Clark University

The Rural-Urban Fringe Author(s): George S. Wehrwein Reviewed work(s): Source: Economic Geography, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Jul., 1942), pp. 217-228 Published by: Clark University Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/141123 . Accessed: 06/02/2012 04:38
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Clark University is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Economic Geography.

http://www.jstor.org

ECONOMIC
VOL. 18 JULY,

GEOGRAPHY
1942 No. 3

THE RURAL-URBAN FRINGE

George S. Wehrwein problems appear in their most acute form on three fringes or transition zones: (1) the area _ _ between arable farming and grazing; (2) the zone between farms and forests; and (3) the suburban area lying between the built-up city and farms. In recent years much attention has been given to the two former "fringes"; the "Dust Bowl" and the "cut-over" areas are familiar figures in land utilization literature. Much less has been done by research agencies and administrators in the other twilight zone-the rural-urban fringe. Students of agricultural land problems stop when they come to "city land" and urban land economists and planners usually stay within the city limits, unless they are studying the region and making regional plans. Meanwhile residences are spreading into the fringe, industries are "decentralizing," and commercial establishments in the form of traffic-attracted industries are locating themselves along major highways, reaching many miles beyond the residential or the industrial invasion. Urban problems, crying for direction, planning, and social controls, are thrust upon rural governments, yet these units of government are not designed for or are incapable of furnishing direction, plans, or controls. Unguided "settle-

LAND

ment," premature subdivisions, unwise expansion of public utilities with increased expenditures for local government have resulted in tax delinquency and suburban slums. Pathological conditions of this kind focused attention on this transition zone just as they did to the cut-over regions and the High Plains. It is the purpose of this article to examine the land use structure of the rural-urban fringe which may be defined as the area of transition between well recognized urban land uses and the area devoted to agriculture. That this is not a hard and fast, well defined area is The evident from this description. "built-up" city is not necessarily coterminous with the political city. In many cases the economic and sociological city, the area within which people live the urban way of life, has extended far beyond the city limits; in other cases farms on which people live the rural way of life are found within the political boundaries of cities. The 1940 census reported almost 260,000 urban-farm population. Likewise the city and the rural-urban fringe may or may not cover the same area as the metropolitan district as defined by the United States Census. The fringe area is much smaller than the trade area and usually smaller

218

ECONOMICGEOGRAPHY

FIGURE 1.-Land utilization as determined by location. Modified from diagrams in von Thiinen's Isolated State. (From Ely-Wehrwein, Land Economics, Macmillan, 1940.)

than the commuting area of a given city. It can best be identified in terms of land uses or modifications of land uses than in any other way.
VON THUNEN'S SCHEME OF

LAND UTILIZATION

In reviewing the literature which throws light on the land utilization of the fringe the student will find von Thiinen's "Isolated State" a good beginning. Von Thiinen eliminated all natural features, climate, soil, topography or anything else which might affect the utilization of land except the presence of a single city in the center of a uniform plain with an agricultural economy. Given only wagon transportation, with no well defined highways, the cost of bringing farm products to the city is equal for all points equally distant from the market. The result is a system of concentric belts or zones about the central city (Figure 1). In the first zone only high priced, perishable, and bulky products can profitably be grown and marketed, such as milk, eggs, berries, and vegetables. Under the conditions of 1826 (when the

first edition of von Thiunen's book was published) the presence of a belt of forests as the second zone was not so incongruous as it might seem. Practically all building material, fuel, and other bulky forest products had to be brought to the city by wagons or even on the backs of the peasants. Agricultural zones reappeared beyond the forest belt; gradually farming became less and less intensive until grazing merges into the wilderness which surrounds the "state" and shuts it off from the rest of the world. In this oversimplified scheme of land utilization there is no rural-urban fringe as we know it today. The city boundary sets the limit of the "urban way of life" -beyond it are farms and agricultural land uses. Nevertheless, the intensive use of land, small farms, high priced land, dense population, and almost daily contact with the city in marketing their crops means a way of life for the farmers intermediate between that of the city dweller and the general farmer or forester. It is the kind of life and type of agriculture that are often pictured as still existing on the outskirts of our cities but which have been metamorphosed beyond recognition by the forces which have produced the "fringe problems." It is the kind of land utilization, way of life, and occupations hoped for in the "greenbelts" around the "Greenbelt Towns," a girdle of permanent open space intended "to protect the town forever from overcrowding and undesirable building on neighboring land." This belt was designed to contain not only parks, playgrounds and the gardens of the urban inhabitants, but also full-time farmers "who can bring their produce to market by crossing their own fields." (Greenbelt Towns: A Demonstration in Suburban Planning, published by the Resettlement Administration, Washington, D. C.,

