Chapter 11

Industrial plant load shedding

All electrical power systems that contain generation are liable to be subjected to a variety of abnormal operating conditions such as network faults, loss of some or all generation, the tripping of circuits within the system and other disturbances that can result in the reduction in the generation capacity available to the system. In these situations a balance between the existing load and the remaining generation should be re-established if possible before the reduction in frequency produced by the overload affects the turbines and the generation auxiliary equipment, which could eventually result in the total collapse of the system. To assist in restoring the equilibrium, frequency relays are employed. These disconnect the less important loads in stages when the frequency drops to a level that indicates that a loss of generation or an overload has occurred. This type of scheme is very useful in industrial plants where in-house generation is synchronised to the public grid system. The concepts, criteria and conditions applicable to the design of an automatic load shedding system for industrial plants, based on frequency relays, are set out in this chapter.

11.1

Power system operation after loss of generation

When a total or partial loss of generation occurs within the system, the first indicators are a drop in voltage and in frequency. However, given that voltage drops can also be caused by system faults, it is generally recognised that a drop in frequency is a more reliable indication of loss of generation. A sudden loss of generation in the system will result in a reduction in the frequency at a rate of change that depends on the size of the resultant overload and the inertia constant of the system. The relationship that defines the variation of frequency with time, following a sudden variation in load and/or generation, can be obtained, starting from the equation for the oscillation of a simple generator:

GH

rio

d23

d-F

-----PA

(11.1)

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Protection of electrieiO/ distribution networks

where: G =nominal MVA of machine under consideration; H =inertia constant (MWs/MVA = MJ/MVA); 6 = generator torque angle; f0 = nominal frequency; PA = net power accelerated or decelerated (MW). The speed of the machine at any instant (W) can be given by the following expression: d3 W = W0 + d T = 2 z r / (11.2)

in which W0 is the synchronous speed, i.e. the nominal speed at rated frequency. Differentiating eqn. 11.2 with respect to time:

dW - d23 =2rr d f dt dt 2 dt
Replacing eqn. 11.3 in eqn. 11.1 gives

(11.3)

df Pafo (11.4) dt 2GH Eqn. 11.4 defines the rate of the variation of the frequency in Hz/s, and can be used for an individual machine or for an equivalent that represents the total generation in a system. In such a case the inertia constant can be calculated from
H=

H1MVA1 + H2MVA2 + . . . + HnMVAn MVAI +MVA2 + - . . + MVAn

(11.5)

where the subscripts I, 2 . . . n refer to the individual generator units. It should be emphasised that the constant H in eqn. I 1.5 is expressed to an MVA base equal to the total generation capacity of the system. The accelerating power PA in eqn. I 1.4 is responsible for the frequency variation. It can be calculated from pA = PM-- PE (11.6)

where PM = the mechanical power entering the generator and PE = the electrical power leaving the generator. Under stable conditions PA = 0 and there are no frequency variations. In the case of overloads PE > PM. Thus, PA < 0 and there will be a drop in the system frequency.

11.2

Design of an automatic load shedding system

In order to design an automatic load shedding system, a model that represents the different generating machines should first be defined, and then the load parameters and the criteria for setting the frequency relays.

11.2.1

Simple machine model

Within the scope of this book, a single machine has been used in the power system model used to illustrate a load shedding system. This is equivalent to assuming that the

Industrial plant load shedding 241

generator units are electrically connected with negligible oscillations between them, and with a uniform frequency across the whole of the system, ignoring the effect of the regulating equipment. The load is represented as a constant power, which implies that there is no reduction in load as a result of the voltage and frequency drops after a contingency situation. This model provides a pessimistic simulation of the system since the reduction of the load due to the frequency drops and the effect of the speed regulators are neglected. In using this model the inertia constant of the system is calculated using eqn. 11.5. The rate of change of the frequency is calculated from eqn. 11.4 with the following assumptions: the mechanical power entering the generators does not vary and is equal in magnitude to the prefault value; the magnitude of the load does not vary with time, voltage or frequency. It is only reduced by disconnecting part of the load as a result of the automatic load shedding system. This simple machine model, with loads modelled as a constant power, is used to determine the frequency relay settings and to verify the level of minimum frequency attained before a contingency situation is reached, for the following reasons: the ease of using an iterative process to design the load shedding system; consideration of suitable security margins, since the fact that the load diminishes with loss of voltage is neglected. This implies introducing much more severe rates of frequency variation, thus achieving more rapid settings.

11.2.2

Parameters for implementing a load shedding system

The following aspects need to be defined in order to implement the load shedding system.

