange objects such as nails are usually utilized to keep evil spirits away. However, traces of bajimba materials used and applied to this statue are still clearly visible in the same cavity. Nice, natural pigments were used for decorating this piece (red and black). The statue comes from Zambia (Western Province).

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Object 34; Tabwa Village Potteau Peg/Statue

This peg/statue was used for marking the territory of a specific tribal group or single village. It was widely used by many tribes in Great Lakes region. The main purpose was to be planted on the small, artificial or even natural hump on the ground at the entrance (each one of them regardless of the number) of the village, with the idea to tell the traveler that he is entering such territory (in this case belonging to Tabwa). Such Potteau has to have typical marks for that tribe; in this case, facial and body scarification, iron ring/necklace etc. In addition to that primary role, it also has to ward off evil and protect village-in respect of that, the hole on the top of the head was used for consecration (they filled it with magic potions giving it power and energizing it). It is made out of a single log of very hard, dense wood, defying harsh weather conditions, so that it may be placed in the ground to protect the village for a long time. This statue is a woman, because this shows the importance of a woman in society. It comes from Zambia (Northern Province).

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Object 35; Tabwa Buffalo Ceremonial Mask

This typical Tabwa mask represents a buffalo. It comes from Zambia (Northern Province). The buffalo is one of the big five, one of the biggest and strongest animals in Africa. It is known as a Tabwa male mask, portraying the masculine spirit. This mask may have also been used in certain ceremonies such as initiation. It could portray the dangers of life. It probably taught some kind of lesson to initiates. It is interesting to note the earrings that the animal is wearing; perhaps showing that man has an influence even on the strongest of animals.

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Object 36; Tabwa Mikisi Statue

Mikisi statues represent ancestors, healers or spirits. They can inspire through dreams. They also had powers of healing, protection and magic. They could be used to protect, seek out evil. Because of these attributes, they are usually kept very safe in the chiefs treasury. They can be utilized by village elders and diviners to assist in any of their problems. They would go to the Chiefs treasury and sleep beside the Mikisi so that it may help them through dreams. Visibly, this male figure is quite old. The filed teeth accentuate its importance while the concentric pattern like scarifications on the face as well as Tabwa unique pony-tail hair style, indicate that this piece is of the Tabwa origin. It comes from Zambia (Northern Province).

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Object 37; Tabwa Childrens Doll

This was most likely a childs doll. You can see that the piece has sustained quite a lot of damage. This is because of children playing with it. The piece was most likely designed in the appearance of an ancestor but also with some Western influence (judging by the style of the dress). This way it would have some meaning yet also be a useful toy for the child. Another scenario could be that the artifact was designed as an ancestral homage, but was then turned into a toy. It comes from Zambia (Northern Province).

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Object 38; Tabwa Slave Figure

Statues of one figure carrying another figure represent slavery. This one comes from Zambia (Northern Province). The same statues also represent status. This means that the person being carried is of very high status, like a chief, while the person carrying him may be one of his loyal servants. These types of artifacts are used during inauguration ceremonies and are very rare. The fact that one is a woman and the other is a man may show the importance of both genders in their society.

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Object 39; Tabwa Ceremonial Drum

This is a ceremonial drum, perhaps used by a high official or someone important, judging by the level of detail present all over this item. It comes from Zambia (Northern Province). The drum would not have been a regular one, as it can only be played while in a standing position and does not have large sized cavity (resonance chamber) for good performance. This was most likely a prestige item, decorative drum showing the high status of the owner, only used on some special occasions or ceremonies. Again, there is a woman shown on the drum. This is not only showing the importance of women in their society but probably represented actual face of an ancestor or woman of importance such as the chiefs wife.

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Object 40; Tabwa Pupee

These two artifacts are childrens dolls, known as pupee. This name probably originated from the French language, as a similar word is used for the same object. It is obvious that these are childrens dolls, as you can even see that they have a shape that easily allows them to be held by small hands. Lastly, the dolls are both women, as usually a girl would be playing with them, as the boys would be out playing sports. The necklaces that they are wearing may just be a modernization in order to make the toys attractive to modern children, so that they do not yearn for something more advanced from the cities. They come from Zambia (Northern Province).

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Bibliography for Personal Project

Bacquart, Jean-Baptiste. Tribal arts of Africa. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1998. Print. Celeketic, Branko. "Zambian Tribal Art." Personal interview. 3 Jan. 2010. "Chokwe." African Art Museum. 1 Jan. 2010. Web. 1 Jan. 2010. <http://www.zyama.com/chokwe/index.htm>. "Chokwe Information." Art and Life in Africa. 3 Nov. 1998. Web. 1 Jan. 2010. <http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Chokwe.html>. Ellert, Henrik. The Maagic of Makishi. UK: CBC, 2004. Print. Guhrs, Tamara. Ceremony! celebrating Zambia's cultural heritage. Ed. Mulenga Kapwepwe. Lusaka: Celtel Zambia PLC and Seka, 2007. Print. Jordan, Manuel, ed. Chokwe! art and initiation among the Chokwe and related peoples. Munich: Prestel, 1998. Print. "Luba People." Art and Life in Africa. 3 Nov. 1998. Web. 1 Jan. 2010. <http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Luba.html>. "Luchazi people." Art and Life in Africa. 3 Nov. 1998. Web. 1 Jan. 2010. <http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Luchazi.html>. "Luvale People." Art and Life in Africa. 3 Nov. 1998. Web. 1 Jan. 2010. <http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Luvale.html>. "Mbunda of Zambia." The Peoples of Sub Saharan Africa. 1 Jan. 2010. Web. 1 Jan. 2010. <http://cesa.imb.org/peoplegroups/mbundaofzambia.html>. Phillips, Tom, ed. Africa the art of a continent. Munich: Prestel, 1999. Print. "Tabwa." African Art Museum. 1 Jan. 2010. Web. 1 Jan. 2010. <http://www.zyama.com/tabwa/index.htm>. "Tabwa People." Art and Life in Africa. 3 Nov. 1998. Web. 1 Jan. 2010. <http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Tabwa.html>.

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