THE

RURAL-URBAN

FRINGE

219

September, 1936. The distribution of the land uses in a typical community was planned as follows: community and store buildings, 100 acres; homes, 1000 acres; parks, 1800 acres; farms, 2100 acres.) Park and Burgess in their study of city structure conceived of a similar system of concentric zones within the city itself, beginning with the commercial and industrial core and ending with the dwellings of the wealthier "classes" at the periphery of the city. Coupled with von Thinen's scheme for the area beyond the city, the two together form an idealized scheme of land utilization which, however, has so many exceptions that it is sometimes difficult to prove the rule! This orderly arrangement rules out the influence of natural factors which are often predominant. It also presupposes a static population, which, indeed, was the basic assumption of some of the Garden Cities. It is only with a static population that the greenbelt of parks, playgrounds, gardens, and farms can be maintained against the invasion of a growing city or, if the city is permitted to expand, plans must be made for the gradual expanding core, the expansion of the residential area and the shifting of the rural land uses to urban land uses. However, few cities have been static; all of them expect to grow, and, with this expectation in mind, they make their plans accordingly whenever they plan at all. Growth does not take place equally on the periphery of the city and probably never has in spite of the concentric circles of the Isolated State. Transportation has always followed definite routes; even the camel, pack horse, and ox cart followed certain paths and entered the ancient and The medieval city at city gates. "Isolated State" itself must have a " system of "farm to market roads which

gives the farms adjacent to such roads a locational advantage over those not so situated. Fruit, vegetable, dairy, and poultry farms could be located farther away from the city if situated on a direct road to the city than if not so placed. Von Thiinen recognized this when he introduced the river in his diagram and the circles became distorted by projections following the streain (Figure 1B).
CHRISTALLER'S SCHEME OF URBANIZATION

The von Thinen scheme of a single city in a large uniform hinterland of an agricultural economy is of course highly theoretical and is useful primarily for isolating of the economic from the natural and other factors determining land utilization. More realistic is the scheme of Walter Christaller. (Walter Christaller, Die Zentralen Orte in Siddeutschland, Jena, Gustav Fischer, 1933.)

MARKSTADT

0 (

AMTSTADT KREISSTADT
BERSIRKSTADT GAUSTADT

RAILROAD PRIMARY SECONDARY RAILROAD LOCALRAILROAD

O
*

distribution of trade FIGURE 2.-Theoretical centers. (Based on diagrams made by James A. Barnes, after W. Christaller.)

220

ECONOMICGEOGRAPHY

Assuming once more a uniform agricultural economy it is evident that not all non-rural functions will be centralized in one city. The farmer needs the services of the blacksmith and other craftsmen, the store, the church, school, and a tavern, dance hall or other recreational centers depending on the customs and mores of the people. Christaller suggests that these services would grow up at certain centers and form hamlets evenly distributed over an area assumed to be as uniform as that of the " Isolated State." Each hamlet tends to serve an area hexagonal in shape as shown in Sector 1 of Figure 2. However, the hamlet cannot furnish all the services the farmer wants, so some of the villages become the center for doctors, lawyers, hospitals, let us say, serving the rural people in a larger area and those living in the neighboring hamlets as well. This larger area is shown in Sector 2 of the same Figure. In this way Christaller builds up a hierarchy of urban centers of which the most important is the "central" city of von Thiinen's Isolated State (Sector 3). The even distribution of cities of various characteristics, sizes, and "hinterland areas" is disturbed by natural factors, locational advantages for manufacturing and "through lines" of transportation. Iowa, because of its agricultural economy might have come close to furnishing an example of Christaller's principle. However, the Missouri and Mississippi rivers on its borders, the three important rivers within the state, and the transcontinental railways located and later influenced the growth of the cities of Iowa so much that their distribution is far from uniform over the state. Christaller's contribution has significance for the rural-urban fringe in that every one of these urban concentrations will become the basis for a series of belts