Maximum load to be disconnected

Generally, one of the most drastic conditions corresponds to the total loss of interconnection between the public electricity supply network and the internal electrical system within the industrial plant. In this case, the unbalance between generation and load will be equal to the maximum import and should be compensated by the disconnection of a similar amount of load from the plant system.

Starting frequency of the load shedding system The disconnection system should be set so that it will initiate operation at a value of frequency below the normal working system frequency. Taking into account variations in frequency caused by oscillations inherent in the public system, this value is normally selected at approximately 93 per cent of nominal system frequency. However, if it is thought that there is a possibility of more severe oscillations occurring on the system, then it is recommended that a supervisory control arrangement using

242 Protection of electricity distribution networks

Table 11.1 Typical times for the operation of turbines (full load)
% of rated frequency at full load 99.0 97.3 97.0 96.0 Maximum permissible time (minutes) continuously 90 10 1

Note:The operatingtimesat low frequencyand full load

are cumulative. overcurrent relays, which can detect the outages of circuits connecting the industrial plant to the public system, should be installed to avoid incorrect operations.

Minimum permissible frequency

A steam turbine is designed so that, when operating at nominal mechanical speed and generating at nominal system frequency, excessive vibrations and stresses in its components, e.g. resonance of turbine blades, are avoided. However, when running below normal speed at a reduced system frequency, cumulative damage could be produced by excessive vibration. It is recommended, therefore, that the time limits given in Table 11.1 should not be exceeded. However, during transient operation and with load below nominal, in the majority of cases reduction of frequency down to 93 per cent of rated frequency can be permitted without causing damage either to the turbine or to the turbogenerator auxiliary lubrication and cooling systems.

11.3 Criteria for setting frequency relays

The determination of the frequency relay settings is an iterative process, and is carried out in such a way that the final settings satisfy the requirements of both speed and co-ordination. In this process, the co-ordination between relays that trip successive stages of load should be checked in order to ensure that the least amount of load is shed, depending on the initial overload condition.

11.3.1

Operating times

When selecting the settings, it is necessary to consider the time interval between the system frequency decaying from the relay pick-up value to the point in time when the load is effectively disconnected. The relay pick-up time is included in this time interval, plus the preset time delay of the relay, if this is required, and the breaker opening time. The following values are typically used for industrial systems: relay pick-up time: 50 ms and breaker opening time: 100 ms.

Industrial plant load shedding 243 11.3.2 Determination o f the frequency variation

The frequency variation required to calculate the settings is obtained by using a simple machine model for the system, and a constant power model for the load. This assumes that the load connected to the generators is the same before, and after, the contingency, neglecting any form of damping. Given this, the calculated rate of loss of frequency in the system is pessimistic, and the settings determined on this basis thus provide an arrangement that rapidly restores the frequency to its normal value, thereby ensuring a secure system.

11.4

Example of calculating and setting frequency relays in an industrial plant

The procedure for calculating the settings of the frequency relays at a typical industrial plant is given next. The single-line diagram is shown in Figure 11.1, together with the principal data for the study.

11.4.1

Calculation o f overload

The initial load conditions are summarised as: total load: 24.0MW; in-house generation: 8.0 MW; total import: 16.0 MW; GH constant: 35.43. In the eventuality of the loss of the incoming grid supply, the in-house generators will experience the following overload: %overload24.0 - 8.0 8.0 x 100% = 200%

11.4.2

Load to be shed

With the loss of the grid supply, 16 MW of capacity is lost, which will have to be borne initially by the in-house generators. A load equal to, or greater than, this amount must be disconnected in order to relieve the overload. Therefore, the load to be shed is 24 - 8 = 16 MW. It should be noted that there are high priority loads totalling 8.02 MW that cannot be disconnected.

11.4.3

Frequency levels

Disconnection of load is initiated each time the system frequency falls to 59 Hz, which indicates that a loss of generation has taken place. A minimum frequency of 56 Hz is acceptable.

11.4.4

Load shedding stages

Assume that three stages of shedding have been set up that will off load the incoming circuit by 15.98 MW, as detailed in Table 11.2. With this arrangement, the in-house generation can then supply the 8.02 MW of high priority load.