and zones just as the central city does and the larger cities will tend to develop "fringe areas." This was recognized by von Thiinen when he introduced another city in his diagram (Figure 1). More important still is the fact that the distribution of urban centers will determine the transportation system. According to Christaller each hamlet is connected with the rural area it serves and in turn it is linked with the village or city next in rank, resulting in a system of primary, secondary, and local roads and railways. This is indicated in Sector 4 of Figure 2. Thus a hierarchy of highways is unfolded bearing a volume of traffic in proportion to the size of the cities connected. Moreover, the large urban centers are linked, not only with the cities of a system such as this, but with other metropolitan centers and their "systems." Thus transportation becomes channelized and certain railways, roads, waterways, and air lanes become the main arteries for quick, uninterrupted traffic for passengers and goods. Such railways are double tracked and roads are made into two, three, or four lane highways to carry the heavy traffic; in fact, some of these main highways are merely a connection of "Main Street" of one city with the "Michigan Avenue" or "Broadway" of another.
RAILWAYS AS "DECENTRALIZING" FACTORS

Not only the agricultural zones but the city itself tends to follow the lines of transportation. However, as long as animal power was the usual means of transportation the city dweller who had business or sought pleasure in the "downtown" part of the city was constrained to live as "close in" as possible. (In 1866 New York had a well organized system of coach, omnibus, and horse railway transportation yet

THE RURAL-URBAN FRINGE

221

their range was so limited that the outlying districts were undeveloped while the central streets were badly congested. "The most desirable parts of the island, the sections abreast of and above Central Park, were largely given up to pigs, ducks, shanty squatters, and filth, while lower Broadway was so jammed that a man in a hurry almost lost his reason." Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Modern America, 18651878. Macmillan. 1927. pp. 81-82.) This tended to keep the city structure compact, and the competition for accessible sites raised rents and site values. "The expenses of living in the city are increasing every year. Rents are higher now than ever before and there is no prospect of their coming down for many years," has a distinctly modern tone but was said of New York in 1865 by George E. and F. W. Woodward. (Woodward's Country HIomes by George E. and F. W. Woodward, New York, 1865, 5th edition, p. 12.) Railways were among the first decentralizers and levelers of urban rents and value. "The remedy for this," continue these writers, "is to go into the country. Along the lines of our railroads and navigable waters there are localities where land is abundantly cheapbeautiful healthy regions, where the comforts of a rural home may be secured. .. . We know of localities which can be reached from Wall Street in as many minutes as would be required to go to 50th Street. ... In the direction we have now specially in mind, there are at least 20 railroad trains which stop at convenient stations between early morning and ten o'clock at night." The fact that railway trains stop only at definitely located stations no matter how "convenient" tended to produce settlements or agglomerations of population strung along the railway lines rather than a continuous band

of residences projecting from the city. The early street cars rarely went outside of the city's limits but when these were transformed into interurban electric lines, projected into the rural areas or connected with near-by cities, the boundaries of the city were stretched still more. Interurbans could be "flagged" at any crossroad, which tended to eliminate the islands of residential areas and make the areas linear in structure. This once popular form of transportation is now almost forgotten, but Figure 3 shows that Indianapolis had almost as many electric interurban railways as steam railways in 1914. The map also shows the characteristic pattern of lines of transportation radiating from a "central" city cutting the rural-urban fringe into wedge-shaped tracts between the lines.
HIGHWAYS AND THE "METROPOLITAN INVASION

However, the real exodus of residences and of commercial establishments generated by traffic did not come until the automobile and hard-surfaced roads provided means of swift, unchanneled, individual transportation as compared with the previous channeled mass transportation. The rural-urban fringe then became penetrated by streaks of urban land uses also radiating from the center like the spokes of a wheel. The primary roads, carrying the heaviest traffic, were most affected. This Benton MacKaye termed the "metropolitan invasion" (in his book, The New Exploration. Harcourt, Brace & Co., N. Y. 1928.) He noted the development of various traffic-attracted establishments-billboards, "hot dog" stands, filling stations, garages, stores, taverns, as well as the residences of people with jobs in the city, and part-time farmers. Farmers and others found it profitable to sell from wayside stands, build tourist

222

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

---.-

--

STEAM

RAILWAYS 10

INTER-URBAN 0 5 MILES

FIGURE 3.-Radiating pattern of steam railways and electric interurban lines, Marion County, Indiana, 1914. (From The Library Atlas of the World. Vol. I. The United States. Rand McNally & Co., 1914.)

cabins, advertise "rooms for tourists" The or start a "soft drink" stand. invasion not only engulfed metropolitan the land adjacent to the main highways rural the outlying but transformed MacKaye deplored this invavillages. sion and hoped to regulate it and confine it to certain areas so as to maintain the rural indigenous landscape everywhere else. He states, "This invasion would take its start from the central comIts movements here as elsemunity. It is where we may liken to a glacier. Its ruthless. unthinking, spreading, substance consists of tenements, bungalows, stores, factories, billboards, filling stations, eating stands, and other structures whose individual hideousness and collective haphazardness present that which we environment unmistakable Not the slum of call the 'slum.' poverty, but the slum of commerce. This substance, conceived as a projecting, crawling glacial flow, makes its

journey along each of the radiating highways. The twenty rural villages of our locality are penetrated one by one. They are welded together into a common suburban mass without form or articulation; the integrity of each former village (each former human unit) is ironed away; its local government is merged in general administration; its 'personality' evaporates. Beyond the villages, the lines of flow, growing thin and puddly, continue their inroad toward the hinterland. In this wise the 63,000 souls become distributed in one continuous mass of straggling lines emanating from an overgorged center. These souls live all in a single environment: not city, not country, but wilderness-the wilderness not of an integrated, ordered nature, but of a standardized, unordered civilization. We have named this the metropolitan environment." Almost as soon as railways became established, industries began to "decentralize" by seeking locations in the suburban areas. This has been accelerated by the modern highway and truck traffic. The availability of transportation, cheaper land, lower taxes and less control over land uses in rural areas, have been important inducements for industries to locate there or even to move from the city into the fringe. Thus another invasion of the metropolis is generated more or less paralleling lines of transportation. Sometimes this helps to build satellite towns, in other cases trailer towns, shack towns and slum-like residential areas accompany railroads and industrial outthrusts. Summarizing, the structure of simple agricultural zones about the city has been transformed. Wherever a railway, an interurban line or a highway enters the city, residences, commercial establishments and industrial plants follow like water flowing through a break in a reservoir, an apt illustration used by

THE RURAL-URBAN FRINGE

223

MacKaye. Since these means of transportation radiate in all directions whenever physical features do not interfere, the rural-urban fringe consists of rural territory pierced by finger-like projections of urbanized land uses. It has long been observed that cities have become star-shaped. In between the arms of the star, agriculture and other non-urban land uses continue but in more or less modified form.
RESIDENTIAL
THE

EXPANSION
FRINGE

INTO

Motor transportation has released man from the necessity of living in places where mass transportation is available. According to Automobile Facts of March, 1941 (published by the Automobile Manufacturers Association), there are 2,130 places in the United States with a total population of 12,000,000 people, ranging in population from 2,500 to 50,000, that depend exclusively on private cars. In other words, these cities have no street cars or buses of any type. Added to these are the millions in other cities, who though mass transportation is available, nevertheless depend largely upon private automobiles. These dwellers of the city and the fringe are independent of trains, street cars, and buses. As a result, cities have not merely expanded, "Realtors " they have "exploded." began to lay out subdivisions. The open country features of suburban living, lower taxes, fashion, and prestige not merely attracted the "surplus" population but began to invite and allure the established residents of the city itself. This has tended to leave behind empty houses, if not "blighted areas," certainly lower and lower land values. This almost self-evident trend has only recently attracted the attention of planners, lending agencies, and city officials. It was noticeable before 1930

but the 1940 census showed that while the 92 largest cities of the United States gained 1,600,000 people between 1930 and 1940, the remainder of the counties in which they are located gained almost the same, or 1,500,000 people. While the central cities gained four per cent the suburban areas of these cities gained fourteen per cent. Some of our largest cities, including Philadelphia, Boston, and Kansas City, actually lost population. The wild expansion or "explosion " of the cities has also produced wildcat and premature subdivisions, over-expansion of residential sites, miles of sidewalks running through weed-covered vacant land, and clouded titles on thousands .of vacant lots. Moreover, much of this "developed" area has been supplied with streets and sidewalks, water, sewers, gas, and electricity, schools and other public facilities at private or public expense. As long as this land is part of a rural unit of government, farms and other non-urban land are taxed as well as the "urban land" for these services either by the regular taxing machinery or through specially created districts. Unsold and unused lots often failed to pay taxes, and then the burden for the support of unused facilities has fallen on the remaining taxpayers. The rural land instead of gradually ripening into urban uses has been "forced" into urban uses prematurely and "frozen" there. Only rarely can such land be restored to agricultural use; thus we have created an "institutional desert." Land which according to its location should be growing the crops of von Thiinen's first zone is lying as idle as the cut-over lands on the farm-forest fringe. It is reported that a farmer wishing to establish a poultry farm in the New York-New Jersey area had to go 80 miles from the city before he could find a tract of land