244 Protection of electricity distribution networks Distribution network 115 kV busbar

1 3 . i V busba

Priority loads

Load 3

Load 1

Priority loads 4.16 kV busbar

Priority loads

Priority loads

t I

Load 2

G-1

G-2

Load 3

t t t
Load 2

Load 2

Figure 11.1 Systemarrangementfor exampleof calculatingfrequency relaysettings 11.4.5 Determination of the frequency relay settings
The settings of the frequency relays shown in Table 11.2 are determined in such a way that each stage is disconnected only when the system frequency falls to a predetermined value. This value is obtained by calculating the reduction in the

Industrial plant load shedding 245 Table 11.2 Loadshedding stages

Priority 1 2 3 Total load to be shed= 15.98 MW Description load 1 load 2 load 3 MW 6.03 4.73 5.22

system frequency due to an overload equal to the stage considered, as described below.

First-stage setting
The first stage is disconnected when the frequency reaches 59 Hz.

Second-stage setting
An overload equal to the first stage is considered and the subsequent rate o f frequency drop is determined from

--~ = \ 2GH , / 6 0 = - 5 . 1 0 6 H z / s
The frequency as a function o f time is given in Figure 11.2 and f = (60 - 5.106t). The opening time for the first stage is ttrip = tpick-up + tbreaker +/relay tpick-up = (60 -- 59)/5.106 = 0.196 S ttrip = 0.196 + 0.100 + 0.05 ----0.346 S The frequency drop up to the operation of the first stage is f = [60 - 5.106(0.346)] = 58.233 Hz. The second stage is set below this value, i.e. at 58.15 Hz.

(-603

Third-stage setting
These are set so that they will not operate for overloads below (6.03 + 4 . 7 3 ) = 10.76 MW, which are disconnected by stages 1 and 2.

df ( - 1 0 . 7 6 ~ - - ~ = \ 2GH / x 6 0 = - 9 . 1 1 1 H z / s
f =60(9.111)t

The pick-up time for the first stage is t = (60 - 59)/9.111 = 0.110 s, and the tripping time for this stage is/tripl 0.110 + 0.05 + 0.100 = 0.260 S. Thus, the frequency drop, f = 60 - 9.111 (0.26) = 57.631 Hz.
=

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Protection of electricity distribution networks

f (Hz) 60 b

\ \\\ \ \ \\\\
59 --6.03 MW verload

\P 1~
0.074J'\

\ \\\

\x\ PI ~\N / ~.

/ - - 10.76 MV~ overload

58.1 58 16M overl ~ad

\ P2 \~' P2

xxx D1 (0.3,l,58.23) N

\\ \

N \\ \\

\\

\
"

I~l (0.26,57.61;)
- - -

4.73 MW overload .35,57.27)

57.20 57

~\ P3

""

Ii D1 (0.22,5 i.9) xx x

',,+//

9.! ~7MW overk ~ad

\ ?3 D~ (0.29,56.5)

- - 5.24 MW ~verload

D3 (0.36,56.1~)' ' ' - 56

Notes: P 1: Pick-up of 1st stage relay DI: 1st stage of load disconnection

ID,

0.1

0.2

0.3 Time (s)

0.4

0.5

Figure 11.2 Calculation of settings offrequency relays

Industrial plant load shedding 247

The value that produces pick-up at the second stage is t = (60 - 58.15)/9.111 = 0.203 s, so that ttrip2 = 0.203 + 0.05 + 0.100 = 0.353 s. The frequency equation shows that in ttripl = 0.260 s there is a variation o f slope as a consequence of the disconnection o f the first stage (6.03 MW); see Figure 11.2. After this, the accelerating power is only 4.73 MW. Therefore

df -4.73 -x 57.631 = 3.847 H z / s dt 2GH

and, from the frequency equation: f - 57.632 = - 3 . 8 4 7 ( t - 0.26), f = 58.632 - 3.847t The frequency drop up to the stage 2 tripping is given by f = 58.632 - 3.847ttrip2, from which f --- 57.274 Hz. Therefore a third stage setting o f 57.20 Hz is selected. The final settings are given in Table 11.3. The operation o f the system in the presence of a total loss o f connection with the distribution network is represented by the lower characteristic in Figure 11.2. t > 0.26 s

11.4.6

Verification of operation

In order to verify the operation o f the proposed system, the reduction in frequency during the process of load shedding is studied by two different methods: modelling the load as a constant power, and modelling the load with damping as a result of the voltage drop. For the latter case a transient stability program is used.
M o d e l l i n g load as a constant power

For this case it is assumed that the magnitude o f the load is constant and therefore does not depend on the voltage level. This consideration is pessimistic with regard to the actual situation and therefore provides some margin o f security. The frequency analysis is carried out using eqn. 11.4, the settings o f the frequency relays given in Table 11.3 and assuming a maximum circuit breaker opening time o f 100 ms. Figure 11.3 shows the behaviour o f the frequency from t = 0 s, when loss o f supply occurs at a total system load of 24 MW. Under such conditions the sequence of events