224

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
TABLE
GROWTH OF POPULATION AND

I
METROPOLITAN 1910-19401 DISTRICT

IN THE INDIANAPOLIS COUNTY, INDIANA,

MARION

1910

ce2 Gain 38.1 -4.2 9.6 34.4 314,194 5,557 24,117 343,868

PerPer cent Gain 34.5 83.8 6 2 32.6 364,161 8,863 44,661 417,685

Per cent Gain 15.9 59.5 85.2 21.5 386,972 11,462 56,923 455,357

Gain 6.3 29.3 28.9 9.0

Indianapolis .................. Incorporated Areas............ Unincorporated Areas .......... Total Metropolitan District.....

233,650 3,024 22,709 259,383

1 Metropolitan Districts, Bureau of the Census, 1932 and other U. S. Census publications. 2Gain or loss 1900-1910.

not blighted by tax delinquency and clouded titles. Residential developments in the fringe area must rely on rural form of government to furnish urban services such as streets, sidewalks, fire protection, water, and sewage disposal. Usually rural towns, counties, and precincts have no legal powers to do so. Sometimes the statutes are amended to give these rural units of government, unincorporated villages, or special districts the necessary authority to cope with these problems. In most cases, however, whenever residential areas have sufficient population they incorporate as separate villages or cities in order to handle their own affairs and to raise and 'spend their own tax money for services they need and desire. In this way satellite and neighboring villages and cities arise in the fringe. Some of them are of the manufacturing type with residences surrounding a factory, others are simply residential, "bedroom," or "dormitory" cities where people live who work in the city. These villages and cities depend not only on the main city for jobs but for most of their shopping, pleasures, and educational facilities, thereby generating a daily stream of traffic between the central city and its satellites in the fringe area. Thus another set of urban centers is created not contemplated in von Thiinen's or Christaller's schemes but definitely modifying the land uses and the transporta-

tional system of the fringe. The relations of the urban residents living in the fringe (whether living in the unincorporated places or in incorporated villages and cities) to the central city, are very complex and must be omitted from a discussion limited to the physical structure of land uses in the fringe.
THE RURAL-URBAN FRINGE AROUND INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA

The metropolitan district of Indianapolis may be used to illustrate many of these points. The district consists of seven of the nine townships which make up Marion County (Figure 4). The metropolitan district includes "the central city or cities, all adjacent and contiguous civil divisions having a density of not less than 150 inhabitants per square mile and also, as a rule, those civil divisions of less density that are directly contiguous to the central cities, or are entirely or nearly surrounded by minor civil divisions that have the required density." Using the same area for previous census periods the change in population of Indianapolis, of the other incorporated places, and of the unincorporated area may be traced as shown in Table I. In 1870 Marion County had only one incorporated place-Indianapolis, a city of 48,000, located in Center township. (Indiana incorporated places are called towns or cities; unincorporated area is divided into townships.) By 1880 four

THE RURAL-URBAN FRINGE

225

PLACES COVERING EXACT AREA IINCORPORATED * OTHER INCORPORATED PLACES

PLACES O UNINCORPORATED
FIGURE 4.-The metropolitan district of Indianapolis, Indiana. The district embraces all of Marion County except Pike and Franklin Townships. The highly irregular boundary of Indianapolis and projections, such as the one into Perry Township, indicate the manner in which the city has annexed territory from the rural-urban fringe. The municipal airport is a legal part of Indianapolis. The area of some of the incorporated places is so small as to be lost on a map of this size; they are indicated by circles. The larger towns and cities are shown by the areas occupied; unincorporated places are shown by open circles, except Mars Hill. Only the main highways are placed on the map. (Based on the "Map of Marion County, Indiana" by Paul R. Brown, County Engineer, March 1, 1941, who also furnished information on the boundaries of incorporated areas.)

other places had incorporated, including Woodruff Place, situated in the heart of Indianapolis, which has maintained its separate existence to this day. The other incorporation of this period, Southport, is typical of several other towns located some distance from Indianap-

olis; all of them have grown rather slowly. Southport had 388 people in 1880 and 549 in 1940. Most of the incorporations, however, took place in the immediate rural-urban fringe, and since 1890 Indianapolis has annexed and absorbed seven of them. Eleven incor-

226

ECONOMICGEOGRAPHY

porations took place between 1920 and 1930 and two in the last census decade, practically all of them just outside of the city limits. According to Figure 4 several more places have incorporated since 1940. Some of them are very small, having in 1940 as few as 19, 21, or 30 people. (Small areas and population groups may no longer incorporate. The 1941 legislature of Indiana in Chapter 69, Section 1, now provides that not less than 250 people with at least one person for each four acres may incorporate.) Because of annexation to Indianapolis incorporated places actually lost population from 1890 to 1910; after that the gain was remarkable84 per cent from 1910 to 1920, over 59 per cent in the next decade, and 29 per cent between 1930 and 1940. However, these figures do not give a complete picture of urbanization of the District. Many people are living in densely settled but unincorporated places as shown in Figure 4. Traffic maps prepared by the Indiana Highway Commission in cooperation with the United States Bureau of Roads in 1937 list 15 unincorporated places with a total population of 12,738, 2,806 dwellings, and 241 business places; also, 18 subdivisions with 1,297 dwellings. Some of these unincorporated places have more population than the incorporated towns and villages. Mars Hill, for instance, had 2,580 people in 1937, more than any town or city except Beech Grove and Indianapolis. These figures are not complete. In a few cases either the population or number of dwellings was not given. Only dwellings were reported for the subdivisions. All subdivisions within Indianapolis or other incorporated places and the two townships not in the metropolitan district are not included in the above. The unincorporated area increased but slowly in population until 1920, in

fact actually decreased from 1900 to 1910. Figures of this type are deceptive, however. As soon as an agglomeration of people appears they may incorporate as a town or may be annexed to an existing town or city and the remainder of the area is left with fewer people than at the previous census enumeration. Indianapolis has consistently annexed unincorporated territory, at first only from Center Township, but as Figure 4 shows the city has invaded every bordering township. In spite of losses by annexation or incorporation the result of decentralization into the unincorporated area has been remarkable since the last World War. Population increased 85 per cent between 1920 and 1930 in the unincorporated area and 29 per cent during the next decade. Even the two townships not included in the Metropolitan District, which in 1920 actually had fewer people than in 1870, gained appreciably in the past 20 years. The unincorporated places, subdivisons and single residences strung along the highways are responsible for most of the increase. The urbanization of Marion County is interestingly indicated by the fact that in Warren Township the east and west country roads all bear the name of those streets of Indianapolis with which they connect, while the north and south roads in the eastern part of the town still bear rural names such as the Mitthofer, German Church, and Fort Roads. City street names are found in the unincorporated areas of most of Washington, Wayne, and even in Pike Township but to a less extent in the three southern townships.
RECREATIONAL FEATURES "FRINGE" IN THE

The land uses of the fringe are also conditioned by the recreational needs of the urban people and by the people

THE RURAL-URBAN FRINGE

227

living within the region as a whole. Planners envision parks, playgrounds, beaches, parkways, golf grounds, and forests within driving distance from the central cities to provide part of the indigenous environment contemplated by Benton MacKaye. The Forest Preserves of Chicago are a modern adaptation of von Thilnen's forest zone but for recreational purposes entirely. "It has been suggested that an area equal to that occupied by urban developments should be accessible for public recreational activities within 100 miles of each great city," or a total of over nine million acres for the United States, "part of which is already available in city, metropolitan, and state parks or reservations." To carry out this ideal means large scale metropolitan regional planning and the allocation of land to public recreational uses, most of it lying in the near-by fringe area so as to be accessible to people who can afford only a few hours' or a day's outing. However, land available for this purpose lies in the jurisdictions outside of the cities, and the rural governments are in no position to furnish and maintain public recreational facilities for the benefit of the hordes from the cities. Metropolitan districts, counties, the state, and perhaps even the federal government must share in providing these recreational lands. Unfortunately most of the natural features suitable for recreation within the fringe area have long been preempted for private use. Riparian land along lakes and streams is covered with summer cottages, resorts, taverns, dance halls, and "Coney Islands." Roads leading to such resort areas are lined with the same type of amusement places. Private farm land is overrun by city "sportsmen" who claim the right to roam over the farms in the fringe

within easy driving distance of the city. Nowhere are the conflicts between landowners and the alleged rights of the public more acute than in the areas adjacent to our cities. Farmers have posted their lands and towns and counties have found it necessary to prohibit shooting entirely.
INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS CONDITIONING FRINGE LAND USES