Table 11.3 Frequencyrelay settings

Stage Frequency setting (Hz) 59.00 58.15 57.20 Delay time (s) instantaneous instantaneous instantaneous

1st 2nd 3rd

248 f

Protection of electricity distribution networks

(Hz)
60

\
59 \ Loa, modelled as a co astant impc dance (P P2~ ..... D1 (0.27,' 7.8)

~V2)

58.15 58

57.20 57

P3' D (0.22,56.!0k~

D2 (0.31~,57.3)

~ _ _ _ Load too, telled a~s a constal t power D2 (0.: !9,56.5) %, D 3 (0.55,56.: ;) 56 D3 (0.36,56.1) ~ . . . . .

Notes: P 1: Pick-up of 1st stage relay D 1: 1st stage of load disconnection

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4 Time (s)

0.5

0.6

0.7

Figure 11.3

Variation offrequency during load shedding

is as given in Table 11.4. The drastic initial overload is eventually eliminated by the load shedding system in 0.357 s. During this time, the frequency will fall to 56.17 Hz, a value which more than meets the standards accepted for industrial systems operating separately. After t = 0.357 s, the system frequency then starts to recover.

Industrial plant load shedding 249 Table 11.4 Disconnection of the grid supply; sequence of events
Time Frequency Event (Hz) Rate of change of frequency (Hz/s) - 13.46 - 13.45 -13.45 -13.45 - 8.00 -4.20 0.00 Rate of change of load shed (MW) 6.03 4.73 5.22 Overload remaining on generators (MW) 16.00 16.00 16.00 16.00 9.97 5.24 0.02

0.000 0.074 0.137 0.207 0.224 0.287 0.357

60.00 59.00 58.15 57.20 56.90 56.50 56.10

Disconnection of grid supply Pick-up of 1st stage relay Pick-up of 2nd stage relay Pick-up of 3rd stage relay 1st stage of load disconnection 2nd stage of load disconnection 3rd stage of load disconnection

To obtain the values in Table 11.4, it must be borne in mind that, since the initial overload is equal to 16 MW, then --=--

df dt

-16 x 60=-13.45Hz/s 2GH

Therefore, the pick-up time for the first stage is tp60 - 59 13.45 0.074s

The opening time of the breakers associated with the first stage is td = 0.074 + 0 . 1 0 0 + 0 . 0 5 = 0 . 2 2 4 s and the frequency at that moment is f = 6 0 - 1 3 . 4 5 t d = 56.9 Hz. The values for the other stages can be calculated in a similar way, and are given in Table 11.4.

Modelling load with damping as a result of the voltage drop (P = k V 2)

The stability program should be used to set the initial condition of the load defined for this study, as this can simulate the disconnection o f the infeed at t = 0 s, and subsequently the disconnection o f the loads at the time at which the frequency relays are set to operate. Figure 11.3 also illustrates the frequency characteristic obtained by computer modelling the loads by constant admittances. This method is less drastic than the constant power model since, in this case, the power of the load is damped by the voltage drop. As the overload is reduced, the frequency drop is less than that obtained using the first model. As seen in Figure 11.3, the frequency relay settings, and therefore the tripping o f the breakers, is much slower although the minimum value of the frequency eventually reaches 56.55 Hz, which is above the predetermined minimum limit o f 56 Hz. From Figure 11.3 and the results o f the stability program it can be seen that the frequency after the loss of the third stage gives recovery at a rate of 0.67 Hz/s. This implies that it should take approximately 2.345 s for recovery to the normal level of 60 Hz.

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Protection of electricity distribution networks

The modelling of the loads by these two methods makes it possible to obtain graphs of the frequency variation as a function of time that correspond to the most adverse and most favourable extremes in the system. In this way, the curves obtained for the two models delineate the operating area of the system under study, before the loss of connection with the grid supply network.

Analysis of voltage with total loss of infeed supply and operation of the load shedding system
The loss of generation in the system not only causes loss of frequency but also a drop in voltage. The automatic load shedding scheme should prevent system voltages falling to such a level as to cause tripping of the contactors on the motors serving the plant. A check should be made on the voltage levels on the system as follows: 1. 2. Determine the initial voltage at each busbar, using a load flow program. Determine the variations in voltage at each busbar after the loss of connection with the grid supply, and while the load shedding scheme is in operation. For this a transient stability program is used to obtain the voltages at each busbar for each stage of the analysis. Produce the curves of voltage versus time for the busbars feeding the priority loads.

3.