Finally, the land uses in the ruralurban fringe are also the result of institutional and legal factors. It has long been the practice of cities to "dump" unwanted yet necessary industries into rural territory by ordinances excluding them from the cities per se. Slaughter houses, wholesale oil storage, noxious industries of all sorts, junk yards, trailers and trailer camps, taverns and dance halls, substandard dwellings, carnivals, and the sale of firecrackers have all been the subject of restrictive city legislation at one place or another. Such establishments or land uses escape urban restrictions by locating in the country where rural governments are too feeble, or too apathetic to do anything about it. Some of the city's own public utilities are likewise placed in the fringe area or beyond; recreation, water supplies, radio towers, sewage disposal plants, airports, cemeteries are among urban necessities found in the suburban areas. There is a bit of poetic justice in the Jefferson County, Wisconsin, zoning ordinances which prohibit most of these uses in the "conservancy districts" and some of them even in the "agricultural districts." The only place left for them is in the incorporated places without zoning ordinances of their own! Using such maps as were available the writer noted 43 "facilities" of various types in the Indianapolis metropolitan district located in the unincorporated area, most

228

ECONOMICGEOGRAPHY

of which are associated with the activities of those living in Indianapolis, although some are state institutions such as the Indiana School for the Blind, or federal, as Fort Benjamin Harrison. The most numerous were country clubs, schools, airports, cemeteries, and "institutions." Eleven were situated right on the edge of Indianapolis, nine within one mile, eight within one to two miles, another eight were located more than two but less than four miles from the city limits and the others were "farther out." It was interesting also to find eighteen institutions, golf courses, parks and cemeteries just inside of the present boundaries of the city absorbed from the rural-urban fringe by annexations. The Indiana State Fair Ground is an example. In some cases such factors become the nucleus for urbanization. The famous Indianapolis Speedway is now part of Speedway City, incorporated in 1921. In conclusion, the rural-urban fringe is really an extension of the city itself, actual and potential. It is an area where most of the land uses are in a flux and therefore subject to planning, direction, and control. A considerable proportion of the land in the built-up city is already dedicated to various uses and planning can be little more than replanning, and zoning must recognize the existing industrial, commercial, and residential districts. Unfortunately much of the land in the rural-urban fringe is already "frozen" with lot sizes, streets, and public utilities the result of haphazard growth or the decision of a speculative subdivider. Since the city or cities of a metropolitan area and the suburban or fringe area are a unit economically and sociologically, the entire area should be

thought of and planned as a unit. Within this region there should be a proper place for every structure and land use needed by people living therein. The lowly and despised junk yard has become a vital element in national defense and deserves a place in the regional plan just as much as the "high class" residential area. This place is not found by zoning it out of "higher" land use districts. Much of our planning and zoning has been inadequate because it sets up a hierarchy of land uses leaving farm land and other non-urban land as a residual or as an unrestricted area upon which everything may be unloaded. County zoning has made a beginning in directing and controlling the land uses of the rural-urban fringe; in fact, the first enabling acts were designed for this particular purpose, notably in California and Wisconsin. In the latter state the zoning statute has been amended to permit the restriction of the use of land for agriculture, forestry, and recreation and the control of all forms of riparian land. Twenty-five counties have "rural zoning" ordinances of this type. Planners have felt that this was a distinct contribution to the zoning of the rural-urban fringe since it gives power over all types of land and not only the urbanized forms of land use. Combined with other directional measures, such as subdivision control, platting control, health and sanitary codes, many of the cities and counties of the United States now have the power to prevent haphazard, unharmonious, and incompatible land uses in the rural-urban fringe. However, mere power does not carry with it the desire, courage, or the wisdom necessary to make for a well planned rural-urban region and the proper structure of land uses in this transitional area.